Assessment of Community Water andSanitation in Ghana

Roseemma Mamaa Entsua-Mensah
George Essegbey
Godfred Frempong
Charlotte Engmann

ATPS Working Paper Series No. 45

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network, P.O. Box 10081, 00100 General Post
Office, Nairobi, Kenya© 2007 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

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Table of Contents

ABBREVIATIONSLIST OF TABLES AND FIGURESI

CHAPTER 1:
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

1
1
3
4
5

INTRODUCTION
Background
Water Resources Potential and Utilisation
The Policy Framework for Community Water and Sanitation
The 2005 National Water Policy

III

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1 Methods of Data Collection
2.2 Some Definitions of Terms

7
7
8

CHAPTER 3: STATUS OF THE COMMUNITY WATER IN THE SELECTED REGIONSAND DISTRICTS
3.1 Ashanti Region
3.2 Brong Ahafo Region
3.3 Central Region

10
10
15
20

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DISCUSSIONS WITH DISTRICT WATER AND SANITATION
TEAMS
4.1 Procedure for Support
4.2 Water System
4.3 Sanitation (Toilet Faciilities)
4.4 Innovation in Water and Sanitation Systems
4.5 Assessment of Implementation
4.6 Suggesstions for Improvement

26
26
27
27
28
28
28

CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITY LEVEL DATA
5.1 Initiation of Water Project

29
29

5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9

CHAPTER 6:
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

Community Participation
Type of Water Facility
Sanitation
Women Participation in Water Management and Hygiene
Hygiene Education
Policy Issues
Research and Development Support
Sucesses Factors and Constraints in Implementing
Community Water and Sanitation System

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

ANALYSIS OF SURVEY OF INDIVIDUAL WATER CONSUMERS
The Water Consumers
Water Facility
Reliability of the Water System
Community Participation
Sanitation
Constraints to Implementation of Water and Sanitation
Key Success Factors
The Issue of Prioritisation

38
39
39
41
42
43
49
50
50

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS52ACKNOWLEDGEMENT54

REFERENCES

55

Abbreviations

ADB
AFD
CAP of Water
CCMA
CSIR
CWSA
CWSP
DA
DANIDA
DBWSC
DWST
EU
GOG
GPRS
GWCL
GWSC
HH
HIPC
IDA
ISODEC
KEEA
KfW
KVIP
MDGs
NCWSP
NEPAD
NGO
RWSP
SEA
STWSSPUGMS
UK
UNICEF

African Development Bank
Agence Francaise de Development
Coalition Against Privatization of Water
Cape Coast Municipal AssemblyCouncil for Scientific and Industrial ResearchCommunity Water and Sanitation Agency
Community Water and Sanitation ProgrammeDistrict Assemblies
Danish International Development Agency
District Based Water and Sanitation Component
District Water and Sanitation Team
European Union
Government of Ghana
Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy
Ghana Water Company Limited
Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation
House Hold
Highly Indebted Poor Country
International Development Agency
Integrated Social Development Centre
Komenda Elmina Ebirim Aguafo
Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (German Development Bank)
Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit
Millenium Development Goals
National Community Water and Sanitation Programme
New Partnership for African Development
Non Governmental Organization
Rural Water Supply Project
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Small Towns’ Water Supply and Sanitation Project
University of Ghana Medical School
United Kingdom
United Nations International Children’s Educational Fundi

VIP
WATSAN
WC
WHO
WSDB
WRI

Ventilated Improved Pit
Water and Sanitation Committee
Water Closet
World Health Organization
Water and Sanitation District Board
Water Research Instituteii

List of Tables and Figures
Summary of Data Collection on Community Water and Sanitation in Ghana
7
The Status of Community Water and Sanitation Projects in Ashanti Region
10
Summary Status of Achievement of CWSP1 Implementation – 1994–2000
11
Summary Status of Achievement of KfW 1and 2 – 1997–2000
11
Summary Achievements of EU Small Town Pipe System – 1997–2002
12
RWSP 3 Achievements (KfW) – 2002–2005
12
Software Achievements in Ashanti Region – 1994–2004
13
CWSP 2 Achievements in the Implementation of the Water Policy –2000–2004 in Ashanti Region
14
Table 3.8: Achievement in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy – 1994–1999
14
Table 3.9: CWSP 2: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy –2001–2004 in Ashanti Region
15
Table 3.10: The Status of Community Water and Sanitation Projects in Brong Ahafo Region 16
Table 3.11: Summary Status of Achievement of EU Small Piped Systems – 1994–2000
16
Table 3.12: Summary Status of Achievement of CWSP 1 Implementation – 1994–2000
17
Table 3.13: Summary Status of Achievement of CWSP 2 Implementation – 2000–2004
17
Table 3.14: CWSP 1: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy –1994–2000 in Brong Ahafo Region
18
Table 3.15: CWSP 2: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy –2000–2004 in Brong Ahafo Region
18
Table 3.16: Achievement in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy inCommunities – 2000-2004
19
Table 3.17: Summary of Investments in the Central Region
22
Table 3.18: Achievements in the Implementation of the Water Policy Central
Region – 2006
23
Table 3.19: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy in theCentral Region in 2006
23
Table 5.1: Initiation of Water Project
30
Table 5.2: Community Contributions
30
Table 5.3: Water Facility
31
Table 5.4: Water Facility at District Level
31
Table 5.5: Household Sanitation Facility
32
Table 5.6: Public Sanitation Facility
32
Table 2.1:
Table 3.1:
Table 3.2:
Table 3.3:
Table 3.4:
Table 3.5:
Table 3.6:
Table 3.7:

iii

Table 5.7: Institutional Sanitation Facility
Table 5.8: Hygiene Education
Table 6.1: Water Facility at District Level
Table 6.2: Water System at Community Levels
Table 6.3: Source of Water Facility
Table 6.4: Reliability of Water System
Table 6.5: Satisfaction with Water Management
Table 6.6: Community Participation in Water Project
Table 6.7: Toilet Facilities at the District Level
Table 6.8: Sanitation Systems at the Community Levels
Table 6.9: Satisfaction with Sanitation Facility
Table 6.10: Children Involvement in Hygiene Education
Table 6.11: Rating of Hygiene Education

33
34
39
40
40
41
42
42
44
44
45
48
48

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 5.1: Role of Women in Hygiene, Sanitation and Water Management
Figure 5.2: Rating of Hygiene Education
Figure 6.1: Distribution of Respondents by Gender
Figure 6.2: Women’s Participation in Water System
Figure 6.3: Women’s Participation in Sanitation
Figure 6.4: Participation in Hygiene Education
Figure 6.5: Comparisons of Water and Sanitation Delivery in the Districts – 2001–2004

iv

33
34
38
46
47
48
51

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background
The appreciation of the value of water for the sustenance of life began decades ago, even though inrecent years that appreciation has shown a marked increase. Various initiatives at conferences haveover the years led to the advancement of policy issues on water. For example, there was the Dublin
Conference, at which the Dublin Principles were developed and these include:• Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development andthe environment.
• Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving
users, planners and policy-makers at all levels.
• Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water.
• Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an
economic good.
Another conference was the Earth Summit held in 1992 where the Agenda 21 detailed a number ofprinciples including the need to:• Ensure the integrated management and development of water resources;• Assess water quality, supply and demand;• Protect water resource quality and aquatic eco-systems;• Improve drinking water supply and sanitation;• Ensure sustainable water supply and use for cities;• Manage water resources for sustainable food production and development;• Assess the impact of climate change on water resources.
To a large extent, these principles as well as others play a central role in water policy formulationworldwide, including Ghana. The goal of the Government through the Community Water andSanitation Agency (CWSA) is to attain national water coverage of 85% by 2015.
However, the diversity of conceptualizations of water is at the heart of the debate on the policies andstrategies to provide good water for all human communities particularly in the marginalized areas ofsocieties. On one hand, there is the pro-market notion of water as an economic resource or commodity
and on the other hand there is the concept of water as a public good, a heritage and even a right(ISODEC and Globalisation Challenge Initiative, 2001a; World Markets Research Centre (2002);

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

Amenga-Etego (undated). Indeed the Coalition Against Privatization of Water (CAP of Water) produced“The Accra Declaration on the Right to Water” of 19th May 2001 highlighting certain principles
including:• water is a fundamental human right;• water is not and should not be a common commodity and sold as an economic good;• water is a natural resource that is part of our common heritage;• water is an increasingly scarce natural resource and as a result, crucial to the securities ofour societies and sovereignty of our country. For this reason alone, its ownership, control,delivery and management belong in the public domain (ISODEC, 2001b).
Since the 1990s Ghana has made efforts to put in place and implement strategies for addressing theneeds for water of the general populace. A major concern was the supply of water in communities ofrural and semi-urban status where majority of the people live. In 1992 Ghana initiated the National
Community Water and Sanitation Programme (NCWSP) to provide solutions to the problems ofwater and sanitation in rural communities and small towns. The linking of water and sanitation isbased on the fact that these two are inter-connected in relation to the health of the people. The
Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) was consequently established in 1998 by an act ofParliament (CWSA Act 564) to provide the institutional base for the implementation of the NCWSP.
The establishment of the CWSA was primarily because the then Ghana Water and Sewerage
Corporation, the organization responsible for the supply of water in Ghana was unable to respondeffectively to the needs of the small towns and rural communities. Its preoccupation was with theurban areas. It was found that there was need for a separate and autonomous entity to focus on theneeds of the small towns and rural communities within the framework of the NCWSP. A key componentof the programme is the emphasis on community ownership and management. Among other things
it entails effective community participation in the planning, implementation and management of thewater and sanitation facilities. It is believed that as custodians, communities will ensure thesustainability of these systems. The agency has a head office in Accra and regional offices in the 10
regional capitals of Ghana. Since its operations, thousands of water systems have been provided insmall towns and communities all over the country.
However, the rationale for establishing the CWSA in the first place underscores the major problem ofwater supply in Ghana generally. As the population grew and the pressure on the finite water resources
increased, the supply of water to the communities faced major challenges. The factors coming intoplay to compound these challenges are many including the dwindling or inadequate water resources,
capacity building, financing of the water systems and participation of stakeholders in the operation of
the systems.
This research generally aims at assessing the extent of the implementation of the policy for community
water and sanitation. The research will aim at addressing a number of questions such as:• What aspects of the water supply to rural communities and small town have been omitted or
marginalized in the existing water policy?

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY••

3

What are the challenges in policy implementation?
What are the options for improving the situation?

The specific objectives are:i.
Assessing the effectiveness of policy in terms of delivery to the small communities andsmall towns;
ii.
Identifying innovations in water supply and sanitation systems;
iii.
Assessing the extent of achieving gender mainstreaming in implementing the national
water policy at the community level;iv.
Generating options for policy formulation.

1.2 Water Resources Potential and Utilisation
Ghana’s water resources are derived from two main sources namely surface and groundwater. The
surface water resources are mainly from three river systems draining the country – the Volta, South
Western and Coastal river systems – constituting 70%, 22% and 8% respectively of the total land areaof about 240,000 square kilometres of Ghana. Apart from this the only important freshwater source is
the Lake Bosomtwi, which is a meteoritic crater located in the forest zone, with a surface area of 50
square kilometres and a maximum of 78 metres depth (Ministry of Works and Housing, 2005).
The ultimate source for surface and groundwater is rainwater. Though it is not much exploited
directly, rainwater harvesting has a great potential to increase water availability. The total annual
runoff is 56.4 billion m3 with River Volta accounting for 41.6 billion m3. The mean annual runoff from
Ghana alone is about 40 billion m3. Wide disparities between the wet season and dry season flows
characterize the runoffs. The total water resources available from surface water sources are 39.4
billion m3 per annum (Ministry of Works and Housing, 2005).
In considering the groundwater resources of Ghana, one has to begin from the geological formations.
Three main geological formations, namely basement complex comprising crystalline igneous andmetamorphic rocks; the consolidated sedimentary formations underlying the Volta Basin (including
the limestone horizon) and the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, characterize Ghana’s
ground structure. These formations invariably influence the availability of groundwater in its respective
area. The depth of aquifers in the basement complex and the Volta Basin is normally between 10m
to 60m with yields rarely exceeding 6m3/h. The aquifer depths in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
formations are usually between 6 m and 120 m with average yields of about 184m3/h particularly inthe limestone aquifer (WARM, 1998).
Groundwater occurrences in limestone formations are much deeper and typically in the range of
120 m to 300 m. The average yield in the limestone formation is 180m3/h. Groundwater is considered
to have some advantages over surface water for provision of water supply and is usually used as afirst choice option for community water supplies. It is more reliable throughout the year and generally

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

requires no treatment. Supplying water from springs and wells are relatively inexpensive and provides
a good basic service. In all cases, their advantages are very well enhanced once the sources provide
all year round supply of water (Ministry of Works and Housing, 2005).
However, the utilisation of groundwater as sources of potable water supply is faced with a number of
constraints. For example, there are saline intrusions in shallow aquifers along the coastal zone,
while borehole yields in the Northern, Upper East, Upper West and parts of the Brong-Ahafo regions
are often insufficient with some occurrence of “dry boreholes”. Many borehole sites, particularlyhydrogeological formations such as those underlain by crystalline basement rocks, with fracturesand fissures, while suitable for locating boreholes are also channels for rapid transfer of pollutants(Ministry of Works and Housing, 2005). There is therefore potential for contamination from point
sources including refuse dumps, latrines and unprotected water points. There are also problems ofhigh iron and fluoride contents in parts of the country including Western, Northern and Upper East
regions of Ghana.

