IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Research article
erdCharacteristics of Participants of Non-Formal Education
Contributing to Learning Achievement: A Case Study ofSnuol Commune, Kratie Province, Cambodia
SHINOBU YAMADA*
Research Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: sinobun4022@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanKUMIKO KAWABE
Extension Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: hq-erecon@nifty.com
Received 28 December 2016

Accepted 16 December 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In this study, the main objective was to evaluate the number of days attended at
Farmers’ school and their academic ability. The research site was Snuol Commune, Kratié
Province. First, the relationship between the characteristics of local farmers and the results of
the achievement test was clarified. In addition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school
was evaluated by multiple regression analysis. The results of the analysis are summarized asfollows. 1) According to the results of the Multiple Correspondence Analysis, it was clearthat the result of the achievement test was connected with characteristics of local farmers byeducational background, gender, and whether or they attended Farmers’ school. 2) According
to the results from the Multiple Regression Analysis, after being confirmed statistically,
Farmers’ school attendance and educational background gave positive effects as a result ofthe achievement test. In addition, the results of the categorical regression analysis suggested
the characteristic of the participant of the Farmers’ school statistically. The participants ofthe Farmers’ school already have the ability for reading and understanding basic Khmer. Asfor the educational content that the participant of the Farmers’ school expected at the sametime, it was suggested that it was knowledge, except the Khmers word acquisition, such asarithmetic or the environmental problem. In conclusion, creating an opportunity for the nonformal education is a necessary condition for knowledge acquisition concerning theappropriate usage and environmental problem of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in thelocal Cambodia area.
Keywords non-formal education, Farmers’ school, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
In Cambodia, a large amount of pesticides and chemical fertilizers have been used in order to increase
the agricultural productivity. This situation has caused the destruction of the environment, such as along-term deterioration of soil and water quality, and a decline of land productivity. The main causeof the excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers this is because local farmers cannot
understand appropriate use (Kazama and Honma, 2015). For this reason, learning their own language,
Khmer, is necessary and important. Based on the above-mentioned backgrounds, the main objectiveof this study was to evaluate the number of days attended at Farmers’ school and their academicability. First, the relationship between the characteristics of local farmers and the results of theachievement test was clarified. In addition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school wasevaluated by multiple regression analysis.

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The research site was at the Snuol Commune in the Kratié Province. The Kratié Province islocated in the northeastern part of Cambodia, where development is the slowest, and the comparable
difference with other areas is large. In the Snuol Commune, the applications of agricultural chemicals,such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, have rapidly been increasing in recent years. Although it
contributed to increasing agricultural productivity, the amounts of applying agricultural chemicals
caused environmental disruptions, such as soil and water quality degradation, and decreased land
productivity in the long term. Until now, a local NGO distributed a document that disseminatedcorrect information regarding chemical fertilizers and pesticides. However, one in about three peopleof the inhabitants of the Snuol Commune aged 25 to 60 cannot read and write, so the correct
information has not been delivered. In addition, at this site, the Institute of Environmental
Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON) carried out the project “study on sustained utilizationof the natural resource” (3/2015-4/2016). In this project, the Khmer language, arithmetic, and anenvironmental class were conducted with support of ERECON once a week in each village for twohours.
The Kratié Province is located in the northeastern part of Cambodia, where development is theslowest and the comparable difference with other areas is large. In Snuol village, Snuol district,Kratié Province, 170,000 ha, equal to 65%, is used in the total area, 260,000 ha is forest, and 14,000
ha, equal to 5%, is used as agricultural land.
OBJECTIVESIn this study, the main objective was to evaluate the number of days attended at Farmers’ school andtheir academic ability. First, the relationship between the characteristics of local farmers and theresults of the achievement test was clarified. In addition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school
was evaluated by multiple regression analysis.
METHODOLOGY
The index of a questionnaire carried out included gender and age of the respondent, educational
background, and having participated in Farmers’ school or not. In addition, for respondents who
participated in Farmers school, attendance level, comprehension of the Khmer reading
comprehension and writing ability was investigated.
The target area of the questionnaire survey consisted of the following seven villages: Kathdai,Krang, Kbal Snuol, Snuol Kert, Snuol Lech, Prek Kdey and Thpong. The survey period lasted fromJuly to August 2015. The number of useful responses we received per area are as follows: Kathdai:
32 respondents (20.5% of the total respondents); Krang: 4 respondents (2.6%); Kbal Snuol: 18respondents (11.5%); Snuol Kert: 41 respondents (26.3%); Snuol Lech: 20 respondents (12.8%);
Prek Kdey: 26 respondents (16.7%); and Thpong: 15 respondents (9.6%). There were 156
respondents in total.
Based on survey data, Multiple Regression Analysis is applied, and the results of achievement
test and the characteristics of the respondent are elucidated. Furthermore, Categorical Regression
Analysis is referenced, and the attendance level in Farmers' school, and the characteristics of the
respondent are clarified.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the differences in the means of achievement test scores for respondents. The contentsof the achievement test are on a scale of one to fifteen by the Khmer language. The attributes of therespondents and the relations of the achievement test are as follows. Concerning the “Gender” of therespondents, 50% were “male” and 50% were “female.” The average score of the actual test by thedifference of “Gender” is as follows, “male”: 11.86 (maximum of 15) and “female.”: 10.41.
Concerning the “Age” of the respondents, the majority of respondents were between the ages of “50Ⓒ ISERD112

