自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 36 特別号 109 -121（2017 ）Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila
Recovery Efforts in Koyra, Bangladesh
Highlighting the Possible Contribution
to Vulnerability Reduction
Md Shibly SADIK1, Hajime NAKAGAWA2, Md. Rezaur RAHMAN3, Rajib SHAW4,
Kenji KAWAIKE5, Kumiko FUJITA6, and S. M. Tariqul ISLAM7

Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila Recovery Efforts in Koyra,
Bangladesh Highlighting the Possible Contribution
to Vulnerability Reduction
Md Shibly SADIK1, Hajime NAKAGAWA2, Md. Rezaur RAHMAN3,
Rajib SHAW4, Kenji KAWAIKE5, Kumiko FUJITA6, and S. M. Tariqul ISLAM7
Abstract
Cyclone Aila struck Bangladesh in 2009. Disaster managers and researchers agree thatthe pre-Aila vulnerabilities of the affected areas were the major reasons for the devastating
damage and prolonged suffering caused by the cyclone. Since the cyclone hit, a large numberof humanitarian organizations and different government departments have been working on
post-cyclone recovery. This study systematically investigated the Aila recovery mechanism,taking Koyra Upazila as a case study area. Through a process of institutional surveys,
expert interviews, and focus group discussions with local people, this study examined theimplemented recovery measures in the context of pre- Aila vulnerability reduction. One of
the findings is that the present NGO coordination mechanism does not ensure coordinatedrecovery efforts at the local level. Another ﬁnding is that, the adopted recovery measures aremostly low to moderate contributors to vulnerability reduction. The community was afraid thata cyclone similar to Aila would cause severe damage in the future. This study advocates longterm viable measures to eliminate the root causes of pre-disaster vulnerabilities.
Key words：Disaster Response, Reconstruction, Aid, NGO Coordination, Vulnerability
1

2

3

4

Doctoral Student, Dept. of Civil and Ear th Resources
Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan
Prof., Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI),
Kyoto University, Japan
Prof., IWFM, Bangladesh University of Engineering andTechnology, Bangladesh

5
6
7

109

Prof., Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio
University
Assoc. Prof., DPRI, Kyoto University, Japan
Researcher, DPRI, Kyoto University, Japan
Asst. Prof., Institute of Disaster Management, KUET,
Bangladesh

110

Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila Recovery Efforts in Koyra, Bangladesh Highlighting the Possible Contribution to Vulnerability Reduction

1. INTRODUCTION

pressure of 974 mb (JTWC 2009) and made landfall

Although Bangladesh has a long histor y ofa few hours after reaching this maximum intensity

sur viving cyclones (Alam and Collins 2010) and(Harwood 2012). Although it was a weak cyclone,has made significant progress in disaster man-the economic cost and extent of peopleʼs suffering

agement, conducting evacuations and saving lives

outweighed the impact of the recent SSuper Cy-(Haque et al. 2012), further efforts are required

clone Sidr (Ahmed et al. 2016). Immediately after

for post-disaster recover y. This study reviews

the disaster, government and international human-the cyclone recover y mechanism in Bangladesh

itarian organizations (HO) responded with emer-

taking Cyclone Aila as a case study and Koyra

gency aid and recover y suppor t (UNDP 2010).

Upazila of Khulna as the study area. Cyclone Aila

This study examinesd the recovery initiatives fromwas a ʻSevere Cyclonic Storm with a core of hurri-

the context of their contribution to vulnerability

cane windsʼ with a maximum intensity of 65 knots

reduction (VR).

(JTWC 2009) as per the cyclone classification of
Bangladesh Meteorological Department (Debsarma 2009), which is similar to Category I as per the

2. METHODOLOGY
2. 1 Study Area

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale (IFNet 2009). It

Koyra Upazila was selected as the case study

struck the south-western coast of Bangladesh onarea (Fig. 1) because of the severe damage caused

25 May 2009 with a 2 m - 6 m storm surge (ECHOby Aila, the prolonged suffering due to the long2009; IFNet 2009) (Fig. 1). It reached a maximum

delay in recovery of the coastal polders, and thewind speed of 65 knots and a minimum sea level

involvement of a large number of humanitarian or-

Fig. 1

Map of the study area and location of FGDs

111

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 36 特別号（2017 ）ganizations (HO), development partners (DP) andlocal people during the FGDs. FGD locations were

non-government organizations (NGOs) (Roy etselected considering three criteria-i) an area se-

al. 2009; UNDP 2010). Koyra Upazila is located inverely damaged by cyclone Aila, ii) an area where

Khulna district of Bangladesh. It is surrounded bymajor recovery initiatives were implemented andtwo large rivers (Kapatakkhya and Sakbaria) andiii) accessibility.

the worldʼs largest mangrove forest Sundarbans.
At the time of Aila, the entire Upazila was ﬂooded

2. 2. 3 Expert interviewsby a storm surge, which resulted in the complete

Expert inter views were conducted to grasp

destruction of 23,820 houses, 502 arable farms

opinions on each major recovery initiative. Experts

and 20,300 acres of shrimp farms (ECHO 2009).