1.3 The Policy Framework for Community Water and Sanitation
The National Community Water and Sanitation Programme (NCWSP) was launched in 1992 toaddress the challenge of providing water to rural communities and small towns in Ghana. To ensure
the implementation of the programme, the Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) wasestablished under the Parliamentary Act 564, The Community Water and Sanitation Agency Act,
1998, which came into force on 30th December 1998. The Act established the Agency to “facilitate
the provisions of safe water and related sanitation services to rural communities and to provide forconnected purposes”.
Act 564 specifies the functions of the CSWA among others, as follows:(a) provide support to District Assemblies to –(i) promote the sustainability of safe water supply and related sanitation services inrural communities and small towns; and(ii) enable the Assemblies to encourage the active involvement of the communities,
especially women, in the design, planning, construction and community
management of projects related to safe water supply and related sanitation
services.
(b) formulate strategies for the effective mobilization of resources for the execution of safe
water development and related sanitation programmes in rural communities and small
towns;(c) encourage private sector participation in the provision of safe water supply and related
sanitation services in rural communities and small towns;(d) provide District Assemblies with technical assistance in the planning and execution ofwater development and sanitation of water development and sanitation projects in the
districts Act 564, 2 sub-section (2)).

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The Chief Executive attends to the day to day operations of the Agency, which has the national head
office in Accra and regional offices in the 10 administrative regions. At the district level, it operates
through the District Assembly (DA). The President of the Republic of Ghana appoints a Management
Board with representation from the relevant key institutions to oversee the performance of the functions
and formulation of institutional policies.
The coverage of the service defined in terms of people having access to the facility provided in thecommunity is specified as follows:(a) Water• 300 persons per spout of stand post, stand pipe or borehole;• 150 people per hand dug well;• Walking distance of not more than 500 metres from the farthest house in a community;• 20 litres per capita per day minimum;• Water source must provide all year round supply at an acceptable quality in accordancewith specifications of the Ghana Standards Board, which is in line with the World healthOrganization (WHO) standard (Ministry of Works and Housing and CWSA, 2004).
(b) Sanitation• Household latrine is meant for an average of eight persons using one household latrine• Institutional latrine is meant for an average of 50 persons per squat hole (CWSA, 2004).
The national water policy framework has been revised after about 13 years of implementation to takeaccount of some of the inadequacies in the existing policy, some of which were found in this study.

1.4 The 2005 National Water Policy
Since the enactment of the community water and sanitation strategy, efforts were made to formulatea national policy. Currently there is a new water policy launched in October 2005. The National
Water Policy of Ghana aims at providing a framework for the sustainable development and utilizationof Ghana’s water resources. It is targeted at all water users, water managers and practitioners,
investors, decision-makers and policy makers within the central and decentralized government
structures such as the district assemblies, non-governmental organizations and international
agencies. The policy outlines the various cross-sectoral issues related to water-use and the links toother sectoral policies such as relating to sanitation, agriculture, transport and energy. Ghana’s
Water Vision for 2025 is to “promote an efficient and effective management system andenvironmentally sound development of all water resources in Ghana” (Ministry of Works and Housing,2005).
Three important development frameworks inform Ghana’s water policy namely:• The global - Millennium Development Goals (Ministry of Works and Housing, 2003)• The African region - New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD, 2001)

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

6•The national – Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (Government of Ghana , 2000)

The Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (2003 – 2005), which is currently under revision states interalia that “increasing access to potable water…is key to achieving health outcomes and sustained
poverty reduction.” The GPRS envisages improving provision of water to rural, peri-urban and unserved
poor urban areas. A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) conducted on the GPRS showedthat water, as a cross-cutting thematic issue is highly relevant to promoting livelihood, health andvulnerability issues in Ghana.
The GPRS (2003-2005) has been reviewed and replaced by the Growth and Poverty Reduction
Strategy (GPRS II 2006-2009). However, the goals articulated in GPRS I generally remain central to
Ghana’s development strategies.

Chapter Two
Methodology
2.1 Methods of Data Collection
The research methodology mainly involved desk research, interviews with key informants and asurvey using structured questionnaires and focus group discussion techniques. The survey took
place in 13 communities of which five from two districts were from Ashanti Region (Amansie East
District and Kwabre), six communities from four districts were in Brong Ahafo Region (Tano South,
Tano North, Berekum, and Asutifi), and two communities from two districts came from Central
Region (Komenda Elmina Ebirim Aguafo (KEEA) and Cape Coast Municipal Authority). In all 140
respondents provided data through interviews and focus group discussions, of which 57 % werefemales, while 43% were males. Information gathering and data collection generally were done atfive identifiable levels as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Summary of Data Collection on Community Water and Sanitation in Ghana
Level
National

Organisation
Ministry of Water Resources,
Works and Housing, CWSARegional

CWSA Regional OfficeDistrict

District Assembly

Community

Small town suburbs/ villages

IndividualHouseholds

Information type
National policy relating towater and sanitation

Key respondent(s)Director, Directorate of Water,
Director of Technical Services,
CWSA
Data on implementation of the Regional Officers
community water and sanitation
programme in the region
Data on water and sanitation Water Liaison Officer/ members ofsystems in the district and the the District Water Sanitation Teamstatus of the programme
Data on water and sanitation Community Water and Sanitation
systems in the communities
Committee (WATSAN) and Waterand Sanitation Development
Boards (WSDB)
Information on the perception Consumersof consumers of the waterand sanitation services

Source: Field Survey, 2006

At the national level, the researchers conducted interviews with key informants in the relevant national
institutions namely the Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing and the Community Water

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

and Sanitation Agency (CWSA). Documents and relevant publications were obtained from these
institutions.
At the regional level, the administrators and engineers were the sources of information. The purposive
sampling of the districts was done with their inputs. In the districts, the members of the DWST werethe main sources of data. In some districts, some other sources were useful, for example, the District
Chief Executive. The administrative and political head of each district is the District Chief Executive.
His or her views and convictions in relation to community water and sanitation are of importance. But
generally, the schedule officers for water and sanitation were the key informants. In the communities,
the members of the Water and Sanitation Committee and the Water and Sanitation Development
Boards (WATSAN/ WSDB) provided information at the level of the community. The individuals livingin the communities as consumers of water and sanitation offered a means of assessing the status of
the facilities and the extent of success in delivery services.

2.2 Some Definitions of Terms
Act 564 defines “community” as a group of households who refer to their settlement by the same
name. A community includes groups of individuals living in close proximity to each other and othersocial groups, grassroots entrepreneurs or associations able to identify a need and come together toaccess project funds (CWSA, 2004). There are two main types of communities recognized in thecontext of the National Community Water and Sanitation Programme – the rural community and thesmall town community.
Rural community is defined in Act 564 as a community with a population of less than 5000 people or
any other figure, which the Minister may from time to time declare by publication in the Gazette andthe mass media (Act 564, section 22). Rural communities are made up of all settlements that benefit
from point source facilities according to either the technical consideration or population threshold.
Usually it refers to settlements with a minimum population of 75 that are ready to have safe water
facilities.
The small town community is that community, which is not rural i.e. a small urban community, thathas decided to manage its own water and sanitation systems (Act 564, 22). However, the term “small
town”, is used in the context of the NCWSP to refer to a wide range of towns and clusters of villages
with the following characteristics:• Population between 2,000 and 50,000;• Have pipe-borne networks as their main source of water supply;• Have accepted to own, operate and maintain their water supply system by themselves, or bydelegating the responsibility to another body e.g. a private firm;• Sets its own tariffs and other operational policies in close consultation with the District
Assembly (CWSA, 2004).

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

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Community water supply and sanitation may be defined as the provision of safe and adequate watersupply and basic toilet facilities for rural communities and small towns, with the integration of hygiene
to maximize health benefits. The term emphasizes the following:• community participation in the planning, implementation and management of the facilities
and services;• community ownership and management, mainstreaming gender in water and sanitationdelivery;• adoption of appropriate and innovative technology to address water and sanitation problems;and• conservation and management of water resources for present and future needs (CWSA,
2004).
The term “ownership” refers to the fact that the facilities are actually the property of the district whichholds them in trust for the community and delegates their management to the communities.

Chapter Three
Status of the Community Water in the Selected Regionsand Districts
3.1 Ashanti Region
The 2000 Population and Housing Census shows Ashanti Region to be the most densely populated
region in Ghana with a population of 3,612,950, which constituted 19.1% of Ghana’s population.
About 50.2% of the population in the region is male. The region has a total land area of 24,390
square kilometres, which was 10.2% of the country’s land area. Administratively, Ashanti Region isdivided into 23 districts. The regional capital is Kumasi, the second largest city in Ghana.
Being in the Tropical Rainforest Zone, the vegetation is typically rich in forest trees such as Mahogany,‘Sapele’ and ‘Wawa’. Farmers grow a variety of crops including maize, cassava, plantain, yam,cocoyam, rice, beans and vegetables. The region is a major cocoa producing area. It is rich inminerals including gold, bauxite, manganese, iron and limestone.
In line with the national policy of improving community water and sanitation, a number of projects
were initiated when the CWSA became established in Ashanti Region in 1994.

3.1.1 Regional Level Data of Ashanti Region
Table 3.1: The Status of Community Water and Sanitation Projects in Ashanti Region
Project
IDA/ CWSPIKfW/ RWSP1&2
CWSP2
EU/ Small Towns
RWSP 3
STWSSPADBRWSP 4

Funding sources
World Bank and Government of Ghana (GOG)
Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (KfW)International Development Agency (IDA) and GOG
European Union and people of small towns
KfW and GOG
IDA and GOG
African Development Bank (ADB)
KfW and GOG

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Ashanti Region

10

Period1994 – 2000
1997 – 2000
2000 – 2004
1997 – 2002
2003 – 2005
2004 – 20072005 – 20082005 – 2008

StatusCompleted
Completed
Completed
Completed
Completed
In progress
In progress
In progress

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Table 3.1 gives a summary of the projects in the Ashanti Region.
Since 1994, there have been not less than eight major projects initiated to address the goal ofproviding water to rural communities in villages and small towns. The key development partners are
the World Bank, the European Union, the African Development Bank and the KfW of Germany. As
shown in Table 3.1, five of these projects have been completed and three are still in progress. Tables
3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 summarize the achievements made in the implementation of the various projects.
Table 3.2: Summary Status of Achievement of CWSP1 Implementation – 1994–2000
District
Adansi East
Ahafo Ano North
Ahafo Ano South
Amansie West
Berekum
Sekyere East
Amansie East
Total

No. of communities
41
27
37
24
23
31
21
204

Boreholes
32
22
39
29
19
19
28
188

Hand-dug wells
26
12
16
18
2
24
10
108

Population. served
13,5008,400
14,10011,400
6,000
9,300
9,900
72,600Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

In the seven districts listed in Table 3.2, a total of 72,600 people living in 204 communities wereserved with 188 boreholes and 108 hand-dug wells. This phase of the community water and sanitation
programme has made a significant contribution to these communities in providing access to water.
Table 3.3: Summary Status of Achievement of KfW 1and 2 – 1997–2000
District
Amansie East
Berekum
OffinsoTotal

No. of communities
21
15
35
71

Boreholes
28
27
106
161

Hand-dug wells
10
10

Population served
9,900
8,100
31,80049,000Source: CWSA Regional Office, Ashanti Region

The German NGO KfW also brought relief to 71 communities with a total of 161 boreholes with many
communities having more than one borehole to improve access.

