Ecological Sanitation as a Water andEnvironmental Conservation Technology
Option: The case of slum communities in
KampalaJames Kakooza
Dave Khayangayanga
J. Karundu
D. Nalubega

ATPS Working Paper Series No. 47

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network, P.O. Box 10081, 00100 General Post
Office, Nairobi, Kenya© 2007 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

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ABOUT THE AFRICAN TECHNOLOGY POLICY STUDIES NETWORKThe African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multi-disciplinary network of researchers,
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Table of Contents

ABBREVIATIONSLIST OF TABLES AND FIGURESABSTRACTCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 The Research Problem
1.3 Justification
1.4 Aims and Objectives
1.5 Specific Objectives
1.6 Expected Outcome And Impact

1
3
3
3
4
4
4
4

CHAPTER 2:
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

LITERATURE REVIEWPolicy Perspective of Water and Environment in Uganda
Water and Environmental Sanitation in the Context of MDGs
State of Water and Environmental Sanitation for Urban Kampala
Ecological Sanitation as an Environmentally Sound Water Technology
Ecological Sanitation Technologies for Africa

6
6
7
8
8
9

CHAPTER 3:
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

METHODOLOGY
Study Design
The Study Area and Selection
Variables and Data Sources
Research Question
Study Sample and Sampling Procedure
Instruments and Data Collection Methods
Data Analysis

12
12
12
12
13
13
13
14

CHAPTER 4:
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

RESULTS
Introduction to Results
Policy Issues and Ecological Sanitation (Ecosan)
Sanitation Problems among Slum Dwellers in Kampala
Acceptability of Ecosan Toilets

15
15
15
23
33

I
III

CHAPTER 5:
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion About Policy Issues
AccessIntegration
Empowerment And Sustainability
Gender Equity And Equality
Technological Choice

Recommendations for Further Studies

37
37
37
38
38
38
39
39

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

39

REFERENCES

40

Abbreviations

ATPS
BOD
COD
DWD
EC
EcoSan
EST
FGD
GDP
GNP
GoU
HH
IDI
IRC
KCC
KDS
KIIIG
KSMP
LVEP
MGD
MISR
MoES
MoFPED
MoH
MoLG
MoWLE
NARO
NEMA
NGO
NPK
NWSC
PEAP
PMA

Africa Technology Policy studies Network
Biological Oxygen Demand
Carbon Oxygen Demand
Directorate of Water Development
Electric Conductivity
Ecological Sanitation
Environmental Sanitation Technology
Focus Group Discussions
Gross Domestic Product
Gross National ProductGovernment of Uganda
House Hold
In-Depth Interviews
International Relief and Care
City Council of Kampala
Kampala Declaration on Sanitation
Key Informant In-depth Interview Guide
Kampala Sanitation Master Plan
Lake Victoria Environmental Program
Millennium Development Goals
Makerere Institute for Social Research
Ministry of Education and Sports
Ministry of Finance Planning and Economic Development
Ministry of Health
Ministry of Local Government
Ministry of Water Lands and Environment
National Agricultural Research Organisation
National Environment Management Authority
Non-Governmental Organisation
Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium
National Water and Sewerage Co-operation
Poverty Eradication Action Plan
Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture
i

QAS
RWSS
SIP
SWAP
UGX
WRM
WSC
WSP
WSS
WUA
WUC

Qualitative Analysis Software
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation
Strategic Investment Plans
Sector Wide Approach
Uganda Shillings
Water Resources Management
Water and Sanitation Committees
Water and Sanitation Program
Water Supply and Sanitation
Water User Association
Water User CommitteesiiList of Tables and Figures
List of Tables
Table 3.1:
Table 3.2:
Table 4.1:
Table 4.2:

Study areas
Instruments used in data collection
Water and sanitation global indicators – Uganda’s achievement
Types of EcoSan toilets that can be applied in Kampala

12
13
22
35

List of Figures
Figure 2.1:
Figure 4.1:
Figure 4.2:
Figure 4.3:
Figure 4.4:
Figure 4.5:
Figure 4.6:
Figure 4.7:
Figure 4.8:
Figure 4.9:
Figure 4.10:
Figure 4.11:
Figure 4.12:
Figure 4.13:
Figure 4.14:

Box 4.1:

Schematic presentation of water and sanitation within the MDGs
International per capita comparison of water supply (mlwe, 2005)
Pollution profile along Nakivubo channel
Sources of pollution
Living conditions of slum dwellers
Access to clean safe water by slum dwellers
Domestic water pollution in BOD (kg/day)Total coliform and e.coli content in domestic water
NWSC tariffs
Lake Victoria water levels
Connection to the city sewer system
Sanitation types used in slum areas
Use of recycled waste
Communication system for water related issues
Views about management of ecosan toilets in comparison with
pit latrines

34

Policy documents reviewed

16

iii

7
17
20
21
23
25
26
26
27
29
30
31
31
32

Abstract

This study explores Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) as a Water and Environmental Conservation
Technology (WECT) for slum communities in Kampala, Uganda. Information presented in thispaper results from a research carried out in five slums of Kampala city in Uganda and was funded by
the Africa Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS). The major problem addressed by this study isthat close to 800,000 persons in the urban slum of Kampala are facing deplorable water and environmental problems. This coupled with the increasing density of population in these slums and theswampy geological nature of Kampala, use of pit latrines and flush toilets alone cannot provide citydwellers with a clean and hygienic environment. Dry (EcoSan) toilets are then considered a viableoption. Unfortunately, there are other hypothetical problems related to social-economic status andattitudes of the intended users. This study was therefore conceptualised with an aim of exploring thepotential of EcoSan technologies as an alternative water and environment sanitation technology forthe slum dwellers in Kampala.

