自由論題［研究論文］

Language Learning and Identity
Formation In-between Cultures Among
Youth from Military Families
A Case Study from a Military Educational Institution inJapan

文化の狭間で生きる子どもの言語学習とアイデンティティ形成
在日アメリカ軍基地の学校におけるケーススタディ

Toshino Koike

Master’s Program, Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University*
小池 俊乃
慶應義塾大学大学院政策・メディア研究科修士課程 *Correspondence to: toshinokoike@hotmail.com

Abstract:

The study observed English as a Second Language (ESL) teens in a military
institution in Japan. The focus is on identity formation of these teens, such as being
in-between, referring to the extent the students feel as being part of several different
cultures and communities. This will be examined by looking at the link between
family relationships, pathways, emotions, and language learning. The research method
used was a long-term participant observation and in depth interviews to contextualize
and understand the participants’ view on their identity formation. The study foundthat family members have the most impact on the identity formation among theseyouths.
言語とアイデンティティは密接に関わっている。本研究は、文化やコミュニ
ティの狭間で生きることと言語学習との関係性を明らかにすることを目的とし、在日アメリカ軍の学校の ESL（第二言語としての英語）クラスで学んだ生徒を対象として、研究を行った。親の仕事のために様々な国を移動している
彼らに対してエスノグラフィーの方法論を用いたインタビュー調査を行った結果、不安定な家族との関係性が言語学習に対する意欲に大きな影響を及ぼしていること、さらに狭間で生きる不安定さの特徴が明らかになった。

Keywords: identity formation, language learning, military families
アイデンティティの確立、言語学習、米軍家族*at the moment of submission, 投稿時点

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Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

1Introduction
This research focuses on identity formation of English as a Second Language(ESL) teens in the military base (“military teens”) and tries to demonstrate how
military teens invest in their identity formation through language learning. With
globalization, more and more people are mobile. Military teens are one example ofthis trend. Currently, there are 500 U.S. bases around the world (MacLean & Elder,2007). There were about 1.3 million active-duty US military personnel in 2016
(Macmahon, Kurtz-Phelan, and Rose 2020). Out of those, 15% of them have lived
overseas (Macmahon, Kurtz-Phelan, and Rose 2020). By region, Asia has the highest
number of US troops with 74,131 as of 2016, with a total of 38,818 in Japan, while
61,710 are stationed in Europe with 34,602 stationed in Germany (MacLean & Elder,2007). However, these numbers only include the Department of Defense’s four
military branches: Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. The national guards,
coast guards, and reserve and civilian personnel are not included, which holds nearly
half of the total force. Therefore, the number is expected to be more than the data
shown.
From September 2017 to June 2019, I volunteered as an assistant in Japaneseand English as a Second Language (ESL) classes at a U.S. military base in Japan.
Most of the students are children of military personnel. ESL students often lackconversational fluency and literacy. Currently, the schools inside the American
military bases support over 7,000 ESL students every year from elementary to highschool (MacLean & Elder, 2007). These students have diverse backgrounds and feel
displaced by turbulent family relationships and having limited opportunities arestemming from a lack of English proﬁciency.
As a student at one of the American bases myself, I encountered multicultural
teens in my Japanese and ESL classes and noticed the same is true today. Many of thestudents who took Japanese classes also took ESL classes and had diverse
backgrounds. I became interested in their language learning process as I worked withchildren who could succeed in the ESL class, as well as those having difficulties
learning English. ESL students within a military base have a complex cultural and
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linguistic background and are vulnerable to experience a unique identity formation
due to their circumstances. This was shown during my experience in the Japanese and
ESL classrooms. For example, there were high rate of parent absence, cultural value
differences among family members and different life pathways such as their constantlocation changes. This is why teens who succeeded in learning English were more
conﬁdent in their future. Therefore, they are bound to question their own identity andtheir sense of belonging in society (Shimoji, 2018). This experience has made mequestion how language acquisition affects their conﬁdence and future opportunities.
I interviewed military teens to learn how they felt when learning a second
language. The research question is:
How do military teens invest in their identity formation through language
learning?
I will approach the research question through the following three sub-researchquestions.
1. How do military teens’ relationships with family, pathways, emotions, andlanguage learning affect identity formation?
2. How do their emotional triggers affect language usage?
3. How does language learning experience affect in-between identity?
This study examines whether they feel successful in their language learning
processes and how they construct their idea of in-betweenness (Hardiman & Jackson,1992). According to Azevedo (2010), in-betweenness is a state of identity experienced bymany socially mobile individuals who feel trapped between assimilation and resistance.
The in-betweens experience “the cultural complexity of individual interaction” with theworld (Guilherme & Dietz, 2015, p.10). This occurs especially during the language
learning process. This study seeks to understand how their perceived successes andfailures in language learning affect conﬁdence and future opportunities.

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Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

2

Theoretical Framework on Identities, Emotions, andLanguage Learning

2.1

Evolution of Identity
The post-structuralist theory of language refers to the discourse which looks into

the social meaning of the language and does not consider language only as a tool.
This study adopts a constructivist view of identity in which identity is not a ﬁxed
phenomenon but it changes by outside forces such as language. Language is integral
to the formation of an individual and makes them become self-aware. In specificcommunities, people struggle to engage themselves, in reference to ʻa chain’(Bakhtin, 1986) which is an ongoing conversation to try to join a community. By
expressing themselves adequately and participating in society through language,
people gain assets and opportunities, which place value on the person that is projected
onto them by others. Language learning and proﬁciency create one’s conﬁdence forthe future and satisfy their worth (Miura, 2015; Norton, 2001). On an additional note,
McWhorter (2018) states that people view the world the same but bilinguals use
language to express different emotions, and make shifts in attitudes when switching
languages which includes the languages’ social and cultural meanings and values thatare linked to the language. In keeping with this theoretical framework, my study
clearly demonstrates that identity, emotions, and experience are all constructed
through the use of language.
2.2

