Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63
DOI 10.1007/s10661-010-1718-7

Applicability of Corbicula as a bioindicator for monitoringorganochlorine pesticides in fresh and brackish waters
Yugo Takabe · Hiroshi Tsuno · Fumitake Nishimura ·Yuntao Guan · Tadao Mizuno ·Chisato Matsumura · Takeshi Nakano

Received: 9 February 2010 / Accepted: 6 September 2010 / Published online: 24 September 2010
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract The applicability of Corbicula as abioindicator for monitoring organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in fresh and brackish waters is presented here. Differences in isomer compositions
and OCP bioaccumulation levels were analyzed inwestern Japan and the Pearl River Delta (PRD) in
China. Isomer compositions of DDTs, chlordanes,and HCHs were significantly different between
the two areas because of their different historical uses and property of the chemicals. This is

Y. Takabe (B) · H. Tsuno · F. Nishimura · T. Mizuno
Department of Environmental Engineering,
Kyoto University, Kyoto-Daigaku-Katsura,
Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 6158540, Japane-mail: takabe.yugo@t02.mbox.media.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Y. GuanGraduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University,
Tsinghua Campus, The University Town,
Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Y. GuanCooperative Research and Education Center for
Environmental Technology, Kyoto University &Tsinghua University, Tsinghua Campus,
The University Town, Shenzhen 518055,
People’s Republic of China
C. Matsumura · T. Nakano
Hyogo Prefectural Institute of Environmental
Sciences, 3-1-27 Yukihira-cho, Suma-ku, Kobe,
Hyogo 6540037, Japan

represented by the (DDE + DDD)/DDT ratio in
Corbicula, ranging 4.9–39 in western Japan and
1.1–2.4 in the PRD. However, isomer compositions in Corbicula reflected those in water, andthe different patterns in Corbicula likely reflected
the usage history. Concentrations of dissolved
oxygen, suspended solids, and volatile suspended
solids in water, and the difference in species
did not influence OCP bioaccumulative levels in
Corbicula when conducting biomonitoring. Theselevels are likely similar to those in Mytilus galloprovincialis. Therefore, Corbicula could be an
appropriate bioindicator for monitoring OCPs in
fresh and brackish waters.
Keywords Organochlorine pesticides ·Corbicula · Biomonitoring · Bioaccumulation ·Western Japan · Pearl River Delta

Introduction
Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are persistentorganic pollutants (POPs) used widely throughout the world since the 1950s. These pollutants
have caused great concern because of their
toxic effects, bioaccumulation, persistence, andlong-range atmospheric transport (Jimenez 1997;
Monirith et al. 1999; Zhang et al. 2002; Yamashita
et al. 1993). Worldwide surveys of POPs, including OCPs, using mussels have been conducted in

48

seawaters (Boonyatumanond et al. 2002; Khaled
et al. 2004; Munschy et al. 2008). Monitoring
OCPs in fresh and brackish waters is important forunderstanding of local pollution and identifying
pollution sources.
Field surveys of OCPs using various types offish have been conducted in freshwaters to determine the pollution levels in fish, original sourcesof contamination, and risks to public health(Bordajandi et al. 2003; Jacobs et al. 2002;
Monirith et al. 1999). However, when low environmental OCP concentrations are to be detected
and monitored using bioindicators at specificpoints for long periods, fish have disadvantages
due to their mobility. Thus, it is essential to establish biomonitoring methods using bivalves basedon relationships between contaminant concentrations in bivalves and those in the environment.
Bioaccumulation is the uptake of chemicalcompounds by biota from either water or food.
It is clearly known that lipids serve as the primary storage compartment of hydrophobic organic chemicals, and bioaccumulation factors on
a lipid basis (BAFLs) were used to show thebioaccumulative levels of target chemicals andanalyze bioaccumulation characteristics in aquaticorganisms (Loonen et al. 1997; Mackay and Fraser
2000; Nichols et al. 2007). In addition, there are
generally positive relationships between bioaccumulative levels in aquatic organisms and thehydrophobicities of the chemicals, and the relationship between bioaccumulative levels andlogKow are also often used (Mackay and Fraser
2000; Voutsas et al. 2002).
Because Corbicula which is sediment-dwellingbivalve exists worldwide (Byrne et al. 2000;
Korniushin 2004; Park and Kim 2003), it has thepotential to be an effective worldwide bioindicator. Additionally, Corbicula has limited mobility and is easy to collect. Corbicula leana
and Corbicula japonica are widely distributed in
fresh and brackish waters in Japan, respectively,
and Corbicula sandai occurs only in Lake Biwa
(Nishino and Watanabe 2000). Meanwhile, Corbicula f luminea and Corbicula f luminalis are distributed in fresh and brackish waters, respectively,
in China (Korniushin 2004; Morton 1986). In addition, C. f luminalis, C. japonica, and C. sandai

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

are dioecious and C. f luminea and C. leana arehermaphroditic (Korniushin 2004; Morton 1986;
Takahashi 1989; Vidal et al. 2002).
Although field surveys have been conductedusing Corbicula (Brown 1997; Zhou et al. 2008),
only OCP concentrations in Corbicula were measured. Although bioaccumulation properties of
OCPs and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in
Corbicula have been studied (Colombo et al. 1995;
Doherty 1990; Mcleod et al. 2008), it is not known
whether concentrations in Corbicula reflect environmental concentrations in areas with different
environmental conditions and pesticide use histories. Before conducting worldwide biomonitoring
using Corbicula, it is important to understand its
applicability in various environments.
In this study, field surveys to evaluate bioaccumulation levels were conducted using Corbicula inrivers and lakes in western Japan and in the Lake
Biwa–Yodo River System. Sampling areas werelater expanded to the Pearl River Delta (PRD) in
China, where environmental conditions and OCP
usage history differ from those in Japan.
The Lake Biwa–Yodo River System is locatedin the Kinki region of Japan. The upstream area
consists primarily of arable fields, while the downstream area consists primarily of residential districts and land used for commercial and industrial
purposes. Although the water system was polluted
approximately 30 years ago, it was not comprehensively surveyed for OCPs.
The PRD is located in the developed southernpart of China where water pollution has becomea severe problem because of increasing urban
wastewater discharges, resulting from rapid industrialization and urbanization (Zhai et al. 2005).
The area has the highest pesticide use in China(Zhang et al. 2002). Previous studies in the PRD
have focused on POP concentrations in water,
sediment, and air (Li et al. 2006; Luo et al. 2004;
Zhang et al. 2002); however, few surveys havebeen conducted using living organisms (Fu et al.
2003).
In this study, the applicability of Corbicula asa bioindicator for monitoring OCPs in the environment was analyzed using results from fieldsurveys that reflected different environmental
conditions and OCP usage histories. The study