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Table 3.4: Summary Achievements of EU Small Town Pipe System – 1997–2002
District

Town

Population

Asante Akim South

Juaso
Obogu
Mankranso
Mamponteng
Bekwai
KokofuAbodomNyinahin
Manso Nkwanta
Wiamose
Kuntanase80,973

8,623
7,565
5,004
9,121
19,679
2,985
2,120
7,544
2,591
12,677
3,024

Ahafo Ano South
KwabreAmansie East

Atwima Mponua
Amansie West
Afigya Sekyere
Berekum
Total

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Ashanti Region

The European Union also contributed to improving access to water with the provision of Small Town
Piped Systems in eight districts for a total of almost 81,000 people.
Table 3.5: RWSP 3 Achievements (KfW) – 2002–2005
District

Asante Akim North
AtwimaKwabreOffinsoAfigya Sekyere
Total

Water component
BH-Pump
Population
served50
34,35050
22,54450
24,12150
46,80050
27,677250
155,492

Sanitation component
HouseholdPopulation
latrines
served
50
400
50
400
50
400
50
400
50
400
250
2,000

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Ashanti Region

The KfW also provided borehole pumped water sources to over 155,000 people in five districts from2002 to 2005 period. Significantly, a sanitation component came with this project.
The projects in progress have similar targets with some of the completed projects. For example the
CWSP2, which the IDA and the Government of Ghana are sponsoring with an amount of $29 million,
aims at supplying 12 small towns with water systems and rehabilitating one system. The towns
include Bompata, Atwidie, Kwaso, Foase and Fumso. The design for the systems has been
completed. The RWSP4, which the German development partner KfW is sponsoring with an amountof 12,374,000 million euros aims at completing 1,000 boreholes, 3,000 household latrines and 200
institutional latrines in the Ashanti Region.

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There are also software achievements in terms of the setting up of the structures to facilitate theimplementation of the community water and sanitation programme. They range from the formationof Water and Sanitation Committees to training of artisans for the maintenance of the facilities. Table
3.6 summarises these achievements.
Table 3.6: Software Achievements in Ashanti Region – 1994–2004
Indicators
Fully participating districts
DWST formed and trained
Communities
WATSAN formed and trained
WATSAN formed and trained (KfW)
WSBD formed
WSBDT trained
Communities with facilities converted
School teachers trained
Latrine artisans trained
Area mechanics trained

Achievements
17
17
996
210
12
12
333
82
203
68

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Ashanti Region

3.1.2 District Level Data in Ashanti Region
Two districts were selected in the Ashanti Region for study namely Amansie East District with its
capital at Bekwai and Kwabre District with its capital at Mamponteng.
Kwabre District has a population of about 120,000 people. From the various projects carried out inthe district, the Community Water and Sanitation Programme has completed a total of about 87
boreholes and 10 hand-dug wells with pumps in 42 communities. The district capital, Mamponteng,
features one of the success stories in community-managed piped systems. Five boreholes were
sunk and connected to a Small Town Water system to supply piped water to the inhabitants. Over the
past three years since its operations, the people have accumulated a sum in excess of ¢200 million(over $20,000).
Amansie East District has a population of over 218,508 according to the 2000 Population Census. Its
district capital Bekwai is one of the important socio-cultural towns in Ashanti. Bekwai with a population

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of about 19,679 has a piped water system constructed and linked to groundwater sources. In termsof small town water systems, Bekwai shows how effectively groundwater can address the waterneeds of large rural towns. Amansie District also highlights how successful the national programme
has been, as a total of about 250 boreholes have been sunk in the district.
Table 3.7: CWSP 2 Achievements in the Implementation of the Water Policy – 2000–2004 in
Ashanti Region
District
Adansi East
Ahafo Ano North
Amansie West
Ahafo Ano SouthBEREKUMEjisu Juaben
Sekyere West
Amansie East
Sekyere East
Asante Akim SouthTotal

No. of communities
27
21
87
49
82
76
23
123
7
46
522

BH
39
29
160
66
131
94
23
217
12
90
861

HDW
4
15
3
3
0
0
0
0
4
4
37

Population served
12,30010,95047,25020,25038,10028,8006,900
65,1004,200
28,200262,050

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Ashanti Region

In the Water Policy component of the CWSP 2, just 262,050 people were served with boreholes andhand dug wells in 522 communities in the Ashanti Region between 2000 and 2004.
Table 3.8: Achievement in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy – 1994–1999
District
Asunafo
Asutifi
Tano
DormaaJaman
Nkronza
Kintampo
WenchiTotal

No. ofcommunities
31
23
12
16
44
33
18
32
209

Householdlatrines
193
88
156
187
414
417
96
575
2126

Institutional
latrines
5
0
2
0
0
5
0
6
18

Population
served
1,794
704
1348
1,496
3,312
3,586
768
4,900
17,908Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

The provision of good sanitation systems for the households is rather limited. Table 3.8 shows that
only 17,908 people have been covered in the programme with 2,126 household latrines and 18
institutional latrines from 1994 to 1999.

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Table 3.9: CWSP 2: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy – 2001–2004 in
Ashanti Region
District
Adansi East
Ahafo Ano North
Amansie West
Ahafo Ano South
BerekumEjisu Juaben
Sekyere West
Amansie East
Sekyere East
Asante Akim South
Total

Household latrines
125
50
1001
150
458
850
21
450
126
810
4,041

Institutional latrines
8
4
14
18
56
30
28
4
29
17
211

Population served
1,400
600
8,708
2,100
6,6614
8,300
1,568
3,800
2,458
7,330
42,878Source: CWSA Regional Office, Ashanti Region

For the Sanitation Policy component of the CWSP 2, a total of 42,878 people were served with 4,041
household latrines and 211 institutional latrines in the Ashanti Region between 2001 and 2004 asshown in Table 3.9.

3.2 Brong Ahafo Region
The Brong Ahafo Region lies in the middle belt of Ghana. The region, which has a population of
1,824,822, and a growth rate of 2.8%, has 19 districts. The population density is 102 persons per sq.
km. The region is endowed with numerous resources including streams and rivers. However, due tofarming and logging activities, many of these rivers and streams dry up during the dry season.
Rivers, streams and ponds provide the sources of drinking water to about 70% of the people.
Groundwater is the main source of potable water supply in the region. Only 7% of the population has
access to household latrines. The Ministry of Health has indicated that many of the illnesses in theregion such as guinea worm, bilharzia, diarrhoea, etc. are the result of poor sanitation. The
predominant economic activities in the region are farming and trading. The literacy rate is about
58%.
The Brong Ahafo region is underlain mostly by granites, sandstones, shales and phyllites.
Groundwater is tapped from moderately weathered rocks and fractures. The average drilling depth
is about 60 metres with success rate ranging between 75% and 90%. Sene and Atebubu districts
which are underlain by the Voltaian Sandstones and Shales and have very low groundwater potential.
Two main projects were implemented under the NCWSP in the Brong Ahafo Region. These were
the IDA sponsored CWSP 1, CWSP 2, STWSSP and the EU project (data obtained from Brong Ahafo
CWSA Regional Office).

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3.2.1 Regional Level Data of Brong Ahafo
The summary of the Brong Ahafo Regional data is presented in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10: The Status of Community Water and Sanitation Projects in Brong Ahafo Region
Project
IDA/CWSP 1
IDA/CWSP 2
EU/Small Towns
STWSSP

Funding
World Bank and Government of Ghana
World Bank and Government of Ghana
European Union and people of small town
World Bank and Government of Ghana

Period1994-1999
2000-2004
1994-2004
2005-2008

StatusCompleted
Completed
Completed
In progress

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

Table 3.11: Summary Status of Achievement of EU Small Piped Systems – 1994–2000
District
Asunafo
AsutifiAtebubu
Jaman
Tano
WenchiKwame Danso
Total

No. of communities
1
3
1
3
2
1
1
12

No. of systems
1
2
1
3
2
1
1
11

Population served
13,371
16,522
20,022
15,78425,51228,141
7,059
126,411

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

The World Bank and the European Union have been instrumental in carrying out four major projects
as shown in Tables 3.10 and 3.11. As shown in Table 3.11, the Small Piped Systems extended to the
12 communities with large population sizes, with a ratio of one piped system to 11,491 people. With
the piped systems, many of the water delivery points are in the homes.

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Table 3.12: Summary Status of Achievement of CWSP 1 Implementation – 1994–2000
District
Asunafo
AsutifiTano
Wenchi
Kintampo
Nkoranza
DormaaJaman
Total

No. ofcommunities
42
33
55
41
18
41
40
22
281

Piped
system
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
5

Boreholes
38
0
45
50
24
27
35
35
254

Hand
dug well
27
70
39
0
0
0
0
3
89

Population
served
18,6063,000
26,586
17,482
7,200
12,294
10,50014,950110,618

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

A total of 281 communities benefited from the CWSP 1 giving population coverage of 110,618.
Table 3.13: Summary Status of Achievement of CWSP 2 Implementation – 2000–2004
District
Asunafo
AsutifiAtebubu
Berekum
DormaaJaman
Nkoranza
Kintampo
Sene
SunyaniTano
TechimanWenchiTotal

No. ofcommunities
29
20
39
40
62
30
17
39
22
28
27
14
16
383

Piped
system
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

Boreholes
29
12
76
79
84
70
26
70
30
50
35
20
29
615

Hand
dug well
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8

Population
served8700
4800
22,80023,70025,20021,0007,800
21,0009,000
15,00010,5006,000
8,700
184,200

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

During the CWSP2, the number of communities served with potable water sources increased to 383
communities with an increased total population of 184,200.

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Table 3.14: CWSP 1: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy – 1994–2000 in
Brong Ahafo Region
Districts
Asunafo
Asutifi
Tano
DormaaJaman
Kintampo
Nkoranza
Wenchi
Total

Institutional latrines
5
2

5
6
18

Ventilated improved latrines
193
88
156
187
414
96
417
575
2,126

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

During the CWSP 1, a total of 18 institutional latrines and 2,126 ventilated improved latrines projects
were implemented in the Brong Ahafo Region in the Sanitation Policy from 1994 to 2000.
Table 3.15: CWSP 2: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy – 2000–2004 in
Brong Ahafo Region
Districts
Asunafo
AsutifiTano
Berekum
Sunyani
Kintampo
Wenchi
TechimanNkoranza
Atebubu
Sene
Jaman
DormaaInstitutional latrines
35
0
15
13
0
0
9
11
24
0
0
20
31

Total

158

Ventilated improved latrines
320

118
78

140

270
926

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

For the duration of the CWSP 2, a total of 158 institutional latrines and 926 ventilated improved
latrines were executed between 2000 to 2004 in the Brong Ahafo Region.

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Table 3.16: Achievement in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy in Communities – 2000–
2004
District
Asunafo
BrekumDormaaNkronza
Jaman
Techiman
Tano
WenchiSunyaniTotal

No. ofcommunities
320
118
0
0
270
140
0
0
78
926

Institutional
latrines
35
13
31
24
20
11
15
9
0
158

Population
served
4,310
1,594
1,550
1,200
3,360
1,670
750
450
624
15,508Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

From 2000 to 2004, a total population of 15,508 was also covered in the sanitation programme asshown in Table 3.16.

3.2.2. District Level Data in Brong Ahafo Region
Berekum District is one of the administrative districts in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. Others are
the district to the north east, Jaman District to the north west, Dormaa and Asunafo districts to thesouth west and Sunyani District to the south east. Berekum the district capital is 32 km and 437km
north west of Sunyani the regional capital and Accra respectively.
Tano District is located in the southern part of the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. It lies between
latitudes 7oN and 7o25’N and longitudes 1o45’ W and 2o 20W. It is one of the 13 districts that make up
the Brong Ahafo Region. The district is bordered to the south by Ahafo Ano North and Ahafo Ano South
districts in the Ashanti Region, to the north by Sunyani District, to the west by Asutifi and Sunyani
districts and to the east by Offinso District in the Ashanti Region.
Asutifi District is located in the south-western part of the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. It lies
between latitudes 7o 15’ N and 7o 53’N and longitudes 2o45’W and 2o 15W. It is one of the 13 districts
that make up the Brong Ahafo Region. The district is bordered to the south by Asunafo District, to thenorth by Sunyani District, to the west by Dormaa District and to the east by Tano District in the Brong
Ahafo Region and Ahafo Ano North District in the Ashanti Region.

