IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-1

Research article
erd

A Comparative Study of Housing Conditions among living
Sectors in Sri Lanka and among Residential Areas in Tea
Industry, Matara District, Southern Part of Sri Lanka
YUKO FUKUDA*
Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
Email: yukotsu70@yahoo.co.jp

EIJI YAMAJI
Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
Received 16 December 2016

Accepted 28 June 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Sri Lanka is well-known as one of the most successful cases of human development
among South Asian countries, despite widening income disparities among sectors (urban, rural,
estate), especially in the estate sector. Tea industry is an important industry in the estate sector,
however, working and living conditions which affect the quality of life are generally worse thanother. This resulted in a decrease in well-being of the workers’ capabilities. This study aims toidentify the disparities in housing conditions among living four sectors in Sri Lanka and also
residential areas in tea industry. Qualitative and quantitative methods are applied for analysis.
To consider the well-being of people, capability approach is also applied. Data in the study
relied on the secondary data conducted in 2008/2009, and 302 households’ primary dataobtained between 2014 and 2015. Three indexes of housing facilities used in this paper areaccess to drinking water, exclusive toilet facilities, and electricity lighting. Results incomparison between housing conditions and living sectors indicate that people in estates areunder the low quality of housing facilities and face the risks under the unsanitary conditions.
Statistically, all three indexes showed there are disparities among living sectors. Comparing
indexes among sectors, accessibility to safe drinking water in estate has wider disparity than theothers two index. Exploring the tea industry based on the management style (RPC, Private
estate, Farmer) deeply found private estates are more likely to face disadvantages than others.
Accessibility to safe drinking water is lower than in others variables. Among residential areas
access to safe drinking water is not statistically significant, but access to toilet facility andelectricity is statistically significant at five percent level.
Keywords living conditions, capability, tea industry, rural development

INTRODUCTION
This study focuses on housing conditions of estate as whole country and inside tea industry community,and highlights differences among management styles, whiles providing suggestions to narrow the
disparities. Sri Lanka has developed its status as middle income country with achievement of most of
the MDG`s, even though income and social disparity among citizens and regions has being widening,
especially in estate sectors where tea, coconuts and rubber has been cultivated. Tea is one of mainindustries and financial resources for government. Tea industry is promoted by two sectors; large-scale
estate sector and smallholders. Export revenue in 2010 reached 1.37 billion US dollars, which
accounted for 16 percent of the total export of the country. However, the poverty rate of estate workers
was concerned for this community, accounted for 11.4 percent, compared to the urban average of 5.3Ⓒ ISERD

