ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 6 Number 1

June 2015

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

erdInternational Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development(Accessible from CABI International, Google Scholar, etc.)

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture / Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation
and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors:
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Southeast
Asia Office / Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Editorial Advisory Board:
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
Dr. Robert J. Farquharson, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Prof. Dr. Keishiro Itagaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Arata Koga, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, IAS, Japan
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Editorial Secretariat:
Dr. Aya Kaneko Ikawa, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Contents
The Influence of External Environment on Operation Strategy and Corporate Performancein Indonesian Garment Industry
Atty Tri Juniarti

1

Applicability of Estimation Method for Soil Moisture in Mongolian Grasslands using a Pattern
Decomposition Method
Ayako Sekiyama, Sawahiko Shimada, Michinari Yokohama
and Hiromichi Toyoda

7

Peatland Tank Model for Evaluation of Shallow Groundwater Table Data without Height Reference
from Benchmark
Xin He and Takashi Inoue

16

Ecotoxicology of Copper on Local Freshwater Organisms in Mekong River Cambodia
Soeung Lyly, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Tham Hoang

22

Application of Biodegradable Film from Yam (Dioscorea alata) Starch in Thailand for Agriculture
Activity
Orose Rugchati and Kanita Thanacharoenchanaphas

28Long-Term Effects of Spent Wash Liquor on Soil Bacterial Population in Sugar Cane Production
Systems
Phrueksa Lawongsa, Piromya Maneewong, Naruemon Naksri,
Tippawan Promchart, Sutee Wongmaneeprateep,
Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Mongkon Ta-Oun

34

Plant Diversity on Slightly Saline Soils in Chi River Basin of Northeast Thailand
Sarawut Deeprom, Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Bubpha Topark-Ngarm,
Samang Homchuen and Tongin Kummee

40

Circumstances of Survey Education Conducted in Japanese Universities
Takahiko Kubodera, Hiromu Okazawa, Yoshiharu Hosokawa,
Masahiro Tasumi, Katsuhiro Sasada, Eiji Matsuo
and Machito Mihara

46

Circumstances of Surveyor License Acquisition System in Japan
Takahiko Kubodera, Hiromu Okazawa, Yoshiharu Hosokawa,
Masahiro Tasumi, Katsuhiro Sasada, Eiji Matsuo
and Machito Mihara

51

Growth Performance and Feed Utilization of Common Lowland Frog (Rana rugulosa Wiegmann)
Fed with Supplementation by Bromelain Extracted from Pineapple Feed
Rungkan Klahan and Banyat Sirithanawong

58

Mangrove Rehabilitation Using Rhizophora sp. in Northeastern Bohol, Philippines
Samuel J. Gulayan, Jesrelljane Aaron-Amperand Edlin Rene B. Handugan

63

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI): Assessment on SRI Farmers’ Contribution to the RiceMarkets
Sophy Ches and Yamaji Eiji

69

Evaluation of River Water Quality in Agricultural Watershed with the Environmental Standards
Toshimi Muneoka, Yuri Yamazaki, Sachiyo Wakou,
Masato Kimura and Osamu Tsuji

75

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Characteristics of Ion Components in River Water with Multivaraite Analysis and Piper Diagramin Agricultural Area
Yuri Yamazaki, Toshimi Muneoka, Sachiyo Wakou,
Masato Kimura and Osamu Tsuji

80

Mitigating Splash Erosion with Applying Bacillus subtilis Natto
Aya Kaneko Ikawa, Machito Mihara, Yuta Ishikawa
and Sergio Azael May Cuevas

86

An Approach for Monitoring the Reforestation and Conservation Efforts by Local Communities
Hisashi Mori, Awadh Kishor Sah, Bhuwneshwar Prasad Sah,
Minami Yamaya and Senthil Selvaraj

91

Cultural Ecosystem Service Assessment in a Semi-Mountainous Area of Japan: Case in Toyota City
Kiichiro Hayashi, Makoto Ooba and Yasuhiro Hasegawa

97

Nutrient Value and Palatability for Cattle on Corn Stover Silage
Bunna Chea, Theary Hout, Serey Mob, Kouch Thengand Mom Seng

103

Growth Rate of Acropora nobilis Attached to Table Type Framework
Jesrelljane Aaron-Amper, Josueh M. Gulayan,
Christopher Olavides and Samuel J. Gulayan

108

Determinants of Learners’ Intention to Continue Using the E-learning Program of the Agricultural
Training Institute (ATI)
Merrian Piquero Soliva

114

Educational Benefits of Green Tourism School Trips in Japan
Yamamoto Tadao

120

Assessment on the Solid Waste Management and Sanitation Programs in the Municipality of Balilihan
Riame T. Tuico, Jocelyn P. Lumactud, Evangielyn P. Lumantas,
Dhoree May R. Maravilla, Rocell S. Silagan, Ernesto B. Alijay
and Virgilia D. Tejada, MAg. Dev.

126

Impacts of Pyroligneous Acid to Biological and Chemical Properties of Depleted Soil in Bohol,
Philippines
Jose T. Travero and Machito Mihara

132

Pre-Rice or Post-Rice Mungbean Productivity with Chemical and Bio-Compost Fertilizer
under Rainfed Conditions
Anan Polthanee, Arunee Promkhambut, Jawapa Manaonok
and Rangrong Taboonmuang138

Biodiversity of Soil Invertebrates in Sugar Cane Plantations with the Different Application of Sugar
Distillery Spent Wash
Duangrat Thongphak, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai andThammared Chauasavathi

143

Efficiency of Vermicompost on Growth and Nutrients Content of Young Rubber Trees(Hevea brasiliensis)
Kiriya Sungthongwises

148

Floodplain Mapping Using HEC-RAS and GIS in Nam Phong River Basin, Thailand
Nareth Nut and Vichian Plermkamon

153

The Application of Deficit Water and Fertilizer upon Yield and Water Footprint in Baby Corn
Ratgon Suebkam, Vidhaya Trelo-Ges and Supasit Konyai

159

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Site-specific Soil Conservation Approaches in Desertification-prone Areas in the Inner Mongolia Region,
China
Kingshuk Roy, Toshiharu Shimowatari and Zhang Wei

165

Pesticide Distribution in the Namphong River NE Thailand Arising from Land Use and Other Practices
Tatiana Komarova, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,
Atcharaporn Somparn, Natsima Tokhun, Jochen Mueller, Ivan
Kennedy and Barry Noller

175

Non-uniform Distribution of Soil Salinity Along a Transect of an Irrigation Field in an Arid Region
Takashi Kume, Tadao Yamamoto, Katsuyuki Shimizu
and Abdisalam Jalaldin

181

Golden Apple Snail as Source of Protein Diets of Fattened Mud Crab (Scylla serrata Forskal)in Cellular Bamboo Cages
Maria Danesa S. Rabia

188

iii

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Research article
erd

The Influence of External Environment on Operation
Strategy and Corporate Performance in IndonesianGarment Industry
ATTY TRI JUNIARTI*
Pasundan University, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia
Email: Tri_lo03@yahoo.com
Received 13 December 2014

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study examined the phenomenon of production and competition of thegarment Industry in Indonesia. Indonesian garment products have not been competitive in
the international market. The quality of the resulting garment products have not been able tocomply with the international quality standards. In addition, Indonesia has not been
included in the Trans-Pacific Partnership community that provides reduction of importduties for its member. This research extends the work performed by other researchers byperforming the study in a diferent environment not studied before and by expanding theenvironment dimension. The study used the management approach and integrating thestrategic management, operation management, human resource management and marketing
management. The purpose of this study is to describe and analyse 1) The external
environment, operation strategy and corporate performance of Indonesian garment industry;2) The influence of external environment towards operation strategy; and 3) The influenceof operation strategy towards the corporate performance. The types of this research aredescriptive and verificative while the methods used both descriptive and explanatory
surveys. Using the random sampling technique from collection data, the sample size were
71 companies with 395 respondences which consist 71 operation managers, 71 agents and
253 employees. The using interview as a technique from collection data with threequestionaire models. The data collected at February until July 2013, using the descriptive
analysis and path analysis. The results show 1) The external environment (supplier,technology, and consumer), operation strategy and company performance generally goodenough; 2) The external environment have significant influence simultaneously andpartially towards operation strategy, the consumer influence on the operating strategy is
greater than the influence of technology and suppliers; 3) The operation strategy have asignificant influence towards corporate performance and the operating strategy has a huge
influence on company performance and there is any other influence.
Keywords external environment, operation strategy, corporate performance