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3.3 Central Region
Central Region lies in the southern and coastal part of the country with a population of 1,580,047 andpopulation density of 161 inhabitants per square kilometre. The region has a population growth rateof 2%. According to the Ghana Living Standard document, it is the fourth among the four poorest
regions in the country including the three Northern Regions. The main economic activities in theregion are farming especially in the hinterland and fishing along the coast. The main food crops
cultivated in the region includes cassava, maize, plantain and yam. The region also has cash crops
such as cocoa, oil palm, coconut and citrus as well as vegetables such as tomatoes, pepper, garden
eggs, onions and sweet potatoes. The trade sector in the Central Region may be classified into petty
trading, fish mongering and food selling.
Examination of the demographic characteristics of household heads in the Central Region reveals
a slightly different pattern from that of other regions. More than one-half of all household heads in theregion are females compared with about 38 % nationally. About 73 % of the female household heads
have never attended school.
The adult literacy rate is slightly lower than the national average. The national literacy rate stands at
48.3 % while the Central Region is 47.2 % with significant gender disparities (literacy rate for males
is 67 % and 32 % for females). The distribution of individual economic activities by socio-economic
group mirrors that of the national level.

3.3.1

Regional Level Data Central Region

In line with the government’s decentralization policy in 1989 the Central Region Rural Water Supply
Department under GWSC carried out feasibility studies, which were sponsored by Agence Francaie
de Development (AFD) for the provision of potable water and its related sanitation services.
The project was code named Rural Water Supply Project (RWSP) and went through three phases asfollows:
Phase 1 (January 1991–February 1994)––
376 boreholes in 285 communities
Phase 2 (February 1994–January 1996)––
317 boreholes in 274 communities
Phase 3 (January 1996–July 1998)––
123 boreholes in 107 communities––
5 impounded catchments––
18 piped schemes––
20 institutional KVIPs––
1080 household latrines
At the time of the study, there were on-going projects such as the EU Small Towns’ Water Supply andSanitation Project (STWSSP). Under this project, the following activities have either been completed
or initiated:• Feasibility studies and designs for 20 small towns water systems completed in July 2005.
• The government and the EU signed financial agreement for the implementation to start.

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY
•
•
•
•

21

Orientation for 44 Watsan Committees and 20 WSDBs under the EU Small Towns Water
Project has been completed.
Hygiene promotion for the selected 20 small towns under EU Small Towns Projectcompleted.
Sensitization on capital cost contribution for the selected 20 small towns intensified.
Tenders for consultancy services for implementation of the completed designs launched
on June 23rd, 2006.

There is also the DANIDA-funded District Based Water and Sanitation Component – (DBWSC). In all,a total of ¢22.5 billion has been approved to be released for Investment in the year 2006 under
DANIDA support.
Under the project, a number of studies have been conducted including:• Sanitation – Total sanitation using social marketing and total sanitation approaches inseven communities in Awutu Efufu Senya, Twifo Hemang Lower Denkyira and Ajumako
Enyan Essiam districts have been completed but are yet to be evaluated.
• Hydrogeological Study – Baseline studies in Central Region to determine the level of water
resources and delineate potential saline zone, are in progress.
• Environmental sanitation study in three small towns in three districts (KEEA, Mfantseman
and Twifo Hemang Lower Denkyira) is ongoing.
• A study was also conducted on the knowledge, attitude, beliefs and practices as a baseline
for the Central Region.
The IDA-funded Small Towns Water and Sanitation Project (STWSSP) was launched in the Central
Region in September, 2005, and five districts have been selected to benefit from the project. Theyare:
• Upper Denkyira• Twifo Heman Lower Denkyira• Assin South• Asikuma Odobea Brakwa Awutu Efutu Senya• Assin South• Asikuma Idoben Brakwa• Awutu Efutu Senya
The project has been launched in all the selected districts and the selection of consultants to carryout feasibility study as well as promotion of hygiene and sanitation is on-going. All 13 districts in theCentral Region have benefited from the sector strengthening component of the project. They haveall accessed district support for DWST office set up in December 2005 to the tune of ¢842 million(which is about $100,000).

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Table 3.17: Summary of Investments in the Central Region
Name of project

Donor

Year

Facilities provided

Investment

Central Region
Rural Water
Supply Project

AgenceFrancaise deDevelopment

Phase 1
Jan 1991 – Feb 1994
Phase 2
March 1994 – Jan
1996
Phase 3
Feb 1996 – July 1998

376 BHs

41 million
French Francs

317

3,000 Wells
KfW
Project (under
GWSC)
Rural Water Project UNICEF

Not available

123 BHs
impoundedcatchment
mechanised
BHs,
20 institutional latrines1080 HH
latrines
450 BHs

Not available

80 BHsRural Water Project Catholic
Archdiocese
Rural Water Project World VisionInternational
Hunger Project
UGMS
Small Town
European
Water & Sanitation Union
Programme

Not available

35 HDWs

Approximately
1.2 billion cedis
0.6 billion cedis

Not available

28 BHs

0.5 billion cedis

2000
Feasibility Stage
Jan. 2004 – July 2005
Implementation
Dec. 2006 - 2008
Jan 2004 – Dec 2008

1 BH
20 small towns

Capacity Building
For 13 DAs
Jan 2005 – Dec 2005
Feasibility Studies
Jan 2006 – Dec 2008

7 small towns

District Based
Water & Sanitation
Component(DBWSC)STWSSP IIDANIDA

IDA

5,280,000 DM(7.4 billion cedis)•23,590,000(Western & Central)$2 M

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Central Region

The totality of investments made in the region as summarized in Table 3.17 illustrates the significanceof the donor agencies in the community water and sanitation programme. More than US$40 million
have been invested in the programme to build small water systems and boreholes for the communities.
It emphasizes the capital-intensive nature of water and sanitation programmes.

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Table 3.18: Achievements in the Implementation of the Water Policy Central Region – 2006
District

Population
2006
Abura Asebu Kwamankese
106,389
Agona
187,707
Ajumako Enyan Esiam
108,600
Asikuma-Odoben-Brakwa
105,565
Assin South
103,022
Assin North
125,269
Awutu-Afutu-Senya
200,717
Cape Coast
139,469
Gomoa
230,026
Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abirem 132,775
Mfantsiman
183,251
Twifo Heman Lower Denkyira
130,313Upper Dekyira
125,311
Total
1,878,414

Borehole
128
74
74
100
120
220
44
13
48
33
98
190
219
1,361

Hand
dug wells
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
12
5
0
0
23

Piped
system
0
0
0
6
0
6
1
0
0
7
0
6
0
18

Population
served38,40022,20022,20031,80036,00067,80015,0004,800
14,40015,90030,15058,80065,700423,150

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Brong Ahafo Region

Table 3.18 shows that about 23% of the population benefited from the various projects of thecommunity water and sanitation programme as of 2006 in the Central Region. This is quite significant
given that some of the other communities already have their sources of water and therefore thispercentage would advance Ghana towards the achievement of the MDG water target.
Table 3.19: Achievements in the Implementation of the Sanitation Policy in the Central Region in2006
District

Water
Coverage (%)
Abura Asebu Kwamankese
36
Agona
12
Ajumako Enyan Esiam
20
Asikuma-Odoben-Brakwa
30
Assin South
35
Assin North
54
Awutu-Afutu-Senya
7
Cape Coast
3
Gomoa
6
Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abirem 12
Mfantsiman
16
Twifo Heman Lower Denkyira
45
Upper Denkyira52* HH – House holdHHfacilities
16
24
114
76
30
18
42
211
62
6
19
62
16

Source: CWSA Regional Office, Central Region

HH
served
6,640
7,780
950
1,380
3,420
6,860
4,740
660
3,700
20,790
9,750
2,100
7,740

Sanitation
Coverage (%)
6
4
1
1
3
5
2
0
2
16
5
2
6

24

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

3.3.2 District Level Data in the Central Region
3.3.2.1 Cape Coast Municipal Assembly
The Cape Coast Municipal Assembly (CCMA) area is synonymous with a City District. This is because
Cape Coast is the most populous settlement in the district with a hierarchy of functions that make it
the nerve centre of economic activity for both the district and the region. About 6% of settlements in
the Municipal District including Cape Coast, Ekon and Nkanfoa and Kakomdo account for nearly
85% of the population of the entire District. Out of the 71 settlements in the Municipal area, 54% or
76% of them have populations of less than 1,000 persons and account for only 10% of the District’s
population. Thirty of the settlements (43%) have populations less than 100 persons.
The Cape Coast municipality is the smallest district in the country. However, since Cape Coast isalso the capital of the Central Region, it is also the most urban and cosmopolitan, brimming witheconomic activities. The municipality is bordered by the Gulf of Guinea to the south, Komenda/
Edina/ Eguafo/Abirem District to the west, by the Abura/Asebu/Kwamankese District and to the northby the Twifo/Hemang/Lower Denkyira District to the east.
The Cape Coast municipality boasts of the best infrastructure and utility services in the country. The
urban south is well supplied with potable water from the Brimso Treatment Plant though there areproblems in the dry season when the water level goes down. Over 90% of the residents are supplied
from this source. However, rural water supply to the north of the district comprises bore-holes, wells
and untreated water from the rivers.
3.3.2.2 Komenda –Edina-Eguafo-Abrem District
The Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem (KEEA) District (the study location) has a total land area of
1,372.45 square kilometres. It is bordered to the East by the Cape Coast Municipality, the West by
Mpohor-Wassa East District in the Western Region and to the North by the Twifo-Hemang-Lower
Denkyira District. It is one of the new districts created in Ghana in 1988 after being carved out of the
old Cape Coast Municipal Council. KEEA consists of four paramount or traditional areas: Komenda(Akatekyi), Elmina (Edina), Eguafo and Abrem. Elmina is the district capital.
The population was estimated at 87,540 in 1995 and had increased to 111,985 in 2000. The
district’s annual population growth rate is said to be 1.23%, which is lower than the regional andnational growth rate. The population is youthful in character, with a substantial segment under theage of 15 years. The male-female ratio of the district is about 100 males to 109 females. The district
has three major towns. These are Elmina with a population of 22,098, Komenda 10,729 and Abrem
Agona 4,983 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000). Two other settlements, Kissi and Dominase are
peri-urban towns with populations of 5,098 and 3,244 respectively. These five urban and semi-urban
centres constitute about 43 % of the district’s population. The main indigenous ethnic group, theFantes, constitute about 90% of the population. Inhabitants in the district engage in farming and agro
processing, fish processing, tourism, real estate development, mining and salt production. The

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

25

district is known to produce about 15% of the total fish output in the country and these include
herrings, shrimps, mackerels, tuna, barracuda, and lobsters, among others.

Chapter Four
Analysis of Discussions with District Water andSanitation Teams
As part of the methodology the District Water and Sanitation Team of each district was interviewed.
The team consists of three personnel – technician, community mobilization and environmental
health officers. They normally form part of the various District Assemblies but are supported by theCommunity Water and Sanitation Agency in the form of training, the provision of computers andmeans of transport which is often a motorbike. The planning officers of the various District Assemblies
are the Desk Officers for the activities of the district water and sanitation team.
The interview centred on the water and sanitation systems in the district, key criteria used in assessing
the community’s application, women participation and innovations among others (see appendix forinterview guide).

4.1. Procedure for Support
The District Assemblies in conjunction with the CWSA have developed procedures which
communities applying for water and sanitation facilities should follow. The procedures are:
• Formation of WATSAN with women composition of at least 30 %;• Communities receive application forms;• Open bank accounts with initial deposit;• Ability to pay 5% for the total cost of the facility which depends on the type of project should
be demonstrated;• Incidence or absence of disease;• Lack of chieftaincy disputes;• Absence of Ghana Water Company facility in the community or approval from the company
supporting the community’s application;• The communities’ commitment to the programme and high communal spirit.
Normally, once the District Assembly is satisfied with their assessment of the community, it is madeto apply for the service and make arrangements for the payment of the five % commitment fee. The
commitment fee is based on the total cost of the project, the population thresholds and the needfactor, payment of counterpart funds, and request from the community.