were selected from NGOs that played major roles

Although this study focused on Koyra Upazila, theand implemented large-scale Aila recover y proj-

study ﬁndings are applicable to other similar coast-ects in Koyra. Four NGOs (IFRC, Save the Chil-al areas of Bangladesh.

dren, Muslim Aid and Pradipan) were selected.
A mid-level responsible professional from each of

2. 2 Approach and Methods

these four NGOs who was directly involved in theThis study adopted a composite methodology,

recover y efforts was inter viewed. In addition, awhich included an institutional survey, focus groupresearcher of Ritsumeikan University, Japan (pres-discussions (FGD), and expert interviews.

ently works in JICA) who had field research experience on the Aila response and reconstruction

2. 2. 1 Institutional survey

efforts in Koyra (Tada 2011) was interviewed.

An institutional sur vey was conducted toments involved in the recovery process in Koyra. A

3. STORYLINE OF AILA RECOVERYINITIA TIVES IN KOYRA

snowball technique (Goodman 1961) was adopted,

3. 1 Humanitarian-Aid-Driven Response andidentify different NGOs and government depart-and different project documents were scrutinized

Recoveryto identify different institutes. Then, responsible

Immediately after the cyclone hit, the interna-

persons from seven major NGOs including thetional community provided humanitarian aid, in-International Federation of Red Cross and Red

cluding emergency relief (food and non-food items,

Crescent (IFRC), Islamic Relief, Muslim Aid, Save

shelter packages) and the government provided

the Children, Caritas, and two local NGOs were

humanitarian assistance of free rice, cash grants,

interviewed.

and food assistance (UNDP 2010). Eventually, followed by a joint needs assessment (ECHO 2009),

2. 2. 2 Focus group discussions

HOs also supported the provision of emergency

In Koyra Upazila, Uttar Bedkashi and Daskin

shelters, transitional housing, emergency water

Bedkashi were the two most severely af fectedsupplies and sanitation, cash grants (for work andunions where a large number of HOs were involved

training) and emergency health (Roy et al. 2009;

along with different government departments for

Tada 2011; UNDP 2010). Emergency repairs of

response and recover y. A total of 14 FGDs (3 inrural roads under ʻCash for Workʼ and ʻFood for2016 and 11 in 2017) were conducted in these twoWorkʼ programs were delayed and affected several

unions (Fig. 1). A structured questionnaire wastimes due to delays in emergency repairs of em-

followed to grasp the cognition and perception ofbankments. Emergency repairs of polders and ru-

112

Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila Recovery Efforts in Koyra, Bangladesh Highlighting the Possible Contribution to Vulnerability Reduction

ral roads were ﬁnally completed in 2014. For emer-

Improvement (CEIP) in 2013 to improve coastal

gency rehabilitation of the rural infrastructure, theembankments, which is still in the study phase.

UNDP modified an ongoing project for Cyclone

Under the umbrella of ERF, the Embassy of theSidr recovery (Emergency 2007 Cyclone Recovery

Kingdom of the Netherlands (EKN) formulated an-

and Restoration Project, ECRRP) and included

other project titled ʻImproved Resilience of Coastal

the Cyclone Aila af fected area in 2013 (World

Communities through Rehabilitation of Coastal

Bank 2013). The UNDP led a multi-donor fund

Embankmentsʼ (EKN and UNDP 2015) in Koyra.

for ʻEarly Recover y Facilities (ERF)ʼ to support

However, the EKN funded project was delayed

housing construction, formulation of new policies

due to an issue of integration with other projects

and guidelines on the emergency response, capac-of BWDB, and ﬁnally ended up rehabilitating only

ity building, disaster risk reduction, etc. (UNDP

2.92 km of embankment. It was clear from the2011). Delay in polder repairing also delayed hous-

multi-sectoral needs assessment (UNDP 2010) anding support projects. In some places in Koyra, newproject reports of UNDPʼs early recovery facilities

houses were constructed while some areas were

(UNDP et al. 2013) that the coastal polders werestill exposed to tidal ﬂooding. The storyline of Aila

the central focus of all recovery initiatives. How-

recovery in Koyra is depicted in Fig. 2 where ma-

ever, the coastal polders have not been completely

jor activities are shown with timelines and the im-

restored. The emergence of coastal polders as aplementing agencies. This storyline with a timeline

central focus is not a good indication because it

was developed from information collected by theincreases dependency on the polders. In the last

institutional survey and project completion reports

two major devastating cyclones, Sidor and Aila,

of NGOs.

these coastal polders only served as the ﬁrst line ofdefense and eventually collapsed as a result of the

3. 2 Recovery of Coastal Polders

rising storm surge (Kibria and Khan 2017). There-

After long efforts to obtain funding from theWorld Bank, the Bangladesh Water Development

fore, dependency on coastal polders gives a false
sense of security.