INTRODUCTION
Recently, Indonesian garment industry (IGI) face a fiercer challenge due to increasing number ofimported products and great demand by consumers, in addition to the several weaknesses of thenational garment products. For example, in the case of the design product, Indonesia does not haveenough expertise, so it must pay higher salary for foreign designers. Indonesian garment products
actually have the potential to grow because people cannot be separated from garment products, andIndonesia is a big market.
Indonesian textile and garment market share in the international market (Asosiasi Pertekstilan
Indonesia, 2012) is only about 1.82% and there has never been a significant increase. Indonesian
textile and garment products are not competitive in United States (US) and Europe market, and oneof the reasons is because Indonesia has not been included in the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)
community, which provides a reduction of import duties for its member. In comparison, afterⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Vietnam joined the TPP they get 5% - 12% of import duty reduction for the products that areexported to America, while Indonesia according to the Chairman of the Indonesian Textile
Association (April 2014), burdened with 12% - 31% duty, even though has become textile andgarment producer earlier than Vietnam.
The fact of the national garment industry nowadays is that it faces a fierce competition with
imported products that dominate the national market. The main competition is in the garment
design; imported products have better design that is preferred by consumers than local products.
This condition is cause by the limited ability of local manufacturers to design the products as wellas the used machinery which is still a constraint. Ultimately this situation leads to the national
garment industry acts as a 'tailor' for foreign manufacturers.
As one of the economic center in Southeast Asia, Indonesia has a dynamic economic growth.
According to World Bank’s data, Indonesia's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth in 2013reached 5.8% and Gross National Income Indonesia grew from US $ 2,200 in 2000 to US $ 3,563
in 2013. The problem then arises on the challenges of free trade, especially in Southeast Asia.
Indonesia as a member of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) will face theimplementation of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), but the government has not held adiscussion on this subject to gain opinions from the public, entrepreneur and academics. There isconcern that when the AEC is enacted, Indonesian producer will have great difficulties to competewith the foreign products and services, because of the legal and economic policies do not exist or
are not ready to face the sophistication of free trade mechanism.
To measure the industry’s performance, one of the benchmarks used by the Indonesian
government is the achievement of value added, so that the effort to increase the added value along
the chain of events is one of the strategies to increase the competitive advantage. Meanwhile,according to Johnson and Scholes (1993), strategy is the direction and scope of the organization toachieve excellence through the configuration of the existing resources to adjust to environmental
changes.
Lowe (1995) stated that in order to implement the strategy of technology, companies canconduct an analysis of the position held technology. The analysis is about market capability and thepossessed technological capability that is reflected in the production function.
OBJECTIVESThis study aims to reveal and analyse the external environment (suppliers, technology andconsumer), operating strategy, and the performance of the garment industry in Indonesia. This
study is a continuation of the prior research that has been done in 2007. In addition, it also aims toreveal the problems faced by the garment industry, particularly related to the performance.
In order the company can compete favourably with industry domestically and abroad, theindustry needs a good competitive strategy, such as determining the operating strategy that will be
implemented in the company. Porter (1980) stated that if a company can achieve and maintainoverall cost advantage, then it will perform above average, as long as it can maintain the pricearound the industry average.
METHODOLOGY
The method used in this study is descriptive and verificative, which aims to get an idea about theexternal environment and operations strategy, as well as to observe their effects on the performanceof the garment industry. The population target is the garment industry in Indonesia especially thosethat are listed as a members of the Indonesian Textile Association. A sample withdrawal techniquewith simple random sampling is used, with a sampling frame made first. Using the random
sampling technique from collection data, the sample size were 71 companies with 395
respondences which consist 71 operation managers, 71 distributor/agents and 253 employees. The
using interview as a technique from collection data with three questionaire models. The datacollected at February until July 2012, using the descriptive analysis and path analysis. There areⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

three variables that become the object of research; external environment that includes suppliers,
technology and consumer; operations strategy; and performance of the company. Data analysis has
been conducted using path analysis, which is used to analyze the causal correlation between thevariables studied. Path diagram is used to describe causal correlation between variables under study,
which graphically depict the structure of a causal correlation between the independent variables,
the intervening variables and the dependent variable. Data processing is conducted using Lisrel 8.7
with an ordinal scale.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The garment industry is a clothing company that produces apparel, namely shirts, t-shirts, blouses, sport
shirts, polo shirts, under wear, trousers, jackets and rock & blouses. Various types of products producedby the garment industry can be classified into men's apparel, ladies apparel and children's apparel.
Textile and garment industry in Indonesia began to grow since 1920 (Asosiasi Pertekstilan Indonesia,2012) but Indonesia does not have a factory in the country yet. The development of this industry wasstarted from the development of Indonesian traditional batik clothes.
The external environments referred in this study are the factors that are beyond the company
which can affect the development of Indonesian garment industry. In this study, the external
environment is consists of suppliers, technology and consumer. Based on the eight indicators of
suppliers, it can be concluded that these suppliers belong to intermediate level. It means that
suppliers of raw materials have yet to reach the performance level expected by the garment industry
in general.
The majority of Indonesian garment industry is facing the competitors that have a relatively
good marketing strategy and performance, especially in achieving sales growth, profitability, andcustomer satisfaction (Atty, 2012). Companies that deal with such situations need to systematicallycollect information of the main competitors or industry averages and analyze it. The results are thenused as a basis for developing appropriate strategies, so that it can be used to overcome andminimize the threat of competitors or even can be utilized to seek for a new opportunity in themarket.
Approximately, there are about 11 types of machines with a variety of functions that are
generally used in the garment industry. Technology that is used heavily affects the garment
production quality (e.g. when machines used are relatively old and not using the latest technology,
the result will not be satisfactory). The results obtained indicate that the influence of consumers on
the operating strategy is greater than the influence of technology and suppliers for operating
strategy. The results of data analysis that has been conducted to test the hypothesis are based on the
diagram and mathematical model approach. Influence of the external environment on the operating
strategy and its impact on the performance of the garment industry in Indonesia is shown in Fig. 1.
The test is conducted by calculating the path coefficient of each variable studied.
Supplier

0.514

0.370

0.311

0.575

Technology

0.632

0.301

Operation
Strategy

0.326

ConsumerFig. 1 Path diagramⒸ ISERD

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0.296

0.839

Corporate
Performancee

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Fig. 1 shows that each external variable (suppliers, technology and consumers) has a positive
correlation. It can be said that all the three sub-variables of the external environment are supporting
each other as they are interconnected.
The results of the path analysis calculation were obtained using following equations:
Y = 0.311 X1 + 0.301 X2 + 0.326 X3 + €1

(1)

Z = 0.839 Y + €2

(2)

Where Y=Operation strategy, X1=Supplier, X2=Technology, X3 =Consumer, Z=Company
performance and €=Epsilon/out of research scope.
The amount of influence from the external environment, i.e., suppliers, technology andconsumer to the operating strategy is then calculated. The results are as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 The effect of external environment of operations strategy and influence on company
performance
Variable

DirectImpactSupplier
Technology
Consumer
Total
Strategy

9.7%
9.1%
10.6%
29.4%
70.4%

Supplier------------5.4%
5.2%
10.6%
-------------

Indirect Impact
Technology
5.4%------------6.2%
11.6%-------------

Consumer
5.2%
6.2%------------11.4%-------------

Total
Indirect Impact

Total
Impact

10.6%
11.6%
11.4%
33.6%
-------------

20.3%
20.6%
22.0%
63.0%
70.4%

Source: Author’s evaluation based on field research

Table 1 shows that the greatest influence on the operating strategy in the garment industry
have consumers (22%), followed by the influence of technology (20.6%) and the influence of
suppliers (20.3%). This happens because consumer is the direct user of the product.
The result of this study indicates that consumers have strong impact on the operating strategyof the garment industry in Indonesia due to their strong bargaining position. As a consequence, if
the products of Indonesian garment industry cannot meet costumers’ requirements, they can easily
switch to another similar imported product by other world companies. The operating strategy
should be proposed to accommodate the tastes, purchasing power and requirement of customers. If
Indonesian garment industry could fulfil the requirements, the probability to be abandoned by the
consumer is lower.
In addition, this study also shows that Indonesian garment industry should concern more on
customer demand rather than on technology or supplier in terms of composing their operation
strategy. The result of this study shows that technology and supplier are also important factor thatshould be considered in preparing the operating strategy, because the effect of these factors are notsmall, even though not as big as the influence of consumer. Consumers of Indonesian garment
industry have good taste, but their requirement has not been fulfilled by domestic manufacturers
yet. Indonesian consumers will be interested and feel more prestigious if they can use imported
garment products. If consumer is willing to purchase and use clothes from the domestic garment
industry, it will significantly reduce the consumption level of the imported clothes. Kreitner andKinichi (2001) stated that trust is the belief of a party concerning the purpose and behaviour of theother party.
The technology used in the garment industry in Indonesia nowadays (especially the machinery
technology) is still an old technology, therefore it has big influence on the production process result.
It means that existing technology is still not capable enough to produce garments to meet customer
expectations and compete with imported products. Technology plays an important role inencouraging industrial structure changes and the creation of new industries. Nevertheless, theinfluence of technology to the operation strategy is not too significant due to the fact that theexisting operation strategy has already consider the technological capabilities of the current
industries. Advance in technology encourages domestic garment industry to improve their productsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

