African Technology Policy Studies Network

WORKING PAPER SERIES | No. 54
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by
Small-holder Farmers throughIntegrated Climate Change
Adaptation in Sierra Leone
Teddy Amara Morlai
Chris Bobo Squire
Kelleh Gbawuru Mansaray
Gibril Vandy

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder
Farmers through Integrated Climate Change
Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Teddy Amara Morlai
Leonard Cheshire Disability,
West Africa
Chris Bobo Squire
Fourah Bay College,
University of Sierra Leone

Kelleh Gbawuru Mansaray
Fourah Bay College,
University of Sierra Leone
Gibril Vandy
St. Joseph's Convent,
Sierra Leone.

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-3-8

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Executive Summary

5

List of Acronyms & Abbreviations

7

1.

Introduction

8

2.

Research Methods & Procedures

123.

Research Results & Discussions

17

4.

Conclusions & Recommendations

51

Bibliography

54

Appendices

56

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 3

Acknowledgement
This paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy Studies Network(ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the Ministerie van
Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst others. The authors hereby
thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during the implementation of the program. The
Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and theProgram Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua (ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Owusu Essegbey (Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas Ozor
(ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS) for their technical support during the research process.

4 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneExecutive Summary
Climate change impacts according to global estimates seem to be at the threshold of human tolerance; aresult of anthropogenic activities such as massive deforestation, industrial and destructive land use
practices, etc that lead to sporadic emissions of Greenhouse gases (GHGs). Climate change is especiallyaffecting poorer communities in developing countries. In particular, indigenous/small-holder farmers arehighly likely to be affected. They form over half of the farming population and thus can contribute greatly toeconomic growth in developing countries where over 70% of the population are farmers and agriculture
contributes significantly to GDP shares. But in spite of all these potentials, they are given less attention in the
climate change mitigation and adaptation interventions and research. They lack the coping capacity totackle climate change problems. This situation is likely to have negative repercussions on developing
countries like Sierra Leone. It is estimated that any 2-30C rise in temperature will potentially place about 20300 million people at risk of hunger and that worldwide cereal production will decline by 5% for a 20C rise intemperature and 10% for a 100C rise in temperature. Climate change will also reduce the sources of protein,
and already it is responsible for about 150,000 deaths globally.
Response to climate change impacts in Sierra Leone is too low, despite the emerging evidence in recent
years. Climatic variables such as rainfall and temperature which have shown normal routine of occurrence
now give a different picture. There has been heavy and short rainfall fluctuation, either early or late- causing
farmers to stand in start-of-farming and start-of-seasons dilemmas. Yet little research has been done on theextent of climate change influence on the farming population, and what assistance or indigenous
adaptation strategies/technologies they are adopting for self-sustenance and economic growth. This
research therefore was proposed “to develop a comprehensive climate change adaptation policy throughstakeholder participation for enhanced food production, food security at local and national levels in Sierra
Leone”. In particular it proposes to achieve this general aim by:(i) identifying and documenting effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations forclimate change adaptation in the study;(ii)enhancing behavioural changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual andinstitutional levels in the study area;(iii) building the capacity of the farming communities in Sierra Leone to adapt to climate change impacts;(iv) examining the state of climate change and climate variability across agro-climatic regions in Sierra
Leone,(v) building a model on how climate links health, natural disaster, to food security and the local economic
growth, andEnhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 5

(vi)making policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at the state and nationals in
Sierra Leone.

This report therefore presents the final findings and views of small-holder farmers on the state of climatechange impacts on small-holder agriculture in the country. Methodologically, a multi-stage samplingtechnique was implored and 500 small-holder farmers were engaged using structured questionnaires togenerate quality and quantitative results from across four agro-climatic regions. Ten (10) Focus Group
Discussions were also held to build farmers capacity on the causes and impacts of climate change, as well
as gain their views on the impacts of the changing climate and the indigenous/emerging
technologies/innovations that farmers are presently adopting to respond to climate change impacts. Data
analysis was carried out using SPSS and Excel spreadsheet, to generate descriptive statistical and simple
bivariate excel-based presentations in the form of simple frequencies and charts. Cross-tabulations werealso use for other presentations.
The findings revealed farmers still uphold to their indigenous farm practices and that certain agricultural
products are already disappearing in terms of production. In addition, it was observed that small-holder
farmers are already moving from an a priori situation to building a culture on an already observable changed
climate. According to the farmers, phenomenal changes in rainfall, and temperature are already taking
place in an uneven and erratic manner in the past two to three years. Farmers acknowledged that they have
had indigenous meteorological predictions to determine their start-of-farming and start-of-seasons, butthese no longer serve them well in recent years. As a result, crop failures, pest and disease proliferation andextreme hunger have been observed. Few indigenous innovations/ emerging technologies were also
identified, but from limited locations. The capacity of small-holder farmers on climate change, it causes andimpacts were also discovered to be very low. Information transfer is from a single source (radio); andassistance to tackle climate-related problems were concentrated in one region, the rainforest, but at very
low rate (30%) and from only NGOs/CBOs and government institutions. The burden of climate-relateddiseases was also identified as an inhibiting factor responsible for low agricultural yields, food selfsufficiency and local economic growth. A simple bivariate analyses proved that all costs on sickness is atleast 30% more than returns from yields and this in combination with expenditure on farming activities canlead to a substantial decrease in the earning power of small-holder farmers. In addition, only few farmers ofan average proportion of 1% agreed on year-round feeding on reserved food.
Various recommendations were made to solve the impacting climatic influences on the agricultural
production across the agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone. In particular it was recommended that: (i) thenational science and technology council of Sierra Leone (NaSTEC), the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry andFood Security (MAFFS), the meteorological department, poverty-/Science and technology- oriented
institutions/NGOs, national and international agencies, etc collaborate and pool resources and promoteresearch and development in the country, particularly to adopt agro-meteorological technology toperiodically test the climatic requirements of crops across the country and identify crop suitability in each of
the agro-climatic regions; (ii) a science and technology communications strategic framework be
developed in the country- with expert institutions such as the National Council of Science and Technology,
African Technology Policy Studies (ATPS) Network and the National Telecommunication Commission(NATCOM) playing a leading role in this process; (iii) farmers' recommendations/priorities on adaptation
measures be recognized as stipulated in the report, using the Adzen's and Fishbein's attitude-towardbehaviour model; etc.
6 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

List of Acronyms & Abbreviations
ARI
ATPS
CaCO3
CARE
Ch4
CILSS
Co2
DRR
ENSO
FAO
FEWS
FGDs
GCMs
GDP
GEF
GHGs
GtCO2
LCDF
LDC
MAFFS
NAPA
NaSTEC
O3
PEMSD
SPSS
SRI
SSA
UNFCCC
USAID

Acute Respiratory Infections
African Technology Policy Studies Network
Calcium Carbonate
Corporation of American Relief Everywhere
MethaneInterstate Committee for the Control of Drought in the Sahel
Carbon Dioxide
Disaster Risk Reduction
El Nino Southern Oscillation
Food and Agricultural Organisation
Famine Early Warning System Network
Focus Group Discussions
General Computation Model
Gross Domestic Product
Global Environmental FundGreenhouse Gases
Giga tons of Carbon Dioxide
Least Developed Countries Fund
Least Developed Countries
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Security
National Adaptation Programme of Action
National Science and Technology Council
Ozone
Planning, Evaluation, Monitoring and Statistics Division
Statistical Package for Social Scientists
System of Rice Intensification
Sub-Sahara Africa
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United States Assistance for International Development

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 7

1. Introduction
The advent of climate change debates seems to put scientific research on climate change at the heart ofdevelopment. There is fear of leaving a gap that will completely militate against development and increase
poverty in countries, communities and individuals that are already at the margin of survival due to climatechange impacts. The fact that scientific research on climate change impacts largely concentrates on
mitigation (e.g. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and large-scale agricultural technology) seem tobe given high priority, is likely to leave poverty-stricken indigenous farmers vulnerable and their climatechange adaptation knowledge underutilized for sustainable food self-sufficiency and economic growth.
This paper therefore presents results from research findings on “enhancing agricultural yields by smallholder farmers through climate change adaptation programme in Sierra Leone”.
It starts with: (i) background information that gives a global view of the trend in climate change and its
impacts; (ii) problems/gaps and rationale for undertaking such research; (iii) research method andprocedures, and (iv) research results, from which conclusions and policy recommendations aresuggested.

1.1
Background
Climate change debate is not a recent phenomenon. Since the 19th century, scientists have argued on aforeseeable increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration which would lead to higher mean
temperature , further creating risks and opportunities worldwide (USAID, 2007). According to the mostrecent climate change models, doubling of preindustrial gases is likely to create a rise in global mean
temperature between 2-50C – a scale that is considered to be outside the experience of human civilization(Schellnhuber, 2006). Other scientific evidences even show that if annual GHG emissions remain at thisrate, concentration will be more than three times that of the pre-industrial levels, committing the earth to 230C by 2100(IPPC, 2001). This according to generalized conclusion from different climatic modeling could
lead to increases in rainfall in higher latitudes and to reduced rainfall in the sub-tropics, (Schar et al, 2004). In
particular, countries in Africa are faced with high negative impacts of climate change as a result of low
adaptive capacity of their growing population. Almost all countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) lack thenecessary institutional, economic and financial capacity to cope with the impacts of the changing climate,and in some cases rebuild damaged infrastructure due to climate-related natural disasters. Climate
variability causes uneven disruptions that take a major toll on the economy of a country, particularly when areasonable part of its economic activities is sensitive to weather and climate (Dieudonne 2001, Sokona and
Denton 2001).
8 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

The main impact of climate change will be evidenced on food security, agriculture, water resources, humanhealth, natural resource management and biodiversity (Dieudonne, 2001). This in turn profoundly
undermines economic growth and social stability in a country (Funk, 2009) - a result that militates against
Africa's development. Presently the economies are gradually experiencing reduced food and financial aid ata point of rising global economic downturn- a time that help is needed most by underdeveloped nations.
It is estimated that 75% of the world's population (particularly in Africa), are poor, and mostly live in rural areas
where agriculture and related activities are main source of livelihoods (Bruisma, 2003). These conditions arelikely to be exacerbated with any 2-30C rise in temperature. Potentially the people most at risk from this are
estimated to be between 30-200 million, particularly in Africa where: 1) the declines in yields are greatest; 2)dependence on agriculture is highest, and 3) purchasing power is limited (Warren et al, 2006). Furthermore,
an estimated 70-80 million people would be exposed to malaria in Africa with 3-40C increase intemperature; and 300,000 deaths would result from climate-related problems with a 10C rise.
Climate change impacts are already highly visible in Sierra Leone; but the trend and nature of such impacts,
and the corresponding indigenous responses from the most affected are yet to be understood in the
country. This research has therefore been undertaken in order to fill these knowledge gaps.

1.2
Problem Statement
Sierra Leone is no exemption to the debilitating effects of climate change on developing countries as it isalready experiencing de facto climatic hazards such as floods, changed rainfall patterns, strong winds,
thunderstorm and seasonal droughts. However, the country, like other developing countries, lacks the
coping mechanisms and financial capacity to reverse and/or adapt to the climate change and climate
variability presently threatening humanity. .
In spite of all these visible indications, there is lack of established/ adapted technology, as well as specificadaptive measures to redress the impact of climate change on agriculture, food security, human health andeconomic growth- a result from limited knowledge on what exists and what needs to be done by policy
shapers, policy-makers and decision makers to reveal the inter-related factors responsible for climatechange, climate variability and impacts felt by poorer communities and their surroundings in Sierra Leoneand elsewhere.
Most dispiriting is that the current climate change debate seems to focus on large-scale adaptations. In
agriculture large-scale mechanize farming is given priority. Little attention is paid to small-holder farmers,
who form the majority (over 70%) of the farming community. This group of the farming population has beenrelentlessly tilling small (less than 2 hectares) and marginal (less than 1 hectare) farms since pre-industrial
age and are most likely to experience the strongest impact of climate change. It has been long establishedthat inextricable link does exist between climate-related health risks, disaster, agricultural development andeconomic growth. Poor health and injury can greatly reduce the working capacity of farmers; and thepresent climate change dynamics is offering such possibilities to farmers in Sierra Leone.
The adaptive capacity of small-holder farmers is very low. In addition, human population increase in the
Sierra Leone, which is at the rate of 1.9% per annum, and climate change impacts on agriculture, health andfood security presents serious challenges. This might have pushed indigenous farmers to be making
countless strides to adopt and come up with local innovations/technologies that can help improve on theiragricultural yields. On the contrary, indigenous farmers are thought to lack the capacity of using scientific
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 9

predictions, high cost technologies as well as gaining access to credits that could help reduce future
impacts of climatic shocks on their farming activities.
Information on how farmers cope with the changing climate, its impacts on yields and local economic
growth are lacking due to low research interest. Consequently, there are little or no formalized
documentations with regards to indigenous innovations and technologies to adapt to climate change
impacts in Sierra Leone. It is therefore important that these knowledge-based innovations/technologies be
identified to give future directions on possible value addition/improvements for sustainable agriculturaldevelopment and local economic growth in Sierra Leone.
1.3
Research Objectives
This research was undertaken to address the problems posed by climate change on agricultural
production. It generally intends “promoting a comprehensive climate change adaptation policy throughstakeholder participation for enhanced food production, food security and poverty reduction at local andnational levels in Sierra Leone”. Specifically, the research seeks to achieve this general aim through thefollowing objectives:>
Understanding the socio-economic status of indigenous people, their knowledge, perceptions
and behavior towards climate change;>
Identify and document effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climatechange adaptation in the study;>
Build the capacity of the farming communities in the study area to adapt to climate change impacts;>
Enhance behavioural changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual andinstitutional levels in the study area;>
Examine the state of climate change and climate variability across agro-climatic regions in Sierra
Leone.
>
Build a model on how climate links health, natural disaster, to food security and the local economic
growth;>Make policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at the state and nationals in
Sierra Leone;>
Build capacity in the area of climate change.
1.4
Rationale and Justification for the Study
Sierra Leone is presently experiencing untimely thunderstorms, destructive landslides and floods (claiming
tens of lives, particularly in coastal towns and lowland farm settlements). Rainfall patterns have become
seasonally unreliable and unpredictable, causing farmers to miss their start-of-farming dates. In addition,
the main food crops produced in the country (maize, cereal, groundnut, potato, cassava and vegetables)
survive under varying climatic conditions. The present state of rainfall and its duration is a cause of concern
for agricultural yields in Sierra Leone. A serious decline has been observed in recent years. There have beenfour agro-climatic regions in the country, but these might have been shifted considerably due to climatechange impacts. Even though climate change observations are done for several years, the need todevelop an early warning system in the country is essential. In particular, Start-of-Season (SOS) and Start-ofFarming (SOF) systems must be in place to inform farmers and flood-prone coastal and lowland dwellers in
the country. The need for temporary mapping of the shifted agro-climatic regions should also not be
overemphasized for increased food yields, livestock production and reduced climate-related diseases in
the country.
10 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