26

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27

Not all communities which make the initial application are able to receive the required support. For
example, requests made to three districts were not honoured. The reasons for this situation were:• The inability of the communities to raise the required commitment fees. Sometimes,
communities were to raise between ¢2.5 - ¢3 million and some find this contribution difficult
to meet.
• The community may be below the required population threshold. For example, for a borehole,
the population threshold is between 75 – 2,000 people. Any community which falls below or
above this threshold is disqualified from benefiting from the CWSA programmes. Above thisthreshold the community qualifies for a piped system.
• The processing of request documents may be delayed at the community level.
• The District Assemblies may be unable to pay its contribution of 5 % of the cost of the
project.

4.2. Water System
The main water system in the districts visited were boreholes, hand dug wells and small town water
piped system. The small town piped or mechanised water system was not very popular in the district
due to the cost involved, though it could have been very useful for communities with high urbanisation
rates. There were tanker services in KEAA and CCMA and also large scale rain water harvesting
facilities in some of the districts.

4.3. Sanitation (Toilet Facilities)
A number of toilet facilities exist in the district. For households, the main toilet facilities were Ventilated
Improved Pit (VIP), Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit (KVIP) and Water Closet (WC). House with WCs
may be recently built ones and maybe found in communities with piped system. For public, there
were aqua privy, KVIP, WC and pit latrine. In the case of institutions (schools, offices, etc.) the facilities
include KVIP, WC, VIP and pit latrine.

4.3. Participation of Women
Women participation in activities related to water and sanitation have been given prominence andthe District Water and Sanitation teams are tasked to put in place mechanism to ensure the fullest
participation. As a result, each team makes sure that:• Communities ensure that the membership of WATSAN has at least 30 % of its members as
women (usually 3 women out of 7 members).
• The treasurer of the committee should be a woman and also play key roles in the
management of the community facilities.
• Women were encouraged to participate at all levels especially through hygiene educationand sanitation.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

4.4. Innovations in Water and Sanitation Systems
Minimal innovations have been made in the water and sanitation systems. These are technicalsystems which are above the capacity of the local people. Consultants are normally engaged to
conduct hydro-geological studies and drilling of the boreholes. In the case of toilet systems, technicaldrawings are given and the contractor has to follow them critically. However, in the VIP, the local
people have incorporated local materials such as bamboo, or landcrete blocks into the super
structure.

4.5. Assessment of Implementation
The District Water and Sanitation team was asked to comment on the implementation of the waterand sanitation projects in their respective districts. Below are the observations made by the team.
• Satisfactory, the programme had increased the coverage of water from 27% before theimplementation of the programme to 60%. Some communities have got access to waterand sanitation facilities, thereby reducing water and sanitation related diseases, and theprogramme has also reduced acute water shortages in the community.
• The project has been successful especially the on-the-job training which has equipped
project staff to deliver efficiently.
• There is a high patronage from the communities

4.6. Suggestions for Improvement
Notwithstanding the achievements of the programme, there were suggestions made to improve theimplementation including:• Funds for the programme should be released on time especially the available funds fromthe donors.
• Deprived communities that are unable to pay for their 5% cost of the facilities should be
supported under the Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) funds, which are funds available
for the nation through the implementation of the HIPC initiative.
• Training is needed on computer and capacity building.
• District Assemblies do not provide incentives. The coordinating role being played by theregional water and sanitation team should be strengthened.
• The district support fund should be released on time.
• There is the need to increase the range of the population size; a community with a population
below 2,000 may not be able to mobilise the funds for it.

Chapter Five
Analysis of Community Level Data
The data being analysed in this section are based on interviews conducted with members of theWater and Sanitation Committees (WATSANs) of the various communities in the Ashanti, Brong
Ahafo and Central regions sampled in the field work. In all, 13 WATSANs in 13 communities wereinterviewed. Each WATSAN has a membership of between seven and nine members with at least
three of them being women. The key respondents during the WATSAN interviews consisted of six
males and five females. The results of the interviews are summarized under the following key issues:• Initiation of the water project;• Community participation;• Types of water facilities;• Sanitation;• Women participation in water management and hygiene;• Success factors and constraints in implementing community water and sanitation system.

5.1 Initiation of Water Project
The respondents were asked about the origins of the water projects in their communities. Most ofthem (56.3 %) were jointly initiated by the government (represented by the District Assemblies andthe CWSA) and the community. However, in some instances, the community took the lead and maderepresentations for potable water. About 8.7% of the communities belong to this category, 8.7 % by
the government, while 6.3 % did not give any indication about the initiators of the system (see table
5.1). Although most communities saw the water project as coming from the government, in reality,
they were largely donor-sponsored projects, which were implemented by the government throughthe CWSA.

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30

Table 5.1: Initiation of Water Project
Initiation of Water Project
Government initiative
Community
Joint government and community
No response
Total

Frequency
3
3
9
1
16

Percent
18.7
18.3
56.3
6.3
100.0

Source: Field Data, 2005

Most of these water projects commenced in 2000 and were completed between two and four years.
There were few projects, which began and were completed in the late 1990s. The odd projects
were the Bampanese in Kwabre District, which took almost 10 years to complete and Anwiankwanta
in Amansie East which took six years.

5.2 Community Participation
To qualify for the water project, the communities paid a commitment fee representing 5% of the total
cost of the project. Therefore, with the exception of one district, all districts made these commitment
fees. In addition to the commitment fees, the members of the community made voluntary contributions
during the implementation of the project. Table 5.2 summarizes the types of additional support thecommunity gave.
Table 5.2: Community Contributions
Support
Provided cash
Materials
Joined in planning
Look after the system
Total

Frequency
12
1
9
10
32

Percent
37.5
3.1
28.1
31.3
100.0

Source: Field Data, 2005

Apart from the monetary contributions (37.5%), the community, especially the WATSAN’s members
took part in the planning (including siting) of the water system (28.1 %) and maintenance of thesystem (31.3 %), as shown in Table 5.2.

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5. 3 Type of Water Facility
Boreholes are the main water system in the communities visited. About 37.5 % of the communities
depended on boreholes, 25.0 % used both boreholes and hand dug wells, while 18.8 % were using
small piped water system. Only 18.8 % of the respondent communities depended solely on hand
dug wells, as shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Water Facility
Type of water facility
Boreholes
Borehole and hand dug well
Hand dug well
Piped system
Total

Frequency
6
4
3
3
16

Percent
37.4
25.0
18.8
18.8
100.0

Source: Field Data, 2005

Table 5.4 below provides detailed information about water systems in the various Districts.
Table 5.4: Water Facility at District Level
DistrictBoreholes
Amansie East
Asutifi
Berekum
KwabreTano North
Tano South
KEEA
Cape Coast Municipal
Total

1
0
2
1
0
0
2
0
6

Water Facility
Boreholes,
Hand
hand dug well dug well
1
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
4
3

Piped
system
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
3

Total
2
1
2
3
2
1
3
2
16

Source: Field Data, 2005

Gyachie in the Tano North District was the only community that depended solely on hand dug wells.
In Duayaw Nkwanta in Tano North and Abura in Cape Coast Municipal Assembly, in addition to thepiped system, part of the community also depended on hand dug wells.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

32

5.4 Sanitation
Sanitation is one of the critical issues that bolster the health of the people as well as ensuring a clean
environment. Tables 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7, illustrate the toilet facilities that exist at the household, public
and institutional levels. For households, ventilated improved pit (VIP) and pit latrine were the facilities
mostly used, while in rare cases, water closet (WC) toilet was used, especially in communities with
piped system. The combination of VIP and pit latrine constituted 57.2 % of toilet facilities used byhouseholds. The Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit (KVIP) latrine is built for public use in public places
and institutions.
Table 5.5: Household Sanitation Facility
Sanitation facility
KVIP,WC
Pit latrine
VIP
VIP, WC
VIP, WC, pit latrine
WC
Total

Frequency
3
4
4
1
1
1
14

Percent
21.5
28.6
28.6
7.1
7.1
7.1
100.0

Source: Field Data, 2005

In terms of public toilet facilities, pit latrine was the main facility (42.1 %) used by the communities(see Table 5.6). This is an old technology which has serious disadvantages. The bad smell and heatis trapped in the latrine and it is open to maggot infestation.
Table 5.6: Public Sanitation Facility
Facility
KVIP
KVIP, pit latrine
KVIP, WC
Pit latrineWC
Septic tank toilet
Environmental toilet
No response
Total
Source: Field Data, 2005

Frequency
3
1
1
8
1
1
2
2
19

Percent
15.7
5.3
5.3
42.1
5‘.3
5.3
10.5
10.5
100.0

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Table 5.7: Institutional Sanitation Facility
Facility
KVIP
VIP
KVIP, WC
WC, Pit Latrine
Pit latrine
No Response
Total

Frequency
6
2
1
1
2
4
16

Percent
37.5
12.5
6.3
6.3
12.5
25.0
100.0

Source: Field Data, 2005

For institutional toilets, the use of KVIP was the highest (37.5 %). The KVIP is designed to use
aeration to enhance the natural decomposition process. Though it is an improvement on the pit
latrine, it also suffers from bad odour and heat when over used in public places. Institutional toilet
facilities are those built for schools, hospitals and offices, among others. Even here, pit latrines
featured well.
On the whole, the sanitation situation, especially the type of toilet facility has not improved and this is
attested to by the dominance of pit latrines in the communities. This is a high percentage and leaves
much to be desired where institutional facilities are concerned.

5.5 Women Participation in Water Management and Hygiene
At the community level, women played varying roles, which include hygiene education, sanitationand selection of sites for boreholes, but were most active in hygiene education (see Figure 5.2).
About 43% of the women indicated that they had been active in hygiene education whereas only 31%
indicated they participated in the selection of sites for either boreholes or hand dug wells. It suggeststhat the women had not been too involved in the location of water sources in the communities.

13%
19%

43%

Hygiene education
Sanitation
Selection of borehole sites
Selection of hand dug well sites

25%

Figure 5.1: Role of women in hygiene, sanitation and water management
Source: Field Data, 2005

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

34

5.6 Hygiene Education
From Table 5.8, 52.9 % of the communities reported that their women were involved in organisingclean ups. Those who were involved in house to house education on good hygiene represented 17.6
% and also provided public education.
Table 5.8: Hygiene Education
Activity
Organising Clean Ups
House to House
Teaching whole town
Action Plans
Total

Frequency
9
3
3
2
17

Percent
52.9
17.6
17.6
11.8
100.0

Source: Field Data, 2005

The women’s participation in the water management and hygiene education in the communities
emphasised the important roles women are playing in the socio-economic development of thecommunities. The women should be strengthened so as to play these roles more effectively.
Most of the communities have involved children in their hygiene education. About 9 out of the 13
communities involved children. The children were taught first to maintain good personal hygiene
and then become peer educators. The involvement of the children has a long term effect on thecommunity. The children will grow up imbibed with the culture of maintaining good personal hygiene
as well as a clean environment.
The respondents were made to assess the performance of their hygiene education. Figure 5.3
illustrates the responses of the respondents. About 46 % rated their hygiene education as successful,
17 % scored as very successful and 37 % as average. No respondent rated the hygiene education as
unsuccessful. The reasons the respondents gave for their assessment are summarised in Table
5.9.

Figure 5.3: Rating of hygiene education
Source: Field Data, 2005

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35

The reasons were varied but active participation of the communities, reduction in incidence ofwater borne and related diseases, and improved attitude towards sanitation are some of thereasons which underlined the ratings. The hygiene education was at worst averagely successful.
Respondents gave the following reasons for the rating of hygiene education:• Improved attitude towards sanitation;• Cooperation from the members of the committee;• Active participation of the members of the community;• Lack of adequate toilet facility;• Little improvement on sanitation issues;• Low cooperation from members of the community;• Reduced mosquito breeding;• Reduction in incidence of waterborne/related diseases.