continuously which would lead to consumers higher demand on the product and value of the
product itself.
Respondents response on operation strategy indicates that Indonesian garment industry tend to
implement flexibility and quality operation strategy. Quality strategy is a condition in which the
production process of a product meet the specifications or consumer expectations (Atty, 2012).
Demand for Indonesian garment products is getting higher, where the quality is not limited to theusage of its products, but also evolving towards consumers needs explicitly. In other word,
consumer will state that product has a good quality if it can meet their needs explicitly. The results
also show that the garment industry needs to be more concern about products quality byimplementing continuous improvement in that matter. Eventually, the results of this study indicatethat the garment industry in Indonesia should not have been confronted with the difficulties to
produce a good quality product, since the employees have already understood the importance of
product quality and continuous quality improvement. The quality of a product will be depends on
the production process. In order to produce a good quality garment product, better machinery
technology is a must, in addition to well qualified and creative employees.
Flexibility strategies used in the garment industry in Indonesia are intended to meet thecustomer demand in both volume and the variety of products. Production process of IGI use an
operating strategy with a flexible approach, which means that production is adjustable to theconsumers desires. In this rapidly changing business environment, flexibility strategies play more
important role due to technology advancement and flexible manufacturing system (FMS). These
strategies are used to respond to the rapid changes of a product or process which often expressed as
a combination of volume. According to Wheelwright (1984), flexibility strategy is a plan that
supposed to change from one product to another or almost suddenly from one part to another.
Krajewski and Ritzman (2005) stated that some companies give top priority to flexibility as a meanof beating competitors.
In addition, this study also found that consumers easily switch from one brand to anotherbrand, thus in these conditions the consumer has strong bargaining power. This is supported by theopinion of most direct empirical research by Ward et al. (1995) and Swamidass and Newell (1987)
have provided supportfor a connection among operations strategy, environment and performance.
Similarly, business strategy researchers have provided evidence that business unit performance isrelated to competitive strategy choicefor particular environment.
This is another indication that consumers have high expectations on every garment products
and services. Sucherly (2003) stated that the demands shifts of customer are relatively dynamic,
whereas the level of flexibility and adaptability of the company to respond was relatively low.
Therefore, the level of consumers expectations or demands needs to be further analysed.
The findings from this study also pointed out that flexibility and quality strategy requires more
intensive efforts to successfully face the global competition. Management of the garment industry
dynamically change according to the demands of the environment, both internal and external.
Performance measurement in this study only focuses on financial performance by looking at thelevel of production achievement, efficiency, targeted sales and profit. The financial performance
should be seen from the indicators of funds allocation in each activity, structure and value of theassets, the ease of obtaining credit, support of financial resources and its efficient usage. The results
also stated that not all of the garment industry in Indonesia can allocate funds effectively so it
would impact the efficiency of these funds. Moreover, the result suggests that industry that has agood asset value and structure will get the ease of obtaining credit and financial support. The levelof efficiency achievement is relatively lower than the production target, lead to high prices ofgarment product.
The implication of this study is that every garment industry in Indonesia should review theapplied policies in order to achieve the company's performance, target efficiency and in line withthe production targets achievement. The relatively high price of these garments would certainly
impact on purchasing power, buying interest and consideration of the quality and design ofproducts to be bought by consumers, then lead consumer do reconsideration to make purchasedecisions.
According to Badri et al. (1999), dimension of uncertainty affects the environment and theⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

operating strategy of the company's performance. In addition, the results of Daniel and Reitsperger(1991) found out that if a company uses an iterative strategy, it will provide more feedback to
improve company performance.
The implication of this research is that the product development should refer to the realconditions and consumer demand, particularly design and product quality has to be able to lower
the price, in order to reduce lagging behind the competitors. This garment industry eventually hashuge potential in developing products, as long as they can develop more innovative and varied
products, there is improvement in fashion strategy to increase consumer demand and retain both
domestic and foreign customer to keep on using the diversified product from the garment industry
in Indonesia. At last, it is important to cultivate on how to make the garment products become the'host' in exist own country.
CONCLUSION
The external environment affects the performed operating strategy. Furthermore, the operating
strategies also influence the performance of the garment industry in Indonesia. The most influential
factors of external environment on the operating strategy are supplier and consumer, whereas
technology has the lowest effect. The implemented operating strategy in the garment industry inIndonesia recently is the flexibility and quality strategy, aimed to create product flexibly inaccordance with the development of consumer taste and purchasing power. Moreover, it is also
intended to create competitive cloth products in an excellent quality as a result of this garment
industry. The performance of the garment industry is still limited to the capability to produce
targeted clothing product but has not reach the target of efficiency yet, hence it will make the priceof per unit product become more expensive and not meet the standard quality requirements.
REFERENCE
Asosiasi Pertekstilan Indonesia. 2012. The data and statistic of textile & garment industry. 9th edition.
Indonesian Textile Association West Java District Committee. Indonesia.
Atty, T.J. 2012. Strategi operasi dalam persaingan bisnis. CV. Utomo Bandung. West Java, Indonesia.
Badri, A., Masood, D.D. and Donna D. 1999. Operation strategy, environmental uncertainty andperformance: A path analytic model of industries in developing countries. Omega, International Journalsof Management Science.
Daniels, S. and Reitsperger, W. 1991. Linking quality strategy eight management control system: Empiricalevidence from Japanese industry. Accounting, Organizations and Society Journal.
Johnson, G. and Scholes, K. 1993. Exploring corporate strategy text and cases. 3rd edition. Prentice Hall.
New York, USA.
Krajewski, L.J. and Ritzman, L.P. 2005. Operation management, processes and value chains. 7th ed., Pearson
Education, New Jersey.
Kreitner, R. and Kinichi, A. 2001. Organizational behaviour. 5th edition, McGraw Hill, USA.
Lowe, P. 1995. The management of technology: Perception and opportunities. Chapman & Hall, New York,USA.
Porter, M.E. 1980. Competitive strategy: Techniques for analysing industries and competitors. Free press,
New York, USA.
Sucherly, S.E. 2003. Pidato pengukuhan guru besar ilmu ekonomi. Program pascasarjana universitas,
Padjadjaran Bandung.
Swamidas, P.M. and Newell, W.T. 1987. Manufacturing strategy, environmental uncertainty a path analiticalmodel. Management Science.Vol. 33.
Ward, P.R. Leong, G. and Sum, C. 1995. Business environment, operation strategy and performance anempirical study of singapore manufacturers. Journal of Operation Management. 13, 99-115.
Wheelwright, S.C. and Hayes, R.H. 1984. Competing through manufacturing, Harvard business review,
January-February, 99-109.