The cost for high modern technological transfers on climate change adaptation is high but unavoidable,considering the cost of damage caused by climate change impacts. Studying the economics of climatechange is therefore vital. In Sierra Leone, modern climate change adaptation techniques remain costly andunaffordable. However, one main asset that is often disregarded but yet highly essential to build on its
traditional knowledge on climate change. This is a knowledge-based system comprising innovations,
technologies and cultural expressions that has been in existence since pre-industrial revolution. The
indigenous people have developed this system and related innovations as valuable sources of technology
in response to risks and needs in a constantly changing environment. It could be cost effective therefore if
this knowledge is harvested and tapped into scientific ideas for sustainable climate change adaptations in
the country.
Little has been known about climate change impacts on human health and the implications on foodproduction and economic growth in countries like Sierra Leone. Infectious diseases affect a large number ofpeople in developing countries (WHO, 2002). Generally, poor individual health can lower work capacity andproductivity (Philips and Verhasselt, 1994).
It is worth noting that Sierra Leone is entirely within the tropics and climate change is likely to be exceeding
the threshold of human tolerance, and contributing to disease burden such as malaria, yellow fever, cholera
and diarrhea. This in combination with injuries and other forms of disabilities have strong correlation with
agricultural production, food security and economic growth. It is necessary therefore, that such study is
included, to estimate the burden posed by climate-related diseases on farmers in Sierra Leone.
Sierra Leone is a part of the African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN) and participated at the2008 AMCEN meeting in Johannesburg, South Africa, where climate change adaptation was considered as
the most immediate priority, considering the vulnerability of African countries. Meanwhile, despite thisagreement, Sierra Leone still lacks adequate information on climate change and its adaptation measures.
The results from this research therefore will feed policy makers with relevant recommendations and build thecapacity of individuals, institutions and local stakeholders for sustainability. It can also serve as a reference
base/spring-board for future research ventures in related field in the country and other parts of the world,
particular Africa, whose countries share uniformity in climate, culture and tradition.

1.5
Limitations
Ideally, this research was supposed to be executed over a period of 9-month duration- that is 31st
December 2009 to 30th September 2010. This time was limited to carry out the required deliverables, which
included intermittent reports/evaluations and time delays in budget processing for execution of action.
Hence, a slight shift to October was made to produce the final report. It is also necessary to note that one ofthe objectives of this research was to track climate change and variability across the agro-climatic regions in
the country. However, it was observed that secondary data on key climatic parameters such as temperatureand rainfall were not available in a consistent manner at the meteorological departments- making it difficult tomake substantive conclusion on the state of rainfall and temperature in each of the agro-climatic regions.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 11

2. Research Method & Procedures
2.1
Research Design
The nature and structure of the research seek to solicit in-depth information on the trend in climatic
variations, state of climate change impacts on the farming population and their responses to such impact.
Both personal interviews and Focus Group Discussions were used in the research. Descriptive andexploratory research designs were therefore implored in the research procedures. The descriptive research
design was used to collect a set of scientific methods and procedures to collect raw data, from which data
structures were developed to describe findings on key elements such as socio-demographic
characteristics of farmers, crop diversities across agro-climatic regions, structured adaptation measures,state of capacity building, responses to climate change adaptation measures, etc. This was done using
structured and coded questionnaires that were designed to generate quantitative data. The exploratory
research was used to solicit in-depth farmers' emerging/adopted technologies in response to climatechange impacts and documenting these practices by agro-climatic regions using informal/ unstructured
procedures.
2.2
Description of Study Area
The ideal setting of the research is the entire Sierra Leone. It is a small country with an area of approximately
72,300 km2 and population of 4.9 million. 71% of the country's population comprises of those between
ages 10-59 years; 24% are children under five years of age and 5% are 60 years of age and above (Statistics
Sierra Leone 2004 census report). The country is endowed with significant natural and human resources.
Despite all this, the economy has seen serious and prolonged socio-economic set-back, including low
standard of living of the vast majority of its inhabitants. Unfavourable policies, corruption and civil strife are inpart, some of the inhibiting factors responsible for such end-results.
Sierra Leone lies entirely within the tropics- Latitudes 6055´ and 10000´ north of the equator andLongitudes 10014´ and 13017´ west of the Greenwich Meridian. Based on its location, the country has atropical climate: Dry season characterized by cool, dry and humid north-easterly (harmattan) trade windwhich sometimes blow at intervals, and is accompanied by fine dust from the Sahara; Wet (Raining) season
also characterized by a wet and moist southwest monsoon wind.
Sierra Leone has five distinct physical regions- Freetown Peninsular, Coastal Plain, Interior Lowland, Interior
Plateau and the Mountain Ranges. Ideally, during the late 1970s to early 1980s, four agro-climatic regions
were identified (with no further adjustment done to date) in the country (see Figure 1). These identifications
12 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leonewere done based on certain climatic features: (a) duration of growing periods of crops; (b) Physiographic
influence of environmental conditions; and (c) altitude and effects of temperature of agro-climatic influence.

Figure 1: Map of Agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone
The Coastal Plains. Agro-climate of this region is dominated by proximity to the sea, strong temperature
regimes, humidity and rainfall. The boundary of the region is approximated and taken to coincide with thespecific drainage and edaphic characteristics. The coastal plains covers an area of some 11,000 km2 orabout 15% of the land surface of Sierra Leone and is comprised of estuarine swamps, alluvial plains, beachridges and coastal terraces. The dominant factor influencing the agricultural utilization of this region is the
exceptionally high rainfall and an excess of precipitation over evapo-transpiration demands, exposing theregion to excessive leaching, prolonged flooding and swampy conditions. An average water budget
account for the region shows that there is some 2,100 mm of surplus rainfall which together with theseasonal flooding reflects the extreme conditions of humid environment. There are distinct contrasting
periods of the year generally referred to the rainy and dry seasons. The average duration of rain-fed growing
period averages some 260±10 days. The dry season therefore averages some 105 days, but for specificagricultural purposes it could be extended for several weeks to include comparatively dry periods of therainy season in November and December. Temperature is however not a limiting factor for crop growth in thisregion.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 13

The Rainforest. The ecologically important characteristic of the region is a unimodal distribution of annual
rainfall resulting in the high reliability of moisture supply to vegetation. However, the receipt of annual rainfall
is much in excess evapotranspiration demands and consequently about half of the annual precipitation(1460mm) finds its way to ground water or runoff resulting in stream and river flow. The distribution of rainfall
is prolonged, lasting from the beginning of May to the end of November; a rise in the level of ground watertable occurs and may adversely affect draining conditions particularly in the lower parts of the topography.
Another agronomically important aspect of this large climatic water supply is its effect on soil nutrients andland management. The drainage is poor in some areas, especially where there is low elevation- nutrients are
all taken away from the forest. The major crops grown here are both perennial and annual, but the mostcommon types are perennials (plantation).
Savannah Woodlands. This covers about 30% of Sierra Leone, and extends from the interior lowland to
the interior plateaus of the north and northwest. Rainfall and water surplus are slightly lower than the otheragro-climatic regions. The region is characterized with unique less luxuriant savannah vegetation, and has adry season that lasts for about 100-130 days. There is also a serious annual water deficit. Wild fire, crop
cultivation and overgrazing were also identified as the major biotic influences producing this type of agroclimatic zone. Poor drainage, shallowness and infertility are the main edaphic influences. These two factors
according to research, result in the establishment of savannah mosaic landscape, which consists mainly of
deciduous woodland tree species and grasses. The rainy season starts about mid-April to January. This
result is suitable for annual crop production. Average growing period is about 255 days. Rainfall is unimodal.
There is large water surplus in humid condition resulting to environmental stress for the arable crops. This
produces pests, diseases, weeds, leaching of nutrients, risk of flooding and soil erosion. Dry season
experiences a high water deficit (about 500 ml). At times dry season prolongs between 160-170 days.
Irrigation technology is therefore important. Since there is a marked water supply in the rainy season andwater deficit in the dry season, there is a need to conserve water in the rainy season for use during the dry
season.
Transitional Rainforest/Savannah Woodlands. This shares similar characteristics with the rainforestand savannah woodland agro-climatic regions.
2.3
Types of Data
Both Primary and Secondary data were collected during the research. The primary data were collectedusing structured questionnaires. Initially, a pilot survey (PS) was done to determine in part, some scalemeasurement options on sources of climate change information, list of adaptations/innovations, etc.
Primary information were also solicited from Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with the farming
communities in each of the regions. Soliciting Secondary information was also key in the research process.
Scientific data collection on climatic parameters such as rainfall and temperature was done at the national
meteorological department of Sierra Leone and the IPCC report for Sierra Leone. A thorough review ofliterature on climate change, climate variability, impacts and farming systems adaptations andinnovations/technologies for climate change resilience in Sierra Leone and other parts of the world was also
done.
2.4
Sample and Sampling Procedures
The sample frame of the research is the entire small-holder farming population of Sierra Leone. Given
estimates of 75% of the population comprising of small-holder farmers, this gives a figure of 3.675 million
14 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leonefarm families (i.e. 75% of 4.9 million). A sample size of 500 farm families was selected; and this was doneusing multi-stage random sampling technique. First the four (4) agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone wereidentified. The agro-climatic regions were then divided into districts, which were further cascaded into
chiefdoms and localities. In all five (5) districts, twelve (12) chiefdoms and thirty-four (34) localities wererandomly selected. One district was selected from each of the four (4) agro-climatic regions with the
exception of the transitional zone (from which two districts were selected as a result on its elongated nature
passing through most of the administrative regions of Sierra Leone). 125 questionnaires were equallyadministered to farmers using simple random sampling technique in each of the agro-climatic regions
making a total of 500 respondents. In addition, ten (10) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were carried out
with selected farmers' groups in each of the regions.
Table 1: Sampling selection through multi-stage sampling technique
No. ofRespondents

Research
CodeLocality Name

Chiefdom/ward

District

Agro-climatic Region

1

Affia

Wara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

82

Baima Mandu

Mandu Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

14

3

Bandajuma

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Bo District

Transitional zone

104

Bandamjuma Town

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

14

5

BayamaKissi Teng Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

13

6

BumpehKori Chiefdom

Bo District

Transitional zone

25

7

Dodo

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

11

8

Dandabu

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Bo District

Transitional zone

10

9

FaduguKasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

26

10

Fowa Ngopi

Kissi Teng Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

12

11

Gbonkogbon

Kasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

11

12

KabalaWara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

24

13

KafokoKasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

12

14

Kasangban

Kasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

10

15

Kathawuya

Wara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

5

16

Kathombo II

Wara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

617

Leicester

Mountain Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

918

LevumaMandu Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

12

19

MadinaKasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

13

20

MahaineKoya Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

25

21

Malambay

Koya Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

25

22

Mobai

Mandu Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

13

23

Mokassie

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone

25

24

Njagbahun

Fakunya Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone

10

25

Nyadehun

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

11

26

Ogoo Farm

Mountain Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

1027

RegentMountain Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

1028

Sandeyalu

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

1329

Sembehun

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone25

30

SenehunKamajei Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone

20

31

Songo

Koya Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

37

32

Tombo

Waterloo Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

11

33

Upper Jui

Waterloo Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

1034

YatayaWara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

10

Total Number of Respondents

500

Five (5) young enumerators from the universities/tertiary institutions were trained on elements of climatechange and farming techniques, questionnaire design, interview techniques and were assigned to specificlocations in all the agro-climatic regions across the country.
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 15

2.5
Data Analyses and Presentation
Post survey activities were data processing (including editing, validation and analyses) and presentation.
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and the excel spreadsheet were used for data
capturing, validation and analyses. Presentations were done using descriptive statistical inferences vis-àvis; frequency tables, cross-tabulations and statistical graphs.
In terms of farmers' responses to adaptation measures, the Ajzen's and Fishbein's (1980:53-89) attitudetowards-behaviour model was used by adopting scale measurements to solicit information on outcome(ai)using the following formula:n
ATBr=∑birair
i=1
Where ATBr is a separate indirect derived composite measure of the combined thoughts and feelings offarmers' groups for or against carrying out a particular adaptation measure or behavior towards climatechange adaptation; bi is strength of each group's response/belief (subjective probability) that the action or
behavior will produce outcome i; ai is the group's expressed feeling (affect) towards outcome i (e.g.
favorableness feeling of adaptation measures working well in a particular agro-climatic region); r is thegroup; n is the total pair of questions (bi and a)i asked on the salient action outcome on climate change
adaptation measures, etc; ai is an indicator that there are n salient action outcomes making up the behavior
over which the multiplicative combinations of bi and ai for the outcome are summated. The scores werethen interpreted to mean that the lower the value, the weaker the attitude and the higher the value, thestronger the attitude towards each given attribute of climate change adaptation options.
A bivariate graphical presentation was also made to understand the relationship between expenditure on
climate-related disease impacts and/or farming activities and returns from farm produce. This was in bid topredict the benefits derived from reducing climate-related disease prevalence through certain adaption
measures.