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-259” years (25.0%), followed by “40-49” years (19.23%) and “More than 70” years (17.95%). The
lowest percentage was aged “Less than 20 years” old. The average score of the actual test by thedifference of “Age” is as follows: the ages of “50-59” years: 11.28; “40-49” years: 11.48; “Morethan 70” years: 10.55; and “Less than 20 years” old: 11.0. Concerning the “Educational background”,
the majority of respondents had “Primary” (60.26%), followed by “Secondary” (18.59%) and “Neverhad been to school” (16.03%). The average score of the actual test by the difference of “Educationalbackground” is as follows: “Primary”: 11.13; “Secondary”: 12.90; and “Never had been to school”:
8.52. The respondents of "Never had been to school" obviously had a low average on the achievement
test.
Table 1 Demographic information of respondents
Index
GenderAge

Educational backgroundNumber of response Achievement test(n)(％) scoring average
1. Male
78
50.0
11.86
2. Female
78
50.0
10.41
1.Less than 20 years old
19
12.18
11.00
2.20-29years
20
12.82
11.40
3.30-39years
0
0.00
0.00
4.40-49years
30
19.23
11.40
5.50-59years
39
25.00
11.28
6.60-69years
20
12.82
10.96
7.More than 70 years old
28
17.95
10.55
1. Never had been to school
25
16.03
8.52
2. Primary
94
60.26
11.13
3. Secondary
29
18.59
12.90
4. High school
53.2113.00
5.College/University
2
1.28
15.00
Total
156
Total average mark11.13

source ： Survey Date
Fs ： Farmers School

Table 2 A question index and achievement test scoring average
Index
The presence orabsence of attend in Fs
Number of times
of attend in Fs

Reading comprehension

Writing ability

Number of response Achievement test(n)(％)
scoring average
1. Yes
93
59.62
11.95
2. No63
40.38
9.94
1. 1-3 times
1710.90
12.29
2. 4-6 times
12
7.69
11.92
3. 7-10 times
1710.90
10.29
4. Over 14 times
50
32.05
11.98
1. No28
17.95
8.11
2. Yes, little
82
52.56
11.32
3. Yes, well
45
28.85
11.33
non-response
10.64
13.00
1. No
30
19.23
8.10
2. Yes, little
78
50.00
11.13
3. Yes, well
48
30.77
13.00
Total
156
100.00Total average mark11.13