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Research article
erdApplicability of Estimation Method for Soil Moisture in
Mongolian Grasslands using a Pattern Decomposition
MethodAYAKO SEKIYAMA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: a3sekiya@nodai.ac.jp

SAWAHIKO SHIMADA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanMICHINARI YOKOHAMA
Faculty of Bioindustry, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Abashiri, Japan

HIROMICHI TOYODA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 1 January 2015

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this research is to develop a method that will allow remotelysensed data to be used for estimating soil moisture and distinguishing vegetated and bareground areas in Mongolia. The study was conducted in central Mongolia, where climate
conditions and human impacts are resulting in degradation of grassland and damage to
grazing stock. The method employed was a pattern decomposition method using flat patternmodel for estimation soil moisture, which is developed by authors. A total of ten survey
plots were established in grasslands, and a spectroradiometer was used to measure spectral
characteristics of the soil in the visible and near-infrared wavelengths. Spectral reflectanceof the soil was measured, and used to derive the pattern decomposition coefficient andestimate soil moisture. These results were then compared to actual field measurements ofsoil moisture to verify the accuracy of the method. In addition, photographic images wereused to estimate the vegetation coverage for each survey plot, and the effects on vegetationon the accuracy of soil moisture were examined. The results showed a strong negative
correlation between water content in soil and the pattern decomposition coefficient for flatmodel, indicating that this method is capable of accurately estimating soil moistureregardless of soil type. A strong correlation was also found between the vegetation
coverage and the pattern decomposition coefficient for vegetation, suggesting that themethod can be used to estimate vegetation coverage. A high level of accuracy, however,
was achieved only for bare ground, indicating that the vegetation reflectance influences the
spectral reflectance of the soil, and the current method is thus not applicable to vegetatedareas.
Keywords pattern decomposition method, spectroradiometry, visible and near infrared
wavelength

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, a winter disaster known as Dzud, characterized by heavy snow and low
temperatures, has caused widespread freezing and starving damage to livestock in Mongolia. In
addition, it has also been suggested that sparse summer precipitation and resultant lack of soil
moisture has depressed vegetation growth (Kondoh et al., 2005). This lack of soil moisture leads tograssland degradation, which weakens livestock and makes them more susceptible to damage fromthe Dzud. Therefore it is important that the continuous monitoring for spatial distribution of soil
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moisture in the summer, and in addition, a method for estimating both soil moisture as well as
distinguishing between vegetated and bare areas, is needed for conserving grassland and predicting
and preventing livestock damage from the Dzud.
Satellite remote sensing is useful for retrieving information regarding surface conditions
iteratively and over a wide area. There are many remote sensing studies dealing with vegetated area,such as predicting plant diversity by vegetation condition from MODIS (Ranjeet et al., 2008), theestimation of biomass production using AVHRR-based vegetation health indices (Kogan et al.,2004), and the evaluation of the vegetation phonological pattern using NDVI (Lee et al., 2002).
Few studies, however, deal with soil moisture.
For bare soil, many studies estimate soil moisture using microwave remote sensing. This is a
useful wavelength that can be employed either day or night, and is not affected by clouds. In recent
years, a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) active sensor has been frequently used with spaceresolution enhancement (Zribi et al., 2010). In conservation of Mongolian grasslands, however, it isalso important to distinguish between bare and vegetated areas. Some preliminary research using
the microwave method for this purpose has been implemented, but at present the system is still inthe developmental stage.
Some studies have also achieved high accuracy in estimating soil moisture using water
absorption in the near and mid infrared wavelengths (Ishiyama et al., 1992; Liu et al., 2003). Water
absorption bands, however, occur in a narrow width of the near and mid infrared wavelengths, andmany satellites do not have sensors that operate in these wavelengths.
To develop a method for estimating soil moisture that is both widely applicable to remotelysensed data and capable of distinguishing between vegetated and bare areas, Sekiyama et al. (2010)
conducted an open-air experiment employing a spectroradiometer, and achieved highly accurate
estimates of soil moisture using spectral characteristics of the soil in the visible and near-infrared
bands. The reflectance in each band was normalized by the sum of the reflectance in four bands:
blue, green, red, and near infrared, and an obtained curve of the band reflectances (band reflectancepattern) was utilized. By applying a pattern decomposition method for analyzing mixel
decomposition proposed by Fujiwara et al. (1996), Sekiyama et al. (2010) developed a method forusing the pattern decomposition coefficient for flat model calculated from the band reflectancepattern as the index of soil moisture. This method is described in detail in the next section.
In this study, we applied the method of estimating soil moisture developed by Sekiyama et al.
(2010) to field data acquired by spectrometer in the Mongolian grasslands. We attempted thismethod’s ability to accurately estimate soil moisture and to distinguish between bare and vegetatedareas. Furthermore, we verified the upper limit of vegetation coverage at which soil moisture canbe accurately measured by this method.
METHODOLOGY
Estimation of Soil Moisture by the Pattern Decomposition Method
The pattern decomposition method is an un-mixed analysis, in which the measured band
reflectance pattern is expressed as the linear sum of three typical band reflectance patterns which
are water, vegetation and soil. Several studies have applied this method to estimation of vegetation
coverage (Zhang et al., 2007a; Muramatsu et al., 2007) and to classification of land cover and land
cover changes (Muramatsu et al., 2000). Zhang et al. (2007b) have also applied the method todatasets of various satellite sensors. Until recently, however, there have been no studies that use
this method to estimate the soil moisture condition.
Sekiyama et al. (2010) first applied the pattern decomposition method to the soil spectralreflectance obtained by spectroradiometer in open-air experiments. The soil samples were collectedfrom 8 sampling sites in Japan, Mongolia and Malaysia. Reflectance measurements were taken foreach sample at 4-8 different values of water content in soil (WC), ranging from 0%-22.9% (N= 53).
Four multi-spectral bands of blue (band 1: 470–502 nm), green (band 2: 539–580 nm), red (637–668 nm) and near-infrared (band 4: 802–870 nm) were calculated from the measured hyper-spectralⒸ ISERD

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reflectance data, with a view to application in satellite imagery. The measured spectral radiance
was calibrated using the spectral radiance of a white calibration board to convert into spectralreflectance. The soil spectral reflectance in each band was normalized by dividing by the sum of
the four bands (Ono et al., 2002), thus defining the normalized band reflectance for soil Si (bandnumber: i = 1 to 4), which has the property that S1 + S2 + S3+ S4 = 1.
Generally, the spectral reflectance of soil in bands 1–3 (visible) and band 4 (near infrared)
decreases with increasing soil moisture creating a spectral reflectance that increases with increasing
wavelength. The normalized band reflectance for soil, however, decreases slightly in the visible
bands with increasing soil moisture, but increases in the near infrared band. The change ofreflectance in the near infrared band with increasing soil moisture is large compared to that in thevisible bands, and the slope of the band reflectance (i.e., the reflectance pattern) between bands 3
and 4 may thus be used to estimate soil moisture. The slope between bands 3 and 4 is steep when
the soil moisture is high, and flattens when the soil moisture is low. In the pattern decomposition
method, the flat model pattern Pfi (Pfi = 0.25) is defined as the pattern that corresponds tocompletely dried soil, and each normalized band reflectance for soil Si is the linear sum of two
patterns (flat model and soil). Explicitly,
Si = Csf Pfi + CssPsi,(1)where Csf and Css are the pattern decomposition coefficients, which are the relative weights ofthe two patterns. The decomposition coefficients are calculated from Si using the least squares
method, the flat model pattern Pfi, and the typical soil pattern Psi.
In Sekiyama et al. (2010), a negative correlation (r2= 0.56) was found between WC and Csf(Fig. 1), suggesting that Csf is an effective index for estimating soil moisture.

Fig. 1 Relation between water content in soil (WC) and pattern decomposition coefficient forflat model (Csf) (Sekiyama et al., 2010)
Field Survey
Survey area: In this study, ten 40 m × 40 m plots, including pasture and semi-desert areas in threeprefectures around the city of Ulan Bator in central Mongolia were investigated (Fig. 2a). The fieldsurvey was performed from 9:00 at 12:00 (local time) on August 9 to 16, 2006 and August 8 to 14,
2007, on clear days (Table 1) with sun elevation ranging from 40 to 50 degrees.
The vegetation of Mongolia is predominately grassland. Annual precipitation is below 400
mm, 70% to 80% of which occurs from June to August in central Mongolia. Kondoh et al. (2005)
have reported that the growth of plants depends heavily on summer precipitation. Although
grassland degradation due to overgrazing and the expansion of cultivated land has become aproblem in recent years near Ulan Bator (Yoshihara et al., 2008).
Each plot was taped off into a grid with 10 m intervals (Fig. 2b). At each grid point wemeasured the spectral radiance of the surface, photographed the surface, and collected soil samples.
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The surfaces of all the plots were covered with herbaceous plants. Therefore, the spectral radianceof vegetation and soil both contributed to the measured spectral radiance.

a

b

40m

Sampling grid point(n, n), n =1,..,5
ca. 30 cm φ

Fig. 2 Map of Mongolia showing the surveyed district (a) and 10 lettered survey plots (b)Table 1 Location of survey plot and land use