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

49

focused on differences in isomer compositions andbioaccumulation levels of OCPs. Additionally, thebioaccumulation levels of Corbicula were compared with those of Mytilus galloprovincialis,which has been widely used as a bioindicator inseawaters.

in the PRD), 12 L of water, and 100 g of surface
sediment were collected at each point. Corbicula
shells were washed with river or lake water at eachsampling point in order to remove sediment fromthe shell. Corbicula, with a similar and dominantshell length, was collected at each point. The similar shell length was indicated by small variation
coefficients (0.065–0.22 in western Japan; 0.068–
0.11 in the PRD) at each point. In western Japan,
the mean weight excluding shell was 0.28–2.4 g(wet) and shell length was 1.3–2.6 cm. In the
PRD, mean weight excluding shell was 0.33–1.4 g(wet) and shell length was 1.3–2.3 cm. In accordance with a previous study (Colombo et al. 1995),
Corbicula was not depurated. Collected Corbiculaand sediment were transported in polyethylene(Ziplock) bags and glass bottles, respectively, andpreserved at −20◦ C; the water was transported inglass bottles and preserved at 4◦ C. GF/B filterswith pore size of 1.0 μm (Whatman, USA) wereused to filter out soluble matter and suspended
solids.

Methods
Samples
Sample selection complied with “Manual for monitoring surveys” of the Ministry of the Environment of Japan (2004). Approximately 50 pieces ofsingle species Corbicula, which originally lived ateach sampling point (Corbicula sandai (sampling
points 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 11, and 12 in Fig. 1), C. leana(6, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17), and C. japonica (4,5, 8, and 18) in western Japan and C. f luminea(20 and 21) and C. f luminalis (23, 24, 25, and 26)

(a)

(b)
1. Oumi-shirahama

500 km

12. Oumi Bridge
13. Uji River
14. Katsura River
15. Kizu River

7. Chikugo River
8. Yae River19

16. Hirakata Bridge
17. Kamitsuya
18. Shin-Yodogawa Bridge

20 km
Dongjiang River

Zhujiang River

21

20
Beijiang River

6

5

1
4

20 km
3

9

2

10

24
11

12

7

14

13

Yodo River
16
17 15
8

100 km18

22
23

Lake Biwa
Katsura River

23. Humen
24. Jiaomen
25. Hongmen
26. Hengmen

19. Guanghe Bridge
20. Guangzhou
University Town
21. Shijie
22. Shatian

9. Oura10. Oumi-shirahama
11. Kyukamura

2. Kyukamura
3. Oumi Bridge
4. Shin-Yodogawa
Bridge5. Lake Togo
6. Hii River

Xijiang River

Seta River

25
26
Pearl River
Estuary

Uji River

Kizu River
1000 kmFig. 1 Maps showing sampling points in western Japan (a) and the Pearl River Delta (b). The triangles in (b) show points inwhich Corbicula could not be collected

50

Sampling field
Samples were collected from eight points in western Japan between 28 October and 27 November
2005 (Fig. 1). The second field survey was conducted at 10 points in the Lake Biwa–Yodo River
System between 7 June and 5 September 2007.
Results from both surveys were combined andreferred to as those from western Japan. Points
at Oumi-shirahama, Kyukamura, Oumi Bridge,
and Shin-Yodogawa Bridge were surveyed in both
years; other points were surveyed once. Samples were collected once from eight points in the
PRD between 24 October and 26 November 2007
(Fig. 1). As sufficient numbers of Corbicula clams
for the pretreatment could not be obtained at two
points (Guanghe Bridge and Shatian), only waterand sediment were collected.

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63
Table 1 Composition of the clean-up spike
Target chemical

Clean-up spike

AldrinDieldrin
EndrinMirex
HCBo,p -DDT, p,p -DDTo,p -DDE, p,p -DDEo,p -DDD, p,p -DDD
cis-chlordane,trans-chlordane
oxy-chlordane
cis-nonachlor,trans-nonachlor

Aldrin (13 C10 , 99%)
Dieldrin (13 C10 , 99%)
Endrin (13 C10 , 99%)
Mirex (13 C10 , 99%)
HCB (13 C6 , 99%)p,p -DDT (13 C12 , 99%)p,p -DDE (13 C12 , 99%)p,p -DDD (13 C12 , 99%)trans-chlordane(13 C10 , 99%)
oxy-chlordane (13 C10 , 99%)
cis-nonachlor (13 C10 , 99%),trans-nonachlor(13 C10 , 99%)
α-HCH (13 C6 , 99%)
β-HCH (13 C6 , 99%)
γ -HCH (13 C6 , 99%)
Heptachlor (13 C10 , 99%)
cis-heptachlor-epoxide(13 C10 , 99%)

α-HCH
β-HCH, δ-HCH
γ -HCHHeptachlorcis-heptachlor-epoxide,
trans-heptachlor-epoxide

Water quality
Water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO),and salinity concentrations were monitored using
multiparameter monitoring system U-21 (Horiba,
Japan) in western Japan. Water temperature
and DO concentrations were measured using
LDO HQ10 (Hach Company, USA), and pH
was metered with pH meter sensION 3 (HachCompany, USA) in the PRD. Concentrationsof suspended solids (SS) and volatile suspended
solids (VSS) were determined at each point by
combusting the filtration paper at 105◦ C for 2 h
and 550◦ C for 30 min, respectively (Standard
method, 2005).
Sample processing and analysis
The ES-5261-1.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants
Clean-up Spike (Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, USA) and the syringe spike MBP-101(13 C12 -PCB #101) (Wellington Laboratories,
Canada) were used to measure aldrin, dieldrin,
endrin, mirex, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), chlordane,
heptachlor, nonachlor, hexachlorocyclohexane(HCH), and the possible isomers and metabolites
of each chemical. The composition of the clean-up
spike is shown in Table 1. The same pretreatment

procedure used for soluble matter and SS, withthe exception of the silica gel column (Varian,USA) clean-up process, was used as previously
described PCB pretreatment (Takabe et al. 2009).
The following procedure was used for soluble
matter. 400 ml of n-hexane (Wako, Japan) was
added to 12 L of filtered water and the mixture
was then agitated for 24 h. After the n-hexane
was recovered, 2,000 pg of the clean-up spike wasadded. The solvent was dehydrated with sodium
sulfate and concentrated to 0.5 mL with Turbo
Vap 500 (Zymark, USA).
The following procedure was used for SS. The
filter paper including the filter cake was cut into
small pieces and added to 20 mL of acetone(Wako, Japan). The sample was ultrasonicated for
10 min followed by centrifugation at 3,000 rpm for
10 min. This procedure was repeated twice. The
same procedure using n-hexane was done twice.
The composite contained 2,000 pg of the cleanup spike. Then, 300 mL of 5% sodium chloride
solution was added to the liquid solution, themixture was then shaken for 1 min, and then then-hexane layer was recovered. 60 ml of n-hexane
was added to the remaining water layer to dissolve
the acetone, and the mixture was shaken for 1 min.
The n-hexane layer was recovered and added