Dual Personality vs. Emotions
Pavlenko (2008) characterizes bilingualism as a form of dual personality thatcreates identity rather than a linguistic skill. Previous research shows that bilinguals
feel they are a different people when they speak a different language (Pavlenko,
2006). Therefore, emotions should be considered when understanding the process oflanguage learning and fulfillment toward learners’ language acquisition. Pavlenko(2006) studies bilingual minds to understand the inﬂuences of bilinguals’ perceptions
and their relationship between language and themselves. She states that bilinguals
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verbally (Pavlenko, 2006). The bilinguals stated the duality of identities emerge
through the use of different languages associated with the cultures of the language. It
is important to consider that emotions are culturally constructed and can aid or holdback certain language learners.
2.3

Identity Formation of Military Teens
Military teens can be considered Third Culture Kids (TCK) “who [have] spent asigniﬁcant part of [their] developmental years outside their parents’ culture. The TCK
builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any”
(Limberg & Lambie, 2011, p.45). However, military children often feel stressed bytheir family’s absence, lack of support, and constant movement, impacting academic
performance and well-being (Gewirtz & Youssef, 2016; Blaisure et al., 2012).
Additionally, Darvin and Norton (2015) claim that perception of language affects
perception of identity.
The concept of investment was introduced by Pierce (1995) as it “signals thesocially and historically constructed relationship of learners to the target language,
and their often ambivalent desire to learn and practice it” (p.17). This can beunderstood by using Bourdieu’s idea of cultural capital. According to Bourdieu(1977), “cultural capital” refers to “the knowledge and modes of thought thatcharacterize different classes and groups in relation to speciﬁc sets of social forms”(Norton, 2010, p.10). Bourdieu (1977) argues that, depending on the community, thecultural capital may differ and exchange values other than one’s knowledge.
Consequently, Darvin and Norton (2017) claim that if a learner invests in a second
language, “they do so with the understanding that they will acquire a wider range ofsymbolic and material resources, which will in turn increase the value of theircultural capital” (p.3). The investment is an exchange of information using language
and it is a way to create oneself and to relate to the language and the community.
Darvin and Norton (2015) claims, therefore, that an investment in their language
learning is an investment in their identity, which is recreated through time and space.
From Norton’s idea of investment, I created this following scheme which implies the260

Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

investment in identity formation of military teens studying English in a military
institution (Figure 1). Figure 1 displays this investment through language learning,
resulting from military teen learners’ investment into their relationship with theirfamily, emotions, and life pathways. By focusing on military teens, the study
examines how military families experience this unique lifestyle. It is also important
to consider that emotions constitute an essential part of every human being and canaid or hold back certain language learners, which teachers need to be aware of andaddress in their daily practice. More research effort on this aspect of language
learning is needed by the researchers. These three interdependent investments assist
identity formation through language learning.

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Figure 1 Investment in Identity Formation among Military Teens

3

Research Methodology
This research is based on a long-term commitment through participant

observation as an assistant and in-depth interviews. My ﬁeld practice at the militarybase school’s Japanese class consisted of checking for errors in assignments fromstudents and providing guidance to those interested in attending universities,
especially Japanese universities. During the two years of fieldwork, which were
between 2017 to 2019, as an assistant of the Japanese class, I met a group of students
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who talked about their in-between identity affecting their language ability. From
there, the observation of the ESL class began from February 2019 to November 2019
to understand the environment. The class was held for an hour and a half every
Friday in the afternoon, and I would interact with students and assist those who werebehind for 7 months. While I was doing ﬁeld work, surveys were conducted to ﬁndinterviewees.
The data were analyzed using directed content analysis, which attempts to proveor extend conceptually theoretical framework or theory (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). The
process began by identifying key concepts of the coding categories including
emotions, in-between identity, and the language learning process. These categories
were identiﬁed through ﬁeld work and themes that emerged from the data.

4

Research Results and Analysis

4.1

Participants’ Description
The participants were high school students in different stages of their life who

took ESL class in a U.S. military base school. Chart 1 outlines their demographic
data.
Chart 1 Description of the Interviewees
Interviewee
Description

GenderFirst Language

Place of Origin

Age

A

F

B

F

Japanese

Japan

24

Japanese and Tagalog

Japan, Philippines, and USCFTagalog

22

Philippines

20

D

M

PolishPoland21

E

F

Vietnamese

Vietnam

25
17

F

M

JapaneseJapan and USG

M

ItalianJapan and Sicilian

23

H

F

KoreanKorea

19

Next, the symbols used for understanding the transcription are presented inTable 1 below. The interviewees are distinguished by letters.

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Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families
Table 1 Transcription Symbols (based on Jefferson, 2004)
Symbols

Meaning()

Included by the researcher to clarify the intended message, thought, idea,
or translation of a foreign word other than English expressed by theinterviewee

︙

Non-measured pause

haha

Laugh, chuckle

IN

The spoken words of the interviewer

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H The spoken words of the interviewee by letters?