A sample of 329 respondents selected through a mixture of cluster, simple random and purposive
sampling from across all the five divisions of Kampala was used in this study. The results of the study
point out strategies that are required to empower vulnerable poor communities with cost sharing
skills to run communal water sources and waste management. Results also bring out how implicit
attitudes and tacit knowledge must be translated into shared experiences and explicit knowledge,
resulting into effective community slum structures for implementing EcoSan technologies. Specifically, results point out positive and negative effects of the current water and sanitation policies,
management of water resources, domestic waste disposal and use, and enforcement of hygiene,
among other factors.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

Conclusions obtained from this study are that indeed EcoSan technologies are necessary, especiallyin Kampala if urban centres in Uganda are to achieve the set Millennium Development Goal Indicators
for water and sanitation before the target year of 2015. This paper also concludes that for EcoSan
technologies to effectively take root, there is need for sensitisation and education of masses regarding
adoption of EcoSan technologies. The study recommends how EcoSan programmes can be
implemented through community participation, considering gender perspectives, cultural backgroundas well as the socio-economic situations of the vulnerable poor groups.

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1

Background

Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) is a closed-loop system, which treats human excreta as a resource.
Using the technique, faecal materials are separated from urine, and then the excreta are processed
locally on site until they are free of pathogens. Thereafter the sanitized excreta may be recycled into
the agricultural soils as fertilisers. By closing nutrient loops, environmental cleanliness, soil fertility
and crop yield per unit space may be improved. The EcoSan technique, therefore, replenishes soil
nutrients, and improves sanitation & health of communities while conserving the environment. In
turn, EcoSan can contribute to poverty alleviation. Unfortunately, the technique is not popular and islikely to face resistance due to social cultural beliefs, knowledge and attitudes of the local
communities.

1.2

The Research Problem

Water shortage and critical environmental degradation are affecting Kampala city just like manyother developing world cities. It is well documented that only close to 60% of urban dwellers in
Uganda can access safe clean water. This means that two out of five people in Kampala lackaccess to safe water (Kwagala, 2002). Slum communities of Kampala are the worst hit by the
problem (Agarwall et. al., 1999). Water shortage, poor health, sanitation and hygiene problems in
Kampala slums are thought to be associated with inadequate town planning, deficient politicalframework and absence of participatory planning among others (Kwagala, 2002).
To solve such problems, town planners (officials responsible for water, housing, sanitation andhealth) need to have innovative and integrated programs towards solving the water and environmental
sanitation problem. One such innovative approach is ecological sanitation (EcoSan). EcoSan
technologies take the principle of environmental sanitation a step further: according to Esrey (2000a),
Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) means keeping our surroundings (the environment) clean and safeand preventing pollution. It is a type of sanitation in which human waste is separated into its solid(faecal) and liquid (urine) parts. After this separation, the pathogens within the human waste can now
be destroyed and the waste used as soil additives, due to their richness in crop nutrients. Therefore
EcoSan has advantages over the traditional sanitation approaches of drop and keep (latrine) and thedrop and flush (W C). The latter wastes water, while the former is known for spreading sanitationrelated diseases like cholera and dysentery. A city like Kampala, that has the majority of its inhabitants

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

4living in slum settlements, requires EcoSan type of sanitation because this system takes care of
improved sanitation while conserving water. Unfortunately there is no clear data on which to base theestablishment and successful implementation of EcoSan technologies. It is therefore against thisbackground that this study was designed to establish the potential of EcoSan as a water conservationand cleaner sanitation option for Kampala slum communities.

1.3

Justification

The strength of this study lies in its focusing on identifying the issues that portrayed EcoSan asproblematic. The study highlighted major obstacles related to coordination and cooperation amongwater and environmental sanitation stakeholders. The results of this study identified the complexityof acquiring information and implementing specific activities for adoption and use of ecologicalsanitation as a water saving and environmentally sound water technology and its associated practices.
The recommendations of this study provide evidence-based information to water and sanitation
stakeholders on enabling water and sanitation policies, which could lead to successful
implementation of EcoSan technologies. This study was important since the results will contributeto better water and sanitation policies. The study has also contributed to the available knowledge
pool about EcoSan technologies. In the long term, results of this study will contribute to the sustainable
use of water and reduction of environmental pollution, and hence contribute to poverty alleviation,
which is the overall goal of the government of Uganda.

1.4

Aims and Objectives

1.4.1 Aim
This study was aimed at assessing the potential for application of EcoSan technologies asa water and environmental sanitation option for slum communities of Kampala, Uganda.

1.5

Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study were to:
1. Document the current water and environmental sanitation problems in Kampala.
2. Explore the water and sanitation policies and planning framework within which the transfer
and adoption of EcoSan technologies could be implemented.
3. Assess social, economic, cultural, and physical infrastructure issues that may affect theuse of EcoSan technologies among slum communities of Kampala city.

1.6

Expected Outcome and Impact

This research has opened up fresh ground as far as research in developing countries is concerned.
Therefore information gathered through this research will highlight the importance of ecologicalsanitation (EcoSan) as an environmentally sound technology, hence adding value to existingknowledge. The importance of EcoSan as an innovative philosophy based on an overall view of

ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION

5material flows as part of ecologically and economically sustainable wastewater management systems
tailored to local needs will be of great value to policy makers as they make policies on water andenvironmental sanitation.
This study will also provide water and sewerage service providers with information that is of assistancein negating the contamination of water bodies resulting from uncontrolled discharge of poorly treatedwastewater. This is possible through nutrient loops closure, effective contaminant and pathogens
destruction and reduction. The study will therefore make significant contribution to resolving thewater crisis.
To the beneficiaries of the technology (communities in peri-urban areas), the study’s contribution
will be multi-sectoral, since it offers an opportunity for: preserving the fertility of our soils (agriculture);
improving public health by minimizing introduction of pathogens from human excreta into the water
cycle; promoting recycling by safe, hygienic recovery and use of nutrients, trace elements, water andenergy; and conserving resources through lower water consumption, the substitution of chemicalfertilisers, and the minimisation of water pollution. The savings achieved through healthy living
cannot be over emphasised.
The majority of the urban poor live in slums and for the case of Kampala such areas are mainly inwetlands, which are prone to flooding and are characterised by poor sanitation. This means that theconventional pit latrines of drop and store contaminate the water sources and worsen the sanitation
situation. EcoSan technology will therefore be beneficial to the communities since it will transfer
knowledge to them regarding better handling and management of human wastes.
The results of this study will be useful to Kampala City Council and government as it contributes toclearer policies and guidelines regarding the promotion of EcoSan. Indeed, the government under
the Ministry of Health and Kampala City Council have started on the promotion of EcoSan facilities.
However, this was not based on research but rather on what they thought could work. Despite good
health and sanitation objectives, it has not faired well. The need for this research is very essential infilling this gap.
In terms of policy linkage, the results contribute to an informed policy on the water and sanitation
sub-sector. This will be based on recommendation of a bottom-up policy revision through community
involvement. The results will also help in the design and formulation of informed health, water andeducation projects and programmes.

Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1

Policy Perspective of Water and Environment in Uganda

Water, environmental sanitation and hygiene have been of high priority on Uganda’s agenda. For
example, since 1996, 10 years after the end of civil strife in the country, the government has been
struggling to reform the water and sanitation sub-sector (WSP, 2003). In 1998, the government
demonstrated its commitment to reaching the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) targets byreforming the water and sanitation sector. According to Collignon et. al., 2000, the Directorate of
Water Development (DWD) produced a strategy to ensure that the water supplies and sanitation
services are provided with increased performance and cost effectiveness, and to reduce thegovernment’s financial burden without compromising the provision of equitable and sustainable
services.
The reform process started with strengthening the regulatory framework, and provides a basis forcost recovery through the introduction of the 1999 Water Policy. Next was the development of acomprehensive sector strategy, based on sub-sector studies in the areas of: rural water supply andsanitation, urban water supply and sanitation, water for production and water resources management(Rural studies, 2000; Urban studies, 2001). The sub-sector studies provided recommendations for
sector reform, and provided consensus on the importance of the Sector-Wide Approach (SWAP)(MoLWE, 2001).
Collignon et. al., (2002) reveal that in Africa, the water sector reforms mostly affect the urban water
sub sector. This is true for Uganda. For example, by end of year 2003, there was consensus thatprivate sector participation would increase the efficiency of water supply and sanitation (WSS) service
delivery. It is less clear, however, whether the urban WSS management models selected are optimal,
or whether the level of risks associated with these models is acceptable, given the limited scope forchange once the management contracts are in place. Both Kahangire et. al., (2001) and Collignon
et. al., (2002), highlight the specific concerns as including the potential for genuine competition in
the narrow market that exists in Uganda, and the possibility that the reforms will have negative
impacts on small-scale independent providers of urban WSS services, especially those serving theurban poor in the slums of Kampala (Moller, 2001; McGee et al., 2002)

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ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION

7

2.2
Water and Environmental Sanitation in the Context of Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs)
This research is within the framework of goal 7 of the Millennium Development Goals, the purposeof which is to ensure universal environmental sustainability (Allen et. al., 2002).
Figure 1 shows a schematic presentation of goal 7, targets 10 and 11, and their monitoring indicators
30, 31 and 32. Target 10 aims at halving the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and sanitation by 2015. Its monitoring indicator 30, is the proportion of population withsustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural. On the other hand, target 11
provides that by 2020 the world should have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of atleast 100 million slum dwellers. This target, measured through indicator 32, includes the proportionof households with access to water (within 200 metres) and a connection to a sewer. Water accessand sewerage connections are proxies of secure tenure, as otherwise no such investments would
be made, and are an indication of better living conditions (IRC, 2004).
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty andhungerGoal 2: Achieve universal primaryeducation
Goal 3: Promote gender equality andempower women
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria andother diseases
Goal 7: Ensure environmental
sustainability
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership fordevelopment

WATER + SANITATION TARGETS
Target 9: Integrate the principles ofsustainable development into
country policies andprogrammes and reverse theloss of environmental
resources

Target 10: Halve by 2015 theproportion of people without
sustainable access to safe
drinking water and sanitation

Target 11: By 2020 to have achieved
a significant improvement in
the lives of at least 100 million
slum dwellers

WATER +SANITATION
INDICATORS

Indicator 30
Indicator 31

Indicator 32

Figure 2.1: Schematic presentation of water and sanitation within the MDGs International Waterand Sanitation Centre and KfW (2004)
Uganda’s commitment to the MDGs is clear. For example, Uganda’s plan sets out clear objectives
to guide development policy in Uganda, such as the provision of universal primary education, safe
drinking water, and the eradication of mass poverty by 2015. Thus, Uganda has been at the

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

forefront of the move by the international community to draw up strategies for tackling poverty (GoU,
2001). The fast approaching MDG deadlines for goal no. 7 implies that it cannot be the task ofgovernment alone but a collective effort between government, the private sector and the civil society.
Further application of environmental sanitation technology (EST) for water and ecological sanitation
can offer an opportunity for Uganda to achieve targets 10 and 11. It is from this context that we arereviewing the concept of ecological sanitation.

2.3

State of Water and Environmental Sanitation for Urban Kampala

Water shortage and critical environmental degradation are affecting Kampala city just like manyother developing world cities. Only close to 60% of urban dwellers can access safe clean water. Thismeans that two out of five people in Kampala lack access to safe water (Kwagala, 2002).
The slum areas of the City Council of Kampala (KCC) are the worst polluted and disease ridden
habitats of Uganda (Agarwall et. al., 1999). A study carried out by WSP, 2000, revealed that sewage
discharges from centralised waterborne collection systems pollute surface waters, and seepage
from sewers, septic tanks and pit toilets pollute groundwater. Conventional sanitation technologies
based on flush toilets, sewers, treatment and discharge cannot solve these problems in urban areas,
which lack the necessary resources such as water, money and institutional capacity. The range ofpolicy options in sanitation should be widened to include ecological alternatives (NEMA, 2000).