Board (BWDB) initiated Coastal Embankment

Fig. 2Timeline of Cyclone Aila recovery in Koyra

113

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 36 特別号（2017 ）4. COORDINATION MECHANISM OF
HUMANITARIAN AID FOR RECOVERY
4. 1 National Level Coordination

tiple DPs work together. Rather than integrating
all humanitarian assistance projects into one large
program, different DPs implement their projects
independently by contracting a number of NGOs.

Following the Paris Declaration (2005), Ban-

As a result, the number of NGOs and the number

gladesh established the Local Consultative Groupof projects at the local level (which is Upazila in(LCG), which is the key coordination structure at

this case) dramatically increases. In the case of

the national level (Walton-Ellery 2009). The LCG

the response and recover y efforts after Aila, weconsists of 18 thematic working groups. Each

identified 14 NGOs contracted by 10 DPs from 8

working group is jointly chaired by the relevant

clusters. Maintaining coordination among theseministry and a development partner (DP). Amonglarge numbers of NGOs and monitoring their work

the 18 working groups, Disaster Emergency andbecame an unmanageable task for the local govern-

Response (DER) coordinates among all DP, HOs

ment of Koyra during the response and recovery

and NGOs that are working in the disaster sec-

period.

tor. The LCG structure in practice only enables
a platform for communication and consultation,

4. 3 Local Level Coordination

which may result in good cooperation, but does not

As illustrated in Fig. 3(c), coordination among

ensure coordination, in-depth dialogue, and align-

NGOs at the Upazila level is maintained by thement to national priorities and policies (Rahaman

UNO (Upazila Nirbahi Ofﬁcer, the chief executive

and Khan 2010).

of ficer of the Upazila Government). The UNO
of ficer maintained coordination by arranging a

4. 2 Delivery of Humanitarian Assistancemonthly coordination meeting. The UNO officer

Under the DER structure, the Humanitarianassigned an NGO to coordinate with others and to

Coordination Task Team (HCTT) is responsible forprepare a combined report of activities to present

coordinating humanitarian work, early recover yin the meeting. All the NGOs were required to re-and resilience. In addition, the HCTT coordinates

ceive a certiﬁcate from the UNO. Since it was notwith other clusters i.e. Food security, nutrition,

possible for the UNO to monitor directly the activ-

health, water supply and sanitation, education, ear-

ities of NGOs without any additional capacity, his

ly recovery, logistics, shelter and child protection,ofﬁce only judged an NGO by its regular presence

which are represented by different UN bodies.

in the coordination meeting and issued the ʻCertif-

In this aid-driven response and recover y ef-

icate of Project Completion.ʼ The responsibility forfort, NGOs work as the delivery agent for DPs as

overall monitoring of NOGs activities was given toillustrated in Fig. 3(a). At the time of a disaster,

the Project Implementation Officer (PIO) of thedifferent DPs from different clusters contract their

Department of Disaster Management at the Upazi-partner NGOs to deliver their support to the local

la level (Fig. 3, c). However, without any additional

community. For quick implementation, a DP splits

resources and manpower, the PIO could only

their humanitarian assistance into several com-maintain close communications with NGOs. Thus,

ponents or work packages and contracts several

this mechanism did not ensure coordination. FromNGOs to implement those components. The samethe inter view with representatives of the major

NGO can be contracted by several DPs. A DP

six NGOs involved in Koyra recovery efforts andworks in multiple clusters and in each cluster mul-

two NGO coordinators, it was understood that this

114

Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila Recovery Efforts in Koyra, Bangladesh Highlighting the Possible Contribution to Vulnerability Reduction

Fig. 3Foreign aid driven recovery activities coordination mechanism at upzaila levelmechanism only ensured sharing of general infor-

The list of beneﬁciaries was prepared very publicly

mation among the NGOs. Most of these NGOs are

and transparently (as reflected in the discussion

competitors. They compete with each other to gain

in FGDs). However, local people claimed that thecontracts for new projects from funding agencies.

prioritization and selection of villages for imple-

As a result, they tend to withhold information on

menting humanitarian support e.g. housing was in-notable features, strengths and innovative thinking

ﬂuenced by powerful elites. In practice, the coordi-of ongoing projects to secure their competitivenessnation structure did not ensure proper monitoring

for the future. Thus, the original objective of theof these issues.

coordination meeting could not be achieved. A
similar situation occurred in the case of Aila recovery in Koyra, which eventually ended up in un-coordinated recovery efforts, corruption, and some

5. THE ROLE OF ONGOING RECOVERY IN REDUCING PRE-AILA VULNERABILITIES

areas being overlooked during recovery planningThis study attempted a systematic examina-

and implementation (Mahmud and Prowse 2012).

tion of ongoing recovery initiatives in the context

During the FGDs, local people repeatedly men-of pre-Aila vulnerability reduction (VR). Major

tioned issues of corruption and misuse of power.

recover y initiatives implemented in Koyra were

To avoid corr uption and misuse of power, theidentiﬁed by the institutional survey, literature re-NGOs adopted a participatory approach of select-

view and FGDs. Thereafter, the recovery initiatives

ing beneficiaries where they conducted a series

were grouped into 11 clusters as listed in Tablesof meetings with local people in the presence of

1 to 4. Experts were asked to give their judgment

representatives from local government institutes.