Question mark indicates rising intonation

Underline

Keywords for analyzing purposes“”

Interviewees’ thoughts within the response*

Detailed deﬁnition of a word or phrase

In the following sections, the data will be analyzed ﬁrstly according to the linkageof the themes, which are English learning, emotion, and family relationships, allcreating a sense of identity. Secondly, the relationship between speciﬁc emotions andspeciﬁc language will be analyzed. Lastly, their perception of in-between identity will
be explored.
4.2

The Interconnectedness of English Learning, Emotion, Family
Relationship, and the Sense of Identity
The interconnectedness of the four components will be explored. The militaryfamilies not only move between different countries, but the families are oftentimes
absent due to deployment. Military teens lack communication with their families anddesire to connect with them.
4.2.1

Creating a Bond with a Family Member through English Learning
Many students indicated that English creates a bond between their family

members. In Excerpt 1, Interviewee F talks about his English ability affecting theway he sees himself. His native language is Japanese, and he uses both Japanese andEnglish throughout the interview. His father was gone until he was 10. The underlines
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show the interviewee’s desire to connect with his father. The following conversation
with the interviewee began with “Do you think learning a new language changes yoursense of yourself?”
Excerpt 1
F:

Yes︙In everything. Haha everything changes, yeah.

IN: Could you give me an example?
F:

I feel like I have more. I feel good that I have more. Like I own part ofmyself.

IN: How do you feel like you own part of yourself?
F:

I see myself through my dad. I feel close to my dad and more connectedwith him now.

IN: So your relationship with your dad has impacted a sense of yourself andfeeling like you gained yourself?
F:

Yeah, I feel close to myself by being close with my dad. When I started
learning English, I ask more question to him about school, basketball, allthat stuff and 自然とね (gradually). I learn about my dad and how cool heis and hardworking and makes me want to learn English too.

This conversation exempliﬁes how language learners try to connect strongly tothe family member who speaks English, who is often remote due to their job;
therefore, the longing is felt. In the case of Interviewee F, his language learning islinked to the connection with his family, especially his dad, which makes him feelcomplete. These three components of family relationship, language learning, andidentity are interlinked.
A virtuous cycle is inherent in his usage of language and the linkage of thesethree components. Throughout Excerpt 1, the interviewee speaks mostly English,
showing English is spoken mostly about positive subjects, instead of Japanese.
In Excerpt 2, Interviewee H states that she felt urgency in learning a language

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when she met her stepfather, who started baby-sitting her while her mother was
working. Interviewee H is Korean and has lived in Korea and Japan. Her motherremarried when she was in 9th grade.
Excerpt 2
IN: When did you feel that you needed to know your language?
H:

When my (step) dad came into my life, I was like how am I going tocommunicate with this guy. I wanted to bond with him because ︙he knowsa lot of stuff ︙but I recognized there is a language barrier. I wanted to tellhim how my day was and was natural and it was a bond I created internally.

︙
IN: You recently thought that having two or more languages were beneﬁcial foryou, when do you think you were happiest being able to learn a language?
H:

I think it’s more personal for me, the fact that I was able to translate
between my dad and my grandma. I think not because it’s useful, because
they wanted to talk, but they had a language barrier. And I was glad that I
knew both languages so I can help my family and get together and havethat bond.

She points out the language barrier she felt, and the language barrier she saw
between her stepfather and her grandmother. She was happy when she broke thelanguage barrier. Language learners feel validated by using the language they havelearned which bonds them as a family. In Excerpt 2, the language learning is seen
positively and has made her feel good, which is connected to a positive identity.
4.2.2

Lack of Fulfillment in Language Learning Due to the Absence of the
FamilyFamily member absence due to deployment causes teens to feel unfulﬁlled intheir language learning. Environmental changes impact their motivation toward
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learning languages and other subjects. In Excerpt 3, Interviewee G is Italian Americanand speaks both English and Japanese. He was born in California and moved to
Sicily, then to different bases within Japan. He did well in elementary school, but
gradually lost interest in learning at school.
Excerpt 3
IN: Do you have a moment when you didn’t want to come to class?
G:

When I was in elementary, I was at the top of my class, これでも (hard tobelieve). I think once I came into high school, there is more kids, and you’re not at the top of the class. I guess that really dropped my motivation andI didn’t care anymore. 今まで適当に、やらなくてもナンバー１だった
け ど、 今 は 頑 張 らな い とっ て い うの が ね。 親 も い な か っ たし。
(Before I would do things half-hearted and would still be number 1, butnow, I have to work hard. Also, my parents were not home.)

IN: When was that?
G:

At the end of seventh grade. Whenever I noticed that people don’t noticeanymore.
You are not in the spotlight.

IN: Were you in the spotlight?
G:Oh, yeah. Teacher loved me all the time. I wasn’t a teacher’s pet, but you
know. I had good personality, I had leadership skills, all that kind of stuff
and I was the center of attention. That was a big hit for me (not receiving
the attention).

IN: Was that because of (name of the certain base)? Or other bases as well? Orjust the high school and many kids?
G:

Yeah, (name of the certain base) is one. but also, 今までは (before), it was
one teacher one class. Once it became like high school you get a schedule
like A day B day. And classes are different depending on the subject. You
didn’t have one teacher looking at you. You didn’t have attention, because266

Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

it’s just how it was. I felt like no unity.
IN: Did you feel the unity before (before starting high school)?
G:

Haha that’s a funny question I think the parents are like “everywhere we go
it’s the same.”
But it’s not. The base is the same, but the atmosphere is different, the feel isdifferent.

When he moved to another base, he had to adjust to a different curriculum,
which is one of the reasons why he felt less motivated, but he also stopped receiving
as much attention from his teachers and his parents. His father was gone for 3
months, 3 times a year, and he would come back for only a week and a half every
time. He feels disconnected and lonely due to his new environment and his family
being absent.
The connection between language learning and family relationship is apparent
in Excerpt 3. His studying is half-hearted despite being number 1, which indicatesthat he does not feel deserving of being number 1. His parents were not home, andthe school did not make him feel like he belonged, so he feels incomplete. Thus, thelinkage of family relationship and language learning can affect identity formation,
since there is a constant movement and the lack of family members’ presence, whichmakes him lose motivation. The validation that he longs for is absent. His need tofeel connected and apathy toward learning affects his self-perception.
4.2.3

Validation of One’s Identity Sought from Family Roots and Life
Pathways

Military teens have expressed their aﬃrmation of their identity by understanding
their family roots and experiences of going abroad. In Excerpt 4, Interviewee G was
asked about how his relocation to Italy impacted his self-image. His lack of unity or
sense of home is expressed in Excerpt 4, as well as his understanding of his roots as
an Italian American.