2.4

Ecological Sanitation as an Environmentally Sound Water Technology

Ecological sanitation (EcoSan) technologies take the principle of environmental sanitation a stepfurther: According to Esrey (2000a), ecological sanitation means keeping our surroundings (theenvironment) clean and safe and preventing pollution. It includes wastewater treatment and disposal,
vector control and other disease-prevention activities. Ecological sanitation, on the other hand, isstructured on recycling principles. It means keeping the eco-cycle in the sanitation process closed.
It is also a low-energy approach that uses natural processes (Esrey et. al., 2001).
Ecological sanitation is a cycle, or closed-loop system, which treats human excreta as a resource.
In this system, excreta are processed on site until they are free of pathogenic (disease-causing)organisms. Thereafter the sanitized excreta are recycled by using them for agricultural purposes.
Argawall (1999) defines four key features of EcoSan water-environment sanitation technologies:•
Low consumption of water – smaller volumes of water are used;•
Prevention of pollution and disease caused by human excreta;•
Treatment of human excreta as a resource rather than as a waste product; and•Recovery and recycling of the nutrients.
Esrey (2000a), writing on conventional approaches to sanitation made a case that the nutrients in
the human excreta once disposed, break the nutrient cycle. The very idea that excreta are a wastewith no useful purpose is a modern misconception. It is at the root of pollution problems that result

ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION

9

from conventional approaches to sanitation. In nature there is no waste – all products of living things
are used as raw materials by others for some products. Recycling sanitized human urine and faeces
by returning them to the soil serves to restore the natural cycle of life-building materials that has been
disrupted by our current sanitation practices (Hannan-Andersson, 1984).
EcoSan water and sanitation principles are not new. For example Esrey (1996) reports that in some
cultures, like in parts of East Asia, ecological sanitation systems have been widely used for hundredsof years, and in the case of China, for a few thousand years. It is important, however, that thesesystems are not regarded merely as a second-rate solution for poor people especially those that live
in slums. EcoSan principles may be applied across a range of socio-economic conditions.
The excellent fertiliser value of human excreta has been well established. Humans excrete, on
average, sufficient plant nutrients in the forms of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) to growthe 230 kg of crops they need each year, with approximately 65 to 90% of the nutrients being foundin urine. Furthermore, these nutrients are in chemical compounds easily accessible to plants (Esrey
et al., 2001).
A study by Esrey (1999) further reveals that in most countries, use of human excreta as fertiliser has
been implemented only to a very limited extent. Rather, they have been flushed out into the rivers withconsequent growth of algae, etc., resulting in a lack of oxygen in the aquatic resources. These
resources have also been polluted with pathogenic micro-organisms to the extent that many rivers
have become virus-infected more or less permanently. It is thus better to create a closed system, withno pollution from bacteria or viruses and where human fertilisers are harvested and used to grow thefollowing year’s crops (Esrey et al., 2001). If ecological sanitation could be adopted on a large scale,
it would protect our groundwater, streams, lakes and seas from faecal contamination. Less water
would be consumed. Farmers would also require less commercial fertilisers, much of which washes
out of the soil into water, thereby contributing to environmental degradation (Hannan-Andersson,1984).

2.5

Ecological Sanitation Technologies for Africa

Where a population – rural or urban – is experiencing population density and environmental pressure,
EcoSan seems an attractive alternative to other possibilities. The programme to introduce ecologicalsanitation in rural and slum areas in Niassa Province of northern Mozambique, conducted by Estamos
and WaterAid, was formed along these postulations. EcoSan toilets are being introduced successfully
as alternatives to standard pit toilets, despite initial scepticisms from public health officials about
cultural acceptability. These are of two types, also used in Zimbabwe and Malawi: the ‘fossa alterna’with two shallow pits, so that the faeces can compost in one while the other is in use; and the‘arborloo’. (In both cases, users apply a soil/ash mix to cover faeces, keep flies away and raise pH to
improve pathogen destruction). The ‘arborloo’ is usually used at seasonal farming locations for
growing orchards. From these trials, evidence suggests that growing fruit-trees over disused sanitationpits is becoming more widely practised. The programme also offers conventional pit toilets, but the

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

majority of people prefer the EcoSan toilets because they are easier to build (require less digging)
and are odour-free. Thus, cultural reservations are far from insuperable and appear to be eroding(Esrey, S., 2000a).
Morgan (2001), reports that there are some interesting EcoSan insights in South Africa, where theMvula Trust is starting to introduce urine-diverting EcoSan facilities in Johannesburg townships andlow-income housing developments. Here, the crowdedness and insecurity of urban living spaceputs a premium on a facility, which is odour-free and therefore can be built indoors; does not take upmuch room; and is a permanent investment in that its life does not end when the pit is full. Further,
Morgan (2001) noted that water shortage and the size of water bills is beginning to act as an EcoSan
incentive.
2.5.1
Experiences with Ecological Sanitation in Uganda
The Directorate of Water Development (DWD) has been working on an EcoSan programme in
Kisoro and other townships in south-western Uganda. The programme is intended to address different
sanitation problems from those of Malawi, Zambia and South Africa (WSP, 2002). The locality isdensely settled and needs a good sanitation system, but water is at a premium, the terrain is rocky,
and owing to the nature of the geological formation, urban water supplies are easily contaminated bypolluted wastewater discharge. Ecological sanitation was introduced in an attempt to solve thisproblem. Between 1999 and 2001, 140 compost toilets and 107 dehydration toilets were installed inhouseholds, as well as seven dehydration public/school toilets (Robinson, 2002).
Unfortunately, MoH (2001) has reported that EcoSan technologies in Uganda encountered some
operational difficulties due to leakage, overuse, and lack of maintenance. However, most of thesehave been resolved. The public toilets, operated as a private business, are functioning well. But
persuading some of the families to switch over to using their new facilities in place of their old pit
latrines has not been easy. The difficulties surrounding the promotion of ecological sanitation in a
faecophobic environment were seriously under-estimated. Despite these obstacles, a visionary plan
has been developed to take EcoSan forward, with greater emphasis on awareness building andeducation (WSP, 2002).
From the above analysis, one can conclude that urine-diverting toilets are on the threshold of being
accepted as a standard component in some low-cost housing developments. Reaching the world’s
400+ million people currently without proper means of sanitation in Africa is certainly a major challenge.
Commitment from government and the private sector is needed, and the growth of an institutionalframework which is able to offer alternative technologies including EcoSan, while balancing
environmental concerns with the demands of water consumers is long overdue.
Available literature on EcoSan technologies as an alternative to solving the current water and sanitation
problems in Kampala city slums revealed the following gaps:• Unexplained slow progress in achieving water and sanitation targets;

ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION

11• EcoSan technologies introduced in Uganda without proper in-depth studies tohighlight difficulties associated with EcoSan technologies;• Lack of enabling policies and frameworks through which EcoSan environmental
and sanitation technologies (EST) could be promoted
It was therefore the purpose of the study to bridge the observed gaps.

Chapter Three
Methodology
3.1

Study Design

A combination of non-participant case study and cross-sectional survey designs has been used forthis study. This is because respondents to this study have varied education backgrounds. Survey andinterview techniques were used for eliciting information. The hybrid design was found appropriate
since it enables gathering information from different respondents (cross-sectional survey) who havenot participated in EcoSan technologies (non-participant case study).

3.2

The Study Area and Selection

The study area comprised high population density areas of Kampala slums. The areas studied were
purposively selected on the basis of water and environmental sanitation problems. The criteria for selecting
the study area comprised: High population density, evidence of water pollution by the sewage system,
wetland or swampy settlement. Five slum areas, one from each of the five (Central, Kawempe, Makindye,
Rubaga and Nakawa) divisions of KCC were covered in this study. The areas studied are shown in table 1
below.
Table 3.1: Study areas
1
2
3
4
5

3.3

Division
Kampala Central Division
Kawempe Division
Makindye Division
Nakawa Division
Lubaga Division

Slum area
Kamwokya-Kifumbira
Kareirwe-Bwaise
Katwe- Kinyoro
Naggulu
NateeteVariables and Data Sources

Data were collected from: adult men and women living in the selected five Kampala slum residents;
local councillors (village, parish and division): Kampala divisional technical staff (health inspectors,
water officers, environmental officers and other extension staff); officials from the Ministry of Water,
Lands and Environment (MoWLE) and all the nine parliamentarians from Kampala District. The
major variables included the following:• Demographic information (age, education, sex …);

12

ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION

13

Social-cultural information (gender, perceptions and attitudes);Technologies for delivery of health education programmes (skills, knowledge, tools and equipment);
Systems for water and sanitation technology transfer (environment, life skills, organ or individuals);
Attitudes and practices (whether positive or negative towards development, use, paying for,, among
others, EcoSan water and sanitation facilities;• Water, sanitation and hygiene policy framework.

•
•
•
•

3.4
1.
2.
3.

3.5

Research Question
What is the current state of the environment and sanitation conditions in slum areas ofKampala city?
What are the frameworks and policy options for sustainable development, transfer andadoption of ‘EcoSan’ technology in the Ugandan context?
What are the: social, economic, cultural and physical (-infrastructural) issues that influence
use of EcoSan technologies among slum dwellers of Kampala city?

Study Sample and Sampling Procedure

The study was conducted in five purposively selected settlements, one from each of the five divisions ofKampala. From each slum area, 50 residents were randomly selected for interviewing. Additionally, 10 and
four local council official and technical staff respectively from each of the five divisions were purposively
identified for being responsible for and knowledgeable about water and environmental sanitation issues.
The study also included the nine members of Parliament who represent the five divisions of Kampala.
Another set of respondents was composed of 10 garbage collection staff. This research therefore had atotal of 329 respondents.

3.6

Instruments and Data Collection Methods

3.6.1
Pre-Testing of Instruments
A set of five different instruments were developed as indicated below.
Table 3.2: Instruments used in data collection
12
34

Instrument
In-depth interview questionnaire
Focus group discussion (FGD) guideInterview guideInterview guide56

Key informant in-depth interview guide (KIIIG)
Key informant in-depth interview guide (KIIIG)

Respondents
9 – members of parliament
250 – local slum residents
250 – local slum residents
20 – technical personnel (water, environment, health,education)
50 – local councillors (local leaders)
10 – garbage collection staff

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

14

The FGD guides were tested on two focus groups. The pilot test participants were different but withsimilar experiences as the target respondents (local slum residents). The in-depth interview guides
were pre-tested using six different individuals but with the same background like that of the target
respondents, while the questionnaires were administered to 25 respondents, five from each of thefive study areas of each division. Upon successful pre-testing, the instruments were then revised andedited.
3.6.2
Data Collection
Data were collected from the 250 slum residents and the 50 local councillors using questionnaires,interview guides and focus group discussion (FGD). guides Two single sex FGDs, one for men andanother for women, were conducted for the slum residents in each of the five research sites, making
a total of 10 FGDs conducted with the respondents. One FGD per division was also conducted withthe local councillors, giving a total of 5 FDGs for the local councillors. A total of 15 FGDs wereconducted. The rest of the 99 respondents i.e. MPs, technical staff and ministry officials were
subjected to in-depth interviews.
Additional data were collected from policy documents, other publications from the divisions, KCC
district headquarters, National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Directorate of Water
Development (DWD), MoWLE and online published and unpublished reports.

3.7

Data Analysis

Data collected using FGDs and in-depth interviews, were analysed qualitatively using the following
steps: i) transcription, including translations from local languages to English; and ii) the transcribed
information was then organised, indexed and coded using Nudist (N6) Qualitative Analysis Software(QAS). The coded data were interpreted using content analysis techniques. After content analysis,
the information was summarised into this research report.
On the other hand, data collected from the 250 residents using survey questionnaires were analysedusing simple descriptive univariate statistics. Results from both analyses (qualitative and quantitative)
were triangulated to facilitate drawing of strong conclusions and making valid policy
recommendations. Analysed information was presented in the form of illustrations, frequencies,
percentages, tables and charts.