on the potential roles of each recovery initiative in115

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 36 特別号（2017 ）Table 1 Potential Contribution of Recovery of Physical Safety, Water Supply and Sanitation, and Housing toPre- Aila vulnerabilities Reduction (PAVR)
Major Cluster
Physical Safety

Water and Sanitation

Housing

Implemented Recovery Measures

PAVR

Emergency countermeasure to repair breaches

2.2

Emergency repair of 20-km embankment

2.6

Rehabilitation of embankment (to the pre-disaster design condition)

3.6

Re-excavation / construction of ponds

2.8

Installation of desalinization plant/ hand pump tube-wells/ rainwater harvesting system (RHS)

3.0

WASH Promotion

3.6

Cash grant (around 250 USD) for house repair

3.6

A new house with sanitation facilities replacing the damaged house or in a new location. (Type: GI
sheet, bamboo structure, raised plinth level)

3.0

A new house with sanitation facilities replacing the damaged house or in a new location (Type: brickstructure, GI sheet roof, raised plinth level).

2.8

Note: Score 1=Least contribution, ʻ2ʼ=Low contribution, ʻ3ʼ=Moderate contribution, ʻ4ʼ=Fair contribution and ʻ5ʼ=Signiﬁcant contribution to pre- Aila VR.

pre-Aila VR following a structured questionnaire.

the time the storm surge hit. The causes of em-

They were asked to judge by giving scores ranging

bankment failures and pre-Aila vulnerabilities werefrom 1-5. Score 1 refers to the least contribution

illegal breaching, unsustainable growth of shrimp

and Score 5 refers to a significant contribution

farming inside the polders and a lack of a suffi-

in reducing pre-Aila vulnerabilities. The average

cient maintenance mechanism (Sadik et al. 2017).

scores (from the answers to Question 3) are shown

The frequent embankment breaching (even afterin Tables 1 to 4. Discussions and critical analy-

completion of the recovery work) due to high tides

ses of these tables are provided in the following

supports the judgment of the experts.

sub-sections as well.
5. 2 Water Supply and Sanitation
5. 1 Physical Safety

Sanitation was a critical sector that was af-

Aila induced a storm surge that breached thefected severely by Cyclone Aila. Re-excavation ofcoastal polders in Koyra in 36 places (Roy et al.

ponds, repair of ponds and ﬁlters and construction2009). Around 81 km of 119 km of embankmentsof new ponds were attempted to restore the water

was completely destroyed, which resulted in long-supply in areas where hand pump tube wells were

term inundation for 2-3 years. In response, thenot effective due to groundwater salinity. Saltwater

BWDB ﬁrst tried to close the embankment open-

shrimp farming is extensively practiced in Koyra

ings by earthen works. Since this emergency workand most of the pond areas are surrounded by

was not successful in several places and thesesaltwater shrimp farms. Consequently, salt water

were only emergency measures, the experts gave

leaches into the ponds from adjacent shrimp aqua-

low scores to this contribution to VR. The expertʼsculture ponds and raises the salinity of the pond

judged the emergency repairs and rehabilitationwater. The experts judged excavating or re-exca-of the embankment, which was just restoration tovating ponds as a low contributor to VR (Table 1).

the pre-disaster design condition, as a low contri-

Whereas, the experts considered the installation of

bution to VR (Table 1). Another justiﬁcation wasdesalinization plants, hand pump tube wells (wherethat this emergency work and rehabilitation did

fresh ground water is available) and rainwater har-not resolve the causes of embankment failure atvesting systems (RHS) to be comparatively better

116

Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila Recovery Efforts in Koyra, Bangladesh Highlighting the Possible Contribution to Vulnerability Reduction

options. However, the experts considered theseprovided to a limited number of affected families.

initiatives as moderate contributors to VR due toMoreover, the houses were constructed on land

the installation of only a few desalinization plants, awithout considering any hazard-based land use

limited availability of fresh groundwater (only in a

plan.

few villages), and the communityʼs low capacity for5. 4 Cyclone Shelters

proper maintenance of RHS.

The inadequate number of cyclone shelters,
5. 3 Housing

no space for livelihood shelters, and lack of gen-

Before Cyclone Aila, most of the houses

der consideration in cyclone shelters were criticalin Koyra were made of earthen walls, thatchedsources of vulnerabilities before Cyclone Aila (Sa-rooves (Nypa Palm leaves) and wooden or bamboo

dik et al. 2017). This motivated experts to judge

foundations. To promote housing recover y, thethe constr uction of new multipurpose cyclone

government provided around 250 USD to 90% of all

shelters a as a signiﬁcant contributor to VR (Tablehouseholds in Koyra except three villages where

2). However, during this judgment, experts did

the grant was provided to around 35% of house-

not consider how many new cyclone shelters were

holds (Source: FGD). Besides, NGOs constructedbuilt. Despite constructing 18 new cyclone sheltershouses (transitional shelters as per NGOʼs deﬁni-(Source: Local Government Engineering Depart-tion) for 20%-30% families. These houses were built

ment, LGED), the population of 2 to 3 wards needon the beneficiariesʼ own land and were made ofto share one cyclone shelter.