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Excerpt 4
IN: Do you think this time (your experience) in Italy has any impact on you?
G:

Yeah. Cuz (because), that’s when we found out that we were Italian
American and not just white American. My dad didn’t know until we
decided to move to Sicily and all of a sudden my grandma said oh yeah, 実
は (by the way) I’m adopted and my birthplace was Sicily. And we always
thought she was American. But who knew? She was born in Sicily, which
we are going to, and was brought to the states. I felt something special for asecond...It’s nice to know, I wouldn’t call myself Italian, but Italian
American since Americans is a mix, but I know why I have black hair,
beard and not light color hair.

IN: Did you compare yourself?
G:

Yeah, people would stare on the train or look at me wherever because I was
濃 い、 毛 深 い (dark and hairy) and it’s everyone is 薄 い (light, fair)everywhere.

IN: Do you think that experience living in Sicily is important to you?
G:

I can say I’ve been there, experienced it although I don’t remember, but I
can tell people I know that place that I’m from I guess. Wish I could speak
the language, but yeah, I need to learn Spanish, so︙

He claims that the only reason he thinks he learned of his Italian American
heritage was because of his father’s relocation to Sicily. He believes that thisexperience has also shaped him to tell others about the place because he has been
there. Despite his different appearance, he never felt he had to question his sense of
belonging because of his heritage.
In Excerpt 4, he feels positive about himself because of his new discovery of
heritage. His recognition of being Italian American has provided him anunderstanding of why he looks different. His lifepath of going to the base in Sicily isalso a positive investment into his identity.

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Language learners feel that their experience of going to different locations
impacts the way they see themselves. These military teens feel the need to describe
their identity depending on the experiences of physically being at the location. His
lifepath has created a sense of in-between identity that has given him a secured
identity. His understanding of his roots as Italian has created a positive outlook on
who he is. Also, his loneliness of not being connected with his surroundings haschanged to a positive feeling. People who are moving in greater geographical range
often face social isolation, feeling the desire to have a wider connection (Aﬄeck &Steed, 2001). The constant movement for the military teens, such as Interviewee G,
has created a sense of isolation.
4.2.4

Limited Ability of the Language and the Difficulty of Developing One’s
Identity
Some military teens claimed how their lack of proficiency in their native

language affected their creation of identity. In Excerpt 5, Interviewee H states her
family and language ability impacting her career path. Her Korean level isconversational, and she studies grade 6 level Korean in a language school weekly.
She also volunteers as a translator to practice her Korean. Her main language isEnglish, and she speaks English throughout the interview.
Excerpt 5
IN: How important is it for you to succeed in English?
H:

It’s important for me because I can support myself.

IN: Would you recommend others to join the military?
H:

I wouldn’t recommend anyone to join the military unless they don’t haveanything. They don’t have no aspiration, no goal, they have no idea what
they want to do. If you have even a slight goal, I want to be a doctor, dothat. I’m so glad I joined the military now because I had no idea what I
wanted to do and I had zero plans. I also didn’t want to cause trouble to my
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dad. I can travel, I would have a job, I have medical so it gave me all the
choices I needed. But then college was something I wish I could have goneto.
IN: Why didn’t you?
H:

Because I didn’t think I was good enough. I barely spoke both languages
well.

IN: Do you think the more Korean you know, you have a sense of yourself? Or
you would have gone to college?
H:

It would be satisfying to know more, because it’s really frustrating. I’m
Korean and it’s sad that I don’t know the language.

IN: You consider yourself Korean?
H:

Yeah, well my blood is Korean even though I’m American citizen, so I can
pretty much I can say, I’m both, but I know Korean, but I can’t read diﬃcult
books or don’t know diﬃcult words and I feel like I should have studied
more and improve more.

IN: So, you feel like if you know the language more you would be complete?
H:

Yeah, I do. It’s really frustrating, I keep taking that test that I told you
earlier, the DLPT (the test to become a translator) and my scores are barelychanging.

The interviewee believes that to be Korean, she must read, write, and speak
Korean and pass the translator’s test. She also feels she must know both Korean andEnglish to be satisfied; currently, she is frustrated. She also did not go to college
because she felt she lacked the language skills and was uncomfortable asking forﬁnancial support from her father.
As in Excerpt 2, she claims her motivation toward learning English as a positive
feeling because of her sense of belonging, of feeling helpful within her family, andstudying hard to learn English. However, she believes that she is deﬁcient in Korean,citing inability to read books. This is also connected to her future choices to nottrouble (her) dad and to support herself. She desires independence. In the previous

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section, Figure 1 shows that family relationship, emotions, and language learning all
affect identity formation. In the case of Interviewee H, her English learning andemotions are linked and made her feel negatively about her language ability. This has
an impact on her career choice because of her perception of English ability and her
relationship with her father. She dismisses her desire to go to college.
One of the main investments of identity is also an investment in language
learning. By investing in language learning, students feel a sense of themselves. In
Excerpt 6 Interviewee C is explaining how her perceived language ability affects how
she sees herself in her environment. Interviewee C is Filipino, and her native
language is Tagalog. Her parents have joined the military as nurses to take care of thechildren. In Excerpt 6, the language learner speaks about her motivation of knowing
a language and how that affects her presence in the military.
Excerpt 6
IN: You want to be better in the language?
C:

Yes. I want to be in the military. Haha

IN: You said you want to be helpful.
C:

Yes.