Chapter Four
Results
4.1

Introduction to Results

Literature survey and document analysis done indicate that the city of Kampala is growing at a fast
rate of 4.9% (night rate), with a population of 1.2 million at night and about 2.5 million during the day.
About 21% of Kampala is composed of slum areas, which house over 40% of the city population.
Much of this area is located in low-lying swampy areas, with inadequate water and sanitation services.
Evidence shows that only 64% of the population is served by sewers (Kampala Sanitation Master
Plan - KSMP, 2004). Statistics also indicate that about 66% of the population use pit latrines for
excreta disposal, and functional latrine coverage in many areas is below 50%. Many households aresharing toilet facilities, that is, 65%; while 30% have inadequate toilets facilities. Emptying these
latrines becomes difficult, since access is often not possible or owners cannot afford the cost of
vacuum tankers.
Kampala city is located on hills with valleys drained by streams and swamps. Most of the Kampala
slums are located in these high water table areas, where drainage is poorly developed and maintained;
and many of them experience floods. Toilets connect to the drainage channels especially during therainy season. About 50% of solid waste is properly handled, either locally or as part of any systematiccollection system. Treatment of sewage and septic tank sludge is found to be inadequate. This“sanitation gap” has resulted into prevalence of malaria and diarrhoeal diseases (43% of cases
reporting to health centres in Kampala). There are frequent epidemic outbreaks of cholera andother sanitation-related diseases. In the slums unfortunately, major expansion of the sewer network
is not deemed feasible due to high costs, yet the slum dwellers are the poorest in the country. Among
the reasons for the low coverage of on-site sanitation is believed to be poverty, followed by lack ofawareness, lack of space, and lack of appropriate technology for areas with a high water table.

4.2

Policy Issues and Ecological Sanitation (Ecosan)

4.2.1
Water and Environmental Sector Policies and Development Frameworks
One of the major issues this research set out to investigate was available water policies and planning
frameworks within which the transfer and adoption of EcoSan technologies could be implemented.
The exploration of policies and planning frameworks was done through review of available literature,policy documents and other water and sanitation documents, and from interviews with policy makers
and technical personnel. Documents reviewed included the list in Box 1.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

16

Box 4.1: Policy documents reviewed
1.
2.
3.

Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (1995 amended 2005)
The Local Governments Act (1997 amended in 2005)
The Water Act, and accompanying regulations [Water Resources Regulations (1998),
Wate Discharge Regulations (1998), the Water Supply Regulations (1999), Sewerage
Regulations (1999)]
4. The National Environment Act
5. The National Water & Sewerage Corporation Act (2000)
6. Uganda Water Action Plan (1995)
7. National Water Policy (1999)
8. The National Environment Management Policy (1994)
9. Land Act (1998)
10. National Health Policy and Health Sector Strategic Plan (1999)
11. National Gender Policy (1997)
12. Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations (1998)
13. National Environment (standards of discharge of effluent into water or on land)
Regulations (1999), National Environment (waste management) Regulations (1999)

Review of policy-related documents given in Box 1 revealed that the Government of Uganda has put
in place a Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) as a national framework for poverty eradication.
The PEAP was prepared in 1997 and was revised in 2000 and 2004 (MoFPED, 2004a). The action
plan has adopted a multi-sectoral approach, recognizing the multidimensional nature of poverty andthe links between influencing factors. The issues raised in the PEAP are being addressed throughvarious programmes including water and sanitation as one of the major policies. In the revised PEAP
(MFPED, 2004a), the water and sanitation sector falls under two pillars:• Pillar 2: Enhancing production, competitiveness and incomes (includes water for
production and water resources management); and• Pillar 5: Human development (includes water supply and sanitation). The Governmentof Uganda has reformed the water and sanitation sector in order to ensure that services
are provided and managed with improved performance and cost effectiveness.
In response to the move to provide clean and equitable water to all its citizens, the government has
worked hard to increase the per capita provision of water. Figure 2 gives a comparison of the percapita water provision for selected African country nationals.

ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION17

Per capita value in USD $Comparison of per capita water supply
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
60-10050-100

40-80

40-70

Gha naUga ndaKe nyaTa nza nia

Figure 4.1: International per capita comparison of water supply (MLWE, 2005)
From the graph in Figure 4.1, there is a clear indication that the government of Uganda is maintaining
her commitment to provision of equitable and sustainable provision of water and sanitation services
in Uganda. For example, while Uganda may be doing worse in major economic indicators like GDP
and GNP than the African countries indicated in the Figure 4.1, it is doing quite well as far as per
capita water supply is concerned. Document review indicated that reforms required in-depth studies,situation analysis, and studies of African region experiences. Rural Water Supply and Sanitation(RWSS) and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation (UWSS) reform studies were completed in 2000
(Wardrop, 2000; Consult4, 2000). The Water for Production and the Water Resources Management
Reform studies were completed in December 2003 and January 2005 (WSP, 2003, 2005) respectively.
The reform studies included sector strategic investment plans (SIPs) with appropriate policies,
strategies and action plans.
However the current per capita water provision and commitment needs to be beefed-up with waterand environmental conservation technologies like EcoSan.
4.2.2
Policy Objectives
Review of the available policy documents and literature from the water and sanitation sector studies
indicate that the overall policy objectives of the Government for water resources management,(domestic) water supply and sanitation, and water for production respectively are to:“manage and develop water resources of Uganda in an integrated and sustainable manner, so as to secure
and provide water of adequate quantity and quality for all social and economic needs of the present andfuture generations with the full participation of all stakeholders” (MWLE, 1999a).

18

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47“provide sustainable provision of safe water within easy reach and hygienic sanitation facilities, based on
management responsibility and ownership by the users, to 77% of the population in rural areas and 100%of the urban population by the year 2015 with an 80%-90% effective use and functionality of facilities”(MWLE, 2004e).