16 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

3. Research Results & Discussions
Analyses of the research findings follow internal consistency of the research design. The findings present
the socio-demographic dynamics of farmers interviewed. This is then followed by the extent of farmers'
knowledge on climate change, how they perceive climate change influence and their reactions.
Emerging technologies and innovations for climate change resilience, state of capacity building on climatechange, climate variability, farmers' responses to climate change measures and linkages between climatechange, diseases and food security/self-sufficiency were also captured in the analyses.
3.1
Socio-demographic Dynamics of Indigenous Farmers
The research did not intend testing hypotheses between male and female respondents. Farmers were
therefore targetted by the process of simple random sampling (irrespective of gender) through multi-stage
random sampling plan. The analyses however, captured the sex composition of both male and female
farmers in bid to make some comparative conclusions on specific emerging issues. Approximately 25%
and 75% of female and male farmers were interviewed in the research respectively (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Sex composition of farmers

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 17

Most of the farmers interviewed fall between ages 35 and 49. Meaning 54% of all farmers interviewed are in
the most active and responsible age brackets (see Table 2). Their responses to farming systems,
adaptations and climate-related components in the research findings would therefore play an invaluablerole for generalization across the country and its surroundings.
Table 2: Age composition of respondents

Age brackets

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

18-25 Years

13

2.6

2.6

2.6

26-33 Years

77

15.4

15.4

18.0

34-41 Years

141

28.2

28.2

46.2

42-49 Years

130

26.0

26.0

72.2

50-56 Years

74

14.8

14.8

87.0

Above 56 Years

65

13.0

13.0

100.0

Total

500

100.0

100.0

In addition, most of these farmers (about 72%) have stayed on farming/farm settlement since birth and 24%
reported staying on farm locations for over five (5) years (see Figure 3). The high experience in traditionalfarm practices clearly depicts the quality of farmers' experience on the impacts of the changing climatic
variables in their farming activities.

Figure 3: Length of stay of farmers in their farm locations

18 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

The major marital characteristics observed from the findings are polygamous and monogamous practices(see Table 3). The view that most farmers are poor and as such lack the financial capability to undertake
large-scale farming activities, presents a clear picture of why polygamous marriages (in this case 28%) arecommon among the farming communities in countries like Sierra Leone. Farmers tend to bind forces withmany family members with the intention of getting more yields.
Table 3: Marital status of respondents

Marital Status

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Never Married

22

4.4

4.4

4.4

Engaged

37

7.4

7.4

11.8

Separated

12

2.4

2.4

14.2

Married Polygamous

142

28.4

28.4

42.6

Married Monogamous

233

46.6

46.6

89.2

Divorced

22

4.4

4.4

93.6

Widowed

32

6.4

6.4

100.0

Total

500

100.0

100.0

The aspect of polygamous marriages also starts giving signal of the size of individual farm families in the
country. Over 70% (as shown in Figure 4) of farmers across the agro-climatic regions agreed having a total
number of over 5 dependants. There is therefore a mixed feeling in the perception of farmers gaining more
yields with a large number of dependants and poverty that overhangs them. The predictions of destructions
emerging from the changing climate and farmers' low capacity to adapt to shocks explains much of why
farmers will continue being in poverty in the absence of capacity building and adaptation policies in the
country.

Figure 4: No. of dependents reported by farmers
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 19

Various farm practices were captured in the research. Food crops and livestock farming and fisheries were
all agreed on as adopted farm practices across the agro-climatic regions. Meanwhile, the most widely usedagricultural practices reported by farmers are swamp rice farming (77%), shifting cultivation (72%) andmarket gardening (61%) (see Figure 5). Bush fallow and livestock farming showed up but of low score interms of practice. Also, cash cropping which is one of the economic resource bases of the country forexport overseas is practiced, but at low rate.

Figure 5: Farm practices across agro-climatic regions
3.2

Indigenous Farmers' Knowledge, Perceptions and Behaviour towards
Climate Change
Climate change requires a long-term observation for confirmation. However, the speed at which
modernisation is going and the widespread speculations about the impacts of climate especially on thepoor, need to be proven at regular intervals. It is believed that farmers are the most widely hit. Theirknowledge and perception would give future directives on solutions to this problem. Meanwhile Figure 6
shows marked affirmative responses from farmers across all the agro-climatic regions that rainfall andexcessive heat are mostly felt in all the regions. In addition, cool conditions have been observed by most
Sierra Leoneans at particular periods in the year, but farmers in the Savannah Woodlands of Northern Sierra
Leone especially reported extreme cold beyond the normal limit of tolerance (see Figure 6). A combinationof these weather events might be very alarming for future agricultural development by small-holders in
Sierra Leone especially in agro-ecological zones that are hardly hit.

20 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 6: Farmers' experience of seasonal change in weather events
Mixed patterns of change in climatic variables were however observed from the findings. Generally, farmers
have observed long rainfall duration (74% of responses), long drying season (61% of responses) and hightemperatures (55% of responses). Short and heavy rainfall was also reported (42%). Meanwhile, regional
confusing patterns were observed in terms of experiences in the phenomenal occurences of climaticparameters. Whilst the savannah woodlands and transition zone experience both long rainfall duration andshort/heavy rainfall, the rainforest and coastal plains see more of long rainfall duration. In addition hightemperature was reported by most respondents in the coastal plains (74%) and savannah woodlands(72%). Other climatic variables that were listed from the farmers are heavy storms, long and shortharmattans.The resultant effects have been late start-of-farming in the transitional zone (56%) and coastal
plains (40%) as well as early start-of-farming in the transitional zone (71%) and rainforest (62%).
Table 4: Perceived views of the nature of weather events
Observations

Agro-Climatic Region

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
WoodlandsLong rainfall duration

95(76.6%)

105(84.0%)

99(82.5%)

67(53.6%)

366(74.1%)

Short and heavy rainfall

51(41.1%)

15(12.0%)73(60.8%)70(56.5%)

209(42.4%)

Long drying season

94(75.8%)

44(35.2%)

104(86.7%)60(48.0%)302(61.1%)

Late start of farming

50(40.3%)

13(10.4%)10(8.3%)70(56.0%)143(28.9%)

Early start of farming

30(24.2%)

77(61.6%)30(25.0%)89(71.2%)

226(45.7%)

High temperature

92(74.2%)

46(36.8%)

86(71.7%)45(36.0%)269(54.5%)

Others122(98.4%)6(4.8%)

109(90.8%)

97(77.6%)334(67.6%)

Total

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 21

Farmers are gradually moving from a-priori situation of weather observation to a gradual building of culture
on permanent weather change in Sierra Leone. It was reportedly agreed by most of the farmers (about 71%)that weather changes (particularly in rainfall, heat and cold) have really been observed in the past two to
three years. In fact some responses (13%) even show that changes in these events have been observed
since 2006 (see Figure 7).

Figure 7: Years of experiencing changes in weather events
Whilst changes in patterns of climatic events are observed, patterns in agriculture production, especiallyfood crop productions which are climate-sensitive in Sierra Leone need to be tracked. It was observed that
rice, cassava, maize, groundnut, sweet potato, pepper and yams are the major food crops grown in the
country as depicted in Figure 8. Oil Palm, beans, banana and millet are also grown to an extent. Productionof major livestock such as goat, sheep and cattle were also observed from the findings.

22 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 8: Farmers' responses to agricultural produces across agro-climatic
regions in Sierra Leone
The findings also examined crop diversity across the various agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone. This wasin bid to observe changes that might have occured in agricultural production patterns in each of theregions. The agro-climatic regions were developed based on certain physiograhic and climaticcharacterics. Crops that respond well to these characteristics were identified in each of the regions. The
findings show that rice, cassava and pepper are markedly grow across all the agro-climatic regions in the
country (see Figure 9) - given some directions on what staple food(s) Sierra Leoneans are presently leaning
on. Groundnut production is highly practiced in the Savannah Woodlands, rainforests and transitionalzones. Other crops are either found distinctly in each of the regions or two. For instance, cash crops suchas cacao and coffee show clearly in the rainforest region; banana in the savannah woodlands; cabbage inthe coastal plains, and sorghum in the trainsitional zone. Oil palm production on the other hand is high in thesavannah woodlands and to some extent in the rainforest region. Also sweet potato is markedly grown inthe savannah woodlands and coastal plains.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 23

Figure 9: Map showing agricultural diversity across the agro-climatic regions in
Sierra Leone
NOTE: This map was adapted for the purpose of this research. The agro-climatic regions were not drawn to scale butwere rather sketched from the original map depicting these regions. Hence diversity of agricultural produces does notnecessarily mean that the positions on the map are the specific harvest areas. It shows the generalized picture of the typesof major produces in each region.

3.3

Indigenous and Emerging Technologies and Innovations for Climate
Change Problems in the Study Area
The observation of/and agreement on climatic changes must be followed by responses to its impact on
agricultural production as a focus in the findings. Almost all of the famers (99.6%) admitted that indeed they
have experienced in one way or the other climate-related problems in their farming activities. This gives aclear picture of the extent to which climate change impacts have been felt in the country. The major
problems reported by farmers, which they deemed have affected them most are low crop yields andprevalence of pests and diseases. An approximated 96% and 89% of farmers reported of low crop yields
and pests and disease proliferation respectively (see Table 5). In addition hunger was reported (87%) to be
one of the resultant effects of climate change impacts on the farming. Specifically, the findings reveal that
extreme hunger is felt among farm families in the savannah woodlands (97%), transitional zone (97%) andrainforest (95%) regions as opposed to those in the coastal plains (58%). This again explains in part, much of
the food security/food self-sufficiency and poverty situations among farmers that dwell at distanced
proximity to the city.

24 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 5: Farmers' responses to types of climate-related problems
Agro-Climatic Region

Coastal Plains
N=125

Rain Forest
N=125

Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Prevalence of pests & diseases

104(83.2%)

101(80.8%)118(95.2%)

123(98.4%)446(89.4%)

Low crop yields

105(84.0%)

125(100.0%)123(98.4%)

125(100.0%)478(95.6%)

Hunger72(57.6%)

119(95.2%)

121(96.8%)

121(96.8%)433(86.6%)

Flooding

10(8.0%)12(9.6%)30(24.0%)16(12.8%)

68(13.6%)

Land sliding0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

8(6.4%)

0(0.0%)

8(1.6%)

Thunderstorm

65(52.0%)1(0.8%)

53(42.4%)12(9.6%)131(26.2%)

Extreme drought condition

2(1.6%)

8(6.4%)

57(45.6%)4(3.2%)

71(14.2%)

Displacement from homes/farm sites

7(5.6%)

3(2.4%)

2(1.6%)

5(4.0%)

17(3.4%)

Less fish catches

47(37.6%)0(0.0%)

8(6.4%)

16(12.8%)

71(14.2%)

Others97(77.6%)

14(11.2%)

112(89.6%)

69(55.2%)

292(58.4%)

Type of climate -related problems

Total
N=500

Adaptation practices to solve some of the impacting climate-related problems reported by farmers werealso identified. Over twenty (20) ways in which farmers tend to respond to climate-related problems for
agricultural production were noted in the findings. Meanwhile, findings show that farmers tend to maintainold traditional ways of responding to crop failures and animal deaths. The research underscores clearing
around farm lands (81%), manual fencing of farm and setting of rodent traps (80%), green manure
application (66%) physically clearing of un-burnt farm (64%), mulching (57%) and application of animal dung(56%) as the most highly adopted adaptation practices by farmers in Sierra Leone. However differences inpractices were observed by agro-climatic regions. Farmers in the coastal plains and savannah woodlands
admitted that on many occasions they move from unproductive zones/farmlands for high yields. Treeplanting (60%) on the other hand was observed in the savannah woodlands. Also farmers in the savannah
woodlands (79%) and rainforest (69%) agreed on change of crop varieties in periods of continuous failureand destruction. Adoption of modern innovative applications is rarely seen across the agro-climatic regions.
Meanwhile irrigation of farm/garden and applying mixed animal feeds, capsule and powered tobacco wereobserved. (See Table 6).

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 25

Table 6: Adaptation practices in response to climate-related problems
Agro-Climatic Region

Total

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

N=125

N=125

N=125

N=500

3(2.4%)

21(16.8%)11(8.8%)139(27.8%)32(25.6%)

46(36.8%)

41(32.8%)

93(74.4%)

212(42.4%)8(6.4%)

86(68.8%)

99(79.2%)

25(20.0%)

218(43.6%)

Using kerosene and soap on plants10(8.0%)0(0.0%)

5(4.0%)

0(0.0%)

15(3.0%)Using crushed grasshoppers as pesticides

12(9.6%)0(0.0%)

9(7.2%)

2(1.6%)

23(4.6%)

Fencing farm and setting rodent traps

59(47.6%)

115(92.0%)102(81.6%)124(99.2%)

400(80.2%)

Hunting

44(35.2%)

49(39.2%)

99(79.2%)

111(88.8%)

303(60.6%)

Tree planting

55(44.0%)61(48.8%)75(60.0%)6(4.8%)

197(39.4%)

Mulching

75(60.0%)33(26.4%)

92(73.6%)85(68.0%)285(57.0%)

Harvest of bush yams

12(9.6%)32(25.6%)

83(66.4%)

109(87.9%)236(47.3%)

Clearing around farm

91(72.8%)

111(88.8%)119(95.2%)

86(68.8%)407(81.4%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

13(10.4%)

88(70.4%)

103(20.6%)

Physical clearing of un -burnt vegetation

74(59.2%)6(4.8%)

117(93.6%)

121(96.8%)318(63.6%)

Applying animal dung to the soil

101(80.8%)2(1.6%)

58(46.4%)120(96.0%)281(56.2%)

Green manure application

92(73.6%)9(7.2%)

113(90.4%)

118(94.4%)332(66.4%)

Applying mixed animal feed, capsule & powdered tobacco

1(0.8%)

1(0.8%)

22(17.6%)

73(58.4%)

97(19.4%)

Creating fish ponds0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

4(3.2%)

1(0.8%)

6(1.2%)

27(21.6%)0(0.0%)

26(20.8%)2(1.6%)

55(11.0%)

Adaptation Practices

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

N=125
Application of salt dung

104(83.2%)

Irrigation of garden/farm
Change of crop varieties

Performance of ancestral ceremony/spiritual invocation

Using small-meshed fishing nets
Using chemicals to catch fish
Use of indigenous weather predictions
Use of scientific weather forecasts

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

8(6.4%)

12(2.4%)51(40.8%)25(20.0%)28(22.4%)

49(39.2%)

153(30.6%)1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

4(3.2%)

2(1.6%)

9(1.8%)

37(29.6%)

36(28.8%)

115(92.0%)17(13.6%)

205(41.0%)

Use of rain water harvesting for farm irrigation

1(0.8%)

29(23.2%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

31(6.2%)

Use of underground water for farm irrigation

13(10.4%)5(4.0%)

67(53.6%)1(0.8%)

86(17.2%)

Construction of small dams for irrigation

62(49.6%)3(2.4%)

67(53.6%)0(0.0%)

132(26.4%)

Change from farming to trading/other occupation

13(10.4%)0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

3(2.4%)

19(3.8%)

Shift from crop production to animal production

4(3.2%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

10(2.0%)Shift from animal production to crop production

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

3(0.6%)

82(65.6%)0(0.0%)

105(84.0%)1(0.8%)

188(37.6%)8(6.4%)

0(0.0%)

19(15.2%)

1(0.8%)

28(5.6%)16(12.8%)

125(100.0%)

5(4.0%)

4(3.2%)

150(30.0%)

Change of farming datesMove from climate risk/unproductive zone/farm land
Adoption of agro -forestry
Others

Farmers' agreed that their adopted adaptation strategies have also been complimented by indigenous
meteorological predictions. It was observed that small-holder farmers, particularly those in the rainforest(100%) and transitional zone (51%) have been using predictions to meet their start-of-farming periods1. But it
was reportedly agreed that these predictions have failed them (44%) in many cases. (see Figure 10).