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

to the earlier one. The solvent was dehydrated
with sodium sulfate. It was filtered using the silica gel column, and concentrated to 0.5 mL with
Turbo Vap 500.
The pretreatment process used for SS was applied for 20 g wet sediment samples. Concentrations on a dry weight basis were calculated using
moisture contents. The median and range of the
moisture in sediment were 20 (16–29) % in western Japan and 37 (19–49) % in the PRD.
The following procedure was used for Corbicula. Edible parts, excluding shell, of at least 20
pieces of Corbicula were homogenized in order toavoid sex bias among the samples. Twenty grams(wet) of homogenized sample were weighed.
Then, 2,000 pg of the clean-up spike and 20 mLof acetone were added to the sample, which washomogenized and centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for
10 min. The supernatant was separated and recovered. This procedure was repeated using theresulting residue in order to collect 40 mL ofacetone. Acetone was extracted with two portionsof 60 mL n-hexane. The hexane solution was thendehydrated with sodium sulfate and concentrated
to 20 mL with Turbo Vap 500. The concentrated
solution was extracted using two 60-mL portionsof saturated acetonitrile (Wako, Japan) with nhexane. Acetonitrile was extracted with two 60mL portions of n-hexane to eliminate impurities.
Target OCPs were caught in the hexane layer.
The solution was dehydrated with sodium sulfate,purified through the silica gel column, and thenconcentrated to 0.5 mL with Turbo Vap 500.
In 2005, analyses were performed using
a 5890N high-resolution gas chromatograph(Agilent Technologies, USA) connected to JMS700D high-resolution mass spectrometer (JEOL,Japan). In 2007, analyses were performed using
a 6890N high-resolution gas chromatograph(Agilent Technologies, USA) connected to a
JMS-800D high-resolution mass spectrometer(JEOL, Japan) operating at a resolution of>10,000. Splitless injection of 1 μL was used;
500 pg of the syringe spike was added to samples
prior to injection. Samples were analyzed in a
fused silica capillary column (HP Ultra-2, 60 ×0.25 mm, SGE, Australia). The column washeated from 120◦ C to 180◦ C at a rate of 20◦ C/min,to 210◦ C at a rate of 2◦ C/min and to 300◦ C at a

51

rate of 5◦ C/min. The temperature was held for
2 min. Mass spectrometry was performed using
selected ion monitoring mode with an electron
multiplier voltage of 10 eV.
Quality control for OCP analysis
Blank tests for each pretreatment were performed
in western Japan and the PRD. Because significant HCB concentrations were found in theblank tests from the PRD compared to those in
the field samples, findings on HCB in the PRD
were omitted. Concentrations of all target chemicals were negligible in western Japan, and allconcentrations of the other chemicals in the blanktests were negligible in the PRD.
Except for labeled aldrin, mean recoveries varied between 61% and 99% for soluble matter,
67% and 112% for SS, 53% and 98% for Corbicula, and 62% and 117% for sediment. The
recoveries were in acceptable range according to
the recovery ratio range of 50% to 120% given
by Ministry of the Environment of Japan (2004).
Also, the mean recovery ratio of the labeled aldrin
was 30% for soluble matter, 34% for SS, 33% forCorbicula, and 30% for sediment.
Instrument detection limits (σ × 2 × t(6,0.05),
Table 2) and instrument quantification limits(σ × 10) were based on the standard deviations ofseven repeated analyses with a 0.8 pg/L concentration of target chemicals. Instrument detection
limits of sediment based on dry weight were calculated with moisture contents.
Analysis of lipid content in Corbicula
Edible parts (5 g-wet), excluding shell were homogenized with 80 mL of chloroform and 80 mLof methanol. After filtering through GF/B filters(Whatman, USA), 60 mL of ultrapure water wasadded to recover chloroform. Chloroform was dehydrated with sodium sulfate and dried at 30◦ C,
and a ratio of the residue to the original weight
was used as the lipid content (Ministry of theEnvironment of Japan 2002).
The lipid content in Corbicula varied between
0.35% and 1.9% in western Japan and between
0.75% and 1.1% in the PRD.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

Corbicula (pg/g-wet)Median Min. Max.
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
86
20
1,100
4.7
n.d. 47
1.2
n.d. 9.9
79
14
1,400
2,000
240 7,500
22n.d. 210
81
n.d. 740
15n.d. 210
1,200
240 4,600
130n.d. 650
240
n.d. 1,100
1,000
400 15,000
260
120 4,400
190
69
3,500
8
n.d. 220
210
53
1,500
390
140 5,100
190
15
1,700
32
n.d. 180
130
3.8
1,500
12
n.d. 78
7.0
n.d. 59
7.0
n.d. 1202.8
n.d. 46
5.6
n.d. 79
n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

Sediment (pg/g-dry)Median Min. Max.
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
3.6
2.0
53
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
n.d.
n.d. n.d
22
1.2
300
61
11
850
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
1.1
n.d. 110
39
5.4
360
11
n.d. 270
24
4.2
340
110
11
2,700
37
2.8
820
8.9
2.0
830
1.1
n.d. 25
9.5
1.7
240
15
3.1
740
26
4.5
340
7.0
n.d. 20
23
1.7
310
4.2
n.d. 10
1.3
n.d. 13n.d.
n.d. n.d.
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

7,700
850
2,400
200
1,700
480
2,200
620
250
220
6.0
30
100
73
23
20
22
8.4
5.3
2.3
2.6
n.d.

2,500
200
540
110
820
160
620
330
140
120
2.6
13
53
47
10
14
11
n.d.
1.5
n.d.
1.1
n.d.

31,000
4,200
9,900
340
4,200
5,900
7,600
1,900
850
640
21
96
310
610
400
130
64
13
25
15
18
n.d.

n.d.