5.7 Policy Issues
To benefit from the CWSA, a community has to meet a number of conditions, inter alia:• A population size between 75 to 2,000 people for small communities and 2,000-50,000 for
small towns;• Incidence of diseases;• Absence of chieftaincy disputes;• High communal spirit;• Ability to raise the commitment fee of 5 % of the total cost of the project.
An attempt was made to find out if any community has met these conditions, but has not received therequired support from the CWSA. Two communities indicated that they were yet to receive support
from CWSA after meeting all their obligations; however, the majority had received support fromCWSA.
Apart from the provision of boreholes, the CWSA provides technical training for the local mangers of
the water system by training a community member to undertake minor repairs and an area mechanic
who is responsible for major repair works on the borehole. Out of the 13 communities, eight hadreceived training in the management of the boreholes. The five communities could be those hand
dug wells which did not require much technical training to use and manage. Most of the hand dug
wells did not have attendants.
Interaction with some of the WATSAN and WSDB members revealed that apart from what they hadreceived from the CWSA, additional requests had been made to the Agency. Summary of theoutstanding assistance the communities are yet to receive from the agency include:• Tools for communal labour and protective clothing;• Assistance for household latrines in the community;• Additional hand dug wells;• Motorbikes and bicycles;

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

36

•
•
•
•
•
•

Bigger storage tank;
Additional boreholes
Communal KVIP;
Mechanised water system, more boreholes, public latrines;
Replacement of stolen hand pump;
Payment of subsidy for household toilets.

Most of the requests related to the provision of tools for communal activities, payment of subsidy on
household toilets, additional sanitation, boreholes, and other water facilities. The requests for
additional water and sanitation systems have become necessary because of increased pressure on
the existing ones due to population increases. The issue is: can population growth be factored into
the planning of water and sanitation systems? This should have been the case so that whatever isprovided to a community can easily take care of increases in population as it is for piped systems.

5.8

Research and Development Support

The data revealed that only two communities had received scientific intervention from the country’s
universities. The institutions, which had assisted the communities in training, were the School ofEngineering of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Development
Studies, Tamale and University of Cape Coast. Training support from Water Research Institute(WRI) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) was non-existent in the communities.
WRI, however, periodically conducts studies to assess the water quality of selected boreholes. Thisis an important role which underscores the relevance of scientific institutions in community waterand sanitation programmes, thus there is need to integrate WRI into the activities of CWSA in the
Ashanti, Brong Ahafo and other regions. From the survey, it became evident that after thecommissioning of the water system, no further analysis had been carried out on water quality. WRIshould be institutionally mandated to regularly monitor the water quality.
Only few innovations have been introduced, especially in the area of the water system. In one
community, a motorized pump had been fitted on a borehole where the water is pumped into an
overhead tank, then linked to a number of stand pipes. This has increased access points to reduce
long queues.
In the sanitation systems, most of the communities received technical drawings from the CWSA,
which they could not alter. Therefore, no innovations have been made. This was largely due to lackof interest in sanitation by the country’s universities and research institutions. As a result, there isneed for the universities and research institutions to develop more interest in sanitation systems so
as to enable many communities to have easy access to decent toilet facilities.

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

37

5.9
Success Factors and Constraints in Implementing Community Water andSanitation System
The respondents identified a number of problems, which had constricted the smooth implementationof the community water and sanitation programmes. The main constraints are:• Delay in paying household latrine subsidy;• Difficulty in mobilising 5 % contributions;• Delays by the implementing contractors;• Inadequate number of boreholes;• Nearness of the sanitation facility to the market and community centre;• Frequent breakdown of the facility;• Inadequate sanitation facilities for the population;• Sometimes the water from boreholes is too saline.
Despite the constraints raised above, it is obvious that some achievements have been made mainly
in providing potable water and to a less extent, toilet facilities for the communities. The key successfactors of the community water and sanitation programme as suggested by the respondents or thecommunities are:
• Active chiefs, financial support (donation/loan) from individuals;• By laws on the use of the boreholes, vigilance on the use of the boreholes;• Drilling of borehole has enhanced committees work;• Effective community participation;• Formation of WATSAN committees and the effectiveness or involvement of the WATSAN
committees in decision making on water and sanitation issues;• Get more time for productive activities;• Good maintenance. People have come to realise the need to maintain the system toprovide them with potable water;• Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL);• Increase in productivity;• Routine inspections on Fridays.

Chapter Six
Analysis of Survey Results of Individual Water
Consumers
This chapter presents the analysis of data collected from individual users of the community waterand sanitation systems and draws out issues that need attention by the District Assemblies (DAs), the
CWSA and policy makers in the country. The purpose of the survey of the water consumers in thecommunities was to:• Identify the water system mostly in use in the communities• Gauge reliability and satisfaction with the community water system• Assess level of community participation in the initiation and management of the water
system• Assess sanitation in the communities• Assess women’s participation in water and sanitation management• Assess women and hygiene education• Evaluate of the community water and sanitation systems.
The survey took place in 13 communities of which five from two districts were from Ashanti Region,
six communities from four districts were in Brong Ahafo Region, and two communities from two
districts came from Central region. In all 140 respondents provided data through interviews andfocus group discussions, of which 57 % were females, while 43 % were males (see figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1: Distribution of respondents by gender
Source: Field Data, 2005

38

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39

The higher percentage of women in the sample is of significance, as water collection, traditionally,is part of the daily chores of women, and therefore, their opinions should contribute greatly to theassessment of the water and sanitation systems in the respective district.

6.1. The Water Consumers
The first analysis was based on data collected on the community level water system, which wasprovided by the members of the WATSAN Committees. In this section, water consumers in two
districts in Ashanti, four in Brong Ahafo and two in Central regions of Ghana were purposively sampled.

6.2. Water Facility
A number of water systems were identified in the communities visited. Table 6.1 depicts the water
system that exists in the respective district. The borehole remained the main water system in the
districts.
Table 6.1: Water Facility at District Level
District
Amansie East
Asutifi
Berekum
KwabreTano North
Tano South
KEEA
CCMA
Total

Borehole
20
1
18
24
0
11
19
1
94

Water Facility
Hand dug well
1
7
0
1
10
0
1
8
28

Piped system
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
11
18

Total
21
8
18
25
17
11
20
20
140

Source: Field Data, 2005

The majority of the people (67.1 %) depended on boreholes as their source of water. However, it was
only in the Asutifi and Tano North districts where there was minimal use of boreholes. The people
depended more on hand dug wells. The minimal use of boreholes in the communities in the two
districts raises the need to look at the situation where the communities such as Asiedu Nkwanta in
Asutifi District have no boreholes. It is also interesting to note that almost 13 % of the respondents in
Tano North and CCMA use small community piped system and the rest were using hand dug wells
as shown in Table 6.2.

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40

Table 6.2: Water System at Community Levels
Community
AbayeeAbura
Adawonase
Anwiankwanta
Asamenya
Asiedu Nkwanta
AyimomBampenase
BechemDuayaw Nkwanta
Gyachie
Kotri No.1
Ofoase Kokobin

Stream
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

Borehole
18
1
10
9
6
1
8
8
11
0
0
10
11

Hand dug well
1
8
0
1
0
7
0
1
0
0
10
0
0

Piped system
0
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0

Total
20
20
10
10
6
8
8
9
11
7
10
10
11

Source: Field Data, 2005

In addition, some communities were still using streams and rivers as in Table 6.2. In Adawonase, thepeople were using a stream called Benibeni for laundry and other domestic chores. This is to
reduce the money spent on buying water from the boreholes. Further, in Ayimom and Abayee thepeople also used water from rivers Kyemera and Nua respectively, to supplement what they obtained
from the community borehole.
The high population of boreholes in the remaining districts typifies the strong presence of andinterventions made by the CWSA in the provision of potable water. As illustrated in Table 6.3, about 70% of the water system in the communities was provided by the CWSA and this is a laudable
achievement.
Table 6.3: Source of Water Facility
District
Amansie East
Asutifi
Berekum
KwabreTano North
Tano South
KEEA
CCMA
Total
Source: Field Data, 2005

Part of CWSA
No
Yes
1
20
0
8
0
18
1
24
0
17
0
11
1
19
20
0
23
98

Total
21
8
18
25
17
11
20
20
140

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

41

6.3. Reliability of the Water System
To check how reliable the water systems were in meeting the needs of each community, therespondents were asked to comment on the performance of their water systems. Most of the people
were of the opinion that the water systems were meeting their expectations.
Table 6.4: Reliability of Water System
District
Amansie East
Asutifi
Berekum
KwabreTano North
Tano South
KEEA
CCMA
Total

N/A
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

Reliability of Water
Not reliable Reliable
0
11
0
5
5
12
3
12
0
0
0
11
3
15
3
12
14
78

Total
Very reliable
9
3
1
10
17
0
2
5
47

21
8
18
25
17
11
20
20
140

Source: Field Data, 2005

From Table 6.4, 55.7 % of the respondents said the systems were reliable, while 30 % said theirsystems were very reliable. Only 10 % scored for not reliable. In a relatively urban town like Abura, thecommunity supplemented its piped water system with water tanker services from Cape Coast. The
terms “reliable” and “very reliable,” generally meant that the systems were always functioning or had
only short breakdown time, and the yields of the boreholes were adequate or very adequate to meetthe needs of the communities. The scoring by the respondents could illustrate the effectiveness ofthe WATSAN Committees in the various communities in ensuring effective management of the water
systems.
One issue which came up during the interviews was water quality. At Ofoase Kokobin in the Amansie
East District, there was a fear of water contamination from rusting of some of the components of thesubmersive pump. There was visible corrosion on a component of the submersive pump, which had
been replaced by the Area Mechanic. Further, it was reported in Asemanya in Kwabre District that thewater becomes ‘milky’ after every heavy downpour – an indication of run-offs seeping into the water
system. These examples emphasised the need for a system to periodically check the quality of thewater in the various communities.
Besides reliability, the respondents were asked about their satisfaction with the operation andmanagement of the water system. The responses were not different from those on reliability of thesystem. About 66.4 % of the respondents were satisfied with the system, while 20.7 % were verysatisfied (See Table 6.5). The responses of the consumers also confirm the results obtained fromthe community level analysis.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

42

Table 6.5: Satisfaction with Water Management
District
Amansie East
Asutifi
Berekum
KwabreTano North
Tano South
KEEA
CCMA
Total

Completely
dissatisfied
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

No
response
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
2

Not verysatisfied
0
0
7
3
0
0
0
5
15

Satisfied
15
8
10
18
0
11
18
13
93

Very
satisfied
5
0
1
3
17
0
1
2
29

Total
21
8
18
25
17
11
20
20
140

Source: Field Data, 2005

Most of the people were either satisfied or very satisfied with the way the water was managed,
because the availability of the water system had reduced the drudgery and the long distances thewomen and children had to walk to fetch water, especially in the dry season. Another reason was theconsiderable reduction of water-related diseases in the communities as the underlying factor for
their responses.

6.4. Community Participation
Community participation is one of the conditions for the intervention of the CWSA in every locality.
Every community is to establish a Water and Sanitation Committee (WATSAN) or Water and Sanitation
District Board (WSDB) to be the focal point for planning, siting and more importantly, mobilization offinancial contributions and management of the water project. In Table 6.6, members of thecommunities provided varying responses for the type of support they provided for the implementationof the water systems.
Table 6.6: Community Participation in Water ProjectType of Support
Part of planning teamCash contribution
MaintenanceLabourNone
Total

Frequency
9
74
12
23
22
140

Percent
6.4
52.9
8.6
16.4
15.7
100.0

Source: Field Data, 2005

The majority of the support (52.9 %) was in the form of monetary contributions which were basicallylevies imposed on every member of the community to enable the community raise the 5% commitment

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

43

fee for the water project. Others were in the form of maintenance of water system after construction(8.6 %) and labour, especially during the construction phase (16.4 %), while 15.7 % provided no
support.
Interaction with the respondents revealed that not every member of the community contributed.
Those who failed to contribute were not residents of the community during the implementation
phase. However, in some cases, the people refused to contribute for reasons best known to them.
To reduce the number of defaulters, some communities such as Anwiankwanta (in Amansie East
District) have developed a social sanction mechanism to collect the outstanding levies. In a situationof the death of a member of the community, the community’s help is withheld until every eligible
member from the bereaved family has settled his or her indebtedness. This policy, according to the
WATSAN chairperson, has enabled the community to collect more levies even after completion of
the project ,which they hoped to use to apply for more boreholes for the area.
It was not in all communities where levies were imposed on the people. In Ofoase Kokobin in theAmansie East District, the WATSAN was able to raise the 5% commitment fee from the saving they
made from sale of water from a borehole constructed earlier by the Catholic Church for the community1.
Other communities such as Asemanya and Bampenase (Kwabre District) also received cash support
from their chief,2 while the European Union provided 95% of the budget for the people of Bechem.