wood, corrugated iron sheets, and earthen ﬂoors.
5. 5 Disaster Preparedness, Early Warning,

The ERF of UNDP provided brick-made houses toand Disaster Awareness

only 265 (0.6%) Aila-affected families (De Silva andShafie 2014). Since, the governmentʼs cash grantDuring Cyclone Aila, most people received areached a maximum number of families, and ben-last-minute evacuation warning and rushed to cy-

eﬁciaries could use that grant to either repair theirclone shelters, high roads and embankments withhouses or for food security, the experts judged it ano preparedness (Sakamoto 2016). Therefore, al-moderate to fair contributor to VR (Table 1). On

most all NGOs had recovery programs on disasterthe other hand, the experts judged other hous-training to improve early warning dissemination

ing support as moderate since such support wasand evacuation behavior. Since this training was

Table 2 Potential Contribution of Shelters, Preparedness, Early Warning and Disaster Awareness Related
Measures to Pre- Aila Vulnerabilities Reduction (PAVR)
Major Cluster
Cyclone Shelter

Implemented Recovery Measures

3.8

Construction of new multipurpose shelter

5.0

Improvement of warning dissemination mechanism by training of volunteers, local DDM profesDisaster Prepared- sionals, and raising community awarenessness and Early Warn- Introducing mobile based (SMS/interactive voice response) services for disaster warning
ing
Allocation of budget/resources (to local government) in pre-disaster period for taking preparednessof emergency response.
Disaster Awareness

PAVR

Repair of cyclone shelter

3.6
3.2
3.4

Community training for DRR and CCA awareness

3.6

Mass awareness and campaign

3.2

School based resilience awareness for children

3.6

Note: Descriptions of scores are provided in the notes of Table 1.

117

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 36 特別号（2017 ）project-based and not regular practice, the experts

Since the recovery initiatives did not include thesejudged them as a moderate to fair contributor

viable options, the experts judged the implement-

to VR (Table 2). The government, along withed recovery initiatives as poor to moderate contrib-

international HOs, developed a new mobile-tele-utors to VR (Table 3). The experts found direct

phone-based early warning dissemination system.

livelihood support such as cash grants, livelihood

Unfor tunately, this is not widely known in theasset support (e.g. boats, nets, rickshaw pullers,community, which also reﬂected the expertʼs opin-etc.) as fair contributors to VR.

ion. Similarly, the experts did not judge the new
approach of allocating an emergency budget to the

5. 7 Education

local government before any disaster very high. As

Direct damage of educational institutions, theper their opinion, apart from the corruption issue,

collapse of road networks and long-term inunda-

this budget is still limited.

tion led to suspension of the education system in
Koyra for a long time (1-2 years as reported by

5. 6 Livelihoods

locals). The government and NGOs ﬁrst repaired

The pre-Aila income-related vulnerabilities

partially damaged schools and distributed essential

were rooted in unsustainable agricultural practices,furniture, books, etc. As per the expertsʼ opinion,

extensive growth of conventional shrimp farming

since these initiatives did not ensure any additional

without any land use plans and high dependency

risk reduction measures, the contribution to VR

on nature. Those dependent on shrimp farming

was judged low to moderate. The expertʼs judged

and agriculture suffered the most (Abdullah et al.

school-based sanitation, food and nutrition pro-2016). One study suggests that salt-tolerant rice va-

grams and reconstruction of damaged schools as arieties, mixed shrimp-rice agriculture, land zoning

moderate to fair contributor to VR (Table 3). The

for shrimp farming and technological agriculturalexperts reported that the establishment of more

improvements are viable options for that region.

new schools, and initiatives for reducing school

Table 3 Potential Contribution of Recovery of Livelihood, Education, and Rural Infrastructure for Pre-Aila
Vulnerabilities Reduction (PAVR)
Major Cluster

Implemented Recovery Measures

1.8

Livelihood support: cash/boat/net/rickshaw

4.0

Distribution of agricultural input/juvenile ﬁsh

3.6

Livelihood and Local
Training on livelihood
EconomyCash for Work + Cash for Training (NGO initiated one-year program)

Education

Rural Infrastructure

PAVR

Micro-credit

2.8
2.3

Cash for Work (40-day / 60-day program)

2.4

Safety net for ultra-poor

3.6

School repair

2.8

Reconstruction of new schools

3.2

Distribution of essential furniture, recreational & educational materials

2.8

School-based sanitation, food, and nutrition program (for students)

3.2

Emergency repair earthen roads (under cash for work scheme/volunteer labor)

2.8

Re-construction of roads (conventional design: earthen & herring bond brick)

3.2

Conversion of bund of shrimp farming pond/agricultural land to rural roads

2.2

Rehabilitation and construction of Upazila administration infrastructure

2.4

Note: Descriptions of scores are provided in the notes of Table 1.