330
8.4
29
9.2
84
27
100
21
n.d.
7.1
n.d.
3.2
4.1
60
27
16
11
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.

170,000
19,00084,000540
19,0006,300
42,000
490
190
200
n.d.
27
73
490
220
200
53
59
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.

3,400
74
760
90
710
160
850
76
29
32
n.d.
4.8
11
140
61
52
16
2.6
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.

6,300
660
3,600
59
880
370
2,000
360
150
140
12
22
41
7,500
5,400
1,100
650
400
18
n.d.
18

970
79
260
39
210
65
350
130
46
50
6.9
10
19
1,000
430
260
180
130
7.2
n.d.
3.8

220
23
73
12
43
15
54
58
17
17
n.d.
6.5
14
270
85
97
63
15
2.3
n.d.
2.3

Sediment (pg/g-dry)Median Min. Max.
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
1.2
n.d. 19n.d.
n.d. n.d.
37
8.7
310

The Pearl River Delta
Water (pg/L)
Corbicula (pg/g-wet)Median Min. Max. Median Min. Max.
n.d.
n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. n.d.
7.1
n.d. 43
12
n.d. 15n.d.
n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. n.d.
19
8.0
86
31
7.6
62

n.d. not detected (below the instrument detection limit), SM soluble matter, SS suspended solidsn.d.

Western Japan
Water (pg/L)
Median Min. Max.
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
53
20
490
1.5
n.d. 30n.d.
n.d. n.d
67
4.4
250
76
14
430
n.d.
n.d. n.d.
n.d.
n.d. 20
7.1
n.d. 32
41
10
240
3.6
n.d. 59
19
n.d. 98
220
62
900
81
15
320
52
18
300
6.3
n.d. 23
23
5.4
68
69
16
190
1,400
110 4,700
210
27
1,200
1,000
42
4,200
100
17
410
25
n.d. 570
6.6
n.d. 54n.d.
n.d. n.d.
6.6
n.d. 54

AldrinDieldrin
Endrin
Mirex
HCB
DDTs
o,p -DDTp,p -DDTo,p -DDEp,p -DDEo,p -DDDp,p -DDD
Chlordanes
cis-chlordane
trans-chlordane
oxy-chlrodane
cis-nonachlortrans-nonachlor
HCHs
α -HCHβ -HCHγ -HCHδ -HCHHeptachlors
Heptachlorcis-heptachlorepoxidetrans-heptachlor- n.d.
epoxideChemicals

0.68
1.2
1.1
0.82
0.79
0.43

0.34
0.60
0.55
0.41
0.40
0.21

0.40

0.79
0.23
0.95
0.65
0.70

0.39
0.12
0.48
0.33
0.35

0.20

1.6
9.0
0.41
0.53
0.48
0.90

0.91
0.83
3.1
0.34
0.33

0.79
4.5
0.21
0.26
0.24
0.45

0.46
0.41
1.6
0.17
0.16

0.12

0.24
0.13

0.21
0.36
0.33
0.24

0.24
0.069
0.29
0.20
0.21

0.47
2.7
0.12
0.16
0.14
0.27

0.27
0.25
0.94
0.10
0.098

0.14–0.27

0.29–0.54
0.15–0.29

0.25–0.47
0.43–0.80
0.39–0.73
0.29–0.54

0.29–0.54
0.082–0.15
0.34–0.64
0.24–0.45
0.25–0.47

0.56–1.0
3.2–6.0
0.14–0.27
0.19–0.35
0.17–0.31
0.32–0.60

0.32–0.60
0.30–0.56
1.1–2.1
0.12–0.22
0.12–0.22

Instrument detection limit
SM
SS
Corbicula Sediment(pg/L) (pg/L) (pg/g-wet) (pg/g-dry)

Table 2 Concentrations of target chemicals in western Japan and the Pearl River Delta and instrument detection limits of target chemicals

52
Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

Hereafter, median, minimum, and maximum
values are presented as median (minimum–
maximum).
Water quality
There were no remarkable differences in watertemperature and pH between the two areas, 27.6
(24.3–28.9)◦ C and 6.9–8.2, respectively, in westernJapan, and 27.3 (23.9–29.3)◦ C and 7.1–8.1, respectively, in the PRD. DO concentrations in westernJapan were 9.3 (8.4–12) mgO2 /L, while the concentrations in the PRD were 2.2 (1.4–5.4) mgO2 /L,
significantly low by Wilcoxon tests with significant
level of p < 0.05 ( p = 0.00019). The concentrations of SS and VSS were 9.6 (1.6–25) mg/L
and 3.0 (0.51–5.5) mg/L, respectively, in western Japan, and at 76 (28–180) mg/L and 27 (21–71) mg/L, respectively, in the PRD, significantly
higher by Wilcoxon tests with significant level ofp < 0.05 (SS, p = 0.00019; VSS, p = 0.00019).
OCP concentrations

1,000,000
100,000

Max.
MedianMin.

10,000
1,000
100
10

Th W
e
e
Pe sterar n Jl R ap
a
iv
er n*
D
el
ta
In *
d
Th ia
ai 1)
Ph lanili d 1
pp
)
in
es
1)
K
o
In rea
do
2
ne )
M sia
2
al
ay )
s
V ia 2
ie
tn )
am
Ru 2)
ss
ia
Eg 2)
yp
t3
)

Concentration of DDTs (pg/g-wet)Concentrations of target chemicals in water, Corbicula, and sediment from western Japan and the
PRD are summarized in Table 2. OCP concentrations in soluble matter and suspended solids
were combined, and the concentrations in water were defined as the total concentrations.
Concentrations of chlordanes are summationsof cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, oxy-chlordane,
cis-nonachlor, and trans-nonachlor. DDTs, HCHs,
and heptachlors signify a summation of respective
isomers and metabolites.
In Corbicula, concentrations of DDTs andchlordanes were highest in western Japan. The
highest concentrations of both chlordanes and
DDTs were observed at Katsura River. Concentrations of DDTs were highest in Corbicula fromthe PRD. The highest concentrations of DDTs
were observed at Hongmen. There were large
differences in concentrations of dieldrin, mirex,
and DDTs in Corbicula between western Japanand the PRD, but no remarkable differences wereobserved in concentrations of the other chemicals.
Field surveys using different species of bivalves
have been reported in various seawater studies(Fig. 2; Khaled et al. 2004; Monirith et al. 2003;
Tanabe et al. 2000). Concentrations of DDTs in
Corbicula in western Japan were lower than thosein bivalves in other Asian regions. Concentrationsof DDTs in Corbicula in the PRD belonged to thehigh concentration group of bivalves in Asia; however, the concentrations were significantly lower
than those found in Egypt by Wilcoxon tests withsignificant level of p < 0.05 ( p = 0.00046), whererecent DDT use has been suggested (Khaled et al.
2004). Compared with other Asian regions, concentrations of chlordanes were high in westernJapan and at mid-range levels in the PRD.
In western Japan, concentrations of chlordanes
and DDTs were highest in sediment, and concentrations of HCHs with low hydrophobicity were