Plot
E
F
G
H
L
M
N
R
S
X

Latitude (N)48°01’ 04.2”
48°00’ 09.7”
46°36’ 28.8”
46°40’ 39.2”
47°40’ 59.9”
47°46’ 59.2”
47°54’ 55.0”
48°18’ 41.3”
48°28’ 42.3”
48°05’ 16.4”

Longitude (E)109°06’ 53.7”
109°01’ 30.4”
105°53’ 57.8”
105°54’ 51.2”
106°38’ 46.6”
109°14’ 51.7”
109°26’ 09.6”
106°46’ 16.7”
106°45’ 58.0”
109°20’ 16.8”

Land use
Pasture land
Pasture land
Pasture land
Pasture land
Pasture land
Pasture land
Pasture land
Abandoned farmland
Pasture land
Pasture land

Year
2007
2007
2006
2006
2006
2007
2007
2006
2006
2007

Spectral Radiance Measurement
The spectral radiance of the surface for each grid point (25 samples per plot) was measured using aspectroradiometer (Eko Instruments Co., Ltd, MS-720, with a wavelength range of 350– 1050 nm).
The field of view (FOV) of the sensor is 25 degrees, and the measurement was taken at a height of
70 cm above the ground, so the measured area was a 30 cm diameter circle. At each grid point, thespectral radiance was measured three times and the average value was used as the datum for thegrid point. The measured spectral radiance was converted into spectral reflectance dividing by thespectral radiance of a white calibration board, and the normalized band reflectance was calculated
from the spectral reflectance. The reflectance from a mixed surface of vegetation and soil at eachgrid point was defined as the normalized mixed-band reflectance Mi. In addition, the sensor FOV
was changed to 10 degrees to measure the pure spectral radiance from the bare soil and from thedominant plants (e.g., Poaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, and Asteraceae) in each plot. The reflectancevalues of the bare soil and the vegetation (i.e., the dominant plants) were defined as the normalizedband reflectance for soil Si and the normalized band reflectance for vegetation Vi, respectively, foreach plot.
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Calculation of Vegetation Coverage and Soil Sampling
Photographs of each plot were taken using a digital camera set at almost the same position as thatof the spectral radiance measurement described in the preceding paragraph. The vegetation
coverage VC was calculated by extracting pixels of vegetation from the photographic image (N=250).
In 2006, 50 cm3 of surface soil were taken at each grid point for four plots (25 samples perplot). In 2007, soil samples of the same volume and depth were taken from 15 grid points (column
numbers of the grid are 1, 3, and 5) in four different plots. No soil samples were taken in plot E orplot R (Fig. 2). The total number of sampled plots was N= 160. The WC for each sample using theoven-dry method, the soil was kept under dry conditions (WC = 0 %).
Calculation of Pattern Decomposition Coefficient
The normalized band reflectances for soil Si and the normalized mixed-band reflectance Mi of allplots were analyzed using the pattern decomposition method. Si was decomposed using the flatmodel pattern Pfi (= 0.25) and the typical soil pattern Psi via Eq. (1), where soil pattern Psi is theaverage value of the Si (band number: i= 1 to 4) from all plots (Ps1, Ps2, Ps3, Ps4: 0.13, 0.19, 0.27,
0.41).
Similarly to Si, Mi was decomposed using the flat model pattern and the soil pattern. Explicitly,
Mi = CmfPfi + CmsPsi,(2)where Cmf is the pattern decomposition coefficient for flat model and Cms is the patterndecomposition coefficient for soil.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Spectral ReflectanceFig. 3 Soil reflectance pattern (Si) in each plot (a); and measured reflectance pattern (b)Reflectance pattern (Vi) of soil and vegetation are average values of all plots,
mixed reflectance pattern (Mi) is an average value of all grid points in plot N

The soil reflectance patterns were upward-sloping and linear, and the slopes of the reflectancepatterns differed among the plots (Fig. 3a). To indicate the tendency of each reflectance pattern, thesoil and vegetation reflectance pattern averaged over all the plots is shown in Fig. 3b. Although
vegetation was strongly reflected in bands 2 and 4, absorption in bands 1 and 3 showed thecharacteristic reflectance pattern of vegetation. Mi was the reflectance from mixed soil andvegetation and was located near the mean value of the reflectance of soil and vegetation in bands 3
and 4. The reflectance patterns for plot N are shown in Fig. 3b, but the same tendencies wereobserved in the other plots as well.
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Vegetation Coverage and Soil Moisture
The average value of vegetation coverage (VC) and water content in soil (WC) in each plot isshown in Table 2. The vegetation coverage was comparatively high for surfaces covered with richvegetation. In plot M, for example, the surface was bare soil sparsely dotted with Poaceae, while inplot X the surface was densely covered by Poaceae and Asteraceae.
Table 2 Vegetation coverage (VC), water content in soil (WC) (The maximum, minimum andaverage value) and dry density in each survey plot
Plot
E
F
G
H
L
M
N
R
S
X

Min
18.5
2.0
13.6
15.2
37.2
6.6
5.0
28.5
52.2
2.1

VC (%)Max
Average
72.5
52.2
11.4
6.6
47.0
32.3
69.2
42.0
94.0
54.5
51.2
19.4
66.3
38.1
85.0
54.7
93.4
81.6
32.5
13.9

Min
－
1.6
1.5
1.0
0.9
5.3
5.8
－
4.5
1.0

WC (%)Max
Average
－
－
3.3
2.6
3.1
2.3
1.9
1.3
4.4
2.9
15.8
9.7
10.8
8.0
－
－
20.8
13.4
23.4
1.5

Dry density (g/cm3)
－
－
1.4
1.4
1.1
－
－
－
0.7
－

Estimation of Soil Moisture and Effect of Vegetation on Estimation Accuracy
Soil moisture estimation from the pattern decomposition coefficient for flat model: Many
studies have been done with visible and near-infrared wavelengths to estimate soil moisture using asoil line. In the scatter diagram of soil spectral reflectance values, where red is plotted on thehorizontal axis and the near-infrared on the vertical axis, the data form a straight line (the soil line;
Baret et al., 1993). Points on the scatter diagram that correspond to low water content in soil (WC)are located near the origin. However, the soil type must be classified in order to accurately estimate
the soil moisture using this method because the slope of the soil line depends on the soil type. The
soil line method is thus difficult to apply over a wide area utilizing remotely sensed data.
In contrast, the pattern decomposition method using flat model pattern depends less on thephysical characteristics of soils. In our study, the regression analysis between WC and Csf indicateda negative correlation (WC = −26.6 Csf + 6.73, r2 = 0.89) across various soil types (Fig. 4). These
results show that the Csf derived from field survey data is also an effective index for soil moisture
estimation, and high accuracy can be obtained without needing to classify the soil type.
Relationship between pattern decomposition coefficient and soil moisture: The patterndecomposition coefficient for flat model Cmf was calculated from Mi using Eq. (2), and theregression analysis performed using and WC and Cmf. No relationship between WC and Cmf (r2 =0.27) was found. In order to verify whether WC information is included in other coefficients, thefollowing additional pattern decompositions were conducted using patterns of flat model, soil, andvegetation:
Mi = Cms3Psi + Cmv3Pvi,(3)Mi = Cmf4Pfi + Cmv4Pvi,(4)Mi = Cmf5Pfi + Cms5Psi + Cmv5Pvi,(5)where the typical vegetation pattern Pvi is the average over all the plots of Vi (band number: i = 1 to4) from all plots data (Pv1, Pv2, Pv3, Pv4: 0.10, 0.16, 0.14, 0.60).
No significant correlation between WC and the pattern decomposition coefficients was found.
A strong correlation, however, was found between VC and the pattern decomposition coefficientfor vegetation (Cmv3, Cmv4, and Cmv5) (Fig. 5a). Although a correlation between VC and theⒸ ISERD

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normalized difference vegetation index: [NDVI, (band 4 − band 3) / (band 3 + band 4)] was noted,(Fig. 5b), the determination coefficients of NDVI were almost the same as that of Cmv. These
results suggest that Cmv is also a valuable index for estimating VC.
20
y = -26.6x + 6.73
R = 0.89

WC (%)

15
10

5
0
-0.4

-0.2

0
Csf

0.2

0.4

Fig. 4 Relation between water content in soil (WC) and pattern decomposition coefficient forflat model Csf