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percent and to 9.4 percent of rural in 2009/10 (DCS 2011). The GINI indices increased from 0.43 in
1980 to 0.49 in 2009/10 (Central Bank of Sri Lanka 2012).
Estate sector is classified by cultivation land elevation and area. Cultivation elevation is classified
into three; high-grown tea is over 1200 m, mid-gown tea is between 600 and less 1200, and low-grown
tea is less than 600m. Cultivation area larger than 20 hectares is categorized as estate sector andsmallholder is characterized as smaller than 20 hectares including farmers. Estate workers are protectedby the estate labour laws. The quality of life as individual well-being of life is actually valuable for thisperson (Sen 1992). Working and living conditions in estate, however, are generally harder than othersectors, and the majority of workers have no job security (Wal, 2008). Their economic and social
conditions are not enough to enhance their capabilities.
The literature reviews and interviews conducted in August 2012 at up-country found that people
in tea estates have been confronted with low income, poor housing and sanitary facilities as well asother basic needs (Kumari 1984, WB 2007 and Chandrabose 2011). Recent studies reveal that numberof tea cultivation managed by small holdings has increased, and living conditions in estates have been
improved (DCS2005, 2012). Firstly, this study delineates disparity of housing conditions among living
sector. Secondly, difference of residential areas based on the management categories will be described,
and factors will be described, and factors accounting for these differences will be explored.
METHODOLOGY
Descriptive manner will be applied for this study. The results presented in this paper are based on
qualitative and quantitative methods of secondary and primary data collection. Capability approach isalso applied for this analysis.
Characteristics of the Secondary Data
Secondary data was from the Child Activity Survey (CAS) which was conducted by the Department ofCensus and Statistic with the International Labor Organization (ILO) in 2008/09. The objective of CAS
was to identify the characteristics of Sri Lanka children. It, however, collected information abouthousing and household characteristics composed of 16,000 housing units that represent the wholecountry. Stratification was classified into three sectors of residence: urban, rural, and estate.
Differences in housing environments among living sectors, the areas where three sectors existed werechosen from the CAS. Recent management styles of agriculture vary, and the number of small holders
and farmers has been increasing. Thus, in this study, data were extracted and sorted from the rural
housing variable into farmer and the rural itself. Characteristics of farmer are to own a single house andland, at least one parent is working, ownership of livestock been less than 10 cows and goats, and owns
less than 100 chickens.
To deepen the multidimensional understanding of livelihood, the use of income index is notenough. One purpose of this study is to describe difference of dwelling conditions among three areas
based on the management styles in tea industry. Therefore, the data on access to safe drinking water,household exclusive toilet, and electricity lighting were adapted for this analysis. Definition of safe
drinking water in CAS is “Protected well within and outside premises” “Tube well” “Tap withinpremises and outside” and “Stream water collected & distributed by pipe lines”. Definition of unsafe
water is “Unprotected well” and “River/Tank/Steam/Spring and other”. Stream water collected &distributed by pipe lines, however, is categorized as unsafe drinking water since this survey did notinclude the scientific evidence. Limitation of this analysis depends on the circumstantial, but is not tobe able to show the scientific data.

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Target Area and Primary Data
Sri Lanka is composed of 25 districts organized into 9 provinces. The 25 districts are divided into 331
divisions which are further divided into 14021 GN divisions. There are 36822 villages in Sri Lana
(DCS 2013). Ecologically Sri Lanka is divided into two zones based on the availability of rainwater.
The southern part of the country where tea cultivation has been planted receives ample rainfall whilenorthern parts of country called the dry zone receive scarce rain.
Primary data were collected at Kotapola Division of Matara District in Southern part of Sri Lanka,
famous as one of five tea cultivation areas, called Ruhuna as Low-grown tea. Kotapola division iscomposed of 110 villages in 37 GN divisions. Where villages and estates existed are evaluated aslower housing conditions in Martara district (DCS 2013). Tea industry in this area has a different story
as oppose to upcountry where no villages were at the time of estates establishment. British government
during colonial area established huge tea estates on the hillside around low-country, which weresurrounded by villages even before the states were introduced (Bronkhorst 2008).

Fig. 1 Location of Deniyaya GN division
Management style of Sri Lanka tea industry are classified into three; RPC (Regional Plantation
Companies=semi-governmental estate), PE (private estate), and Farmer. Survey was conducted in thevillages and estates around Deniyaya GN division. Kiriweldola is one of near Deniyaya is the second
lowest GN division in Matara District. Primary sample size is 302 housing units which composed of
103 households at 5 RPC estates, 100 households at 22 private estates, and 99 households at individual
farms.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Quality of housing affects quality of life. Water affects food and water contamination within the home.
Toilet and sanitation conditions not only have influences on public health, but also on individual health.
Inadequate lighting leads to eyesight problems, and sometimes sources of lighting causes other issues
such as fire or skin problems.
Housing Conditions in Estate Sector
Estate sector is composed of mainly tea, coconuts, rubber and cinnamon in Sri Lanka. Poverty andsocial disparity in estate are still remained. Housing conditions among four residential sectors can be
described through the CAS 2008/09.