100,000

Concentration of chlordanes (pg/g-wet)
T h Wes
e P teea rn Jrla
Ri pan
ve
*
rD
elt
a*
In
d
Th i a 1)
ai
Ph lanili d 1
pp
)
in
es
1)
K
o
In reado2)nes
M ia 2alay )sV ia 2iet)nam
Ru 2 )
ssia
2)

Results and discussion

53

10,000Max.

Median
Min.

1,000
100

10

1

Fig. 2 Concentrations of DDTs and chlordanes in bivalves compared with study results (*) and results from previous studies:(1) Tanabe et al. (2000), (2) Monirith et al. (2003), and (3) Khaled et al. (2004)

54

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

Composition of DDTs, chlordanes, and HCHs
Regression analysis was conducted between ratiosof each chemical in DDTs, chlordanes, and HCHs
in Corbicula and those in water, and between theratios in Corbicula and those in sediment in order
to compare the compositions of the chemicals in
Corbicula to those in water and sediment. Becauseo,p -DDT and p,p -DDT were almost below the
instrument detection limit in water and sediment
samples in western Japan, the ratios of DDTs inwestern Japan were calculated using the other

Ratios of each chemical in water (%)

HCHs
100

y = 1.0x
R 2 = 0.938060

α -HCH-HCH

40

β±-HCH
-HCH

20

-HCH
δ≥-HCH-HCH
γ≤-HCH

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Ratios of each chemical in Corbicula (%)

Fig. 3 Relationship between ratios of each isomer ofchemicals of HCHs in Corbicula and those in water andbetween the ratios in Corbicula and those in sediment.

metabolites. The results of the regression analysis
of HCHs are shown in Fig. 3 as a representation.
Consequently, a slope of almost 1 (DDTs, 0.90;
chlordanes, 0.89; HCHs, 1.0) and high correlations(DDTs: R2 = 0.83, chlordanes: R2 = 0.72, DDTs:
R2 = 0.93) were obtained in each line between
the compositions in Corbicula and those in water.
Also, a slope of almost 1 (DDTs, 0.90; chlordanes, 0.95; HCHs, 0.95) and high correlations(DDTs: R2 = 0.86, chlordanes: R2 = 0.77, DDTs:
R2 = 0.85) were obtained in each line between thecompositions in Corbicula and those in sediment.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the compositions in Corbicula could well reflect those inwater and sediment, regardless of the metabolism
in Corbicula. This can also be demonstrated by theexisting composition ratios in each media (Fig. 4).
p, p -DDE accounted for the largest share of
total DDT concentration in each media, followedby p, p -DDD in western Japan; the PRD showed
high proportions of p, p -DDT and p, p -DDD
(Fig. 4).
The (DDE + DDD)/DDT ratio has been suggested as an indicator to detect new DDT loads
at low levels (e.g., Pereira et al. 1996). In westernJapan, neither o, p -DDT nor p, p -DDT was detected in sediment samples. The ratios were 7.8
and 21 in water at two sampling points where
DDT was detected. The ratio was 16 (4.9–39) in
Corbicula at all sampling points, except for five
points where neither o, p -DDT nor p, p -DDT
was detected. The ratios from the PRD were as
low as 1.5 (0.45–2.0) in water, 1.7 (1.1–2.4) in

Ratios of each chemical in sediment (%)

high in water. DDT concentrations were highest
in sediment, and HCHs and DDTs were highest inwater from the PRD. There were large differencesin concentrations of dieldrin, mirex, and DDTs inwater and mirex and DDTs in sediment, between
western Japan and the PRD, but no remarkabledifferences were observed in concentrations of theother chemicals.
There were significant differences in concentrations in the soluble matter (pg/L) to those in thesuspended solids (pg/L) ratios in water from western Japan and the PRD by Wilcoxon tests withsignificant level of p < 0.05 (DDTs: p = 0.0011,
chlordanes: p = 0.00015). In western Japan, ratios
for DDTs and chlordanes were 2.2 (0.24–10) and1.7 (0.51–7.1); meanwhile, ratios were 0.41 (0.089–
1.1) and 0.71 (0.39–0.85) in the PRD. OCPs werecomparatively easily adsorbed onto the surfaceof SS probably because of the high SS and VSS
concentrations in the PRD.

HCHs
100

y = 0.95x
R 2 = 0.858060

α -HCH-HCH

40

β±-HCH-HCH
γ≤-HCH-HCH

20

δ≥-HCH
-HCH

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Ratios of each chemical in Corbicula (%)

Black color marks and white ones mean the date fromwestern Japan and the PRD, respectively

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

55

(a.2)

Water

Corbicula

D

E

D
or
ac

hl
-n
ns
tra

ci

sn

on

on

ac

or
hl
yc
ox

hl

or

ne
da

da

tra

CH

CH

γ

-H

β

-H

CH

CH

α

-H

δ

-H

CH
-H

CH
-H

CH

0
-H

D

D
o,
p’
-D

sc
ci

Ratio (%)

40

0

γ

Sediment

60

20

β

CorbiculaMax.
Median
Min.

80

20

CH

Water

100

Sediment

40

-H

hl

or
hl

ac
on
-n
ns
tra

(c.2)

Corbicula

60

α

or

da

or
hl

or
hl
ac
on
sn
ci

ne

e

tra

ox

y-

ns
-c

ch

hl

lo

or

rd

da

an

e
an
rd
lo
ch
sci

Water

ne

0

ne

10

Max.
Median
Min.

D

D
p,
p’
-D

20

0

100

p,
p’
-D

D
30

10

(c.1)

Sediment

40

ns
-c

20

CorbiculaMax.
MedianMin.

50

Sediment

30

80

Water

60

Corbicula

Ratio (%)

40

o,
p’
-D

(b.2)

Water
Max.
Median
Min.