‘This is more ambitious than the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) which aims to halve thepercentage of people without access to safe water by 2015. This corresponds to 72% access to safe
water by 2015.
“Promote development of water supply for agricultural production in order to modernise agriculture andmitigate effects of climatic variations on rain fed agriculture” (MWLE, 1999a).

A Sector Wide Approach to Planning (SWAP) for the Water and Sanitation Sector was adopted in
September 2002. SWAP is a mechanism whereby the government and development partners support
a single policy and expenditure programme, which is under government leadership and follows acommon approach. The rural water and sanitation sub-sector is the most advanced in terms of
SWAP implementation.
4.2.3
Policy and Regulatory Framework
Water and sanitation policy objectives have been developed. However, within these objectives, thereis lack of indications as to how the set targets could be improved. Therefore, the results of thisresearch can inform the process. If these objectives are to be considered complete, there would beneed for the policy objectives to include practical ways of reaching the stated targets.
Water and sanitation sector policies and legal frameworks present a comprehensive regulatory
framework for the management of the water sector. Evidence to this effect is presented in the policy
and legal documents given in Box 1. The available policy documents reveal that the current policies
reflect the socio-economic, development and financial fabric prevailing in present day Uganda with
foresight to the future. However, the policy measures are not fully implemented, especially at the
local government and community levels. There is need to review some provisions of the laws inorder to incorporate regulatory functions and allow greater participation of all stakeholders, including
the private sector.
In line with this EcoSan study, policy documents 3 (Box 1) – The Water Act, and accompanying
regulations: Water Resources Regulations (1998); Waste Discharge Regulations (1998; the Water
Supply Regulations (1999); Sewerage Regulations (1999) and 13 – National Environment Standards
for Discharge of Effluent into Water or on Land Regulations (1999), and National Environment Waste
Management Regulations (1999) apply. In this respect, if well implemented, there is no doubt thesituation of sanitation in the City Council of Kampala (KCC) would improve. Most especially, thepolicies would take into account provision of EcoSan services to the slum areas of Kampala.

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19

4.2.4
EcoSan Technologies and Policy Performance
There are more differences in access to latrines around Uganda than in access to improved watersupplies. Sanitation access in schools is below target while in rural areas sanitation in not doing sobadly. Also, evidence collected so far suggests that hygiene practices in households are inadequate.
The performance as measured against the hand-washing indicator is the most worrying of all thewater and sanitation indicators.
A review of the national Water Policy, 1999; the National Water and Sewerage Co-corporation andthe Uganda Water Action Plan, 1995 revealed that there is increasing recognition in the sector thatsanitation and hygiene has been given insufficient emphasis in the past. If maximum impacts ofimproved water supplies are to be attained, then more emphasis on sanitation and hygiene activities
and investment is required. To improve latrine coverage and hand washing it is necessary to revitalize
the Kampala Declaration on Sanitation (KDS), which spells out the roles of all stakeholders fromhousehold, community, leaders and institutions with regard to water and sanitation. Analysis ofavailable policy documents reveal that when fully revitalised, the KDS would cater for EcoSan
technologies as they are found to be effective for high population density communities like theKampala slums where this study was carried out.
4.2.5
Gender Policies and EcoSan Technologies
One of the six critical requirements set out in the water sector framework (MWLE, 2002) focuses on
the meaningful involvement of women. The water and sanitation sector framework stipulates that
before any water technology is implemented, community mobilisation should have achieved thefollowing minimum requirements:• That the composition of Water User Committees (WUC) and Water and Sanitation Committees(WSCs) shall include at least 50% women; election of women as chair and treasurer of the
WUA/WSC is encouraged; half of the water point attendants and hand pump mechanics
shall be women;• Training shall target women and their male colleagues;• The entire community shall be involved in discussing the siting of water sources with men
and women initially consulted separately;• All communications to communities shall be to both men and women.
Regarding the use of EcoSan technologies in slum areas of Kampala, the involvement of both maleand female users is even more critical. For EcoSan, the role of women would be very critical as theywould be more efficient at ensuring cleanliness of the EcoSan toilets and would ensure efficientcollection of the separated urine.
4.2.6
Urban Water Supply and Quality in Towns
The quality of water supplied in the towns varies greatly depending on the type of source water andthe private operator. Where water is pumped from boreholes, the quality generally is good regardlessof the operator. However, where the source is surface water and requires treatment, this becomes aproblem mainly due to lack of sustainable supply of water treatment chemicals. Generally,

ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION

21

Comparative pollution loading from point sources into Lake
Victoria
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

14000

Urban centres

3000

2500

Fishing villages

Industries

Pol luti on source s

Figure 4.3: Sources of pollution
Figure 4.3 shows that the major pollution concentration centres are the urban centres. Further
analysis indicates that over 70% of the worst pollutants are the high population density slums of
Kampala. On a positive note, however, a number of large town water supplies under NWSC usuallyprovide water of good quality. NWSC is well equipped in all the big towns of Uganda with both
personnel and equipment. Water supplies under water authorities and other private operators lacktesting equipment. Information gathered from technical officers indicated that DWD is now planning
to provide essential water quality testing equipment to the water authorities for routine water quality
monitoring. In addition, the water authorities and private operators will be trained in water quality
testing and monitoring as part of the implementation of the National Water Quality Monitoring Strategy.
This would be a very good opportunity to integrate EcoSan technology development skills training
with the general training on monitoring of water quality. Therefore, there is an enabling environmentfor EcoSan technologies and user capacity to be developed.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

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4.2.8

Golden Indicators, Targets and Combative Achievement

Table 4.1: Water and sanitation global indicators – Uganda’s achievement
Indicator
1