1

In-depth discussions on the meteorological predictions are made in the report on FGDs in the next section.

26 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 10: Responses to indigenous weather predictions and effectiveness
3.4

Outcomes of Focus Group Discussions on Farming Systems Adaptation
for Climate-related Problems
A total of ten (10) Focus Group Discussions(FGDs) were done with identified farmers' groups across thefour(4) agro-climatic regions in the country. The main aim of the FGDs is to have an in-depth understandingof the actual climate-related problems impeding farmers' activities and high agricultural productivity in the
country and the associated indigenous responses to help ameliorate such problems. Qualitative analyticalprocedures were taken and documentations of the solicited information were done in blocks of agroclimatic regions.
3.4.1
Agro-climatic Regions
A. The Coastal Plains. Four(4) FGDs were conducted in the coastal plains with farmers' groups namely:(i) Youth Coalition for Peace and Agricultural Development; (ii) Tamaraneh Farmers' Group; (iii) Vegetable
Growers Association- Regent Village, and (iv) Kalameara FMP Co-operative Society.
a. Key Issues/Problems: Farmers complained of the occurrence of short and heavy rainfall in an unevenpattern (usually falling late) in recent years as opposed to the past when rainfall used to be for a long
duration. This has been accompanied by heavy winds and thunderstorms. Excessive heat and brightsunlight for a long duration, as well as less cold were also reported. Such unanticipated weather events,
according to farmers have led to:> Seeds sown on the soil germinate poorly;> Over flow of water in swamps impeding farmers to take-up swamp rice farming;> Late rainfall has encouraged the proliferation of pest such as grasshoppers, termites, bugs, etc, andfungal diseases that often affect crops and farm animals leading to dramatic reduction in yields;> Crops such as lettuce now take longer days (45 days on average) for harvest instead of the usual 21-30
days. Runner beans no longer grow well in the absence of artificial fertilizer;> Too much heat leading to warm sea both day and night have led to numerous rotten fish in shortduration before reaching the land. Dead fish floating on sea surface have also been observed in thepast two years. In particular there has been significant reduction in the quantity of species called
Herring.
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 27

>Heavy wind and intermittent flooding destroying boats, houses and killing several people.

b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: Various traditional meteorological predictions used byindigenous farmers to combat the problem of lost of farming dates were documented from the FGDs in the
coastal plains. However farmers reported that most of these predictions have failed them in recent years.
Some of these predictions and their corresponding evaluations are given in Table 7.
Table 7: Description of indigenous meteorological predictions in the coastal
plainsDescription of Predictions

Have worked well?

Lunar Direction: Leaning of the new moon in a westward direction signifies heavy rainfall in that particularmonth. Towards the east, hot dry season would be expected.

No for 4 years now.

Appearance of a flower called “Lortor” in Loko language indicates the beginning of raining season.

No for 4 years now

Croaking of frogs indicates the beginning of raining season.

No for 4 years now

Appearance of a large number of termi tes at the beginning of raining season indicates excess rainfall andlong raining season.

No for 4 years now

Crying sound of a particular insect called “Tengai” in Loko indicates the beginning of dry season.

Hardly works in recent years

Dividing cloud with blue coloured sky in between signifies very hot dry season.

Hardly works in recent years.

Three particular stars appearing in a straight line at 19:00 GMT indicates hot dry season.

Hardly works in recent years

Sea appearing black at a distance with dark cloud signifies rains.

Not working recently

Clear sea and excess wind indicates hot sunny day and dry season.

Not working recently

Germination of yams in March indicates that rainy season is drawing near.

Fails in recent years.

Appearance of certain types of snakes signifies raining season.

No longer works. Rainscome without seeingthemAppearance of mushrooms and millipedes indicates rainy season.

Still works well

Appearance of cattle egrets indicates that raining season is drawing near.

Still works wellc. Farming Systems Adaptations and Indigenous Technologies/Innovations:
Farmers were in place to explain the various adaptation techniques (including emerging innovations) they
have adopted to tackle the problems climatic events have posed in their farming activities. The
documented responses a given in Box 1 .

28 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Box 1: Adaptation/Innovations Practiced in the Coastal Plains

1. Control of Grasshopper Prevalence on Crops
Farmers complained that grasshoppers eat the leaves and stem of cassava and potatoes. To minimize thisinfestation, farmers have been killing these insects physically. The farmers observe that grasshoppers
bunch themselves around the stem of plants. Every morning the farmers place a container filled with water
under the stems and shake the grasshoppers to fall in the water and die. This process continues until
harvest time is reached. Meanwhile, this activity has been improved on. An empty bag is used to capture
the grasshoppers early in the morning when they are clustered together. They are then killed, crushed andstirred with water. This results to a very stinky odour that is sprayed on plants; and it has been very help inpreventing further attacks by grasshoppers.
Also farmers tie a bunch of dry grass on sticks and set fire on it. The flame is then slightly moved over theleaves, which destroys the grasshoppers without any harm on the leaves. In addition, a collection ofcigarette filter is stirred with water and placed in the sun for a while. After that, the water is immediately
poured into a watering can and is then sprayed on the plants. This kills grasshoppers and other insects that
affect the plants.
2. Control of Soil Bugs
Farmers agreed that soil bugs eat the root and stem of plants such as rice, pepper, etc. To solve thisproblem, a red chemical called 'malatium' is mixed with water and sprayed on plants, especially on thestem and roots. This kills away the bugs and it usually has long-term effect.
3. Control of Caterpillars
Caterpillars are said to destroy plants such as okra and other vegetables by eating the leaves. They are
driven away by collecting appreciable amount of dry ash and sprinkling it on the plant.
4. Control of Birds Flu
Birds' flu was also reported to be common in recent years. It attacks birds like ducks and domestic fowls.
One control measure adopted by farmers is mixing chloramphenicol (red and yellow) capsule with water;
and is then given to the infected birds which helps them recover very fast.
5. Control of Sheep and Goat Flu
Farmers explained that this kills the animal very quickly. Farmers use palm wine and Oral Rehydration Salt
(ORS) to heal the animals from the flu. An appreciable amount of palm wine is diluted with ORS and given
to these animals at frequent intervals. It helps them return to normal condition very fast. Sometimes
animals are also attacked by ticks. The affected animals are dipped into palm wine to prevent them fromtick invasion.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 29

B. The Rainforest Region. Two (2) FGDs were done in this region. Farmers groups that were engaged
are the “Tegloma Farmers' Association-Bandajuma Town” and “Amuloma Farmers' Youth OrganisationBayama”.
a. Key Issues/Problems: Farmers in the region agreed that the weather has absolutely changed whencompared to the past. They reported the observance of abnormal rainfall events- taking place either early orlate. This according to them has not been occurring in previous years. The major problems they reported
encountering are poor crop and animal yields which are results from untimely farming activities, severe dry
conditions, pest and disease prevalence.
b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: The farmers in the rainforest region also mentioned sometraditional predictions they have been using during their farming periods. These predictions were also
documented and are given in Table 8.
Table 8: Description of indigenous meteorological weather predictions in the
Rainforest
Description of Predictions

Have worked well?

The crocking of frogs determines rainfall.

Hardly works in recent years

Cloud at the top of a mountain as a belief in some areas signals rainfall and better yields in the year.

Yes

Continuous calling of the young sheep by the mother indicates the arrival of rains.

Still works

The steady position of the plantain leaves determines rainfall

Hardly works in recent years.

Ancestral Ceremony can bring rains in times of dryness.

Hardly works in recent years

c. Farming Systems Adaptations and Indigenous Technologies/Innovations:
Very interesting farming systems adaptations and emerging indigenous technologies and innovations werealso observed in the rainforest region. These technologies have been tested and rated by the farmers
themselves as very effective in the value food chain. Box 2 presents some of the explanations gatheredfrom farmers in the region. Some of these emerging technologies and innovations were introduced byorganizations such as GTZ and “Bio-united Program on Organic Manure Farming System”.

30 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Box 2: Emerging Technologies /Innovations Practiced in the Rainforest

6.Controlling Post-harvest Lost of Coffee, Cacao and Cereal Crops through Solar Dryer
Technology and Innovation
Post-harvest losses have often been one of the problems faced by indigenous coffee and cacao growers in
the rainforest region. This has had negative impacts on the livelihoods of farmers due to spoilage, physicalloss, quality degradation and contamination. Coffee and Cacao have in the past been the main export cash
crop source of earning in Sierra Leone. Export has fallen dramatically due to the stated problems in
addition to poor road infrastructure. The recent and most affordable and effective technology that has been
introduced in the rainforest is Solar Drying Technology and Innovation. The solar dryers apply hightemperatures, faster drying rates and lower final moisture contents. The high temperature generated acts asdeterrent to insect and mould growth and the products are protected from dust. The Solar drying machine
operates by starting a generator that supplies air which produces flame in the primary collector, which thensupplies heat to the drying chamber until the seeds are dried up and collected into the secondary
collected. The figures below show how this technology works. The Polythene solar dryer is another
innovative way of applying natural solar energy for high quality product for sales in the market. It ischaracterized by a transparent polythene material, used as a greenhouse to trap the sun's rays. This
protects the product from rain and wind and reduces the scale of labour.

The Solar Drying Machine

The Polythene Solar Dryer

The Solar drying technology and innovation, according to farmers are comparatively cheap and simple touse and have recently raised the earning power of farmers and traders.
7.Control of high Termite Prevalence in Swamp/ Swamp irrigation
Farmers reported that termites also serve as impediment in their swamp rice farming. As a control
measure, lime water is often poured in swamps, which kills the insects. Through training from GTZ, farmers
are also practicing local irrigation technology, and water has been easily channeled toEnhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 31

C. The Savannah Woodlands. Focus Group Discussions were held with two(2) farmers' groups in the
Savannah Woodlands as well. The groups engaged were: (i) “Cam Wok Agricultural Farmers CorprativeGbawuru II”, and “United We Stand Farmers Association”.
a. Key Issues/ Problems: Start-of-season is no longer known by farmers in the Savannah Woodlands.
They complained of the relative yearly alteration in the length of rainfall- sometimes long and sometimes
short and erratic. According to farmers in this region, there has been a “7-days” rainfall- a period that
continuous rainfall is observed for seven consecutive days; but this no longer occurs in recent years. They
are also observing long and hot drying season, and heavy cold and chilly wind. To them the region is known
to be cold, but the present cool weather condition is gradually exceeding their tolerance capacity. Thesephenomenal weather events have resulted in one way or the other in the following farming problems in theregion:> Never-dry streams are presently seen dried up- resulting to disease proliferation such as choleragreatly posing burden on farmers during their farming activities.
> The extreme cold conditions has often resulted to frequent marked death of creations and stunting incrop growth.
> Swamps dry up and crack, making it impossible to grow any type of crop on the lands.
> Frequent and extreme cold conditions also prevent farmers from carrying out their normal farming
activities.
> Disease and pest proliferation have in many cases led to the death of animals and destruction of plants.
b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: Various traditional predictions that farmers' have beenusing in the Savannah Woodlands to determine the farming seasons were also identified. Meanwhile theygenerally confessed that most of these predictions are no longer of good use to them (see Table 9).
Table 9: Description of indigenous meteorological weather predictions in the
Savannah Woodlands
Description of Predictions

Have worked well?

Hot temperatures in the early months of the year had been used to predict that early rainfall in that year.

Hardly works in recent years

Long Harmattan indicates short dry seasons

Yes

Disappearance of lizards signifies the occurrence of hot dry season.

No in recent years

A bird named as “Gbokidondo” in Limba reminds farmers about due time to work. It cries “gbokidondo” totell farmers that rains are over. Also when farmers heard it cry “ekokonday”, it tells them to stand up for it isdue time to work.

No in recent years

Drying up of streams signifies dry season

Hardly works in recent years

Appearance of fresh cotton tree signifies the approach of rainy season

Hardly works in recent years

Appearance of a fish called “Cowreh” predicts that thunderstorm is about to occur

No in recent years

Wind blowing in a southward direction indicates dry season

Hardly works in recent years

The year farmers see an animal called “Dekpelemgbeso” signals expectation of good yields that year.

Hardly works in recent year

A bird called “Tabadufa” in Fullani language informs farmers about early rainsthrough it cries at 04:00 GMT
in the morning and 19:00 GMT in the evening.

No in recent years

A surat in the Holy Kuran pronounced ‘AYATHALKOORSIYOU’, when read would neither prevent rodents
from the farm, nor destroy the crops.