118

Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila Recovery Efforts in Koyra, Bangladesh Highlighting the Possible Contribution to Vulnerability Reduction

dropout rates could highly contribute to VR, butthese buildings were reconstructed with improved

unfortunately these measures were not implement-

design and additional DRR measures, the experts

ed in the Koyra recovery.

judged that local people would not receive any direct beneﬁt from that.

5. 8 Rural Infrastructure
5. 9 Disaster Governance

A poor road network and poor road conditions
were two major vulnerabilities before Aila hit,

The aftermaths of Cyclones Sidr (2007) andwhich resulted in prolonged suffering (Mallick, Ra-

Aila (2009) motivated the government to makehaman, and Vogt 2011). Aila inundated the entire

remarkable changes in its disaster policies andarea of Koyra and caused the road communication

practice. The UNDP and other DPs advocated forsystem to collapse. The buildings of administration

improved disaster governance. A new disasterofﬁces were also poor quality and built in low-lying

management plan has been developed. The ERF

areas. Consequently, these buildings were alsoof UNDP also developed new guidelines for emer-

inundated during Aila. Under the Cash for Workgency preparedness. However, the mechanism

program the local government attempted to en-

for effective enforcement and monitoring of thesegage local people in emergency repair work. NGOs

policies and guidelines has not been improved

also helped in a similar way. The LGED attempted

remarkably, which prompted the experts to score

to reconstruct damaged rural roads with funding

these initiatives as a moderate to fair contributor tofrom several foreign aid and government projects.

VR (Table 4). The experts also judged the initia-

These reconstruction efforts did not consider any

tive of the NGO coordination meetings at the UNO

additional DRR measures or any improvementsofﬁce as a low to moderate contributor in reducingof design. No new roads were constructed to ex-

vulnerability since these coordination meetings didpand the road network from the pre-Aila period.

not ensure effective coordination and harmoniza-

Therefore, vulnerabilities related to infrastructuretion among NGOs (Table 4). This is discussed inare similar to those of the pre-Aila vulnerabilities.

detail in Section 4 of this paper.

On this note, the experts judged the implemented
5. 10 Social Organizations and Networks

measures low to moderate contributors to VR (Table 3). Surprisingly, the experts did not recognize

The international HOs and DPs promoted so-

the rehabilitation of the Upazila local administrative

cial organization and networking by forming local

buildings as a good contributor to VR. Althoughvolunteer committees and building NGO-communi-

Table 4 Potential Contribution of Recover y of Disaster Governance and Social Organization for Pre-Aila
Vulnerabilities Reduction (PAVR)
Major Cluster

Implemented Recovery Measures

PAVR

Establishment of early recovery facility (by UNDP) for national level coordination

3.4

Hold NGO coordination meeting at UNO ofﬁce

2.4

Disaster Governance Development of Guideline for emergency preparedness for NGOs

3.6

Development of Disaster Management Plan

4.0

Training for local disaster management professionals/ UNOs/government ofﬁcials

3.0

Formation of local committee and volunteer groups and capacity building by training

3.4

Social Organizations
Building NGO-community partnershipand Networks
Increase consultation between community and local government
Note: Descriptions of scores are provided in the notes of Table 1.

3.0
3.6

119

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 36 特別号（2017 ）ty partnerships. The NGOs also worked to enableof Disaster Management will strengthen the aid

an environment in which consultation between

effectiveness mechanism by ensuring their effec-

the community and local government would be in-tive involvement in monitoring and coordination.

creased. Since these initiatives were project based

In addition, the HCTT should establish a joint co-only and were not continued after completion ofordination cell at Upazila with the UNO to ensure

the project, the experts judged them as a moderate

coordination and alignment of the humanitarian

to fair contributor to VR (Table 4).

assistance to local needs.

Although NGO-community partnerships are

The expertsʼ evaluation of the Aila recover yimportant for VR (Islam and Walkerden 2015), peo-

initiatives reveals that viable measures to reduce

ple are becoming dependent on aid. Experts frompre-Aila vulnerabilities are rarely considered.

NGOs reported that when NGOs were construct-

The expertsʼ judgment on the recovery measures

ing houses, they requested the house owner toimplemented is similar to the local peopleʼs under-

help in the construction as a paid worker. Unfortu-

standing of the recover y identified in the FGDs.

nately, there were several cases where people did

During the FGDs, local people were asked about

not want to work. NGOʼs aid is also making people

possible damage and suffering if a cyclone similar

greedy. During the field sur vey, it was obser ved

to Aila occurred. They answered that the damage

that when local people were asked whether theyand suffering would be greater or at least similar

received any support, they promptly answered-to that caused by Cyclone Aila. Their judgementʻNoʼ. Whereas, further discussion revealed thatwas based on the present weak condition of coastal

they had received relief, cash grants, homes, etc.

polders, rural roads and insufficient numbers ofThus, an increasing dependency on NGOsʼ aid andcyclone shelters in their villages.

a growing tendency toward not engaging in self-

The major sources of vulnerabilities in thehelp are undermining the expected benefits of

pre-Aila period that ultimately led to prolonged

NGO-community partnerships.

suffering of people due to Cyclone Aila were poor
maintenance of embankments, unplanned saltwater