IN: Because you moved a lot?
C:

Yes. I want to be helpful, or people don’t want you.

IN: I see. Do you feel more belonged by being helpful?
C:

Yes. I don’t think I belong if I have less English. So I am happy I havesurvival English.

IN: You said you didn’t like going to ESL, but you felt like you needed it.
When did you start feeling that way? What made you want to study
English, even though you don’t like English?
C:

Mom and dad. They told me to work hard. They left the Philippines to takecare of me. They say I︙uhhh︙ “magindapat” (deserve) and love me. Letme look it up. But yes, I owe my life to the military.
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Her desire to be helpful is from her desire to belong. She feels that the military
has been a great place for her as she is needed despite her lack of English. Also, shebelieves her family came to the U.S. for a better life, and she owes her life to themilitary. Her motivation for studying in ESL was to work as hard as her parents, andthe interviewee “magindapat (deserves)” a better life than her parents. If she did nothave the ability to speak her survival English, she would feel less worthy and shewould not feel that her current environment is where she belongs. Therefore, sheperceived language learning as an asset that leads to better success in her career andbeing a helpful soldier, which is connected to her self-worth.
From Excerpts 1 to 6, Figure 2, a modified version of Figure 1, was created.
Figure 2 shows that the family relationship and pathways are a major inﬂuence on the
military teens’ identity formation, and additionally, the military is influencing andaffecting the identity of these youths. The military children’s family relationships,
emotions, and language learning are inﬂuencing one another. Therefore, the overlap
is more clustered closely and merged. Also, the family relationship and life pathways
circle is largest to indicate the heavy impact on their identity formation.

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Figure 2 Modified Version of Investment in Identity Formation among Military Teens272

Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

4.3

The Linkage of Specific Emotions to Specific Languages
In Section 4.3, the linkage between specific languages and emotions will be

discussed. English and each participant’s native language were linked to different
emotions.
In Excerpt 7, Interviewee F reports that he distinguishes language usage
depending on the emotions linked to the topic he is talking about so that he is able toexpress his emotions in a way natural to him.
Excerpt 7
IN: Do you feel like you adapt yourself to each language?
F:

I think it’s different, yeah.

IN: How different?
F:

How? English, is︙ It’s different. When I speak Japanese I sound more nice,but in English I sound rude. 日本語でなんか言うと日本語だとなんか弱くなることがある。(In Japanese, I sound weak.)

IN: 感情によって変わったりする？ (Does your language change dependingon the feelings?)
F:

あー悲しい時は、英語が多い (When I am sad, it is English). 音楽とか聞 い て る と (When listening to like music), I think music changes thelanguage I use inside my brain.
The lyrics makes me sad and I just get into the moment. But 嬉しい時は、
英語日本語両方 (when I am happy, it’s both English and Japanese)。

IN: 恥ずかしい時は？ (How about when you are embarrassed?)F:

恥 ず か し い 時 は、 頭 が 日 本 語 に な っ て し ま う。(When I am
embarrassed, my brain becomes Japanese). When you get nervous orpresent something to the class, I can’t talk like this.

The interviewee is aware that his language is context dependent; he adopts amore brash persona when speaking in English and submissive demeanor when
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自由論題

speaking Japanese. Additionally, language usage is determined by his own internal
states as well: English is spoken when sad and both English and Japanese when
happy. Language learners perceive linguistic expressions as a locus where language
system, emotion, and identity meet, and in this sense motivations for language usage
are all interconnected, as shown in Figure 1 earlier in the paper.
Excerpt 7 shows that the positive feelings are expressed in both English andJapanese. His ideal expression is a mix of English and Japanese. Speciﬁcally, nice,
weak, and embarrassed feelings are expressed in Japanese, and rude feeling is
expressed in English. In this case his close relationship with his father could be an
influence. The rudeness could be the perception of being in the military, by theinﬂuence of the father, who he feels close to. The inﬂuence of military ideology may
have an impact on his perception of English. Since Interviewee F’s father has
experienced deployment, the identity of his father presenting and emphasizing hisstrong, stiff persona, rather than a vulnerable side, could make the child internalize
this perception into the English language itself, which is expressed as the word rude.
While observing and interviewing the military teens, the students used languages
depending on their emotions. I became interested in their emotional triggers and theiruse of language and asked questions related to their emotions and their language
usage. Excerpt 8 is a conversation with Interviewee C who explains her usage of
Tagalog when she gets surprised. It was an incident at work, in which her boss told
her to only use English even if it is not work related. The interviewer asks how theinterviewee feels about her boss repressing her to only express her reactions inEnglish; she accepts it and believes that she wants to be helpful.
Excerpt 8
IN: Do you speak different languages depending on your emotions?
C:

Yes. Even at work. When I am surprise(d), I speak Tagalog. My boss told
me not to do it.
But I still do. My boss is nice, he just thinks it’s important to have unity.

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Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

My sister said he is︙masama (evil or bad) What is it, let me see.
IN: Oh okay. Evil, bad︙ mean?
C:

Yes. Grrr. (mean looking face)

IN: I am not sure if I will understand. I will be sad. Why do you think you
understand?
C:

I want to be helpful. I want to be better.