Yes

32 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

c. Farming Systems Adaptations and Technologies/Innovations: No new/ emerging
technologies/innovations were observed in the Savannah Woodlands. Meanwhile farmers have been using
some adaptation strategies to cope with the changing climatic impacts in their farming activities. In
particular, the most common practices include: (a) Clearing round farmlands to scare rodents; and (b)Using hand-dug wells and small dams for irrigation purposes.
D. The Transitional Rainforest/Savannah Woodlands. Two farmers' groups were also engaged on
the FGDs in the Transitional Zone- the “Deegloma Farmers Association-Mokassie” and “Muude (ours)
Farmers Association- Dandabu”.
a. Key Issues/Problems: Farmers in the transitional zone reported fluctuating patterns in climaticparameters such as rainfall, temperature and wind. This according to them, has caused serious problems intheir farming activities:> Unanticipated rainfall patterns have often resulted to un-burnt farms, wild weed encroachments- whichlead to low crop yields, less earning power to purchase seeds, agricultural tools and poor living
standards of farmers.
> Appearance of swam of insects such as grasshoppers have in recent years led to the destruction ofyoung shoots of crops before maturity.
> The flowering period of crops such as beans, mangoes, etc have often been disrupted by untimely
rainfall and heavy winds- leading to food crop damage during flowering stage.
> Excess heat and less rainfall have often resulted to the frequent death of livestock such as goat, sheep,
fowls, pigs, ducks, etc.
> Short and erratic rainfall also causes overflow of water on farmlands- particularly common during theflowering stage of plants.
b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: Farmers in the transitional region on the other hand agreed
on the fact that they have indeed observed weather patterns through traditional predictions. They howeverreiterated that most of these predictions no longer serve them well in recent years as a result the acrobatic
patterns of the weather systems. Table 10 presents some of these predictions.
Table 10: Description of meteorological weather predictions in the Transitional
Rainforest/Savannah Woodlands
Description of Predictions

Have worked well?

Lunar Direction: Leaning of the new moon in a westward direction signifies heavy rainfall in that particularmonth. Towards the east, hot dry season would be expected.

No in recent years

Cold and chilly wind indicates the arrival of rains

No in recent years

Crying of the Kennedy bird and the singing of a pigeon signifies hot sunlight

No in recent years

Wind blowing northwards signifies raining season

No in recent years

Excessive heat from the ground signifies rains

Hardly works in recent years

The appearance of large number of soil organisms indicates thearrival of rainy season

Hardly works in recent years

The appearance of insects called “Kpaagbelui” in Mende language during farm burning period signals thatthe farms will fail to burn.

Yes.

Sprouting of leaves of a flamboyant flower indicates the arrival of rainy season

Yes

Continuous dew formation signifies the time for dry season.

Hardly works in recent years

Spiritual invocations through pouring of libations during low rainfall brings rain

Fails in recent years.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 33

c. Farming Systems Adaptations and Technologies/Innovations: New innovations are rare in thetransitional zone. Meanwhile farmers reported changing old crop varieties with new ones that cope with theweather systems. Presently the new variety called 'Pla-Camp' is regarded by farmers as new hope toreduce the on-going climatic shocks in their farm production. According to the farmers, this crop is a variety
that does not question the type of soil. It is a fast bearing rice and very fruitful. Other new varieties include'Flajuai' and 'Ngenekie' which are also fast-growing and very palatable.
3.4.2
State of Climate Change and Variability across Agro-climatic Regions
The state of climate change and variability were observed from this study based on secondary informationfrom existing data. The IPCC TAR on climate change for Sierra Leone presents a baseline scenario basedon data from 1961 to 1990. Data were collected from meteorological stations from Lungi, Bonthe, Kabala,
Njala and Bo. Presentations on the pilot survey are based on climatic parameters such as rainfall andtemperature.
Rainfall has been taken normal routine of occurrence between 1960 to 1961- during which the highest
amount of rainfall was observed between May and November (see Figures 11 and 12). From the period
1961 to 1990 rainfall average in the country was about 2746 mm. It varied from 3659 mm at Bonthe (along
the coastal plains), 2979 mm at Lungi (along the coastal plains), 2618 mm at Kabala (in the Savannah
Woodland) and 2618 mm at Bo (Savannah Woodland and Rainforest transition). Rainfall average washowever projected to decrease by 3% (using the CSIRO-TR model) and 10% (using HADCM2 model) by
the 2100

BONTHELUNGIKABALABO

DARU

Figure 11: Rainfall estimates by available meteorological stations

34 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 12: Mean monthly estimates of rainfall
Similarly the mean long-term air temperature regime has normally shown a monthly average of 260-280C
from June to October with a maximum of 320C. Temperature of up to 360C has also been recorded
particularly in the month of March. Mean minimum temperature of 200C has been observed- mostly in themonths July and August, mainly due to continuous cloudiness and rain during these months (see figure).
The average annual temperature as recorded from 1961 to 1990 is 26.70C. When this annual averagetemperature was combined with the 2*CO2 output from the GCMs, the project increase would be 7 to 9%
by 2100. (See Figure 13 & Table 11).

Figure 13: Average monthly temperatures of Sierra Leone for the period 19611990

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 35

Recent data were also sourced from meteorological stations from Freetown, Bo, Makeni, Lungi and Bonthe
in bid to understand variations in mean annual maximum estimates for rainfall and temperature in Sierra
Leone.
Random selection of yearly average estimates between 1991 to 2008 show relative uneven trend in rainfall
as well as differences across agro-climatic regions. Bonth (along the coastal plain) seems to be having
intensive downpour of rain fall averaging around 300mm compared to other regions. Other regions
somehow show similar rainfall average with the exception of Lungi which shows relatively lower fluctuationsin annual rainfall average. Freetown on the other hand experienced its lowest average in 2006 with anaverage rainfall of 97mm. (See Figure 14)
Mean maximum annual temperatures seem to take similar trends but somehow higher in comparison topast estimates. Makeni (in the savannah woodland) however experiences a distinctively higher temperature
regime- signifying that annual rainfall experienced is short and intensive. (See Figures 14 and 15)
Table 11: Current climate (1961-1990)
temperature scenarios at 2100

and projectedclimatechangeScenarioJAN

FEB

MAR APR

MAY

JUN

JUL

AUG SEP

OCT

NOV

DEC

ANN

1961-1990

26.2

27.5

28.0

27.9

27.1

27.0

25.2

25.1

25.5

27.8

26.1

26.3

26.7

HADCM2

28.7

30.1

30.5

30.6

30.2

29.7

27.6

27.4

27.8

30.0

28.5

28.8

29.2

UKTR

28.3

29.3

29.8

30.0

29.3

29.0

27.3

27.1

27.4

29.9

28.3

28.5

28.7

CSIRO TR

28.1

29.5

29.9

29.8

28.9

28.8

27.0

26.8

27.1

29.5

27.9

28.3

28.5

ECHAM4

28.6

29.8

30.3

30.1

29.3

29.0

27.1

26.9

27.3

29.7

28.3

28.7

28.8

Source IPCC TAR for Sierra Leone

Figure 14: Annual Mean Rainfall

36 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 15: Mean Maximum Annual Temperatures
Recent reports from CILSS/FAO/FEWS Net in October 2009 shows that though changes in climatic
variables depicts slight increases, the impact of climate change is highly felt by vulnerable farm families in
Sierra Leone. Rainfall is becoming erratic and small-holder farmers no longer have the ability to predict. The
report shows that recent flood affected total of 30 localities, 499 farm families and 1157 acres of farm lands(see Table 12). The flood height was estimated to be 2.5 feet after 2 days destroying 28 houses anddisplacing 823 people (whose coping strategy was living on bush yams).

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 37

Table 12: Climate Varianility Depicted by Flooding
CHIEFDOMSECTIONVILLAGEECOLOGY

N0. OF FARM
FAMILIES AFFECTEDTOTAL ACREAGE

Mambolo

Mambolo
Rowollon
Robis

Mambolo
MakothRobis
Mando
Rokethegbeh
Malambay
RoteinTombo Walla
Makribo
Robali
Kalainkay
Royal-Kankokon
12

Mangove

46
31
20
126
20
35
40
7
9
11
6
4
355

85.5
70.5
45
276.5
48.5
72
92.5
26
25
46
32
9
837.5

Kagbulor

Gbonkor Maria
Mapangbo
Rokeinhen
MakasaKabayaGbonko-maparay
Mayana7

Mangove

17
2
2
2
4
6
2
35

47
4
4
4
11
17
6
91

KulunaKonomaka
KukunaKukumaKuluruTeneba -Bramaia
Bobalia
Kabaya
5

Bolis

7
5
1
1
3
12

25
16
2
3
11
57

Bolis

Total

MadinaBanekehKasumlePetefuKamasasa
Yankanbor
6

5
4
11
15
51
11
97

8
5
14
22
111
20
180

Grand Total

30

499

1156.5

RoteinTombo-walla

Total
Magbema

Total
Bramaia

Konimaka
Total
Tonko Lima

MadinaAsso Mangrove

Mangove

Inland Valley Swamps
(IVS)

IVS
Boli
IVS

Source: CILSS/FAO/FEWS NET (2009)

3.4.3

State of Capacity Building of Farming Communities to Adapt to Climate Change
Impacts
Capacity building of farmers to adapt to climate change problems is crucial, if only sustainable agriculturaldevelopment and steady economic growth should be achieved. Farmers must be able to respond to,prepare for and tackle climate change impacts through information, training and technical assistance. The
research however revealed that farmers are aware of climate change. About 81% of farmers agreed thatthey have heard of some climate-related issues. Meanwhile, regional differences still show in terms of theextent on awareness raising on climate change. Farmers in the transitional zone seem to have lessknowledge on climate change as do those in the other zones. Whilst those in the coastal plains (93%),
rainforest (100%) and savannah woodlands (91%) admitted to have got some information on climatechange, only 41% in the transitional zone agreed. In terms of gender perspectives, there seem to be close
rate of accessing information between both male (80%) and female (86%) across the regions. (See Figure
16).
38 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 16: State of Climate Change Awareness raising by agro-climatic regionand sex
Key information farmers reported acquiring include: (i) the importance of tree planting (59%); (ii)rainfall/weather information (57%), and (iii) impact of deforestation (54%). Again great regional gaps in termsof accessing these information do exist. More than half, (54% - 116 respondents) of all those getting
information (295 respondents) on the importance of tree planting come from the coastal plains; 38% (112
respondents) come from the savannah woodlands, and the remaining 8% come from the other regions.
Rainfall/weather information are mostly accessed by farmers in the rainforest (59%) and savannah
woodlands (57%). Information on impacts of deforestation is on the other hand highly accessed by farmers
in the coastal plains (93%) and savannah wood lands (86%). Most interesting also is that it was reportedly
agreed by most farmers in the savannah woodlands (86%) that planting dates have been shared; and mostof them (81%) acknowledged that the information were useful. (See Table 13).

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 39

Table 13: Types of climate-related information accessed by farmers.
Type of climate related information

Agro-Climatic Region

Sex
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Male
N=374

Female
N=126

N=500

Coastal Plains
N=125

Rain Forest
N=125

Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Importance of tree pl anting

116(92.8%)46(36.8%)

112(89.6%)21(16.8%)

213(57.0%)82(65.1%)

295(59.0%)

Rainfall/weather
information/forecast

42(33.6%)

74(59.2%)

111(88.8%)51(40.8%)

213(57.0%)65(51.6%)

278(55.6%)

Impact of deforestation

116(92.8%)

19(15.2%)

112(90.3%)

23(18.4%)

196(52.4%)

74(59.2%)

270(54.1%)

Planting dates

29(23.2%)0(0.0%)

106(85.5%)4(3.2%)

108(29.0%)31(24.6%)

139(27.9%)2(1.6%)

110(88.0%)26(20.8%)1(0.8%)

101(27.0%)38(30.2%)

139(27.8%)

Yes

116(92.8%)

125(100.0%)114(91.2%)

51(40.8%)

298(79.7%)

108(85.7%)406(81.2%)

No

9(7.2%)

0(0.0%)

11(8.8%)74(59.2%)

76(20.3%)

94(18.8%)

94(18.8%)

OthersTotal

Was the information useful?

Despite the facts that most farmers agreed on hearing some climate-related information, most of theseinformation were gained from either a single source or through limited channels. Radio was reported to be
the most widely used source of information - though farmers in the transitional zone seem to have limitedaccess to it. Other means which farmers (mostly those in the savannah woodlands) reported are friends(82%) and community members (91%). Hence it is seen that awareness raising by both government andNGOs seem to be of less interest. (See Table 14)
Table 14: Sources of climate-related information accessed by farmers
Source ofinformation

Agro-Climatic Region

Sex

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
WoodlandsRadio

113(90.4%)

83(66.4%)

89(71.2%)

50(40.0%)243(65.0%)

92(73.0%)335(67.0%)

Government

38(30.4%)0(0.0%)

61(48.8%)9(7.2%)

87(23.3%)

21(16.7%)

108(21.6%)

Friends

29(23.2%)

1(0.8%)

103(82.4%)32(25.6%)

128(34.2%)

37(29.4%)

165(33.0%)

News Papers

6(4.8%)

0(0.0%)

11(8.8%)9(7.2%)

21(5.6%)5(4.0%)

26(5.2%)

Television2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

5(4.0%)

8(2.1%)

2(1.6%)

10(2.0%)NGOs/CBOs

14(11.2%)

49(39.2%)

42(33.6%)7(5.6%)

85(22.7%)27(21.4%)

112(22.4%)

Community Members

24(19.2%)0(0.0%)

114(91.2%)

20(16.0%)119(31.8%)

39(31.0%)158(31.6%)7(5.6%)

125(100.0%)1(0.8%)

3(2.4%)

97(25.9%)39(31.0%)136(27.2%)

OthersMale

FemaleTotal

40 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Farmers' responses on assistance to solve climate-related problems seem to be very weak. Only anaverage proportion of 37% agreed to have acquired some forms of assistance to respond to shocks andclimate-related uncertainties; and most of the farmers (100%) who affirmed to this come from the rainforest
region. Only 15%, 9% and 8% of farmers from the coastal plains, transitional zone and rainforest respectively
agreed on any form of assistance rendered to them. Moreover, more of female farmers seem to acquireassistance than male farmers.