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

shrimp farming inside the polder area, the practice

The central question of this study was wheth-of illegal breaching of embankments (Tada 2011),

er the ongoing Aila recovery initiatives were reduc-poor road communications, the growth of scattereding pre-disaster vulnerability. The study evolved

settlements along the river side (Alam and Collins

through identifying recovery initiatives, examining

2010; Mallick, Rahaman, and Vogt 2011), highcoordination mechanisms and evaluating recovery

dependency on shrimp farming for livelihoods

initiatives by the judgment of experts who were di-(Abdullah et al. 2016), poor social network (Islam

rectly involved in the Aila recovery. The ﬁndings ofand Walkerden 2015), lack of community participa-

this study suggest the present NGO coordination

tion in water management (Dewan, Buisson, andmechanism does not ensure effective coordination

Mukherji 2014; Gain, Mondal, and Rahman 2017)at the Upazila level at the time of post-disasterand a poor water supply sanitation system (Mallick,recovery. It highlights the need for a comprehen-

Rahaman, and Vogt 2011). Therefore, this study

sive and effective coordination mechanism at therecommends long-term viable measures to elimi-

Upazila level. Capacity building (technical, humannate these major sources of vulnerabilities. These

resources and financial) of the UNO, and estab-

viable long-term measures are rooted in land-use

lishment of an Upazila office of the Department

zoning, full recovery of coastal polders, regulation

120

Systematic Study of Cyclone Aila Recovery Efforts in Koyra, Bangladesh Highlighting the Possible Contribution to Vulnerability Reductionof the growth of scattered housing along the riverside, protection of villages from storm surges,
creation of hazard-map-based, land-use planningfor housing and rural infrastructure, improvementof the design of r ural roads, establishment ofappropriate technology for the water supply, etc.
Inclusion of these measures in recover y would
reduce pre-disaster vulnerabilities and improve theprospects of the Aila affected community in Koyra.

References
Abdullah, Abu Nasar Mohammad et al. 2016. “A
Shor t-Term Decrease in Household Income
Inequality in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh, Following Cyclone Aila.” Natural Hazards 83(2):1103–23. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/
s11069-016-2358-1 (August 25, 2016).
Ahmed, Bayes, Ilan Kelman, Heather K. Fehr, andManik Saha. 2016. Community Resilience to Cyclone Disasters in Coastal Bangladesh. Sustainability 8(8): 805. http://www.mdpi.com/20711050/8/8/805 (January 19, 2017).
Alam, Edris, and Andrew E Collins. 2010. Cyclone
Disaster Vulnerability and Response Experiencesin Coastal Bangladesh. Disasters 34(4): 931-54.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20561338(December 25, 2015).
Debsarma, Sujit Kumar. 2009. “Simulations of Storm
Surges in the Bay of Bengal.” Marine Geodesy
32: 178-98. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01490410902869458?needAccess=true(June 14, 2017).
Dewan, Camelia, Marie-Charlotte Buisson, and Aditi
Mukherji. 2014. The Imposition of Participation?
The Case of Participator y Water Managementin Coastal Bangladesh. Water Alternatives 7(2):342-66. https://goo.gl/oW1Wgc.
ECHO. 2009. In-Depth Recovery Needs Assessment of
Cyclone Aila Affected Areas. Dhaka, Bangladesh:
Reliefweb. https://goo.gl/Hkq4Cy.
EKN, and UNDP. 2015. Final Narrative Repor t of
Building Community Resilience Through Integrated Water Management (IWM) Project inBangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: The Embassy of
the Kingdom of the Netherlands and United Na-

tions Development Programme. https://goo.gl/
JjXrkQ.
Gain, Animesh, M. Mondal, and Rezaur Rahman. 2017.
From Flood Control to Water Management: A
Journey of Bangladesh towards Integrated Water
Resources Management. Water 2017, Vol. 9,
Page 55 9(1): 55.
Goodman, Leo A. 1961. “Snowball Sampling.”
The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 32(1):148-70. http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.
aoms/1177705148 (September 23, 2016).
Haque, Ubydul et al. 2012. Reduced Death Rates
from Cyclones in Bangladesh: What More
Needs to Be Done? Bull World Health Organ
90(2): 150-56. http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/90/2/11-088302.pdf?ua=1 (April 3,2017).
Har wood, Phillip. 2012. Cyclone Aila (2009). eSurge Web Portal. http://www.storm-surge.info/
cyclone-aila-2009 (June 26, 2017).
IFNet. 2009. Repor t: Cyclone AILA, May
2009 - IFNet. Flood Infor mation. http://
www.internationalfloodnetwork.org/aila.htm(September 7, 2016).
Islam, Rabiul, and Greg Walkerden. 2015. How Do
Links between Households and NGOs Promote
Disaster Resilience and Recovery?: A Case Studyof Linking Social Networks on the Bangladeshi
Coast. Natural Hazards 78(3): 1707-27. http://
link.springer.com/10.1007/s11069-015-1797-4(August 4, 2016).
JTWC. 2009. JTWC Nor thern Indian Ocean Best
Track Data. JTWC Northern Indian Ocean Best
Track Data. https://goo.gl/VIX5Ol (June 9, 2017).
Kibria, Md Gulam, and M. Shah Alam Khan. 2017.
Embankment Failure Process and Associated
Inundation in a Coastal Polder of Bangladesh.
In International Conference on Water and FloodManagement 2017, Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,
95-104.
Mahmud, Tanvir, and Martin Prowse. 2012. Corruption in Cyclone Preparedness and Relief Efforts in
Coastal Bangladesh: Lessons for Climate Adaptation? Global Environmental Change 22(4): 933-43.
Mallick, Bishawjit, Khan Rubayet Rahaman, and Joachim Vogt. 2011. Coastal Livelihood and Physical