Fig. 5 Relation between vegetation coverage (VC) and pattern decomposition coefficient forvegetation Cmv (a)Three combinations, Cmv3, Cmv4, and Cmv5, are calculated by the pattern decomposition method using soil andvegetation pattern, flat model and vegetation pattern, flat model and soil and vegetation pattern, respectively

Effect of Vegetation on Estimation Accuracy
The upper limit of vegetation coverage at which the pattern decomposition method using flat model
pattern is viable was determined. Sekiyama et al. (2010) reported that estimation of soil moistureby this method was not possible when VC was over 50%. In this research, estimations wereobtained for VC ranging from 0-50% (Table 3), and regression analysis was conducted using the
WC and Cmf for each VC class. The results show that accuracy was high in the no-vegetation class(VC = 0%), but lower among the vegetated classes (VC > 0%). This leads to the conclusion that thepattern decomposition method using flat model pattern as developed by Sekiyama et al. (2010) canbe effectively used only on bare soil with no vegetation. As a cause of no effectively method formixed surface of vegetation and soil, it is supposed that physical and chemical characteristics ofvegetation to spectrum is too strong compared with soil, and there is also a possibility that thiscoefficient is not able to estimate the water content because water content information of vegetationand soil is mixed. Thus, this coefficient is an inadequate indicator for water content when samples
are contaminated by vegetation signals. Furthermore this method may not have been able to detectsoil water content due to slight difference of soil water content in each plot. In fact, soil waterⒸ ISERD

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content was 3 % or less in almost plots but soil samples were controlled various water content from
0 % to 20% in experiment for developing estimation method of soil content
For VC > 0%, the decomposition of Mi into the flat model pattern was affected by the highreflectance of vegetation in band 4 and the low reflectance in band 3. As a future refinement of thismethod, a separation (pre-decomposition) of the vegetation reflectance from the mixed data, which
may be achieved using the relationship between VC and Cmv, is required. Such a refinement would
allow the method to accurately extract WC from areas of mixed soil and vegetation.
Table 3 Relation between water content in soil (WC) and the pattern decomposition
coefficient for flat model (Csf) at each vegetation coverage (VC)
VC (%)
0
0-5
5-10
10-20
20-30
30-50

Estimate accuracy of WC (r2)
0.89
0.10
0.29
0.02
0.01
0.006

P value
P < 0.01
P > 0.05
P > 0.05
P > 0.05
P > 0.05
P > 0.05

CONCLUSIONSIn this study, a method for estimating soil moisture developed by Sekiyama et al. (2010) wasapplied to field data acquired in the Mongolian grasslands. The following conclusions wereobtaind:・The bare soil of the Mongolian grasslands exhibits a negative correlation between water content
in soil (WC) and the pattern decomposition coefficient for flat model Csf, which was calculatedusing the pattern decomposition method modified by Sekiyama et al. (2010). This indicates that Csf
is a useful indicator of WC in bare soil.
・A strong correlation was found between the vegetation coverage and the pattern decomposition
coefficient for vegetation Cmv. This indicates that Cmv be used not only to extract bare soil
information, but to estimate the vegetation coverage and NDVI as well.
No significant relationship between WC and the pattern decomposition coefficient for flatmodel Cmf was found in the decompositions of the reflectance patterns from vegetated surfaces.
This indicates that the method as proposed by Sekiyama et al. (2010) is influenced by vegetation,and is thus capable of accurately estimating soil moisture only on bare soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research work was supported partly by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports
and Science (MEXT) under the Academic Frontier Joint Research Program for Studies on Natural
Environment and Culture in Asia of Tokyo University of Information Sciences.
REFERENCES
Baret, F., Jacquemoud, S. and Hanocq, J.F. 1993. The soil line concept in remote sensing. Remote. Sens. Rev.
13 (5), 281-284.
Fujiwara, N., Muramatsu, K., Awa, S., Hazumi, T. and Ochiai, F. 1996. Pattern expand method for satellite
data analysis. J. Remote Sens. Soc. Japan. 16 (3), 17-34. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Ishiyama, T., Sugihara, S., Tsuchiya, K., Liu, P.J. and Lu, G.F. 1992. Variation of sand reflectance withmoisture content. J. Arid Land Stud. 2, 39-43.
Kogan, F., Stark, R., Gitelson, A., Jargalsaikhan, L., Dugrajav, C. and Tsooja, S. 2004. Derivation of pasturebiomass in Mongolia from AVHRR-based vegetation health indices. Int. J. Remote. Sens. 25-14, 28892896.
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Kondoh, A., Kaihotsu, au-Chavez, L.L., Rober, R.A., Wyatt, H.K., Waddington, M.J., Turetsky, R.M.I.,
Hirata, M. and Dorgorsuren, A. 2005. Interannual variation of biomass in mongolian herbaceous
vegetation. J. Arid Land Stud. 14-4, 209-218. (In Japanese with English abstract).
Lee, R., Yu, K., Price, K.P., Ellis, J. and Shi, P. 2002. Evaluating vegetation phenological patterns in Inner
Mongolia using NDVI time-series analysis. Int. J. Remote Sens. 23 (12), 2505-2512.
Liu, W., Baret, F., Gu, X., Zhang, B., Tong Q. and Zheng, L. 2003. Evaluation of methods for soil surface
moisture estimation from reflectance data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 24 (10), 2069-2083.
Muramatsu, K., Furumi, S., Fujiwara, N., Hayashi, A., Daigo, M. and Ochiai, F. 2000. Pattern decomposition
method in the albedo space for Landsat TM and MSS data analysis. Int. J. Remote Sens. 21 (1), 99-119.
Muramatsu K., Xiong Y., Nakayama S., Furumi S., Ochiai F., Daigo M ., Hirata M., Oishi K., Bolortsetseg
B., Oyunbaatar D. and Kaihotsu I. 2007. A new vegetation index derived from the pattern decomposition
method applied to Landsat-7/ETM+ images in Mongolia. Int. J. Remote Sens. 28 (16), 3493-3511.
Ono, A., Fujiwara, N. and Ono, A. 2002. Suppression of topographic and atmospheric effects by normalizing
the radiation spectrum of Landsat/TM by the sum of each band. J. Remote Sens. Soc. Japan. 22 (3), 318327. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Ranjeet, J., Chen , J., Lu, N., Guo, K., Liang, C., Wei, Y., Noormets, A., Ma, K. and Han, X. 2008.
Predicting plant diversity based on remote sensing products in the semi-arid region of Inner Mongolia.
Remote Sens. Environ. 112 (5), 2018–2032.
Sekiyama, A., Shimada, S., Toyoda, H. and Yokohama, M. 2010. Estimation of soil water content using
visible and infrared spectral reflectance characteristics. J. Arid Land Stud. 19 (4), 525-535. (In Japanesewith abstract)
Yoshihara, Y., Chimeddorj, B., Buuveibaatar, B., Lhagvasuren, B. and Takatsuki, S. 2008. Effects oflivestock grazing on pollination on a steppe in eastern Mongolia. Biol. Conserv. 141 (9), 2376-2386.
Zhang, L., Furumi, S., Muramatsu, K., Fujiwara, N. and Daigo M. 2007a. A new vegetation index based on
the universal pattern decomposition method. Int. J. Remote Sens. 28 (1), 107-124.
Zhang, L., Fujiwara, N., Furumi, S., Muramatsu, K., Daigo M. and Zhang L. 2007b. Assessment of theuniversal pattern decomposition method using MODIS and ETM+ data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 28 (1), 125142.
Zribi, M., Paris, A.T., Duchemin, B., Lili, Z., Wagner, W., Hasenauer, S. and Chehboun, A. 2010.
Relationship between soil moisture and vegetation in the Kairouan plain region of Tunisia using low
spatial resolution satellite data. Water Resource. Res., 46 (6), 1343-1357.