Figure 17: Responses to assistant for climate-related risks in farming activities
The research revealed that the sources of assistance are few and very difficult to access. NGOs/CBOs
emerged to be the highest available source of assistance on farming systems adaptations; but even so,
only few farmers (about 31%) have access to whatsoever form of assistance they render. The public sector
was also reported to be assisting, but at low scale (22%). Another observation was that both the public
sector and NGOs seem to be focusing more of the farmers in the rainforest than other regions- 99% and
78% of farmers in this region agreed to be receiving assistance from NGOs and the public sector
respectively; whilst the second highest assistance coming from the NGO targets only 15% of farmers in the
coastal plains. In addition, the proportion of female farmers receiving assistance from NGOs nearly doubles
those of male farmers. (See Figure 18).

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 41

Figure 18: Sources of assistance to respond to climate-related risks
The kinds of assistance are many, but (as revealed from the findings) very limited in supply. For instance
supply of seed rice for farming came up as the most available kind of assistance, but only 30% of farmers
mostly coming from the rainforest (24% of the total beneficiaries), reported accessing this kind ofassistance. 20% of farmers also agreed to have received training on farm practices - again 19% of this
proportion are farmers from the rain forest. In addition most of those receiving assistance on food supply
and supply of farm tools/machinery are farmers from the rainforest region. Meanwhile, the most useful kindsof assistance such as provision of high yielding varieties (HYVs), post-harvest facilities, provision of
credits/loan facilities, etc are of very low or no supply across the agro-climatic regions.

42 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 15: Types of assistance on climate-related risks in farming activities
Type of assistance on climate
related risks in farming
activities

Agro-Climatic Region

Sex

Rain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

Male

FemaleTotal

16(12.8%)

118(94.4%)6(4.8%)

10(8.0%)104(27.8%)46(36.5%)

150(30.0%)

Provision of chemicals/Pesticides

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

4(3.2%)

7(1.9%)

1(0.8%)

8(1.6%)

Provision of credits/loan facilities

0(0.0%)

29(23.2%)2(1.6%)

4(3.2%)

24(6.4%)11(8.7%)35(7.0%)Training on farm practices

1(0.8%)

93(74.4%)5(4.0%)

1(0.8%)

68(18.2%)

32(25.4%)

100(20.0%)

Training on weather forecasts0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.3%)

2(1.6%)

3(0.6%)

Distribution of farming calendars0(0.0%

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.3%)

1(0.3%)

2(0.4%)

Provision of fertilizers

1(0.8%)

6(4.8%)

1(0.8%)

5(4.0%)

8(2.1%)

5(4.0%)

13(2.6%)

Construction of small irrigation dams0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

2(0.4%)

Provision of farm tools/mac hinery

1(0.8%)

84(67.2%)3(2.4%)

3(2.4%)

65(17.4%)

26(20.6%)

91(18.2%)

Provision of fast -growing seed varieties0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

6(4.8%)

7(5.6%)

9(2.4%)

7(5.6%)

16(3.2%)

Provision of post -harvest facilities

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

3(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

5(1.0%)

Provision of food1(0.8%)

86(68.8%)5(4.0%)

1(0.8%)

65(7.4%)28(22.2%)

93(18.6%)

Provision of settlements/farmlands0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

4(1.1%)

4(3.2%)

8(1.6%)

Construction of fish ponds

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8)

1(0.2%)

Provision of fishing nets/boats0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

18(14.4%)

96(76.8%)1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

77(20.6%)

38(30.2%)

115(23.0%)

CoastalPlainsProvision of seed rice for farming

Others3.4.4

Linkages between Climate Change, Human Health, Food Security and Local
Economic Growth
Identifying the relationship between climate change impacts on health and the corresponding effects onfood security and economic growth is also very vital in developing strategies for climate change resilience ina region. The burden of disease on the farming population reduces their working capacity, yields and local
economic viability. It was therefore realized from the findings that various climate-related pests anddiseases are strongly impacting on farmers across all agro-climatic regions in the country. Malaria emerged
to be the highly prevalent disease across the regions, followed by yellow fever, diarrhoea and cholera (seeFigure 19). Farmers also reported high episode of pest and disease effects on food crops and animals.
Malnutrition also showed, giving some signals of shortages in sufficient balanced diet in the regions. Anothervery important issue that came up from the findings is that disability caused by climate-related events
showed up (affecting about 2% of farm families) - also giving new directions on the importance of adopting
research on disability adjusted life year (DALY) in agriculture.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 43

Figure 19: Disease prevalence across agro-climatic regions
Death/destructions resulting from the identified diseases were also noted. The findings revealed that atleast two members in 3% of the farm families are exposed to malarial death. 2% and 1% of farmers also
reported losing at least two family members from the prevalence of cholera and diarrhea respectively. Farm
animals have also been reportedly affected by climate-related pests and disease invasion. About 10% of
farmers reported that lost of more than 10 animals from disease attacks in their regions. (See Table 19 inappendix).
The burden of disease on farmers in the farming activities was also shown to be very impacting. Nearly 50%
of farmers reported having disease attacks that have led to an approximated two weeks on seek bed.
Attacks that last for over one month on sick bed were also revealed by 15% of farmers across the agroclimatic regions. Meanwhile, regional analysis reveals that the burden of disease prevalence on farmers is
mainly felt by those in the savannah woodlands (51% for over one month on sick bed) as shown in Table 16.

44 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 16: Perceived responses of longest period taken on sick bed by family
members
Agro - Climatic Region

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

Less than 7 days

27(21.6%)

28(22.4%)

21(16.8%)

17(13.6%)

93(18.6%)

7-14 days

84(67.2%)

61(48.8%)28(22.4%)

71(56.8%)244(48.8%)

15-21 days

8(6.4%)

23(18.4%)

3(2.4%)

22(17.6%)

56(11.2%)

22-28 days

1(0.8%)

9(7.2%)

9(7.2%)

9(7.2%)

28(5.6%)

Above 28 days

5(4.0%)

4(3.2%)

64(51.2%)5(4.0%)

78(15.6%)

What was the longest
duration of recovery for any
sick member of your family
in the past five years?

Total

The health impacts on agricultural productions, yields and economic returns were critically examined in the
research findings. A simple bivariate excel based graphical analyses were done to determine therelationship between the combined effect of expenditure on health and farming activities on economic
returns from farm produce. Given that the research can only account for 72.8% of this finding at R2=0.728
for % returns from farming (y) = 0.422x +0.022 (for which x is the combined expenditure on health andfarming), the findings revealed that the combined expenditure on health and farming more than doubles the
economic returns derived from agricultural production. That is, at any 1% rate of expenditure on both healthand farming, the rate of economic returns from yields would only be at 0.4% (see Figure 20). Meaning there isan inextricable link between additional expenditure on health burden from climate-related diseases andpoor economic outcomes from agricultural production. For instance, taking expenditure on sickness alone(see Figure 20b) and its relationship with farming will give the linear relationship, y= 0.649x + 0.059 at
R2=0.494. This will yield 0.7% rate of economic returns for a 1% expenditure on climate-related disease
burdens. Meaning expenditure on health will lead to a 30% loss in returns and that a reduction of just 30% of
expenditure on sickness will put farmers return to an equilibrium state. Also as shown in figure 20a, it was
revealed that expenditure on farming has less impact in the absence of any externality such as sickness,diseases proliferation on food crops and animals, etc. Given the relationship, y= 0.967x + 0.001 at R2=
0.925, a 1% investment on farming will be equal to an economic return at an approximated 1% rate. Thus
conclusively, just a 30% decrease in all expenditure on climate-related sicknesses and very little reduction inhigh investment on farming through the introduction of certain adaptation strategies will lead to an increasein the earning power of small-holder farmers and local economic growth.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 45

Figure 20: Expenditure on sickness versus returns from agricultural produces

20a. expenditure on farming
vs. returns from farming

20b. expenditure on sickness
vs. from returns farming

Farmers' perception of the impact of health on their farming activities was somehow negative. Almost half(49%) of all farmers, mostly from the coastal plains (72%) and the transitional zone (65%) perceived low
yields in the year they experienced longest period on sick bed/high cost on sickness in the past five years.
Meanwhile on the contrary, it was perceived by farmers in the coastal plains to be less impacting, mainly
due to less expenditure (see Tables 19 and 20 in the appendix).

46 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 17: Nature of yields in the year of highest expenditure on sick bed
Agro-climatic Regions
Yields in the year of
longest time on sick
bed/highest
expenditure on
sickness

CoastalPlainsExtremely low

Rainforest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/Savannah
Woodlands

Total

12(9.7%)17(13.6%)0(0.0%)

16(12.8%)45(9.0%)Somehow low

23(18.5%)

57(45.6%)3(2.4%)

19(15.2%)

102(20.4%)

Low

89(71.8%)51(40.8%)22(17.6%)81(64.8%)

243(48.7%)

High0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

64(51.2%)0(0.0%)

64(12.8%)

Somehow high0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

36(28.8%)8(6.4%)

44(8.8%)Extremely high0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

1(0.2%)

Most farmers (about 92%) agreed that they have had agricultural reserves in the past five years particular in
the year they experienced high expenditure on sickness. Meanwhile, most of these reserves, according tothem went back to farming activities and feeding of family members. Only few farmers- 54% and 42% in thesavannah woodlands and transitional zones respectively agreed making reserves for external shocks and
55% each from the coastal plains, savannah woodlands and transitional zones acknowledged using somereserves for marketing purpose. (See Figure 21).

Figure 21: Agricultural reserves and purpose of reserves
Despite the fact that farmers have made some forms of reserves in the past five years, food insecurity/selfsufficiency is a major problem observed from the findings. Only few members agreed at a moderate of
having reserved food for feeding, and most of them are from the savannah woodlands (52%) andtransitional zone (50%). An average proportion of 45% of farmers from all agro-climatic regions only feed on
their reserved food for about 3-5 months. (See Figure 22).

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 47

Figure 22: Perceived responses to food self-sufficiency
3.4.5

Responses and Behavioural Changes of Indigenous Farmers towards Climate
Change Adaptation Measures
Local ownership of policies, projects and programmes is crucial in any development endeavours. The
crafting and implementation of such activities should therefore engage those that would be mostly affected.
Climate change policies/adaptation measures must follow suit. Small-holder farmers who would be highly
affected by adaptation measures for climate change resilience in the agricultural sector should be engaged
on any adaptation measures for feasibility and acceptability in their respective regions. The research
therefore identified adaptation measures that would be potentially feasible to implement across the agroclimatic regions in Sierra Leone and other parts of Africa. Thirteen (13) adaptation strategies were identified,after which measurement scales (Likert Scales) were developed at two levels. First, importancemeasurement scales were developed at a range of 5 (very important) to 1 (not important) to capture farmers
priority in terms of the usefulness of each of these adaptation measures. Second, scales of locationspecific suitability were developed from a range of 5 (work very well) to 0 (not applicable) to capture farmers
behaviors in terms of acceptability towards each of the given adaptation attributes.
The Adzen's and Fishbein's (1980: 53-39) “Attitude-toward-behaviour model was therefore adopted toanalyse the results of farmers' behavior towards each of the given adaptation attributes. The 500
respondents were all engaged on each of these attribute, after which a multiplicative-summative model wasused to identify the most preferred adaptation measures in each of the agro-climatic regions and in the
country as a whole. It is taken that the higher the summation for each measure, the most preferred it is, andthe lower the result indicates low acceptability. In this case the highest possible target is 325- that is 13
attributes x a scale of 5 (very important) x 5 (work very well) = 325. Also the lowest possible target is 13
attributes x 1(not important x 1 (cannot work well) =13. Each farmer's response was noted and the averagesummation was divided by 125 (no. of respondents by location) to obtain the global priorities from the given
measures in each region.

48 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

It was realized from these analyses that the adaptation measures have varying location-specificacceptability. In the coastal plains, the most preferred adaptation measure is value addition/access tomarket finance, followed by formation of early warning systems to inform farmers on start-of-farming andstart-of-season dates. Introducing HYVs and provision of food storage facilities are the most preferredmeasures in the rainforest. All scores are actually too weak from farmers in the savannah woodlands- with thehighly preferred been the provision of food storage facilities. Similarly in the transitional zone, provision offood storage facilities and value addition/access to market finance are the most preferred. Other priorities
are highlighted in Table 18). Overall introducing high yielding varieties, value addition/ access to market
finance, provision of food storage facilities and constant monitoring of water qualities are national priorities
noted from the farmers.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 49

50 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone
4
4

4

3

3

4

3

4

3

3

5

4

5

Training of farmers on agro -climatology

Construction of embankments

Construction of drains

Constant Monitoring of water quality
Production of energy -saving
technologies

Construction of small dams for crops

Provision of ponds /wells for livestock

Construction of discharge control dams

Value addition/access to market financeIntroducing rain harvest technology

Provision of food storage facilities

23

15

25

9

9

15

12

20

12

12

18

296

201

320

123

121

195

158

265

156

157

231

246

x(13)
306

5

1

4

1

1

2

1

4

2

4

3

5

∑bi/N
1

5

1

3

1

1

3

1

4

2

4

5

5

∑ai/N
1

25

1

12

1

1

6

1

16

4

16

15

25

1

N=125
∑[(bi)(ai)]/N

Rainforest Region

325

13

156

13

13

78

13

208

52

208

196

325

x(13)
13

4

2

4

3

3

4

2

3

3

3

4

3

∑bi/N
4

4

1

3

3

3

3

2

3

3

3

3

2

∑ai/N
3

14

3

12

8

10

10

5

11

8

8

10

7

∑[(bi)(ai)]/N
14

N=125

182

35

155

100

133

135

69

136

105

102

129

85

x(13)
180

Savannah Woodlands

5

3

5

3

3

3

3

4

3

3

4

5

∑bi/N
5

5

2

5

2

3

3

3

4

2

2

5

5

∑ai/N
5

24

8

23

6

12

11

12

18

8

6

20

21

∑[(bi)(ai)]/N
21

N=125

313

102

303

82

152

147

155

228

104

78

156

276

x(13)
273

Transition Rainforest/Savannah

279

88

233

80

105

139

99

210

104

136

178

233

N=500
193

GlobalAffect

Where: bi is the strength of the respondent's belief (importance weight) that a particular attribute (adaptation measure) would result to a positive or negative impact in theregion; ai is the respondents expressed feeling (affect) that the action would be suitable in a agro-climatic zone or not; N is the number of respondents; ∑ indicates that
there are n salient of action outcomes (in this case 1≤n≤325) that makes up the behavior over which the multiplicative combinations of the bi and ai of those outcomesare summated. The scales are rated as:a. Scales for bi: 5=Very Important; 4=Somehow Important; 3=Important; 2=Somehow not Important and 1=Not Importantb. Scales for ai: 5=Work Very Well; 4=Generally Work Well; 3=Somehow Work Well; 2=Slightly Work Well; 1=Cannot Work Well; 0=N/A (Not Applicable)