source ： Survey DateFs ： Farmers SchoolⒸ ISERD113

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Table 2 shows differences in the achievement test scores concerning the attendance of Farmers’school. Concerning attendance in Farmers’ school, almost 60% were “Yes” and about 40% were“No”. The average score of the achievement test by the difference of “attendance in Farmers’ school”
is as follows, “Yes”: 11.95 and ”No”: 9.94.Concerning the number of times of attendance in theFarmers’ school, "1-3 times" (10.90%),"4-6 times” (7.69%), "7-10 times" (10.90%) and "Over 14times" (32.05%). The average score of the achievement test by the difference of the “Number oftimes of attendance in Farmers’ school” is as follows: “1-3 times”: 10.90; “4-6 times”:7.69; “7-10times”: 10.29; and “Over 14 times”: 11.98. Concerning “Reading comprehension”, almost 20% were“No”, about 53% were "Somewhat" and about 40% were “Yes, well”. The average score of theachievement test by the difference of “Reading comprehension” is as follows, “No”: 8.11, “Yes, alittle”: 11.32 and “Yes, well”: 11.33. Concerning “Writing ability”, almost 20% were “No”, about
50% were "Yes, a little" and about 30% were “Yes, well”. The average score of the achievement testby the difference of “Writing ability” is as follows, “No”: 8.10, “Yes, a little”: 11.13 and “Yes, well”:
13.00.
Characteristic of Respondents and the Results of the Achievement Test by Multiple
Correspondence Analysis
Using attributes from Tables 1 and 2, this part clarifies the characteristics of respondents and theresults of achievement test. In this analysis, Multiple Correspondence Analysis was employed.

Fig.1 The result of Answer Pattern for using of the characteristics on participants
and the achievement test score －Correspondence Analysis －Figure 1 shows the results of the answer pattern for “participants of non-formal education”,“non-participants of non-formal education” and “Never had been to school”. In this analysis,
Multiple Correspondence Analysis was employed. According to the results of the Multiple
Correspondence Analysis, it was clear that the results of the achievement test were connected withcharacteristics of local farmers by “educational background”, “gender”, and “whether or not to attend
Farmers’ school”.
Characteristic of Respondents and the Result of Achievement Test by Multiple Regression
Analysis
The Multiple Regression Model is shown by Eq. (1), where Y is the achievement test score, X2 isthe attendance in Farmers’ school (dummy), X3 is the number of times of attendance in the Farmers’Ⓒ ISERD114

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2school (1-3 times: 1; 4-6 times: 2; 7-10 times: 3; Over 14 times: 4), X4 is the educational background(Never had been to school: 1, primary: 2, secondary: 3, high school: 4, college/university: 5), X5 isthe reading comprehension in Khmer (dummy), and X6 is the writing ability in Khmer (dummy). At
the same time, β is the estimation parameter. The ordinary least squares (OLS) method was employedin the estimation of the regression model.
Y=α＋βx2＋βx3＋････＋βx6(1)The estimation results of the multiple regression analysis are shown in Table 3. The statisticallymeaningful independent variables are as follows: X2 is the attendance in Farmers’ school: 2.763(3.083); X3 is the number of times of attendance in Farmers’ school: -0.469 (-1.833); X4 is thehighest achieved educational background: 1.211 (3.113); X5 is the reading comprehension in Khmer:
1.042 (0.745); X6 is the writing ability in Khmer: 1.773 (1.315), which shows a t value. From anestimated result, it was confirmed statistically that attendance of the Farmers’ and the last educational
background gave a positive effect to (Y) as a result of the achievement test.
Table 3 Estimation results of Multiple Regression Analysis
Dependent variable: Achievement test score