121

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 36 特別号（2017 ）Infrastructure in Bangladesh after Cyclone Aila.
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global
Change 16( 6 ): 629-48. http://link.springer.
com/10.1007/s11027-011-9285-y (August 25, 2016).
Rahaman, Muhammad Mustafizur, and Niaz Ahmed
Khan. 2010. The Realities of Aid Harmonisation
and Aid Effectiveness: Views from Bangladesh.
Asia Pacific Journal of Public Administration
32(1): 107-22. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
abs/10.1080/23276665.2010.10779369 (October
6, 2016).
Roy, Kushal et al. 2009. Cyclone AILA 25 May 2009
Initial Assessment Report with Focus on Khulna
District. Khulna, Bangladesh: Unnayan Onneshan, Humanity Watch, Nijera Kori. https://goo.
gl/KYime1.
Sadik, Md Shibly et al. 2017. Theoretical Analysis of
Cyclone Aila Recovery Mechanism at Place: Are
They Living in a Vulnerability Cyclone. In 6th International Conference on Water and Flood Management (4-6 May 2017), Dhaka, Bangladesh,
Bangladesh: Institute of Water and Flood Management, Bangladesh University of Engineeringand Technology, 251–60.
Sakamoto, Masashi. 2016. Investigation of Storm
Surge Warnings for Effective Evacuation Behavior:
Case of Coastal Bangladesh. Kyoto University.
De Silva, Preethi, and Hasan Shaﬁe. 2014. Mid-Term
Review of Early Recovery Facilities (ERF). Dhaka.

Tada, Shingo. 2011. GSIR2011-1 Working Paper Series Issues for Effective International Assistance for
Post-Disaster Reconstruction: The Case of Cyclone
Áila’in South-Western Bangladesh. Graduate
School of International Relations, Ritsumei University. https://goo.gl/gZYTTF.
UNDP. 2010. Cyclone Aila - Join UN Multi-Sector
Assessment and Response Framework. Dhaka,Bangladesh: United Nations Development Programme. https://goo.gl/CFTQS2.
̶̶̶. 2011. Project Document: Early Recovery Facility (ERF). Dhaka, Bangladesh: United Nations
Development Programme.
UNDP, EKN, AusAid, and SDC. 2013. 0 Early Recovery
Facility (ERF) Project Annual Progress Repor t
2013. Dhaka, Bangladesh: United Nations Development Programme.
Walton-Ellery, Sandie. 2009. A Review of the Cyclone
Aila Response 2009. Dhaka: IFRC-led Shelter
Cluster Coordination Group. https://goo.gl/s8vRqn (October 6, 2016).
World Bank. 2013. Project Paper on a Proposed Additional Credit for Emergency 2007 Cyclone Recovery
and Restoration Project Additional Financing II.
Dhaka, Bangladesh. https://goo.gl/g4GpNj (October 3, 2016).
（投 稿 受 理：平成29年 4 月 7 日
訂正稿受理：平成29年 7 月13日）

https://goo.gl/CiNfAs (June 12, 2017).

要旨

バングラデシュは2009年にサイクロンアイラに直撃された。防災担当者や研究者は，被災地における壊滅的な被害と長引く状況は，アイラ発生前つまり準備の段階の脆弱性に原因があったとしている。サイクロン襲来以降，多くの人道的組織や様々な政府省庁が次の災害対応の準
備につながる復旧に携わってきた。本研究では，コイラ郡（Sub district）を対象地域とし，アイ
ラ復旧のメカニズムを系統的に研究することにより，今後どのような準備が必要になるか提唱する。具体的には，組織への調査を通して，専門家へのインタビュー，現地の方とのグループ
ディスカッションを行い，アイラ発生前の脆弱性を分析し，今後の災害軽減の準備に役立つ復旧対策について考察した。その結果，現存している NGO の調整メカニズムに，現地で共同して復旧するための仕組みがないことが明らかとなった。その他の結果として，採用された復旧対策のほとんどは，今後の防災の脆弱性の軽減につながっていなかったことが明らかとなった。
このことは，現地コミュニテーで，今後アイラと同等のサイクロンが発生すると同じような壊滅的な被害を受けるのではないかと脅威を感じていたことから明らかとなった。これらの災害
前の脆弱性の根本的な原因を踏まえ，今後の災害に備えるための長期的に実行可能な対策を提唱する。