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Research article
erdPeatland Tank Model for Evaluation of Shallow
Groundwater Table Data without Height Reference from
Benchmark
XIN HE*
Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Email: hexin@env.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

TAKASHI INOUE
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Received 14 November 2014

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Long-term monitoring of shallow groundwater table (GWT) is essential for theevaluation of hydrologic conditions of peatlands, which is meaningful for their conservation
and restoration, especially in certain rural areas. Although there has been research in thisfield, a simple and effective method for the evaluation of GWT fluctuation has not beendeveloped. Peatland Tank Model (PTM) is a one-dimensional water balance model that
represents fluctuations of shallow GWT in peatland. The model contains several parameters,i.e., C (coefficient of GWT increase), Ai (coefficient for the size of plugholes, with i =1, 2,3), and HAi (coefficient for the height of each plughole, i =1, 2, 3). We used PTM with 29
years’ GWT data from Ochiai, Sarobetsu Mire, northern Hokkaido, Japan. These GWT data
do not have a height reference from a benchmark, so that the data have no common
meaning or information in relation to the ground surface or elevation above sea level.
Observation was conducted at three sites; Site D near a drainage ditch along a peat mining
location; Site M at the edge of the peat mining area; and Site U in an unused area far fromthe drainage. A few sets of parameters were obtained on the basis of simulation results.
Smaller simulation errors were attained using the PTM. The 29-year GWT fluctuations at
Site D were the greatest and could be characterized by the largest parameter values.
Parameter trends at three sites varied, and were able to reflect the various drainage
conditions. Thus, the PTM is a promising method for the evaluation of long-term variations
and site differences of hydrologic conditions in peatland.
Keywords mire, groundwater table, peatland hydrology, drainage

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, a large number of peatlands have been exploited and converted to agricultural land.
Examples can be found in Canada (Bhatti and Tarnocai, 2009), Sumatra and Kalimantan inIndonesia (Page et al., 2011), and Hokkaido, northern Japan (Umeda, 1980; Fujita et al., 2009). Asa unique terrestrial system, peatland requires proper means of conservation and restoration.
Consequently, balancing agricultural development and peatland conservation has become aresearch subject. The hydrologic environment, especially shallow groundwater table (GWT)
fluctuation, is the most important determinant of the formation and existence of peatland. Longterm monitoring of shallow GWT is essential for the investigation and evaluation of the hydrologic
environment. Nonetheless, in the past, the majority of monitoring GWT data has been assembled inform of groundwater depth or groundwater level which are not measured with respect to certain
benchmarks (sea level or ground surface). A simple and effective method for evaluating thehydrologic environment using such GWT data has not been developed. In view of this situation,
this paper proposes a simple evaluation method for shallow GWT fluctuation in peatland, based on
Peatland Tank Model (PTM). The model provides satisfactory simulation accuracy and flexibility.

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OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to show how the PTM detects the spatial variability and temporalchanges of GWT fluctuation patterns even if the GWT data are not measured with respect to certain
benchmarks. The usefulness and effectiveness of the PTM for the shallow peatland GWT are
discussed. The meaning and function of each parameter used in the PTM are also explained.
METHODOLOGY

Fig. 1 Peatland Tank Model
The PTM is a water balance model for simulating the fluctuations of the shallow GWT in peatland(Umeda and Inoue, 1985). In this model, the peatland system is analogous to a water storage tank.
GWT fluctuations can be represented by variations of water levels in the tank. For a bog fed byrainfall, rainwater is the sole inflow and there are almost no other water inputs from thesurrounding environment. Evapotranspiration (ET) and discharge from the bog to surrounding
areas are the main outflows. The PTM (Fig. 1) has three outlet plugholes on the sidewall of the tank.
In theory, the PTM can be characterized by Eqs. 1 and 2.
(1)(2)
Here, GWTn and GWTn−1 represent the GWT at times n and n−1, respectively. C is thecoefficient of GWT increase owing to rain. Rn is the amount of rainfall during time period (n−1) ton. QAin−1 is the amount of groundwater drawdown from the each plughole (i =1, 2, 3) during thesame period. Coefficients Ai (0 ≤ Ai ≤ 1) and HAi are the size and height of each plughole,respectively. The time unit (data sampling interval) of 2 hours was used for estimating GWT by the
PTM.
Constant discharge of the peatland and ET were incorporated into water loss from the bottom
plughole. Based on such concept, parameter A1 represents the basic discharge (constant dischargeand ET) from the peat layer above height HA1. Similarly, parameters A2 and A3 are introduced torepresent water losses of the layer above heights HA2 and HA3, respectively. These two parameters
are used to characterize more rapid water losses in the shallow surface layer of the peat (Fig. 1).
Parameter C shows the magnitude of GWT increase in response to rainfall in the peatland.
Two simulation methods were implemented (Table 1). Because it is difficult to adjust
simultaneously all seven parameters and this may make the contribution of each parameter
ambiguous, we did not manipulate all seven. Without an explicit principle, determining theparameters is meaningless. Therefore, several rules (mentioned in the footnote of Table 1) were
established. Based on these rules, the number of parameters in the PTM was reduced from theoriginal seven to three (Method 1) or two (Method 2).

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Table 1 Simulation methods
Method1
2

Manipulated Parameters
C, A1, A2
C, HA1

Fixed or Automatically Determined Parameters
Remarks
A3, HA1, HA2, HA3*1, *2
A1, A2, A3, HA2, HA3*2, *3In all cases, A3 = 1.
*1: HA1 = HA2−40 cm, HA3 = HA2+10 cm or HA3 = GWTm (if (HA2+10 cm) > GWTm).
*2: HA2 is equal to the value of upper tertile of GWT data calculated via the following steps. In the first step, allobserved GWT data within the calculation period at each site were sorted numerically, in descending order. This set
should include every datum, even if there are overlaps. Then, the value found one third of the way down from the
maximum in the organized dataset is defined as the upper tertile.
*3: A1 = 0.0003, A2 = 0.03, HA3 = HA2+10 cm or HA3 = GWTm (if (HA2+10 cm) > GWTm). GWTm: themaximum GWT.

We adopted PTM with 29 years of GWT data recorded (1983–2012, except for 1998) at
Ochiai, Sarobetsu Mire, northern Hokkaido (approximately 45°8′N, 141°44′E). GWT was
observed at three sites: Site D near a drainage ditch along the peat mining location; Site M at theedge of the peat mining area; and Site U in an unused area far from the drainage (from 2006
onwards, the measurement of Site U could not be continued due to the problems of instrument).
Annual average temperature in this area is ~6.1 °C, varying from −6.5 °C in February to 19.6 °C
in August. Annual average precipitation is 1,073 mm (Japan Meteorological Agency). On
average, the warm period without snow cover lasts from mid-April through late October. All
calculations were performed for July through September. Due to the limitation of equipment andmanpower, the observed GWT data were measured without reference height such as groundsurface or elevation above sea level. Compared with the absolute ground water tables, GWT
without reference height are more difficult to evaluate, because the data have no common
meaning.
In PTM computations, the parameters were adjusted repeatedly until the optimum simulation
result was attained, where the chi-square value of GWT was minimized and the Nash-Sutcliffe
efficiency coefficient and correlation coefficient (r) were maximized. Values of each parameter
were compared by site and examined by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANOVA
significance levels were set to 0.05 and 0.01. Based on 29 years’ GWT observations at each site,
long-term trends of each parameter were evaluated by the coefficient of determination (R2). All
statistical tests were conducted using SPSS 16.0 statistical software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL,
USA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Throughout the results from 1983 to 2012, parameter C was in the order Site D > Site M > Site U,
from both methods (Fig. 2). This indicates that the magnitude of GWT increase in response to rain
events was maximum at Site D and minimum at Site U. A larger value of C means less effective
porosity for water storage in peat (Umeda and Inoue, 1985). Therefore, it is concluded that theeffective porosity of peat at the three sites was in the order Site D < Site M < Site U. At the threesites, changes of parameter C over the last 29 years do not show clear trends (P > 0.05) (Fig. 2).
However, there is a strong negative regression relationship between C and total amount of rainfall
from July through September at all sites (Fig. 3). From Method 1, R2 at Site D exceeded 0.80 (P <0.01). This relationship can be explained by the fact that effective porosity increases in peat near
the ground surface. When the amount of rainfall increases, the GWT may spend more time in theupper part of peat layer, where the effective porosity of peat is relatively large and the ratio ofwater table increase (C) becomes small.
In Method 1, GWT fluctuations can be characterized by variations of parameters C, A1, andA2. The difference of A1 between Sites M and U was not obvious (n=21, P > 0.05); however, thisdifference was significant between Site D and the other two sites (n=28 for Site D and M, n=21 forSites D and U, P < 0.01) (Fig. 4). Differences of A2 among the three sites were not obvious (P >0.05). The average A2 at site U (n=21, average = 0.03) is smaller than those at the other two sites(n=28 for Site D, n=29 for Site M, average of both sites = 0.04). Parameters A1 and A2 at all sitesⒸ ISERD

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over the last 29 years do not show clear trends (P > 0.05). The fact that the value of A1 at Site M
was similar to that at Site U means that characteristics of basic and constant water losses from thepeat layer (mainly from the catotelm) were similar at those two sites. In contrast, a larger A1 at Site
D means that the amount of water loss was greater than at the other two sites. Similarly, A2 at thethree sites was nearly identical, which indicates that water losses from the upper peat layer (part of
the acrotelm) at the three sites were similar. In conclusion, Site D had greater water loss comparedwith the other two sites, but water loss of the upper peat layer at all three sites were similar.