T

D
D

D
D

D
p,
p’
-D

p,
p’
-D

D
o,
p’
-D

E

D
p,
p’
-D

o,
p’
-D

D
o,
p’
-D

E

0

T

20

50

Ratio (%)

40

0

60

Ratio (%)

60

20

(b.1)

Sediment

D

40

80

o,
p’
-D

Ratio (%)

60

T

Ratio (%)

80

CorbiculaMax.
MedianMin.

100

Sediment

T

Max.
Median
Min.

100

E

Water

p,
p’
-D

(a.1)

δ

Fig. 4 Compositions of DDTs (a), chlordanes (b), and HCHs (c) in water, Corbicula, and sediment. (1) Shows compositions
in western Japan and (2) shows compositions in the Pearl River Delta

Corbicula, and 1.1 (0.61–3.3) in sediment. The 12year gap in the prohibition of DDT use (from 1971
in Japan and from 1983 in China) (Zhang et al.
2002) likely contributed to the higher levels ofresidual DDT in the PRD.
Dicofol and technical DDT have been reported as DDT pollutants in China. Technical
DDT contains less o, p -DDT (≈15%) than p, p DDT (≈85%), while dicofol exhibits the opposite
pattern (Qiu et al. 2005). Because the half-livesof o, p -DDT and p, p -DDT in soil are similar(Meijer et al. 2001), the high p, p -DDT/o, p -DDT
ratios in water [4.6 (2.6–5.5)], Corbicula [2.5 (1.9–4.3)], and sediment [5.6 (3.9–6.2)] indicate higher
contributions of technical DDT in the PRD.
In western Japan, DDD/DDE ratios were 0.48
(0.092–1.1) in water, 0.31 (0.21–0.49) in Corbicula, and 0.44 (0.21–0.61) in sediment. The highproportion of DDE was likely attributed to reports that DDE is more persistent than either
DDT or DDD (Aguillar 1984; Gong et al. 2004).
In contrast, DDD/DDE ratios in water, Corbicula, and sediment were high in the PRD: 2.2(0.98–3.8), 1.5 (0.78–3.8), and 2.4 (0.78–4.3). DDT
metabolizes primarily to DDD under anaerobic
conditions (Pereira et al. 1996), and low DO

56

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

concentrations were measured in this study.
Therefore, there is a possibility that surveyed sediment may have been dominated by anaerobic conditions, and the metabolism of DDT into DDD
may have contributed to the high proportion of
DDD in the PRD.
Cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, and transnonachlor comprised the largest shares of chlordanes in western Japan; proportions of cischlordane and trans-chlordane were high in the
PRD (Fig. 4). Oxy-chlordane was detected at
extremely low levels in Corbicula in both westernJapan and the PRD. Therefore, Corbicula
appeared to have a poor ability to metabolize
chlordane compounds.
Compositions of technical chlordane in Japan
were measured in this study as cis-chlordane–trans-chlordane–cis-nonachlor–trans-nonachlor =16:18:4.5:14 and were similar to those in technicalchlordane in the international market (Buchert
et al. 1989; Sovocool et al. 1977). In westernJapan, cis-chlordane/trans-chlordane ratios in water, Corbicula, and sediment were higher thanthose in technical chlordane (0.89): 1.2 (0.50–2.1),
1.4 (1.1–2.1), and 1.1 (0.75–1.5) (Fig. 5). Because
the production, import, and use of chlordane havebeen banned in Japan since 1981, cis-chlordane
appears to be more persistent than transchlordane, which agrees with a previous study
by Feroz and Khan (1979). Cis-nonachlor/transnonachlor ratios in water, Corbicula, and sediment were also higher than those in technicalchlordane (0.32): 0.35 (0.20–0.59), 0.42 (0.24–
0.61), and 0.35 (0.18–0.67) (Fig. 5). Probably cis-

b

1
0.8
0.6
0.4

Water in western Japan
Corbicula in western Japan
Sediment in western Japan
Water in the Pearl River Delta
Corbicula in the Pearl River Delta
Sediment in the Pearl River Delta

0.2
0Cumulative probability

Cumulative probabilityanonachlor was thought to be more persistent thantrans-nonachlor in western Japan.
A previous study compares cis-chlordane/transchlordane ratios in the atmosphere in the PRD
to those in technical chlordane in the international market. The ratios in the international market were similar to those in technical chlordane
from western Japan in this study (Yang et al.
2008). Cis-chlordane/trans-chlordane ratios in water, Corbicula, and sediment were 1.0 (0.87–1.1),
1.2 (1.1–1.3), and 0.94 (0.80–1.0), respectively, in
the PRD, and these ratios were similar to thosein soils from the PRD in a previous report (Liet al. 2006). In addition, the ratios in the PRD
were closer to those in technical chlordane in
the international market than the samples fromwestern Japan (Fig. 5). It has been reported thatchlordane has been widely used in China (Jaward
et al. 2005). Therefore, it is likely that the recent usage of chlordane in China contributed to
the ratio being close to technical chlordane. The
ratios of cis-nonachlor/trans-nonachlor in water,
Corbicula, and sediment in the PRD were 0.52
(0.24–0.80), 0.33 (0.23–0.40), and 0.54 (0.37–0.77),
respectively (Fig. 5).
The β-HCH concentration was highest in western Japan, while α-HCH dominated in the PRD(Fig. 4). Composition of technical HCH in Japan
has been reported as α-HCH (65–70%), β-HCH(7–10%), γ -HCH (14–15%), and δ-HCH (approximately 7%), which is similar to that in China(Li et al. 2006; Takazawa et al. 2005). β-HCH
is the least volatile and most persistent among
HCHs (Buser and Mueller 1995; Willett et al.