Her conversation with her boss is mainly in English, but her language shifts
when she is surprised. She is determined to continue to study English to be helpful toher coworkers. Although her family sees her boss as evil, she respects her boss andbelieves that unity is maintained by only speaking English. Although all of theinterviewees believe that the military is diverse, this is questionable. The interviewee
is expressing her emotions during her job which does not mean that it has an impact
on the job’s efficiency but still is told to speak in English to maintain unity. She
believes that her purpose is to be helpful in the workplace and become better atEnglish, so she is not bothered. From the analysis, the military teens may feel theneed to express speciﬁc emotions using speciﬁc language, regardless of their level oflanguage. Therefore, as Figure 1 shows, military teens have a strong link of speciﬁc
emotions and language learning.
Unlike Excerpt 7, Excerpt 8 is expressing that the interviewee’s naturalexpression is usually in Tagalog. Her emotions toward English are helpful and more
intentional when speaking. The interviewee also has a feeling of respect toward her
boss; therefore, her suppression is not perceived as a negative feeling, but a positive
feeling. Hence, there is an attachment of emotion to the speciﬁc language, regardlessof the person they are communicating with.
In Excerpt 9, the interviewee explained how her emotions change the language
usage. The interviewee is Vietnamese and stayed in Vietnam until she was 16. She
moved to Japan to be raised by a family friend who was in the military. She attended
high school inside the base in Japan and Korea. She went back to Vietnam to attend
college and moved to Washington State when she was 22.
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自由論題

Excerpt 9
IN: Do you use speciﬁc languages for speciﬁc emotion?
E:

I think I get more aggressive in English and I have to be tough at work, sothat personality comes to me. But when I am anxious, I think I feel like a
mix of both languages. Vietnamese is used more when I express my
feelings that are less logical. Haha, maybe that’s why I should use English
more for work, haha.

She has an aggressive attitude when she is speaking English naturally. However,when she is anxious, she speaks both languages. In her personal life, she tends to use
Vietnamese to express her personal feelings that may be less logical and switch to
English at work not only because it is the common language, but to stay logical anddirect. Their image of language has an impact on the language use depending on theemotions, and affects their way of expression, creating an identity depending on theemotions. Similar to Excerpt 7 which states that English is rude, in Excerpt 9, English
is also seen as aggressive and tough; this indicates her image of English as being
related to the military. Her emotions are linked to the language use of Vietnamese as
less logical and anxious. Her natural or ideal way of speaking is Vietnamese or a mixof Vietnamese and English. Therefore, as Figure 2 shows, specific emotions cantrigger the usage of the language, impacting the language learning as well.
In Excerpt 5, the interviewee claims the personal reason of being able to bondwith her father and be someone who can help connect the family members together
as a motivation toward her language learning. The same positive feeling is felt byInterviewee H, in Excerpt 2, which is when she was able to connect her family
members using her language skills. However, there is a negative emotion linked tolanguage learning in the school environment for Interviewee H, which is shown inExcerpt 10. In Excerpt 10, Interviewee H speaks about her experience in ESL as
inducing a negative feeling, which has pressed her to strive to learn English.

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Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

Excerpt 10
IN: Did you ever compare yourself when learning English?
H:

Yeah, I did. In ESL, we had different levels and I tend to get competitive
with school, and I was naturally like that. And in class, like oh he knows
this much, I don’t know this much. Why didn’t I know that? I need to know
that, so I had that mindset.

IN: Even in the same level? (ESL was divided into different level and not by
grade)
H:

Yeah, I think because we are close in level that I get more competitive,
because other classes I felt competitive but not as much as ESL.

IN: What was your environment like in ESL class?
H:

I felt embarrassed, because I was away from my classmates, and the feelingwas intense.
But I was learning in that class so it was nice, but it was this feeling ofrushing to learn. I don’t feel comfortable being the girl who can’t speak any
language properly, especially when I have to speak against same Koreans
who speak better English.

The interviewee was very competitive in the ESL class with her classmates who
had the similar level as she, questioning why she did not know certain things that
other students knew, and pushed herself to learn. She also felt embarrassed because
she would take ESL class and she would be away from her classmates. She also
speaks about how she decided her future due to her perceived language ability. As forher Korean identity, she explains her resistance to expressing herself in English in
front of similar Korean background teens in the class. Therefore, she has an
association with the Korean identity.
As Excerpt 2 shows, her motivation toward learning English was her bond that
she was able to create through her English skills. In Excerpt 10, her motivation israther negative. She feels competitive, embarrassed, and rush(ed) in the school
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自由論題

environment and is separated in her mind, when linked to her emotions that areassociated with language learning. The contrast is apparent, and the linkage of theemotions is different in the context of school and family, as Figure 1 shows.
In Excerpt 11, Interviewee B feels that her motivation toward learning English
was her security for the future. Interviewee B speaks both English and Japanesethroughout the interview, but states that she feels more comfortable in Japanese.
Excerpt 11
IN: Do you think learning a new language changes your sense of yourself?
B:

I think I don’t change, but I feel comfortable around people.

IN: Because you can communicate with them? Or︙ why do you feel
comfortable?
B:

I think it’s like the military. Security is big about military. Language is thesame thing. Language is security, like an insurance.

IN: So, do you feel safe learning the language?
B:

Yes, I feel safe. I am not good in English yet, but studying it makes me feelpositive about my future. I feel like handicap without English.

IN: What’s your future plans?
B:

A hair dresser.

IN: Do you want to work outside of Japan?
B:

No, I want to work inside the base, because I feel safe here. I don’t thinkpeople want me with the level of English I have now.

IN: How about Japan? You can just use Japanese?
B:…もの足りないっていうか、なんのためにミリタリーブラットとして生まれてきたのかわからないなって思う。とか言ってほんとはやっ
ぱ り 怖 い かも。 海 外 行 くの。(I don’t feel satisﬁed, like I don’t know
why I was born as a military brat* But then, the truth is I’m probably
scared of going abroad.)