Y：
Estimated parameter
Bt-value

Independent variable
Constant
5.705
6.909
The presence or absence of attend in Fs
x2 ： Dummy
2.763
3.083
Number of times of attend in Fs
x3 ：4−0.469 −1.8336
Educational backgroundx4 ：51.121
3.113
Reading comprehension
x5 ： Dummy
1.042
0.745
Writing ability
x6 ： Dummy
1.773
1.315
R Square0.269
Adjusted R Square
0.245
Note:***1% level of significance,**5% level of significance,*10% level of significance
Source:Survey Data
Fs ： Farmers’ school

p-value
0.000 ***
0.002 ***
0.069
0.002 ***
0.458
0.191

Characteristic of Respondents and the Number of Times of Attend in Farmers’ School byCategorical Regression Analysis
The Categorical Regression Model is shown by Eq. (2), Where Y is the number of times of attendancein Farmers’ school; X2 is the achievement test score (1-3 points: 1; 4-6 points: 2; 7-9 points: 3; 1012 points: 4; 13-15 points: 5); X3 is the educational background (Never had been to school: 1;
primary: 2; secondary: 3; high school: 4; college/university: 5); X4 is the reading comprehension inKhmer (dummy); and X5 is the writing ability in Khmer (dummy). At the same time, β is theestimation parameter.
Y=βx2＋βx3＋････＋βx5(2)

In Table 4, the estimation results of the Categorical regression analysis are shown. The
statistically meaningful independent variables are as follows: X2 is the achievement test score: 0.070 (-0.707); X3 is the highest achieved educational background: 0.203 (1.829); X4 is the reading
comprehension in Khmer: 0.692 (3.888); and X5 is the writing ability in Khmer: -0.518 (-2.960),
which shows a t value. From estimated results, it was confirmed statistically after the reading
comprehension in Khmer and the educational background gave a positive effect to (Y) as did thenumber of times of attendance in Farmers’ school.

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Table 4 Estimation results of Categorical Regression Analysis
Dependent variable:
Number of times of attend in Farmers’schoolY：
Estimated parameterBt-value p-value

Independent variable
Achievement test scorex2 ：
5-0.070 -0.707
Educational backgroundx3 ：40.203
1.829
Reading comprehension
x4 ： Dummy
0.692
3.888
Writing ability
x5 ： Dummy-0.518 -2.960
R Square0.232
Adjusted R Square
0.151
Note:***1% level of significance,**5% level of significance,*10% level of significance
Source:Survey Data

0.481
0.040
0.000 ***
0.000 *

According to the results of the Multiple Correspondence Analysis, it was clear that the result of
the achievement test was connected with characteristics of local farmers by educational background,gender, and whether or they attended Farmers’ school.
According to the results from the Multiple Regression Analysis, after being confirmed
statistically, Farmers’ school attendance and educational background gave positive effects as a resultof the achievement test.
In addition, from the results of the categorical regression analysis, the characteristics of theparticipants in the Farmers’ school were confirmed statistically, as follows. The participants of theFarmers’ school already have the ability for reading and understanding basic Khmer. As for theeducational content that the participant of the Farmers’ school expected at the same time, it wassuggested that it was knowledge, except the Khmers word acquisition, such as arithmetic or theenvironmental problem.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the main objective was to evaluate the number of days attended at Farmers’ school andtheir academic ability. The research site was Snuol Commune, Kratié Province. First, the relationshipbetween the characteristics of local farmers and the results of the achievement test was clarified. Inaddition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school was evaluated by multiple regression analysis.
In conclusion, creating an opportunity for the non-formal education is a necessary condition forknowledge acquisition concerning the appropriate usage and environmental problem of chemicalfertilizers and pesticides in the local Cambodia areas.
REFERENCES
Fujimoto, A. and Miyaura, R. 1996. An ecological and economic assessment of vegetable, Cultivation inhighland areas in Southeast Asia. Journal of Agricultural Science, 40 (4), 248-263.
Fujimoto, A. 1998. The problem and possibility of food production in Southeast Asia. Agriculture andHorticulture, 73 (6), Japan.
Kazama, M. and Honma, K. 2015. The use of agricultural chemicals in Cambodia, From the interview researchwith rce farmers and consumers. Hokusei Review, Junior College, 13, 47-59.

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