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Accessibility

100%
Safe
Water

80%

Exclusive
Toilet60%
40%

Electricity
Lightning

20%
Urban

Rural

EstateFarmer

Sector
Source: CS 2008/09.Ministry of Finance and Planning, Sri Lanka, 2009

Fig. 2 Living condition among residential sectors
Fig. 2 represents the rate of access to three indexes of housing conditions among Urban, Rural,
Estate and Farmer. Comparing access to safe drinking water among urban, rural and individual famer
sectors, the percentage of safe drinking water was 38.7. In contrast, in urban, it accounted for 98.9
percent, among rural and farmer, it accounted for 80.4 percent and 75.8 percent, respectively. Crosssectional analysis was statistically significant at the one percent level between residential sectors andaccessibility of safe drinking water, indicating inadequate water facilities at estate sector than othersectors.
Having an exclusive toilet for households is one of important factors to avoid the spread of
disease and prevent daily sicknesses. Comparing the access of the exclusive toilet facility to threesectors, the percentage of independent household’s toilet was 63.0. In contrast, in urban, it counted for94.1 percent, among rural and farmer, it accounted for 91.4 percent and 96.2 percent, respectively.
Cross-sectional analysis was statistically significant at the one percent level between residential sectors
and accessibility of exclusive toilet for household, indicating less possession of family independent
toilet at estate sector than other sectors
Appropriate light at night or in darkness enables people to see things properly, while inappropriate
degree of light causes eye problems, and sometimes affect the brain or causes mental disorder.
Kerosene or candle is used for lighting in house and on the roads. On the other hand, these have been acause of fire or burns. Couples in estates during the survey explained about the incidence of burn on
their face and body by fallen Kerosene lamp. Using inappropriate resources for light are not only risky
for health but also not environmentally friendly. Fig. 2 shows access of electricity in estate, thepercentage of electricity among other light resources was 67.34. In contrast, in urban was counted for98.52 percent, in rural and farmer were counted for 87.16 percent and 88.01percent. Cross-sectional
analysis was statistically significant at the one percent level between residential sectors andaccessibility of electricity for household, indicating higher possibility to have health problems andaccidents than other three sectors.
Comparative results among sectors are not different to the past literature reviews. People living inestate sector are under the low quality of housing facilities and more likely face the risks under theunsanitary conditions. Especially, accessibility to safe drinking water is lower than access to exclusive
toilet and electricity. Estates owned by RPCs or companies are generally large and equipping themwith adequate infrastructure costs the lot. In wet zones, however, people are more easily have access tonatural water than in dry zones without huge equipment. For electricity system in estate, it is difficult
for companies to maintain a proper system in such a large area even though electricity system in urban
and rural is more likely equipped by government. Structure of housing in estate has an effect on
housing facilities. Family living in the attached housing in a row in estate has shared kitchen and toilets
rather than family in urban and rural who have lived in a single house with household kitchen andtoilets.
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Housing Conditions in Tea industry
Comparted to other industry sectors in estate, working at tea industry are labor intensive, involvement
in working for long hours under harsh environment, and living conditions of estate workers have been
pointed out as unsanitary and insufficient. Recent trend in the tea industry is the increase in the numberof smallholders for promoting tea production. Conventional management system has been outdated
under the current globalization of economics and society. For improving the efficiency in production
and management, the government reprivatized the management of state owned estate sector in 1992
(Wenzlhuemer, 2007 and Ute 2004). Compared to the period before reprivatized management system
was implemented in 1992, the tea industry management can be categorized into three styles; semigovernmental companies which were privatized called RPC, private estates (PE) which include
smallholders, and farmer.
100%
Safe Water

80%
60%

Exclusive
Toilet40%

Electricity
Lightning

20%
RPC

PE

FarmerResearch Area: Kotapola Division, Matara district, Sothern part of Sri Lanka