2

3

4

5

Target areas

Percentage of people
Rural
within 1.5 km (urban)
Urban
and 0.2 km (rural)
Small towns
Percentage of improved Rural
water sources that are Large town
functional at time of spot WFP
check
Average cost per
Ruralbeneficiary of new water RGCs
and sanitation schemes Small towns(USD)
Percentage pf people
Rural HH
with improved sanitation Urban HH(household and schools) Schools
Percentage of persons Householdswith access to and using
hand washing sanitation Schools

Targets
2004/2005 2006/2007
58
62
70
75

Achievement
2014/2015 2004/2005
77
61.3
100
67
36
90
82
95
no datano data

82
83

85
90

45
58
80

40
55
75

40
50
75

31
56
72

57
no datano datanotmeasurednotmeasured

58
77
82
14

62
92
100
23

77
100
100
50

to be set

to be set

to be set

From the analysis of the water and sanitation golden indicators given in Table 4.1, the realisation isthat Uganda will find it very difficult to meet the MDG deadline of 2015, with the exception of percentageof persons with improved sanitation.
One way of speeding-up the rate at which the Government of Uganda can achieve water andsanitation MDG targets is more application of EcoSan technology,
4.2.9
Problems Faced by Urban Water Supply Operators
Interviews with the water providers and garbage (human waste) collectors in Kampala indicated thatwhile the privatisation sector in Uganda offers private investors with opportunities to invest at a profit,
they face a numerous problems. Private operators with the exception of NWSC cited the following as
being the main problems affecting the quality of their services:• Assets handed over by DWD have become old or have broken down. Examples are rusty
pipes and broken down pumps.
• High operating costs implying low profits.
• Lack of capacity for efficient operation of the treatment plants. Personnel do not have thenecessary technical background or training.
• Revenue collection. Customers delay payment and few are willing to pay. Some still go for
traditional water sources.

ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY OPTION

23• Lack of facilities; mainly office space, in-house laboratories and transport.
• Poor quality works associated with poor designs, poor quality construction and poor
supervision.
Although EcoSan technology would be desirable, such problems, if not addressed could greatly
affect its development and sustainability.
4.2.10Technologies
Although very few persons are aware of the existence of EcoSan toilets, EcoSan is one of thetechnologies being promoted in Uganda through a coalition between DWD, MoH, Makerere University,
NARO, Kampala City Council, MoES, local governments, NGOs and the private sector. This technology
is particularly relevant for the urban poor living in high density areas because of limited space andprevention of contamination of groundwater. EcoSan is also very appropriate for difficult environments
like rocky, waterlogged and sandy collapsing soil areas, where digging pits is cumbersome. Awarenessof the technology has been increased through posters, workshops, drama and leaflets. Research
into pathogen die-off and agronomic value is being undertaken. The Directorate of Water Development(DWD) reports a total of 3,348 EcoSan toilets that have been constructed throughout Uganda. This,
although true, is hard to believe. For example, out of 250 respondents, only 15 (4.4%) knew about theexistence of EcoSan toilets in Uganda.

4.3

Sanitation Problems among Slum Dwellers in Kampala

4.3.1

Living Conditions of Respondents and its Implication for Ecological Sanitation
Un conjested,61(24%)
61, 24%
Uncongested

Co njested , 189,
76%
Congested
189
(76%)

Figure 4.4: Living conditions of slum dwellers
One of the interests in this study was to understand water and sanitation problems associated withthe slum settlements. The study therefore investigated water and sanitation problems that could
hinder or support EcoSan technologies as a way of improving water and sanitation problems amongslum dwellers.

24

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 47

Results obtained from this study indicate that 189 (75.6 %) slum dwellers lived in congested houses(see Figure 4.4). The dwelling units were found to be less than 500 metres from water sources suchas springs, wells, wetlands, rivers or streams. Households in which the slum dwellers live are generally
small units of one to two rooms of average size of 6x5 feet (30 sq. ft). These units are normallycongested with literally no space from one dwelling unit to another.
The five slums in which the study was carried out were mainly situated in illegal swampy settlementscharacterised by water logging at the slightest drizzle. On average the number of persons living in an
average living unit of 6x5 feet was found to be four. This means that on average the per-capita spacefor one person is calculated to be 30/4 (7.5 sq ft per person). This is indeed a very small space for anindividual. Furthermore, these slum dwellers have to use either raised toilets that are very close to thedwelling units or resort to ‘flying toilets’. Flying toilets refer to a practice of passing out human waste
into temporary storage (in most cases Kavera), and at an opportune time, the Kavera and its contents
are thrown away through the air (hence the code name ‘flying toilet’). This kind of disposal is one of
the causes of diseases like dysentery and cholera, which are so common among these slum
communities. This situation indicates that unless innovative approaches to water and sanitation are
applied, the conventional approaches do not offer enough options to solve the sanitation problemsof the slum dwellers. EcoSan therefore has the potential of solving to some extent, the problem ofsanitation among slum dwellers. The nature of housing in these slums offers an opportunity fordevelopment of EcoSan technologies.
4.3.2
Access to Water and Sanitation and Their Implication for Ecosan Technologies
Another issue investigated in this research was access to safe clean water by the slum dwellers.
Results presented in this section indicate the access situation. An open ended question to slum
dweller respondents regarding their water sources indicated two major responses: i) shared andprivate sources; and ii) springs and natural wells (see Figure 4.5).
Results of the study regarding access to water and sanitation indicated that there were 163 (65.2%)
slum dwellers with access to tap water from both private and shared sources and 90 (36 %)households who depended on natural water sources such as springs, rivers and wells. Further
investigation into the matter indicated that both categories (those that access water from NWSC taps
and natural sources) face pollution problems. For example, Figure 4.5 indicates comparative dataon pollution of water sources from different urban centres. Pollution data from Lake Victoria
Environmental Program (LVEP, 2005) indicate that Kampala city has an outstanding pollution level of
BOD 9153 kg/day. This is an indication that there is wide spread pollution, possibly affecting pipedwater. EcoSan toilets, if well handled, would reduce on pollution from pit latrines and poorly handled
flush toilets.