1
0.8
0.6
Water in western Japan
Corbicula in western Japan
Sediment in western Japan
Water in the Pearl River Delta
Corbicula in the Pearl River Delta
Sediment in the Pearl River Delta

0.4
0.2
0

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

Ratio (cis-chlordane/trans-chlordane)

2.5

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Ratio (cis-nonachlor/trans-nonachlor)Fig. 5 Ratios of cis-chlordane/trans-chlordane (a) and cis-nonachlor/trans-nonachlor (b). Solid line shows ratios of technicalchlordane in Japan in this study

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

1998). Besides, a long period of time has passed
since the expiration of HCH registration as apesticide in 1971 in Japan. These facts likely contribute to high percentages of β-HCH in westernJapan.
Although high proportions of β-HCH in samples from the PRD suggest little influence by
current input of technical HCH, α-HCH existed
at higher percentages in the PRD than in western Japan. In 1983, HCH production and use
were officially banned in China (Zhang et al.
2002). Therefore, the 12-year gap between theprohibition of HCHs in Japan and China likely
influenced the regional differences in HCH concentrations. Moreover, lindane is currently being
used in China (Wang et al. 2007), and the α/γ ratio
has been used as an indicator for the presence oflindane (Gonzalez et al. 2003; Qian et al. 2006).
The ratios in water, Corbicula, and sediment arelower than those in technical HCH (4.3–5.0),[2.5 (1.3–8.2), 1.3 (0.78–6.2), and 3.1 (2.3–5.7)],
likely presented as a combined pollutant in
the PRD.
The pollution characteristics of DDTs, chlordanes, and HCHs in western Japan were clearly
different from the characteristics in the PRD because of different usage histories and property of
the chemicals. The isomer compositions in Corbicula
could well reflect those in water and sediment,
regardless of the metabolism in Corbicula. Therefore, the extent of pollution by chemicals in waterand sediment can be measured using Corbicula
based on isomer compositions.
Bioaccumulation levels of OCPs in Corbicula
BAFLs [(pg/g lipid)/(pg/mL)] of each chemical in
Corbicula were defined as the ratio of the concentration of each OCPs in Corbicula and the total
concentration of each OCPs in soluble matterand suspended solids. BAFLs of some chemicals
were not calculated because chemicals with concentrations below instrument quantification limits
in water were omitted from this discussion so as
not to overestimate their BAFLs.
Single species Corbicula was collected at eachsampling point. As a result, the same species
were collected at different points. Also, BAFLs of
the same species from different points in western

57

Japan were compared. The maximum BAFL/
minimum BAFL ratios of each chemical ranged
from 1.1 to 7.3 in C. sandai taken from Lake Biwa,
from 1.4 to 4.1 in C. leana in freshwater areas withno salinity (excluding Lake Biwa), and from 1.3
to 5.8 in C. japonica in brackish waters with salinity. The ratios were less than 10 in each species.
When biomonitoring of OCPs is conducted forcomprehending the fate in the environment, it isimportant that OCP concentrations in the environment should be obtained up to the same levelof precision. Therefore, it can be suggested thatbioaccumulative levels of each Corbicula species
were similar regardless of sampling site.
In order to compare the bioaccumulative levels of OCPs between each Corbicula species inwestern Japan, data for each Corbicula species
were combined, respectively. And then, regression analysis for logBAFL versus logKow was
performed on the combined data (Eqs. 1, 2,
and 3). Values of logKow were taken from ones
recommended by Sangster Research Laboratories. Where recommended values were not fixedin the database, the most recent measured values
were used (Sangster Research Laboratories 2222).
The correlations in each regression equation werehigh (Fig. 6).
C. sandai : logBAFL = 0.726 × logKow+ 1.50 (R2 = 0.890)(1)

C. leana : logBAFL = 0.726 × logKow+ 1.62 (R2 = 0.874)(2)

C. japonica : logBAFL = 0.723 × logKow+ 1.72 (R2 = 0.845) (3)Corbicula is a sediment dwelling bivalve and obtains food through filter feeding and pedal feeding
within the streambed (Hakenkamp and Palmer
1999). However, the close relationship between
logBAFL and logKow suggest that OCP concentrations in each Corbicula species reflect thosein water.
In order to compare the three regression lines
for each Corbicula species, analysis of covariance was conducted to test the parallelism with asignificant level p < 0.10 (Chazdon 1985; Okuno

58

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

a

b

8

Corbicula leana
Corbicula sandai
Corbicula japonica

6
5
Corbicula leana (n = 72)
Corbicula sandai (n = 58)
Corbicula japonica (n = 41)

4

Corbicula in western Japan
Corbicula in the Pearl River Delta
Mytilus galloprovincialis

7logBAFL

logBAFL

78

6
5
Corbicula in western Japan (n = 171)
Corbicula in the Pearl River Delta (n = 90)
Mytilus galloprovincialis (n = 243)

4

3

3

3

4

5

6

7

8

3

4

5

6

7

8

logKow

logKow

Fig. 6 Relationships between logKow and logBAFL for C. leana, C. sandai, and C. japonica in western Japan (a), and for
Corbicula in western Japan, Corbicula in the Pearl River Delta and M. galloprovincialis (Tsuno et al. 2007) (b)and Shiga 1984). In the case when the hypothesisof the parallelism was not rejected, assuming thethree regression lines were parallel, a second setof regression lines for each Corbicula species wascalculated. Next, the intercepts of the second regression lines were compared to one another. In
the case when the hypothesis of the parallelism of
the first regression lines was rejected or the intercepts of the second regression lines were obtained
up to a different level of precision, it would meanthat bioaccumulation levels of OCPs are largely
different among Corbicula species.
The following null hypothesis was used to test
parallelism: the regression coefficients of Eqs. 1,
2, and 3 are equal. The null hypothesis was not
rejected ( p = 0.998), concluding that there wereno significant differences among the regression
coefficients. Thus, assuming the three equations
were parallel, a second set of regression equations(Eqs. 4, 5, and 6) was calculated.
C. sandai : logBAFL = 0.725 × logKow + 1.50

ronment should be obtained up to the same levelof precision. Therefore, small differences among
constant terms can be suggested. Based on theparallelism and similarity among constant terms,
the differences among species and therefore thedifferences between fresh and brackish waters
seem to make no digit difference on bioaccumulation levels of OCPs in Corbicula.
In order to compare the bioaccumulative levelsof OCPs between Corbicula in western Japan andthat in the PRD, data for Corbicula from westernJapan and that from the PRD were combined,
respectively (BAFLs of each chemical in Corbicula in western Japan and the PRD are shown in
Table 3). And then, regression analysis for logBAFL versus log Kow was performed on the combined data (Eqs. 7 and 8). The regression analysis
with data for M. galloprovincialis in Japan (Tsuno
et al. 2007) was also shown (Eq. 9). High correlations were obtained in each regression equation(Fig. 6).
Corbicula in western Japan : logBAFL(4)
C. leana : logBAFL = 0.725 × logKow + 1.62 (5)C. japonica : logBAFL = 0.725 × logKow + 1.71
(6)
When biomonitoring of OCPs is conducted forcomprehending the fate in the environment, it isimportant that OCP concentrations in the envi-= 0.726 × logKow + 1.60 (R2 = 0.866)(7)

Corbicula in the PRD : logBAFL= 0.681 × logKow + 1.55 (R2 = 0.900)(8)M. galloprovincialis : logBAFL= 0.677 × logKow + 1.82 (R2 = 0.727)(9)

The same test for parallelism with the same significance level was used. The null hypothesis wasEnviron Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63
Table 3 Bioaccumulation
factors on a lipid basis oforganochlorine pesticides

biqlw below the
instrument quantification
limit in water

59

Chemicals

Western Japan (×1,000)
Mean
Min.
Max.