Fig. 3 Living Conditions among Management Style
To critically explore the tea industry, three indexes are examined among three management styles
in low-country. Fig. 3 describes the access to three indexes among residential areas based on the
management styles. Except electricity light, the trend is similar, PE faces more disadvantages than
RPC or Farmer. Workers’ houses are called “Line-house”, where between 2 and 5 houses are attached,
and were built during the colonial area to accommodate seasonal temporary workers for coffee
production. Kitchen and Toilet outside premises used to be shared with neighbors. Knowledge of
public health and sanitary were not enough (Oxfam 2002, Williges 2004). Tea as replacement of coffee
in 1867 made the seasonal migrants become permanent residents (Kumari 1984, and Wenzlhuemer,2007).
Compared among three indexes, accessibility of safe drinking water is lower than other two
indexes. The percentage of safe drinking water in RPC was 33 percent, in PE and Famer was counted
for 26 percent and for 31 percent, respectively. Cross-sectional analysis was not statistically significant
at the one percent level between residential areas among three management styles, indicating
accessibility to water facilities of divisions of Kotapola district are under similar circumstances.
In comparison of the access of the exclusive toilet facility among residential areas, the percentage
of independent household’s toilet was 88 percent in RPC, in PE, it accounted for 85 percent, in Farmer,
it counted for 98 percent. Almost all families in Farmer own at least one household toilet within or
outside premises, but 7 percent of PE must share it with others, and 8 percent of them have no toilet athome. Cross-sectional analysis was statistically significant at the one percent level between residential
areas and accessibility of household’s exclusive toilet, indicating there is a difference of possession of
exclusive toilet.
Access of electricity light among residential areas, the percentage of electricity among other lightresources was 89 percent in RPC, 92 percent was in PE, and Farmer counted for 98 percent. CrossⒸ ISERD194

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sectional analysis was statistically significant at the five percent level. Lighting system in large estates
more likely depends on the traditional way rather than other two.
Accessibility to safe drinking water is not different among people at the target area, but toilet
facility and accessibility to electricity light is different among residential areas. There are many smallor large river surrounding Deniyaya areas and easy access to natural water in stream or rivers.
Regardless of self-employee or employed by companies, water environment around target area is under
the similar conditions while it contributes to the lower late of access to safe drinking water. Introducing
the individual toilet has been promoted by international or local organizations for public and individual
health. One of reasons is due to the fall that there are differences in toilet facility among residential
regions. Farmers live in a single house rather than sharing the house or rooms, while workers in large
or medium estate are more likely to live in line-houses where small houses are attached to each other in
one long line row house. As discussed above, electricity is more likely to be provided by government,
small private estates are located near the roads and more easily can access electricity. Large estates arestrictly regulated by laws and required to provide enough support to meet the basic needs, while small
estates infrastructures are dependent on owners’ decisions.
CONCLUSION
Soil contamination with pesticide or artificial fertilizer for tea cultivation has affected the quality ofdrinking water, unsanitary or shared toilet causes illness or disease on livings things including human,
improper lighting has influences not only on health, but also on people’s capability. In this paper, threeindexes of housing conditions in residential sector level and industry level were examined. Differencesin housing conditions among residential sectors are described through secondary data analysis, andtendency of housing condition in tea industry based on the management styles is explored throughprimary data analysis.
Result from secondary data analysis showed that disparities among living sectors in Sri Lanka
existed in all three indexes. It indicates that people living in estates are under the low quality of
housing facilities and face the risks of the unsanitary conditions. Especially, accessibility to safe
drinking water is lower than in other two indexes. Result of the second data analysis is not different
from the past literature reviews and researches.
To deepen our understanding of difference in living conditions of tea estates based on
management style, primary data was applied. Secondary data analysis indicates that famer housing
environments were better than in estates, while primary data analysis in tea industry showed different
result. Among residential areas in tea industry, there is no difference in access to safe drinking water at
ten percent level and to electricity lightning at one percent level. Access to electricity at five percent
level, however, is changed from not significant to statistically significant. There is difference in accessto toilet among residential areas. Access to toilet in estate sector (RPC and PE) is different fromfarmers although not statistically difference at 10 percent level between RPC and PE.
Limitation of this analysis is not to be able to show scientific evidence on safety of drinking waterand on sanitary conditions of toilet.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people gave me their support, assistance, and advice during the study. I would like to express myappreciations to people who positively participated in the long interviews which I conducted during thesurvey. I am sincerely grateful to all of these people and to those people who assist and help me. I also
express my sincere gratitude to academic supervisor and advisors for their guidance on this analysis,
and considerable encouragement. This research is supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, in Japan.
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