5

3

5

3

3

4

4

3

4

19

4

Introducing High Yielding Varieties

4∑[(bi)(ai)]/N
24

∑bi/N
5

Adaptation measures
Formation of early warning Systems

∑ai/N
5

N=125

Agro-climatic Region

The Coastal Plains

Table 18: Farmers' Responses and Recommendations to Climate Change Adaptation Measures4. Conclusions & Recommendations
Various issues that need urgent and periodic attentions came up very strongly in the research. The findings
revealed that climate change impact is not a story, especially when it comes to agricultural development andsocio-economic rejuvenation in a country like Sierra Leone. Farmers, who have been considered as aliens
to the emergence of climate change and its impacts, already believe that the occurrence of climatic events
such as rainfall, temperature and cold is no longer normal as before, and most of these events have been
erratic over the past two to three years. This has caused abrupt and unstable shifts in start-of-farming dates
in the local farming calendars- as agricultural activities in the country are injected by rainfall and mild
temperatures, and not technology-driven. Small-holder farmers have therefore been greatly affected byslow and low returns from their farming activities, and hence have very often been gripped by poverty
leading to poor economic status of their families. Specifically key observations that need urgent attention
from the state, donors, NGOs/CSOs, the private sector, the academia, science experts, etc, were made:4.1
Farmers are still adopting the old methods of farming; and quite too often these methods have failed them toproduce yields even as the low yields they have had in the past because of lack of the adaptive capacity toaddress failures. The climate has been erratic with strange occurrences. Temperatures are almost about toexceed the tolerance limit for most crops, animals and humans. Rainfall is becoming uneven- areas with low
rainfall patterns having intensive rainfall, and those with high rainfall experiencing low rainfall and intensive
heat. In addition, it was observed from the findings that there is gradual shift in patterns of agricultural
diversity identified during the demarcation of the agro-climatic regions: (a) in the coastal plains highadoption of new agricultural productions such as rice, sweet potatoes, cassava, pepper and maize is seen,
and old crops such as carrot, lettuce are gradually disappearing; (b) only small amount of lettuce, carrot andcabbage are presently being produced in the savannah woodlands; (c) in the transitional zone, cowpea, oilpalm, rubber, sisal, and sugar cane productions are gradually disappearing; and (d) yams, avocado andcitrus plants are gradually disappearing or grown at low pace in the rain forest. To address these issues thefollowing recommendations have therefore been made:
4.1.1
There is need for collaborated efforts by the national science and technology council of Sierra Leone(NaSTEC), the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Security (MAFFS), the meteorological department,poverty-/Science and technology- oriented institutions/NGOs, national and international agencies, etc topool resources and promote research and development in the country. In particular, the adoption of agrometeorological technology should be essential to test the climatic requirements of crops across the country
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 51

to identify crop suitability in each of the agro-climatic regions.
4.1.2
A shift in the agro-climatic regions might have occurred. It is recommended that the meteorologicaldepartment, statistics office, the agriculture ministry, World Food Programme (WFP) and FAO be engaged
in bid to develop new agro-ecological zones based on observed climatic variability. Meanwhile themeteorological department is key, but has low technical and human capacities to carry out effective andefficient meteorological data collection; the institution's capacity there needs to be built in terms of training
and provision of modern agro-meteorological equipments that would be relocated in each of the agroclimatic regions for weather observations.
4.2
Capacity building amongst small-holder farmers has been very low across the agro-climatic regions in the
country. Farmers are already knowledgeable about the changing and erratic nature of climatic events, butthey lack the capacity to adapt. They have in the past used indigenous meteorological predictions to catch
up with their start-of-farming and start-of-seasons dates, but these too have failed them in recent years.
Proliferation of pests and diseases, low crop yields and hunger were reported as the results from climate
variability in their farming periods. There are emerging indigenous adaptations/ innovation for the climatic
impacts on small-scale agriculture which are far-fetched to address the food self-sufficiency/insecurity
problems across the country. It was observed that farmers, particularly those in the farther regions from theurban areas have mostly used a single-source (the radio) of climate-related information, but with very limitedaccess: (i) farmers in the coastal plains and transitional zone have limited information on weather; (ii) those in
the rain forest, coastal plains and transitional zones have little or no information on planting dates; (iii)
information on the importance of tree planting is especially accessible by farmers in the coastal plains andsavannah woodlands than the other regions. NGOs/CBOs and government institutions identified as
playing a leading role in helping farmers adapt to climate-related problems in their farm activities.
Meanwhile, these assistances are highly concentrated in the rainforest region, and at a very low strength.
For instance the supply of seed rice was identified as the highest form of assistance, but only 30% of farmers(24% of which are from the rain forest) have been reached. Other assistances are of very infinitesimal
importance in terms of supply and impacts. There following recommendations have therefore been madeto address these issues:
4.2.1
There is need to develop a science and technology communications strategic framework in the country. In
particular, expert institutions such as the National Council of Science and Technology, African Technology
Policy Studies (ATPS) Network and the National Telecommunication Commission (NATCOM) should play aleading role in this process. Specifically, the framework must include the formation of an advocacy
committee to promote the adoption of science and technology for full-scale mainstreaming in national andsectoral development with specific emphasis on spurring small-scale agricultural development. In addition
the framework should include the formation and networking of early warning committees in each agroclimatic region that would be linked directly to small-holder farmers for improved viability of their agricultural
produces. The committee must include the media, meteorologists, and farmers' representatives locally
based in each region; and should be coordinated by the National Early Warning Committee.

52 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

4.2.2Innovations/technologies for climate change resilience are very uncommon across the country. Meanwhile
few indigenous and emerging technologies/innovations were identified in the coastal plains and rainforest.
Improvement on such innovations should be made and diffused across the country. The agricultural sector(including research institutions), NaSTEC, etc should link with the National Farmers' Federation of Sierra
Leone to further identify new and cost-effective innovations/technologies that farmers would be willing to
adopt for food security/self-sufficiency and local economic growth. HYVs and other hybrids (which aredrought and disease-resistant) should be introduced at a large and faster rate to small-holder farmers
across the country.
4.2.3
Capacity building on climate change is very essential and should be done in a sustainable manner. Farmers
should be trained on farm and other practices that would help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (which
will other create cyclic but negative impacts on the farming systems). In addition, adaptation of theeducational curriculum (especially in science courses) should be made by incorporating some form
education on causes of climate change and impacts.
>

Capacity building in terms of technical assistances such as supplies and introduction of post-harvest
technologies are also very crucial in small-holder agricultural production and commercialization.
Meanwhile an attitude-toward-bahaviour model was adopted to gain farmers perception on possible
and acceptable adaptation measures for climate change resilience in the country. The national
priorities that were identified include: (a) introducing high yielding varieties (b) value addition/ access tomarket finance (c) provision of food storage facilities, and (d) constant monitoring of water qualities.
Regional-specific priories are presented in table 20.

4.3
Climate change impact on human health was also identified to have strong negative repercussions on foodproduction and local economic growth. Climate-related diseases such as malaria, cholera, diarrhea andyellow fever were identified to have debilitating effects on the farming population- leading to more than 30%
decrease in economic returns from agriculture, taken all other assistances constant. This in part gives a clear
picture of low health and environmental campaigns/treatments to reduce the proliferation of these diseases.
Massive campaigns on the climatic factors that encourage the prevalence of these diseases must be
effected. In addition, public health policies should incorporate discount rates of treatment for highly
agriculture-oriented small-holder farmers. They should be encouraged with subsidies to increase theirearning powers to tackle such externalities.
4.4
Recommendations for further research have also been identified. In-country and international support forsuch research should be made to track progress in effectiveness of climatic data collections, improvementsin the low adaptive capacity of small-holder farmers to tackle climate-related impacts on their farming
activities, as well as technology and innovation diffusions across the agro-climatic regions in the country,
etc. The need for specific research on the burden of diseases on the farming population, by calculating anddocumenting the Disability Adjustment Life Year is also paramount.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 53

4.5
Funds for the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) should not only be directed towards
research on emissions of greenhouse gases. The implementation of NAPA should ensure that funds areallocated for research on climate change impact on small-holder farming, as well as mitigation benefits forsmall-holder agricultural commercialization. The effort to build the quadruple helix by ensuring that climatesensed programmes build coherence between policy makers, science experts, the private sector actors
and civil society actors for stronger and more sustainable adaptation programme of action.

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Ajzen, I and Fishbein, M. (1980:53-89): 'Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior',
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Bruinsma, J. (2003): 'World Agriculture: towards 2015/2030', Earhtscan, London.

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Dieudonne, G. (2001): 'Afrique: Le Continent le Plus Vulnerable', Bulletin Africaine No.14. Available at:
http://www.enda.sn/Bulletin%20Africain/011%20Goudou%20&20 Isabelle.pdf

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Funk, C.C and Brown, M.E (2009): 'Declining Global Per Capita Agricultural Consumption andWarming Oceans Threaten Food Security', Department of Geography, University of California, Elison
Hall, UCSB, CA 96105, USA.

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Global Environmental Funds(GEF, 2009): ' Integrated Adaptation to Climate Change into Agricultural
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International Panel on Climate Change (IPPC, 2001): 'Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report', CoreTeam (Eds.), Cambridge University Press.

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Philips, D.R and Verhasselt, Y. (1994): 'Health and Development', Routledge.

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Schär, C. et al. (2004): 'The role of increasing temperature variability in European summer heatwaves',
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Schellnhuber, H.J. (ed.) (2006): 'Avoiding dangerous climate change', Cambridge, Cambridge
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10. Sokona, Y. and Denton, F. (2001): 'Climate Change Impacts: Can Africa Cope with the Challenges?'
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http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/working_papers/twp90.pdf
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Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 55

Appendices
Table 19: No. of deaths resulting from climate-related problems
Agro-Climatic Region
Rain
ForestSavannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

2(1.6%)

9(7.2%)

19(15.2%)

1(0.8%)

31(6.2%)0(0.0%)

15(12.0%)0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

15(3.0%)1(0.8%)

4(3.2%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

6(1.2%)

None

122(97.6%)

97(77.6%)

105(84.0%)124(99.2%)448(89.6%)

1 Person1(0.8%)

9(7.2%)

9(7.2%)

3(2.4%)

22(4.4%)2 Persons0(0.0%)

9(7.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

9(1.8%)

3 Persons0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

None

124(99.2%)

107(85.6%)115(92.0%)122(97.6%)468(93.6%)

1 Person1(0.8%)

9(7.2%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

13(2.6%)2 Persons0(0.0%)

5(4.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

5(1.0%)

None

124(99.2%)

111(88.8%)123(98.4%)124(99.2%)482(96.4%)

1 Person0(0.0%)

7(5.6%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

11(2.2%)2 Persons0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

3 Persons1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

124(99.2%)

117(93.6%)

122(97.6%)124(99.2%)487(97.4%)

Thunder shocks deaths 1 Person0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

3(0.6%)

2 Persons1(0.8%)

6(4.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

7(1.4%)

Above 5 Persons0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

2(0.4%)

124(99.2%)

118(94.4%)123(98.4%)123(98.4%)488(97.6%)0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

4(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

125(100.0%)121(96.8%)124(99.2%)

125(100.0%)495(99.0%)

DiseasesNo. of Deaths

CoastalPlainsMalaria deaths

1 Persons
2 Persons
3 Persons

Cholera deaths

Diarrhoea deaths

Yellow Fever deaths

None

None
Flood & displacement 2 Person
deathsAbove 5 Persons
None
Drought &displacement deaths

2 Persons

Pest infections on
animal deaths

No. Crops destroyed
from pest infestation0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

4(0.8%)

125(100.0%)121(96.8%)

125(100.0%)

125(100.0%)496(99.2%)

1-2 Animals0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

2(0.4%)

3-4 Animals

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

7(1.4%)

5-6 Animals

6(4.8%)

0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

1(0.8%)

11(2.2%)

7-8 Animals

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

0(0.0%)

5(1.0%)

9-10 Animals

3(2.4%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

1(0.8%)

5(1.0%)

Above 10 Animals

26(20.8%)0(0.0%)

22(17.6%)

2(1.6%)

50(10.0%)None87(69.6%)

123(98.4%)90(72.0%)120(96.0%)420(84.0%)0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

3 Acres0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

Above 5 Acres

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(0.4%)

123(98.4%)

122(97.6%)124(99.2%)

124(99.2%)493(98.6%)

None

2 Acres

None
Malnutrition/
Kwashiorkor deaths

Total

1 PersonNone

4(0.8%)
1(0.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

2(0.4%)

125(100.0%)

125(100.0%)

125(100.0%)123(98.4%)498(99.6%)

56 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 20: Comparative range of expenditure on farming and sickness
and returns from yields
Agro-Climatic Region

Income Range

CoastalPlainsRain
ForestSavannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

Total

Highest amount spent on sickness in the past five years<Le100,000

84(67.2%)

58(46.4%)29(23.2%)

67(53.6%)

238(46.8%)

Le100,000-399,00033(26.4%)60(48.0%)77(61.6%)

43(34.4%)

213(42.6%)

Le400,000-699,000

6(4.8%)

7(5.6%)

9(7.2%)

14(11.2%)

36(7.2%)

Le700,000-999,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

7(5.6%)

0(0.0%)

7(1.4%)

Le1000,000-1,399,0002(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

6(1.2%)

Expenditure on farming activities during the year of highest expenditure on sickness<Le100,0007(5.6%)

93(74.4%)

3(2.4%)

35(28.0%)138(27.6%)

Le100,000-399,00085(68.0%)28(22.4%)

87(69.6%)40(32.0%)240(52.1%)

Le400,000-699,000

25(20.0%)4(3.2%)

27(21.6%)

38(30.4%)

94(18.8%)

Le700,000-999,0007(5.6%)

0(0.0%)

6(4.8%)

8(6.4%)