6.5. Sanitation
Sanitation is one of the important components for ensuring good health for human beings andanimals, and environment cleanliness. The discussion on sanitation was focused on toilet facilities
in the communities. Two toilet facilities stood out prominently and these were public KVIP andtraditional pit latrines. Public KVIP was the main toilet facility used in communities in Amansie East,
CCMA and Tano South districts, while pit latrine was highly used in communities in Berekum,
Kwabre, KEEA and Tano North districts.

6.5.1 Toilet Facility Available in the Communities
The shift from the use of public toilet facilities to in-house toilets has not been successful. Only 10 %and 12.1 % of the respondents in the eight districts respectively had VIP and environmental toilets intheir homes, while 5 % were still defecating in the bush, creating environmental hazards for thecommunities as shown in Tables 6.7 and 6.8.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

44

Table 6.7: Toilet Facilities at the District Level
District
Bush

Amansie East 0
Asutifi0
Berekum
0
Kwabre5Tano North 0
Tano South 0
KEEA
2
CCMA
0
Total
7

Toilet Facility
Environ Own
Own
loo
WC
VIP

Pan
latrinePit
latrine

0
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
17

0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
2

1
7
14
10
17
0
0
0
44

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1

Total

8
0
4
2
0
0
0
0
14

Septictanklatrine
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5

Pub
KVIP

Pub
WC

11
0
0
8
4
11
0
15
49

1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

21
8
18
25
17
11
20
20
140

Source: Field Data, 2005

Table 6.8: Sanitation Systems at the Community Levels
Community Own
KVIP
Abayee1
Abura
2
Adawonase 0
Anwian0
kwantaAsamenya0
Asiedu0
Nkwanta
Ayimom0
Bampenase 0
Bechem0
Duayaw0
NkwantaGyachie0
Kotri No.10
Ofoase0
Kokobin
Total
3

Bush

Pan
Pit
Publiclatrine latrine KVIP
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
8
0
0
6

Public STL
WC
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0

WC

Total

2
1
0
0

Environ Own
loo
VIP
16
0
0
0
0
2
0
4

1
0
0
0

20
20
10
10

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
5

6
3

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

6
8

0
5
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

1
0
0
2

7
4
0
0

0
0
11
5

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

8
9
11
7

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
4
4

0
0
0

10
6
1

0
0
5

0
0
1

0
0
0

0
0
0

10
10
11

8

16

14

8

37

47

1

5

1

140

Source: Field Data, 2005

The low diffusion of in-house toilet facilities questions the effectiveness of the programmes of the
CWSA to improve access to decent toilet facilities in the districts. The relatively higher use of pit
latrines and defecating in the bush are marks of ineffectiveness or failures. There is need for theASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

45

CSWA to re-strategise to help improve toilet facilities, especially the in-house toilets in the districts.
Although the various District Assemblies provided subsidies for in-house toilet facilities, the slow
payment has not induced many households to construct their own facility.
Discussion with a member of the District Water and Sanitation Team (DWST) revealed that thenational policy on sanitation is to de-emphasise public toilets and support in-house facilities. To
achieve this objective, the government should set up a fund that will promptly pay the subsidies to therural people to accelerate the achievement of the policy.
The total cost of constructing a decent household latrine is $500. This is not affordable in a socioeconomic context where more than 40% of the people live below $1 minimum wage.

6.5.2 Satisfaction of Sanitation Facility
An attempt was also made to find out the general conditions of the toilet facilities in the communities.
Table 6.9: Satisfaction with Sanitation Facility
District
Amansie East
Asutifi
Berekum
KwabreTano North
Tano South
KEEA
CCMA
Total
Percentage

Sanitation Facility
No response
No
0
5
0
0
0
14
0
17
0
0
0
0
1
15
1
11
2
62
1.4
44.3

Total
Yes
16
8
4
8
17
11
4
5
76
54.3

21
8
18
25
15
11
20
20
140
100

Source: Field Data, 2005

From Table 6.8, most of the people were satisfied with their toilet facilities. About 54.3 % of the
respondents expressed satisfaction with their facilities. However, in the districts where pit latrines
were popular, most of the people expressed dissatisfaction. For example, for those who were notsatisfied, 92 % came from the communities sampled in Berekum, KEEA, CCMA and Kwabre districts
which had large numbers of pit latrines.
Most of the public toilets, especially the pit latrines were not well kept, they stank, and were infested
with maggots, without scheduled cleaning, and some, especially the pit latrines, got flooded after
every heavy downpour of rain. The structures were weak with serious roof leakages. The continuous
use and high population of pit latrines are suggestive of failure of CWSA in achieving its sanitation
mandate.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

46

6.5.3 Women Participation in Management
Women’s participation in the management of the water system is crucial and it is a condition thatmust be met. As already mentioned, they were to constitute at least 30 % of the WATSAN membership.
Apart from the membership of the WATSAN, diverse roles were played by them in the day to day
management of the water systems.
From Figure 6.2, the women were mostly involved in cleaning around the water systems and also
providing hygiene education. In all, 77 of the responses, across the eight districts were involved incleaning the surroundings of the water system. In the management of the water system, 17 respondents
indicated women were also involved, while eight played no role in the maintenance of the system. All
the women said that with improvement in water supply there had been a decrease in waterborne
disease. This is yet to be validated using the medical records of the community, if any.
77

38
17
8

Management

Cleaning

HygieneMaintenance

3

Other

Figure 6.2: Women’s participation in water system
Source: Field Data, 2005

Though some women played managerial roles, their number was small. It is the women who willbear the brunt if a system breaks down; therefore, there is need for increased participation of womenin the management of the water system. There is also the need to train women in simple repairs
works such as greasing, tightening of bolts and even as area mechanics. Area mechanics arepeople trained to carry out major maintenance works on the boreholes.

6.5.4 Participation in Sanitation
In addition to water, an attempt was made to find out the role the women played in sanitation. From
Figure 6.3, most of the activities played by the women in the eight districts were in cleaning andmanagement of the toilets. The main management role the women played was in the collection of
tolls, especially the public KVIPs.
Unlike the water system, the women had maintenance roles in the sanitation system. However, thewomen’s role in maintenance was limited to cleaning the toilets. In comparing different roles played

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

47

by the women, they were less active in hygiene education as shown in Figure 6.3. This is a worrying
concern as women play a very important role in education of children.
78

40
33
19
7

Cleaning toilets

Hygiene education

Management

Maintenance

OthersFigure 6.3: Women’s participation in sanitation
Source: Field Data, 2005

6.5.5 General Hygiene Education
The maintenance of good hygiene, both personally and at the community level is very important toprevent outbreak of epidemics in the community as well as ensuring good health. Therefore, therespondents were asked about their involvement in hygiene education in their communities. From
Figure 6.3, a sizeable proportion (30 %) of the respondents did not take part in any form of hygiene
education. About 21 % of them were engaged in house to house hygiene education, 11 % participatedthrough other forms – teaching of households, neighbours, tenants and friends, inter alia.
A large percent (70 %) of the respondents were involved in various forms of hygiene education andthis illustrates the awareness of the community to ensure good health as well as clean environment.
It is illustrative that in Adawonase, the community has formed Nkosuo Fan Club where the members
engage in organised clean-ups of the community. The programmes of the Fan Club were tocomplement the work of the WATSAN in the community. A prominent member of the same community
has provided litter bins to reduce littering of the area. Though the communities looked neat, some of
the inhabitants defecated in the immediate surroundings. This negated what had been achieved
through hygiene education.
The level of children’s participation in the hygiene education was also assessed. About 56.4 % of the
respondents mentioned that children had been integrated into hygiene education, 33.6 % had not,while 10 % could not give any indication (see Table 6.9). The majority who had involved theirchildren said, they teach them so as to maintain good personal hygiene and also impact on theirfriends.
The hygiene education was informally done. There were no organised fora, programmes or durbarof chiefs and their elders where hygiene was a definite topic for discussion.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

48

21%
30%

11%

House to house
Whole town
Org. clean ups
Others
None

11%
27%

Figure 6.4: Participation in hygiene education
Source: Field Data, 2005

Table 6.10: Children Involvement in Hygiene Education
Response
No
Yes
No Response
Total

Frequency
47
79
14
140

Percent
33.6
56.4
10
100

Source: Field Data, 2005

The respondents were asked to rate the performance of their hygiene education. With the exceptionof Berekum and to some extent Asutifi, most of the respondents gave good impression about their
hygiene activities.
Table 6.11: Rating of Hygiene Education
District
Amansie East
Asutifi
Berekum
KwabreTano North
Tano South
KEEA
CCMA
Total

Failure
0
0
17
2
0
0
1
2
22

Average
7
5
0
5
0
0
8
12
37

Successful
14
3
1
15
1
1
9
6
50

Very successful
0
0
0
3
16
10
2
0
35

Total
21
8
18
25
17
11
20
20
140

Source: Field Data, 2005

In the Amansie East and Kwabre districts, 14 and 15 respondents respectively classified their hygiene
programme as successful. On the other hand, 16 and 10 respondents scored “very successful” forthe programme in Tano North and Tano South respectively. Also 12 respondents saw hygiene

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

49

education as average in CCMA. In all 35.7 % and 25 % of the total respondents scored their hygiene
education as successful and very successful respectively, while 15.7 % saw it as a failure.
The respondents gave varied reasons for their ratings. Those who were generally satisfied or verysatisfied gave reasons for their rating which were:• High communal spirit• Active role of the WATSAN• Clean environment• Reduction of disease such as malaria, bilharzia and skin diseases, among others.
Reasons given by those who were unsatisfied included poor sanitary conditions of the public toilets,
dumping refuse and defecating in open spaces, and inability of the WATSANs to implement their .
However, in discussing the general sanitation situation in the districts, some respondents raised
critical issues about the poor maintenance and poor unsanitary conditions of the public toilets. This
raises serious environmental issues which need to be addressed by the WATSANs and also negates
the achievement made in hygiene education, as good hygienic practices include maintaining goodsanitary conditions in the environs.

6.6 Constraints to Implementation of Water and Sanitation
The following were some of the constraints raised by the respondents:• Difficulty in collecting levies;• Inadequate number of boreholes due to increased urbanization;• Problem of raising funds for additional boreholes;• Pumping is tedious;• Increased population growth which makes communities exceed the population thresholdfor inclusion into CWSA programmes;• Delay in the payment of District Assembly’s contribution for the construction of in-house VIP;
• Poor sanitation facilities, especially the pit latrines;• Inadequate seating capacity of public KVIP.
The main suggestions given by some of the respondents to address these constraints were:• Seek for external support, especially from non-governmental organisations to constructmore water and sanitation systems;• Need for mechanised water system;• Scheduled maintenance work, especially on sanitation systems;• Increased number of boreholes;• Construction of more and decent sanitation facilities;• Sale of community land to support water and sanitation facilities;• Private sector participation in the management of water and sanitation systems.

50

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 45

6.7 Key Success Factors
Despite the challenges enumerated above, it was evident that some successes have been made in
addressing the needs of the community, especially access to potable water. The key factors, whichhave contributed to the successes include:• Active chiefs and elders;• Unity and peace in the community;• Keen interest of the community in the projects – high sense of communal ownership;• Active WATSAN and WSDB committees;• Supportive role played by assembly members in the communities;• Vibrant youth e.g. Youth Fan clubs;• Regular meetings on sanitation and health issues.
To conclude this analysis, it is evident that some successes have been made in the area of improving
the community’s access to potable water. Most of these successes in water delivery were made due
to hard working WATSAN and WSDB’s, supported by the chiefs and their elders, the community andthe local political structures which had placed high premium on access to potable water. Morerevenue is generated to maintain the systems and the involvement of women in decision making islaudable.
However, from the survey responses, the CWSA has not succeeded remarkably in the area of sanitation,
especially construction of toilets. The focus of the sanitation policy of the CWSA is geared towards inhouse VIP toilets. However, few of these toilets have been built and there is continuous dependence
on public toilets. This has created management and maintenance problems in most of thecommunities.