The Pearl River Delta (×1,000)
Mean
Min.
Max.

Dieldrin
EndrinMirex
HCBo,p -DDTp,p -DDTo,p -DDEp,p -DDEo,p -DDDp,p -DDD
cis-chlordane
trans-chlordane
cis-nonachlortrans-nonachlor
α-HCH
β-HCH
γ -HCH
δ-HCH
cis-heptachlor-epoxide

260
170
biqlw
300
biqlw
2,700
910
3,000
1,700
2,100
1,600
1,200
2,300
2,300
19
18
27
33
230

220
biqlw
190
biqlw
1,300
830
820
1,300
1,100
740
770
660
470
600
9.0
14
13
12
biqlw

not rejected ( p = 0.109), concluding that there
were no significant differences among the regression coefficients. Thus, assuming that the threeequations were parallel, a second set of regression
equations (Eqs. 10, 11, and 12) was calculated.
Corbicula in western Japan : logBAFL= 0.694 × logKow + 1.77

(10)

Corbicula in the PRD : logBAFL= 0.694 × logKow + 1.48

(11)

M. galloprovincialis : logBAFL= 0.694 × logKow + 1.77

(12)

Small differences among the constant terms
would have also been suggested. Based on theseresults, there seems to be no digit differenceson bioaccumulation levels among Corbicula inwestern Japan, Corbicula in the PRD and M.
galloprovincialis.
Although concentrations of DO, SS, and VSS
were significantly different between the two areas,
the covariance analysis revealed similar linear dependencies. Therefore, the range of environmental conditions seems to make no digit differenceson the bioaccumulation levels in Corbicula used
for biomonitoring.

95
78

570
300

62

640

1,400
490
1,200
510
570
440
400
1,000
870
7.6
7.4
8.1
25
130

4,000
1,500
5,600
3,200
3,400
2,700
2,700
4,700
5,100
55
43
62
48
440

160

330

66

430

710
270
540
500
540
410
480
420
390
480
7.1
7.6
9.4
8.2

3,400
1,900
1,300
1,900
2,100
1,200
1,100
990
590
730
17
22
21
16

The similar linear regressions between Corbicula and M. galloprovincialis whose feeding habit
is filter feeding (Viarengo and Canesi 1991) support the idea that their bioaccumulation levels are
similar despite pedal feeding of Corbicula. This
result also means that under the same chemical
conditions, Corbicula would accumulate the samelevels of chemicals as would M. galloprovincialis.
Finally, by combining data for Corbicula inwestern Japan and the PRD with that for M. galloprovincialis, the following regression equation canbe proposed:
Corbicula and M. galloprovincialis : logBAFL= 0.684 × logKow + 1.75 (R2 = 0.782)(13)

Conclusions
In this study, field surveys with Corbicula wereconducted in western Japan and the PRD thatreflected different environmental conditions and
OCP usage histories. Applicability of Corbicula as a bioindicator for monitoring OCPs in
the environment was analyzed. The study focused on differences in isomer compositions andbioaccumulation levels of OCPs. Additionally, the60bioaccumulation levels of Corbicula were compared with those of M. galloprovincialis, which has
been widely used as a bioindicator in seawaters.
Obtained results are presented below.
1. DO concentrations in western Japan were
9.4 (8.4–12) mgO2 /L, while the concentrationsin the PRD were significantly low, 2.6 (1.4–
5.4) mgO2 /L. The concentrations of SS and
VSS were 11 (1.6–25) mg/L and 2.7 (0.51–
5.5) mg/L, respectively, in western Japan andsignificantly higher at 68 (28–180) mg/L and
27 (21–71) mg/L, respectively, in the PRD.
2. Concentrations of DDTs [2,000 (240–
7,500) pg/g-wet] and chlordanes [1,000 (400–
15,000) pg/g-wet] were highest in Corbiculafrom western Japan; meanwhile, DDT concentrations [7,700 (2,500–31,000) pg/g-wet]were highest in Corbicula from the PRD.
There were large differences in concentrationsof dieldrin, mirex, and DDTs in Corbicula
between western Japan and the PRD, but
no remarkable differences were observed inconcentrations of the other chemicals.
3. The isomer compositions in Corbicula could
well reflect those in water and sediment,
regardless of the metabolism in Corbicula.
In addition, isomer compositions of DDTs,
chlordanes, and HCHs were significantly different between the two areas because of
their different historical uses and property of
the chemicals. This is represented as follows:the (DDE + DDD)/DDT ratio in Corbicula,ranging 16 (4.9–39) in western Japan and 1.7(1.1–2.4) in the PRD, the cis-chlordane/transchlordane ratios in Corbicula, ranging 1.4(1.1–2.1) in western Japan and 1.2 (1.1–1.3)
in the PRD, and high proportion of β-HCH
in Japan and high proportion of α-HCH in
the PRD. Therefore, the extent of pollution
by chemicals in water and sediment can bemeasured using Corbicula based on isomercompositions.
4. Corbicula is a sediment dwelling bivalve andobtains food through filter feeding and pedal
feeding within the streambed; however, theclose relationship between logBAFL and log
Kow suggest that OCP concentrations in
Corbicula reflect those in water.

Environ Monit Assess (2011) 179:47–63

5. It can be suggested that the difference in
species and the range of environmental conditions did not seem to make digit influence on
the bioaccumulative levels in Corbicula when
conducting biomonitoring.
6. The bioaccumulation levels Corbicula andM. galloprovincialis are similar despite pedal
feeding of Corbicula. This result also meansthat under the same chemical conditions, Corbicula would accumulate the same levels ofchemicals as would M. galloprovincialis.
Based on the results, monitoring OCPs in freshand brackish waters using Corbicula is possible regardless of the usage history when concentrations
and isomer compositions are accounted for. A biomonitoring system using Corbicula is applicable
regardless of the range of concentrations of DO,
SS, and VSS in water and the Corbicula species.
When monitoring OCP concentrations in water,concentrations in Corbicula can be compared tothose in M. galloprovincialis.
Acknowledgements This research was partially financedby the Strategic International Cooperative Program of
the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC).

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