21(4.2%)

Le1000,000-1,399,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

3(0.6%)>=Le1,400,0001(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

4(0.8%)

Amount received from farming activities during the year of highest expenditure on sickness<Le100,00050(40.0%)14(11.2%)5(4.0%)

10(8.0%)79(15.8%)

Le100,000-399,000

74(59.2%)

75(60.0%)44(35.2%)

79(63.2%)

272(54.4%)

Le400,000-699,0001(0.8%)

36(7.2%)47(9.5%)27(5.4%)111(22.2%)

Le700,000-999,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

19(15.2%)7(5.6%)

26(5.2%)

Le1000,000-1,399,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

7(5.6%)

1(0.8%)

8(1.6%)>=Le1,400,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

4(0.8%)

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 57

Table 21: Module 1- Household Questionnaire for Small-holder Farmers
Introduction:
Hello. My name is __________________________________I am collecting information on farm practices and the influence of climate on your production level in the past
couple of years. Your sincere responses to these questions will help the government and development donors tobetter understand and develop solutions/strategies to reverse any difficulty you are facing with climate-related
problems in your farming activities
Locality Name…………………………

Agro-climatic
Region…………………………………………………

Chiefdom…………………………
Start time:_ _:_ _District……………………………….
Finish time:_ _:_ _Respondent’s
Name and address:……………………………………………………… ………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
Interviewer/Enumerator:……………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………
SECTION A. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF INDEGINOUS PEOPLE, THEIR KNOWLEDGE, PERCEPTIONS
Responses
Code
AND BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS CLIMATE CHANGE
A1.
What is the sex of the respondent?
1. Male/ 2. Female
A2.
What is your age?
1. 10-17yrs
2. 18-25yrs
3. 26-33yrs
4. 34-41yrs
5. 42-49yrs
6. 49-56yrs
7. Above 56yrs
A3.
What is your marital status?
1. Never married
2. Engaged
3. Separated
4. Married polygamous
5. Married monogamous
6. Divorced
7. Widowed
A4.
When did you come to settle in this locality?
1. From birth
2. Above 5 yrs, but not from birth
3. 5 years ago
4. 4 years ago
5. 1-3 years ago
6. Less than 1 year ago
A6.
How many dependants are presently with you?
1. 1-3
2. 4-5
3. Above 5
A7.
What type(s) of farming practice have you been engaged in since your stay at this
1. Upland shifting cult.
place?(Choose All that Apply) 1. YES 2. NO
2. Upland bush fallow
3. Upland cash cropping
4. Swamp rice farming
5. Market gardening
6. Dairy/pastoral/livestock farming
7. Fisheries
A8.
What type(s) of crop(s)/animals do you cultivate/rear? (Choose All that Apply) 1. YES 2. NO
1. Rice
2. Cassava
3. Yams
4. Sweet Potato
5. Millet
6. maize(corn)
7. Lettuce
8. Cabbage
9. Carrot
10. Wheat
11. Oil palm
12. Cocoa
13. Coffee
14. Orange
15. Cattle
16. Goat
17. Sheep
18. Groundnut
19. Oil Palm

58 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

A8.

A9.

A10.

A11.

A12.

20. Banana
21. Beans
22. Pepper
23. Sorghum
24. Fresh water/sea fish
25. Irish Potato
26. Others(specify………………)
What is your land ownership status for Farming?
1. Farm on own land
2. Farm on loan
3. Farm on family land
4. Farm on community land
5. Farm on government land
6. Farm on free rang e
Could you please reflect and tell me the rates of your agricultural yields as compared to what was ploughed in the past four years.
Crop/Animal
Rates of Yields/Year
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
1. High
2. Low
1. High
2. Low
1. High
2. Low
1. High
1. Rice
2. Cassava
3. Yams
4. Sweet Potato
5. Millet
6. Corn maize
7. Lettuce
8. Cabbage
9. Carrot
10. Wheat
11. Oil palm
12. Cocoa
13. Coffee
14. Orange
15. Cattle
16. Goat
17. Sheep
18. Groundnut
19. Oil Palm
20. Banana
21. Beans
22. Pepper
23. Sorghum
24. Fresh water/sea fish
25. Irish Potato
26. Others(specify…………)
Have you ever experienced any seasonal change in rainfall, temperature, heat or extreme cold during your farming season? (If No, Go To QUESTION A14 )1. Yes/ 2. No
1. Rainfall
2. Temperature/heat
3. Extreme ColdIf Yes to Q. A11, when did you start experiencing any
1. One year ago(2009)of these ?
2. Two years ago(2008)

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 59

A12.

A13.

A14.

If Yes to Q. A11, when did you start experiencing anyof these ?

1. One year ago(2009)
2. Two years ago(2008)
3. Three years ago(2007)
4. Four years ago(2006)
5. Over four years ago(yrs<’06)
If Yes to Q. A11, what changes have you observed in
1. Long rainfall duration
your farming season? (Choose All that Apply) 1. Yes
2. Short & heavy rainfall
2. No)
3. Short drying season
4. Long drying season
5. Late start of farming
6. Early start of farming
7. High temperature
8. Others(specify……………)
Have you ever suffered from any climate -related problems in your farming activities?(If No, Go To
QUESTION 17)

A15.

If Yes to Q. A14, what are th
All that Apply) 1. Yes 2. No

ese problems? (Choose

A16.

If Yes to Q. A14, which strategies have you been
adopting to solve climate -related problems to havehigh yields? (Choose All that Apply)
Please provide in yourNote Pads,
descriptions/explanations of the strategies 1. Yes 2.
No

1. Yes/ 2. No

1. Prevalence of pests& disease
2. Low crop yields
3. Hunger
4. Flooding
5. Land sliding
6. Thunderstorm
7. Extreme drought condition
8. Displacement from homes/ farm sites
9. Less fish catches
10. Soil erosion
11. Others (specify…………………………………………………..)
1. Application of salt dung
2. Irrigation of garden/farm
3. Change of crop varieties
4. Using of kerosene and soap on plants
5. Using crushed grasshoppers as pesticides
6. Fencing farm and setting rodent traps
7. Hunting
8. Tree planting
9. Mulching
10. Harvest of bush yams
11. Clearing around farm
12. Performance of ancestral ceremony/ spiritual invocation
13. Physical clearing of un -burnt vegetation
14. Applying animal dung to the soil
15. Green manure application
16. Applying mixed animal feed, capsule & powdered tobacco
17. Creating fish ponds
18. Using small-meshed fishing nets
19. Using chemicals to catch fish
20. Use of indigenous weather predictions
21. Use of scientific weather forecasts
22. Change of farming dates
23. Use of rain water harvesting for farm irrigation
24. Use of underground water for farm irrigation
25. Construction of sm all dams for irrigation
26. Change from farming to trading/other occupation
27. Shift from crop production to animal production
28. Shift from animal production to crop production
29. Move from climate -risk/ unproductive zone/ farmland
30. Adoption of agro -forestry
31. Others (specify…………………………………………………… )A17.

Do you have any way of predicting when rains will start or when you will be expecting hot drying season?

1. Yes/ 2. No

60 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

A18.

If yes to Q. A17, how do you predict when t he following climatic conditions are about to occur?
1. Rainfall
2. Hot drying season
3. Thunderstorm

Flood

A19.

If Yes to Q. A17, has any of the predictions ever worked?

A21.

A26.

Has any institution assisted you with ways to respond to climate-related risks in yourlocality/farming activities?(If No, Go To QUESTION A24)
If Yes to Q.A21 , what type of institution? (Choose All
1. Government (specify……………………................................)
that Apply)
2. NGO/CBO (specify……………………………………………...)
3. Private Company(specify………………………………………)
4. Community Members
If Yes to Q.A21 , what were the nature of assistance rendered? (Choose All that
1. Provision of seed rice for farming
Apply) 1. Yes/ 2. No
2. Provisions of chemicals/pesticides
3. Provision of credit /loan facilities
4. Training on farm practices
5. Training on weather forecasts
6. Distribution of farming calendars
7. Provision of fertilizers
8. Construction of small irrigation dams
9. Provision of farm tools/ machinery
10. Provision of fast -growing seed varieties
11. Provision of p ost-harvest facilities
12. Provision of food
13. Provision of settlements/farm lands
14. Construction of fish ponds
15. Provision of fishing nets/ boats
16. Others(specify……………………………)
Have you ever received weather/climate infor mation? (If No, Go to Q.B1)
1. Yes/ 2. No
If Yes to Q.A24, what type of information?
1. Rainfall/weather information/forecast
2. Importance of tree planting
3. Impact of deforestation
4. Planting dates
5. Others (specify………………………….. )If Yes to Q.A24, was the information useful?
1. Yes/ 2. No

A27.

If Yes to Q.A26, what are the sources of information?

A22.

A23.

A24.
A25.

SECTION B. LINKING HUMAN HEALTH, NATURAL DISASTER, TO FOOD SECURITY AND
LOCAL ECONOMY

1. Yes, very frequentl y
2. Yes, not frequently
3. No, in recent years
4. No, at all times
1. Yes/ 2. No

1. Radio
2. Government
3. Friends
4. News Paper
5. Television
6. NGOs/CBOs
7. Community members
8. Others(specify……………………………)

Responses

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 61

B1.

Have you or anyone in your family been affected by any one of the following
diseases/occurrences during your fa rming activities in the past five years?
(Choose All that Apply) 1. Yes/ 2. No (If No, to all, please Go To Question
Section C)

B2.

If Yes to B1, how many were affected in the worst cases by:
1. Malaria
2. Cholera
3. Diarrhea
4. Yellow Fever
5. Thunder shocks
6. Flood & displacement
7. Drought & displacement
8. Pest infections on animal
9. Pest infestations on crops
10. Malnutrition/kwashiorkor
11. Disability caused by weather eventsIf Yes to any in Q. B1, what was the longest duration you or a family took torecover in the past five years?

B3.

1. Malaria
2. Cholera
3. Diarrhoea
4. Yellow Fever
5. Thunder shocks
6. Flood & displacement
7. Drought & displacement
8. Pest infections on animal
9. Pest infestations on crops
10. Malnutrition/kwashiorkor
11. Disability caused by weather events
No. of sickness/acres destroye d/displacement

No. of deaths

Duration/No. of days
1. Less than 7 days
2. 7-14 days
3. 15-21 days
4. 22-28 days
5. Above 28 days
B4.
If Yes to any in Q. B1, what was the highest amount spent on sickness in the
1.<Le100,000
past five years?
2. Le100,000-399,000
3. Le400,000-699,000
4. Le700,000-999,000
5. Le1000,000 -1,399,0006.≥Le1,400,000
B5.
In response to B3 & B4, did it affect your farming activities?
1. Yes, very seriously
2. Yes, somewhat seriously
3. Not affected at all
B6.
In response to B3 & B4, how could you rate your total no. of yields?
1. Extremely Low
2. Somehow low
3. Low
4. High
5. Somehow high
6. Extremely highB7.
In response to B3 & B4, did you have any reserve from your yields?
1. Yes/ 2. No
B8.
If Yes to B7, what was the purpose of the reserve? (Choose All that Apply) 1. Yes/ 2.No
1. Farming
2. Feeding
3. Unexpected shocks
4. Marketing
6. Others (specify……………………)
B9.
If you reserved food for feeding, was it enough for the whole
1.Yes, was sufficient for whole year
year?
2. No, was sufficient for 9-11 months only
3. No, was sufficient for 6-8 months only
4. No, was sufficient for 3-5 months only
5. No, was sufficient for only less than 3 months
B10.
If you marketed any of the yields, how much did you receive in cash as compared
Expenditure on farming
Amount from sales
to amount spent on farming in the year of highest spending on sickness?
1.<Le100,000
1.<Le100,000
2. Le100,000-399,000
2. Le100,000-399,000
3. Le400,000-699,000
3. Le400,000-699,000
4. Le700,000-999,000
4. Le700,000-999,000
5. Le1000,000 -1,399,000
5. Le1000,000 -1,399,000
6. >=Le1,400,000
6. >=Le1,400,000
SECTION C: BEHAVIOURIAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION MEASURES AT INDIVIDUAL AND INSTITUTIONAL LEVELS

62 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

i.

If the following adaptation measures are in troduced by the government/ partners, how will you rate them in terms of importance?
5. Very important 4. Somehow important 3. Important 2. Somehow not important 1. Not Important
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.

ii.

____ Formation of an early warning system/forecasting tables to inform fa rmers about temperature,
rainfall patterns, flood, health and start -of-farming seasons____ Replacing old crop varieties that are no longer striving well with newly genetically modified
strains that cope with present climatic conditio ns.
____ Provision of professional training for local farmers on practical use of agro -meteorologicalinformation____ Construction of embankments/Watergates to prevent floods____ Construction of drains to evacuate surface water flows from sens itive areas.
____ Constant monitoring of water quality for protection against pollution____ Increased production of energy saving technologies ( Local ovens, cookers and kerosene stoves)____ Construction of a number of small dams for agriculture____ Provision of a number of ponds and shallow wells for raising livestock (cattle, sheep, goat).
____ Construction of discharge control dams on permanently flowing water courses____ Value addition to locally produced agricultural products and improved access to markets andfinance for local farmers____ Encourage rain harvesting____ Provide a number of food storage facilities for local farmer____ Development of aqua -culture farming/ fisheries

In your opinion, please rate how well each of the follo wing measures would work well in your farming community for better production and foodself-sufficiency (please circle selected options)

Measure(N/A)

Formation of an early warning system/forecasts
Introducing genetically modified crops/animals
Training farmers on agro -climatic data collection
Construction of embankments/Watergates
Construction of drains
Constant monitoring of water quality
Increased production of energy -saving technologies
Construction of small dams for crop production
Provision of ponds/shallow wells for livestock
Construction of discharge control dams
Value addition & improved access to markets/financeIntroducing Rain harvest technology
Provision of food storage facilities
Development of aqua-culture farming/ fisheries

(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)

Work extremely
well
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)

Generallywork well
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)

Somehow
work well
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)

Slightly work
well
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)

Cannot Work
Well
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)

Thanks for your patience
Thanks for your patience----END---

Supervisor:………………………………… ………
Signature:……………………………………………
Date:………………………………………………….

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