6.8 The Issue of Prioritisation
Whereas there appears to be good progress on the delivery of potable water to the communities interms of the improved water facilities – the small town piped systems, boreholes and hand-dug
wells – there appears to be less improvement with sanitation. This is illustrated in the wide gap
between the number of water facilities installed in the communities and the sanitation systems asshown in Figure 6.5.
In all the districts, the delivery of potable water to the communities significantly outstrips good sanitation.
It is more pronounced in districts such as Amansie West and Amansie East where the total population
served with good water systems came to 47,250 and 65,100 respectively whereas the population
served with good sanitation systems is 8,708 and 3,800 respectively for the two districts. There are
two main factors accounting for this. The first is the policy to de-emphasize communal sanitation
systems and promote construction of good toilet facilities in the homes. But people in the communities
need to provide “counterpart funding” to build the household toilet. For some people this is beyond
their means. The first factor links to the second.

70,000
60,00050,00040,00030,00020,00010,000
0

51

Water

Ju
ab
Se
en
ky
er
e
W
es
Am
t
an
sie
Ea
st
Se
ky
e
re
As
Ea
an
te
st
Ak
im
So
ut
h

u

BA
K

Santitation

Ej
is

Ad
an
si
Ah
Ea
af
st
o
An
o
No
rth
Am
an
sie
Ah
W
es
af
o
t
An
o
So
ut
h

Population Served

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

Districts

Figure 6.5: Comparisons of water and sanitation delivery in the districts – 2001–2004
Source: Field Data, 2005

It appears that on the part of the individuals, there is very minimal priority attached to the provision ofgood sanitary facilities in the homes. Some households should be able to mobilize roughly theequivalent of $200 needed to build a complete household improved latrine. Much more than this is
usually mobilized for funerals as a coffin to bury the dead ranges from the equivalent of $100 to$1,000. On the average, families in these communities spend at least $200 on coffins and that alone
depicts the low priority placed on such an important item as sanitation.
However, this all-important issue of lack of prioritization is not only manifested at the individual level.
Across the national, regional and district levels, it appears that more priority has to be placed on
actions to meet the challenge of good sanitation.

Chapter Seven
Conclusions and Summary of Recommendations
An emerging principle in the provision of water to human settlement is the principle of community
participation and responsibility. It apparently derives from the concept of sustainable development
which enjoins people to ensure sustainable exploitation of environmental resources to the degree
that the interest of posterity is safeguarded. The study has shown the high community participation in
the management of boreholes and wells in the regions covered in the study. Where communities
have shown significant commitment, there is significant success in the management in terms of
ensuring access and sustainability of the community water resource.
Community participation, however, has to be organized and mobilized. The CWSA has formulated aframework to facilitate community organization and mobilization. The DWSTs, WATSANs, and WSDBs
are frameworks for the community organization and management from the district levels to thecommunity levels in the villages and the suburb of the small towns. The study found that the formationof these committees has been generally complied with. In the districts covered in the study in
Ashanti, Brong Ahafo and Central regions, these committees are in place and functional. The issue
however is the degree of functionality.
For example, in the mobilization of the counterpart funding for the water projects in the communities,some committees have found ingenious ways of achieving their targets. Mobilisation is extended to
citizens of the communities living outside the localities. In many cases, such contribution and support
from the citizens living “abroad” and chiefs were crucial to the success of the water project. There
were also some communities in which mobilization has been a problem due to communal apathy.
The degree of the effectiveness of the WATSANs also manifested in the successful maintenance of
the water systems, for example, mechanized borehole, hand-dug wells or dams. The WATSANs
effectively mobilized the financial resources for the maintenance activities and ensured the basic
hygiene and cleanliness of the water systems.
There are, however, issues in the continued operation of the community water and sanitation policy
in Ghana. An important issue is the seeming limited capacity for innovation at various levels ofcommunity water supply. While the study found some innovations such as the use of local raw
materials in building water systems, there is generally minimal innovation in substance in terms ofengineering and design. There is, therefore, need for strong linkages with the knowledge bases in

52

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ON GENDER ROLES WITHIN A COMMUNITY

53

the universities and research institutes, which should also build capacity in community water andsanitation systems.
Indeed, the role of WRI in monitoring water quality and sustainability was found to be crucial inensuring the success of the community water and sanitation programme. There is need for an
established institutional linkage between the CWSA and WRI.
There is also the issue of donor domination of funding for providing communities with water. The
study found that the development agencies of friendly countries such as UK, Denmark and Germany
were instrumental in financing community water and sanitation projects. Though the Ghana
Government provided the needed counterpart funding in cash or in kind, the impression being madeis that nothing can be done in an important utility such as water, without the support of the donor
agencies. Given that the provision of water is one of the Millennium Development Goals, there isneed for developing countries like Ghana to demonstrate their own commitment in terms of theallocation of national resources for community water and sanitation.
For the country to effectively address the issues of national resource allocation, there is need for awell-articulated policy. Fortunately, a water policy was adopted in 2005 and it remains to be seen
whether the implementation of the policy would illustrate the priority of water in the development
strategies.
Another key issue which needs addressing is the seeming lack of progress in improving sanitation in
the communities. The study showed that while the WATSANs and related committees are doing wellin providing and maintaining access to water systems, sanitation systems are virtually collapsing. A
number of factors account for this situation. However, the challenge is to address the socio-culturaltendencies, which make people in the communities downgrade the priority of good sanitation inraising the quality of their lives. More importantly, inhabitants of the communities need to be educatedto appreciate the strong link between good sanitation and well-being. Besides, the design andconstruction of sanitation systems must be made more affordable to the communities. If necessary,
the District Assemblies should enhance their contribution to the construction of sanitation systems inpeople’s home.
Overall, the study has shown that there is a viable community water and sanitation programme in
Ghana. In assessing its effectiveness, there are clear indications that the programme has contributed
substantially in extending access to potable water to marginalized communities with a high degreeof reliability in the three regions covered in the study. The programme has also served to stimulate
community participation at the respective levels of society. More work has to be done in the area of
good sanitation. But what has been achieved with respect to the water challenge should provide animportant basis.

Acknowledgement

This paper is based on research carried out under the auspices of the African Technology Policy
Studies Network’s (ATPS), Water and Environment Programme funded by the Royal Dutch Government– Activity no: 10385-DCO0020791. The authors thank Dr. Kevin Chika Urama of the Macaulay
Institute, Aberdeen, UK for his contributions to the study in his capacity as the ATPS Lead Resource
Person for the W&E programme. His review comments and support during the writing-up stages ofthe project is appreciated. The authors also thank the ATPS Communications and Outreach
Department for their editorial support.

54

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Roseemma Mamaa Entsua-Mensah, George Essegbey, Godfred Frempong and Charlotte
Engmann are members of the ATPS Ghana Chapter.

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Title and Author(s) of Publication
The Effect of Economic Reform on Technological Capability by T. Adeboye, M. S. D. Bafachwa, O. A.
BamiroMethodological Issues in Science and Technology Policy Research by T. Adeboye, N. Clark
Rehabilitation in the Manufacturing Sector in Tanzania by S. M. Wangwe
Agricultural Policy and Technology in Sierra Leone by C. Squire
Effectiveness of Agricultural Research Extension in Sierra Leone by A. K. Lakoh
Generation and Utilization of Industrial Innovation in Nigeria by O. Oyeyinka, G. O. A. Laditan, A. O.
Esubiyi
Irrigation in the Tuli Block, Botswana Water Conservation Techniques of Optimal Strategies by I. N.
MasondeEndogenous Technology Capacity and Capability under Conditions of Economic Policies of Stabilizationand Structural Adjustment by S. E. Chambua
Technology and Female-Owned Business in the Urban Informal Sector of South-West Nigeria by R. O.
SoetanTechnology Innovations Used to Overcome the Problem of Resource Scarcity in Small Scale Enterprises
by C. W. Ngahu
Financing of Science and Technology Institutions in Kenya during Periods of Structural Adjustment by M.
Mwamadzingo
Impact of Economic Liberization on Technologies in Enterprises Processing Agricultural Produce by P.
MadayaTechnology and Institutions for Private Small and Medium Firms by B. Oyeyinka
Institutiona Reform, Price Deregulation and Technological Change in Smallholder Agriculture by E. C.
Eboh
Adoption of Agricultural Technologies by Rural Women under the Women-in-Agriculture Program in
Nigeriaby D. S. Ugwu
Electrical Power Utilities and Technological Capacity Building in Sub-Saharan Africa by Brew-Hammond
Investigation into Factors that Influence the Diffusion and Adoption of Intentions and Innovations from
Research Institutes and Universities in Kenya by Bwisa, H. M. and A. Gacuhi
The effects of Economic Reforms on the Quality on the Quality of Technological Manpower Development
in Nigeria by H. E. Nnebe
Issues in Yam Minisett Technology Transfer to Farmer in Southern Nigeria by Michael C. Madukwe,
Damain Ayichi, Ernest C. Okoli
Technological Response to Telecommunication Development: A Study of Firms and Institutions in Nigeria
by Adeyinka F. Modupe
Technological Respone to Telecommunication Development: A Study of Firms and Instituions in Nigeria by
Adeyinka F. Modupe
Gender Differences in Small Scale Rice Farmers’ Access to Technological Inputs in Enugu State of Nigeria
by David Nwoye Ezeh
Adoption of Sustainable Palm Oil Mini-Processing Technology in Nigeria by Nkechi Mbanefoh
Domestic Energy Situation in Nigeria: Technological Implications and Policy Alternatives by Olabisi I. Aina
Technological Capability in the Nigerian Leather Industry: A Firm-Level Case Study by Uka Enenwe,Enwere Dike, Anthony Ihuoma, Mike Duru
Agricultural Research and Delivery in the South-Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia: A Case Study of the SG-

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2000 Approach in Hitosa District by G. Yiemene
Impact of Computer Technology Adoption on Banking Operations in Nigeria by A. I. Odebiyi
Agricultural Technology Adoption on Small-Holder Farmers: Policy Policy Options for Nigeria byJ. O. Olusi
Donor Funding and Sustainability of Rural Water Supply andSanitation Technologies in Swaziland by U. AjaOkorie and Aja Okorie, M. Mabuza
Promotion of Production and Utilization of Ceramic Roofing Materials in the Informal Housing Industry in Sierra
Leone by Tamba Jamiru
Technology Transfer and Acquisition in the Oil Sector and Government Policy in Nigeria by R.I.Chima, E.A.,
Owioduoki,R.I. Ogoh
Acquisition of Technological Capability in Africa: A Case Study of Indigenous Building Materials Firms in
Nigeria by Yomi Oruwari, Margaret Jev,Opuene Owei
Analysis of Indigenous Knowledge in Swaziland: Implications for Sustainable Agricultural Development byMusa A. Dube, Patricia Musi
Analysis and Comparison of the Agricultural Development Programme and University Agricultural Technol
ogy Transfer Systems in Nigeria by M.C. Madukwe, E.C. Okoli, S.O. Eze
Extension Services and Enterprise Development: Study of Technology Extension Services to Small nd
Medium Size Manufacturing Firms in by Frederick U. Ngesa, Justus M., Ombati, Milcah Mutuku
Women and Engineering in Nigeria: Towards Improved Policy Initiatives and Increased Female Participation
by A.J. Badekale
The Gender Variable in Agricultural Technology: A Case of Rural Farmers in Machakos District-Eastern
Kenya by Esther Njiro
The Impact of Information Technology on the Nigerian Economy: A Study of Manufacturing and Services
Sectors in the South Western and South Eastern Zones of Nigeria by David Ola Kajogbola
Socio-Economic Consequences of Technological Change on the Rural Non-Farm Igbo Women Entrepren
eurs of South-Eastern Nigeria: Implications for Farm and Non-Farm Linkages by Jonathan O. Alimba,
Justina, Uzoma Mgbada
The Role of Development Financial Institutions in the Acquisition of Technological Capabilities by Small andMedium Enterprises in Kenya by G.S. Namusonge
Engineering Education for Industrial Development: Case Studies of Nigeria, Ghana and Zimbabwe
by A.A. Afonja, K. Sraku-Lartey and S.A. Oni
Socio-Economic and Environmental Consequences of Agricultural Technology: A Comparative Study of
Small Scale Surface Irrigation Technology in Nigeria and Swaziland by Kevin Urama and EmmanuelMwendera
An Assessment of the Effects of Technology Transfer on Gender Roles within a Community: the development
tea and coffee production among smallholder farmers in Kiambu District, central province Kenya by Winifred
N. Karugu

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