IN: あんなに色々な国移動してるのに？ (Even though you have moved to278

Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

different countries?)
B:

変ですよね。でもやっぱりママとフィリピンにいたときと、こことじゃ全然違うじゃないですか。ここ（基地）は安定しかない。(Itmust sound weird. But comparing the time I was in the Philippines with mymom, the base is nothing but stability.)

IN: 日本は ( どう思う ) ？ (How do you feel about Japan?)B:(I am) Too Filipino! Safe country, but no one can compare it to the base.

* military brat is a term used to describe a child of a parent serving in the U.S.
Armed Forces and their lifestyles
The interviewee considers learning a language as an insurance for a successful
future, and is also motivated to learn in order to satisfy her identity of being a
military brat, that is, someone who uses their international experience andmultilingual abilities for social and ﬁnancial gain. She describes her future outside of
the military as insecure; while she would like to become a hair dresser, she does notbelieve she has the language abilities to work off-base in Japan, yet fears hardship in
her mother’s country of the Philippines.
The language learning and family relationship are linked. In the case ofInterviewee B, the desire to learn the language can be clearly seen, which is rooted inher desire to feel secure. This security is linked to her stability that she desires to feelfrom her path of moving around and being in a financially unstable environment.
Also, the idea of family and military cannot be separated and influences her
motivation in language learning, as shown in Figure 2.
Furthermore, these military teens feel instability of constant movement anddesire stability through the language ability and staying in the military base, knowing
the beneﬁts of being a military teen. Soldiers feel that they have a sense of calling, tobe a part of something bigger than themselves, and self-sacriﬁce for the greater goodand for the country, which is patriotism (Mankowski, et al., 2015). The way that theirfamily members conceptualize patriotism has an influence on the military teen’s
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自由論題

image of military. The military member perceives the military as embodiment of
patriotism. From Excerpts 7 to 11, Figure 3 was created.
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Figure 3 Emotions linked to Specific Languages

4.4

Their Perception of In-Between Identity
This section discusses how the research participants feel about their in-between

identity and how that affects their English learning or their perception of languages.
The interviewees were all shown a video (Wong Fu Productions, 2017) of what inbetween identity as a youth is, what kind of emotions those youth feel and how they
see themselves change over time. The video was shown to have the interviewees
become aware of the issues concerning their self-awareness. The interviewees werethen asked if they had felt the same way, and how the in-between identity affected
their identity.
Interviewee A is Japanese and was raised in a Japanese environment until the 3rd
grade. During the interview, she has diﬃculty saying certain words in Japanese andoften switches back to English. She considers herself more ﬂuent in English now andstudies middle school level Japanese at night school. She states that language ability
affects how she perceives herself as an in-between. Especially when she was in highschool, she felt that she did not belong because of her perceived lack of language.

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Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

Excerpt 12
IN: When you think about in-betweenness, or in-between identity, what do you
think?
A:

I felt that when I was in Kansas, so high school だ ね . I felt that a lot. I
didn’t know where my home was. Because I wasn’t perfect in either
language. To me, it didn’t matter ﬁrst, until something triggered me.

IN: So, you felt in-between because of the language? Because you didn’t know.
A:Yeah, like I didn’t know 100% of either one. So I felt like I was like “oh my
god I’m not ﬂuent on any language.” I am about to go to college so.

IN: Language is an important part of.
A:

Deﬁnitely. Like what is my home? I don’t know. Because I lived in bothcountries. If I go back to Japan, I felt like a foreigner and living in Kansas
makes me a foreigner too. So, I felt the in-betweenness in high school. It
bothered me a lot, and something triggered me in high school. It botheredme but I didn’t discuss it or anything. I just felt like “Woah, I am lost likethere is no home.” I think senior year, I thought back to it, Junior year, I
was busy. *IN: Do you remember like what it was that triggered you? If you remember.
A:

︙I don’t remember, but I think it’s because of (name of her older sister).
Because she brought it up. I think she asked me a question like, “I don’t
feel home anywhere” and I think she asked me and if I felt the same way,
and that when I thought like actually, “I feel home wherever my family isat.” So it doesn’t matter where, it’s not about location, it’s the people around
me. Then, I didn’t feel the in-betweenness.

IN: So, you don’t feel it anymore?
A:

Well, I don’t think about it. Because I think now, “English is my main
language now.” So, I don’t have that feeling anymore, but culture-wise, I
feel like I’m in-between, but it doesn’t make me feel anything about it.

IN: Do you consider in-between as a negative thing?
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自由論題

A:

It affected me negatively at ﬁrst. But then at the end, not really. Okay, well,this is me, Take it or don’t take it. To me, it doesn’t give me a negative or
positive feeling. Okay, I ﬁgured it out myself. Wherever my family is at iswherever my home is. But whenever I was going through high school, it
was tough.

*When the interviewee states “I was busy” she refers to her brain being busy,
constantly feeling anxious about not feeling that she has a home.
While attending school in Kansas, she felt in-between due to a perception of not
being ﬂuent in either English or Japanese. However, a few years after graduating highschool, she now feels that her home is where her family is and the people that she
feels comfortable with. She further claims that she does not think about her inbetweenness anymore. However, her identity is not fully American, as she feels
culturally neither American nor Japanese, but in-between. When she speaks about
culture, she means the customs of each country. This description of in-betweennessof military teens is trying to explore the feelings and processes of their identity
formation.
Figure 1 has, in the central overlapping area, Investment of Identity Formation,
which in the case of Excerpt 12, is the change of in-between identity. The intervieweechanges her perspective on in-between identity over time, and this shift in identity is
unique for each military teen. This shift is because of the impact of the threecomponents, which are family relationship, language learning, and emotions. The
family member is a reason to feel negatively toward in-between identity, but also has
become a way to determine her own understanding of in-between identity. Theinterviewee’s understanding of it in her home changes depending on her family. In
addition, her quest for in-between identity begins with her sister’s perspective, but it
is also shaped by her constant movement. Therefore, her life pathways of living as amilitary child also has an impact on her identity formation. Lastly, her validation is
also linked to her language ability, which affects her to think that she is not282

Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

completely herself because she is not ﬂuent in both languages. This also linked to herlanguage learning, as Figure 1 shows. They all lead to the teen’s identity formation.
The process of how in-between identity is negatively perceived has been
explained in this section. The video, about in-between identity, shown at the
beginning of the interview may have affected the interviewees’ point of view of inbetween identity. However, all of the interviewees have expressed in-between identity
as a source of negative feeling and experience. The root of the negative feeling camefrom the linkage to family, which has impacted their perception of their own English
ability. This has created a vicious cycle, which has created a negative connotation of
in-between identity. However, as the interviewees have grown and met people otherthan their family members, or people who do not have a similar background, they
were able to put aside the negative feelings and have come to terms with their inbetween identity.

5

Conclusion
The study observed ESL teens in a military institution in Japan. The focus isidentity formation of these teens as they navigate through several different culturesand communities. From observing the data, we have seen how family relation andpathways, emotions and language learning are interlinked. Therefore, the investment
toward the military teens’ own identity is an investment in learning English,
emotions, and family relationships.
The ﬁndings are the following:
1. The military teens perceive and are affected by the bond between theirfamily members, which affects their emotions and language learning.
Without successfully developing positive family bonds, their perceptions oflanguage proﬁciency were not successful even when the language learning
was successful or emotions were expressed positively.
2. The military ideology affects the interviewees’ families, the way militaryteens perceive the notion of the language, and how they perceive theirfamily members.
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自由論題

3. There is a strong association between language and language learning.
Emotions are associated with English learning, and the use of English
strongly affected their military perception. Many of the teens feel
comfortable mixing native language and English when they are in theirnatural and relaxed state.
4. In-between identity is often understood negatively. Change in theperception of in-between identity occurs. The interviewees begin from theirperspective of identity being inﬂuenced by their family members to latercreating their own perspective.
From the findings, the sub-research questions and the research question can be
answered as follows.
Sub-Research Question 1: How does the relationship with family, pathways,
emotions, and language learning of military teens affect identity formation?
The patterns vary, but family relationships and life pathways have thegreatest impact on military teens and on their language learning and emotions.
The image of the military also influences their emotional connection tolanguage, affecting their image of the language itself.
Sub-Research Question 2: How do their emotional triggers affect language
usage?
The native language tends to reflect the sentiments of the user, and theEnglish language reﬂects an image of the military that they have created. The
natural state of military teens is the mix of their native language and English.
Sub-Research Question 3: How does language learning experience affect inbetween identity?
The military teens feel negatively about their in-between identity. In
Finding #4, by creating an identity that is different from their family member’s284

Language Learning and Identity Formation In-between Cultures Among Youth from Military Families

influence or their life journey, they have a different perception toward theiridentity. This in-betweenness is oftentimes felt as an unstable feeling of “whereis my home?” However, later on, the military teens come to terms with theidentity, by understanding their own perspective and learning a different
perspective from a family member. However, over time, they create their own
perception of in-between identity. Identity wise, they have not developed astrong or positive idea of identity.
Research Question: How do military teens invest in their identity formation
through language learning?
Military teens invest in their identity formation by language learning. Manyinterviewees value their identity of the country of the language based on theirlevel of language ability, such as how well they can communicate with theirfamily members, and stay motivated in the ESL class, although they may have anegative feeling toward English or are not really interested. The opposite could
be seen, as military teens feel the lack of family members or their support, it
hinders their language learning which leads to their decrease in self worth.
Secondly, military teens invest in their identity formation through emotions
because emotions trigger their language usage. This means that military teensfeel that they are expressing their emotions using language as a tool andconnecting to the community that they once felt distant. Lastly, military teens
invest in their identity through family relationships and life pathways by ﬁnding
meaning in the bond and creating their own perspective of themselves. Someinterviewees feel that they feel more connected with their family members orroots by learning about them, motivating them to create themselves.
To summarize, the results indicate that family relationship heavily affects
military teens’ identity. The investment in emotions, family relationship andpathways, and language learning have made a strong impact on their creation ofidentity. Through their adaption to new environments and people, military teens
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自由論題

desire to be a part of the military community and use language as a way to cultivate
their constant community and people. Their adaption to a community, not only
implies their adaption to a certain language, but also emotions that connect to thelanguage and their connection to society is also dropped or removed, creating theirunique identity and embracing them depending on the language ability.
The strength of this study is the focus point on the military teens. Although
there is previous research on the military family as a whole that documents theirstruggle, there is little research where children are the focus. Also, by observing theiridentity formation not only through family relationship and life pathways, but also
through language learning and emotions, the inﬂuence and unique perception of thelanguage and their emotions was revealed. For future study, it would be informative
to compare this data with similar data from a parent’s perspective, and it mightprovide a useful perspective on children’s language learning, identity, and emotions.
This will allow an in-depth study in understanding military teens.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Professor Yumi Sugihara, Professor Mamoru Fujita, and Professor
Tiina Matikainen for their guidance and support throughout my research. I must also thank theinterviewees for sharing their stories with me and the unwavering support from all of myteachers who I have been inspired by. Furthermore, I would like to thank Keio University
Shonan-Fujisawa Campus for providing me with an environment and the resources to further
my studies and publish my master thesis paper. Lastly, my deep and sincere gratitude for myfamily for their continuous love and support.

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