Fig. 2 Variation of parameter C at three sites from 1983 to 2012

Fig. 3 Relationship between parameter C and total rainfall (July through September)at three sites from 1983 to 2012

Fig. 4 Variation of A1 and A2 in Method 1 at three sites from 1983 to 2012

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Fig. 5 Trends of (HA2–HA1) over 1983–2012 at three sites, from Method 2
In Method 2, GWT fluctuations are represented by parameter C and (HA2–HA1). Figure 5
shows variations of vertical distances between the lower two outlet plugholes (HA2–HA1) at thethree sites. Under the same condition of A1 = 0.0003, A2 = 0.03, and A3 = 1 for the three plugholes,
there were significant differences in (HA2–HA1) among the three sites. Average values of (HA2–
HA1) during the last 29 years at sites D, M, and U were 30.7 cm, 22.5 cm, and 17.9 cm,
respectively. The greater vertical distance (i.e., depth of bottom plughole) at Site D means that theunit-time GWT drawdown from the bottom plughole QA1 (cf. Eq. 2) at Site D was larger thanthose at sites M or U. Thus, the larger value of (HA2–HA1) indicates more rapid discharge. Overthe same period, (HA2–HA1) at site D increased, with slope 0.29 cm/year (P < 0.01). (HA2–HA1)
at Site M increased by 0.14 cm/year and decreased by –0.22 cm/year at Site U, but the trend was
not significant for either (P > 0.05) (Fig. 5).
The reason for such a change may be inferred as follows. In summer 1983, the drainage ditchnear these three sites was dredged and deepened. In the following few years (1983–1989), leakage
of water by piping from the adjacent mining pool to the ditch was observed. In terms of parametervariation, (HA2–HA1) increased yearly in this period. In the last 29 years, drainage intensity at Site
D clearly increased. However, at sites M and U, variations of drainage intensity were not assignificant. This fact indicates that drainage changed the water loss characteristics of peat and its
influence persisted in the following years.
The three observation sites have different drainage conditions. However, it is difficult todistinguish the difference of GWT fluctuations visually, so these fluctuations appeared similar.
Using the PTM, various characteristics of GWT increase could be represented by parameter C, and
GWT decrease could be described by parameters Ai and (HA2–HA1). Large values of parameters
C, Ai and (HA2–HA1) indicate that GWT may response to rain and dry events greatly. Moreover,differences of Ai among observed sites were able to reflect site differences of drainage
characteristics in various peat layers (Method 1). Variations of (HA2–HA1) could depict long-term
trends of drainage characteristics at each site (Method 2). In addition, the parameters could also
represent peat properties. A larger C value indicates less effective porosity and less water storage ofpeat. Larger Ai and (HA2–HA1) values indicate that the GWT decreases rapidly so that the peat
becomes drier during rain-free periods.
There is a strong regression relationship between parameter C and total amount of rainfall.
Therefore, this amount during the simulation period gives hint to the determination of C. For
instance, the value of C in a year with greater rainfall would be smaller. In the case of greatlychanged drainage conditions, simulation by Method 1 was unable to match actual GWTfluctuations, because the distance between HA1 and HA2 was fixed at 40cm. For instance, if adrainage channel was renewed or newly excavated near the observation site, drainage may haveintensified and the drop of GWT from the height of HA2 may have exceeded 40cm. Under suchcircumstances, Method 2 is considered more suitable than Method 1. In practical use of the PTM,
the vertical distance and size of each plughole could be adjusted according to peatland conditions atⒸ ISERD

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individual sites. Additionally, the principle of computation, such as simulation rules and methods,
could be adjusted to meet specific peatland conditions.
Average simulation errors of all calculations are shown in Table 2. By applying the rules in
the footnote of Table 1, Method 2 could simplify the computation by decreasing the number ofparameters to be fit, but simulation error might become slightly larger than that of Method 1.
Moreover, through Method 2, site differences were shown more clearly by the obvious differencesof (HA2–HA1) at the three sites, and the trend of long-term drainage effects also became apparent
through yearly decline of the depth of the bottom plughole at Site D.
Table 2 Average errors of all simulations by site for each method
MethodSite D (n=28)
Site M (n=29)
Site U (n=21)
r
CHI
NSE
r
CHI
NSE
r
CHI
NSE
1
0.91
9.2
0.84
0.93
5.5
0.86
0.93
5.1
0.86
2
0.89
12.6
0.83
0.92
6.0
0.84
0.93
5.9
0.85
r: correlation coefficient; CHI: chi-square value; NSE: Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficientn: number of observed years

CONCLUSSIONSThe present study proposed a PTM-based evaluation method for shallow GWT fluctuations ofpeatland, especially bogs. This method can simulate the GWT with accuracy of a few centimeters.
Further, subtle differences in fluctuation patterns can be distinguished by model parameters fordifferent locations or time series.
The observed GWT data used herein were not measured with respect to certain elevationreferences or benchmarks (i.e., sea level or ground surface). In this study, we provide a solution toevaluate the changes in GWT fluctuation patterns or site differences of GWT conditions ofpeatland, when the ground water table data were measured without height reference. Through useof the PTM, such observed GWT data were effectively used for evaluating such changes anddifferences. Especially via Method 2, variations and trends of parameters revealed the site
differences and long-term changes of GWT condition.
The seasonal response of ET and amount of soil moisture in the unsaturated peat surface layer
were not considered in the current version of the model. Hence, improvement could be made in thenear future to achieve more accurate simulation results.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Dr. Tadao Yamamoto and students of the Laboratory of Land Improvement andManagement, Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, for their help with long-term
groundwater table measurement at Sarobetsu Mire.
REFERENCES
Bhatti, J. and Tarnocai, C. 2009. Soil carbon sequestration and the greenhouse effect. Soil Science Society ofAmerica, 64.
Fujita, H., Igarashi, Y., Hotes, S., Takada, M., Inoue, T. and Kaneko, M. 2009. An inventory of the mires of
Hokkaido, Japan-their development, classification, decline, and conservation. Plant Ecology, 200, 9-36.
Japan Meteorological Agency. (http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/menu/report.html. Accessed 20 May 2014).
Page, S., Rieley, J. and Banks, C. 2011. Global and regional importance of the tropical peatland carbon pool.
Global Change Biology, 17, 798-818.
Umeda, Y. 1980. Present status and problems for agricultural use of peatland in Hokkaido, Northern Japan.
Proc. 6th Int. Peat Congr. Duluth, Minnesota, USA., 501-505.
Umeda, Y. and Inoue, T. 1985. The influence of evapotranspiration on the groundwater table in peatland.
Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Japan, 62 (2), 167-181.
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Research article
erd

Ecotoxicology of Copper on Local Freshwater Organisms
in Mekong River Cambodia
SOEUNG LYLY
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: lylysoeung@gmail.com

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chulee_b@kku.ac.th; chuleemas1@gmail.com

THAM HOANG
Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Received 23 February 2015

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The protection of aquatic habitat from damage and understanding of bothsensitivity of aquatic organisms to contaminant and ecological effects. Mekong Riverquality criteria of aquatic life for metals are largely driven by the extremely sensitive smallorganisms toxicity which are the Mekong native species. In this study we assessed the
toxicity of Copper in the Mekong river water with Chironomids Species (Chironomus
javanus) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Acute toxicity effect of copper
concentration to freshwater animals occur after the exposure at tested with Mekong water
was studied by observing mortality and LC50 over a 24 hours test period. The LC50 with
95% confidence limit of the 96-hours toxicity was performed to contrast responses of
Chironomids Species (C. javanus) and Nile tilapia (O. niloticus). The result showed that the
LC50 with 95% confidence limit obtained were 742 µg/L in Chironomids Species (C.
javanus) and 853µg/L in Nile tilapia (O. niloticus). Copper (Cu) is a big concern forenvironment, human and aquatic organisms because it can accumulate in to plant andanimals via food web. The out coming of this series of laboratory experiment will provides
a worst-case scenario and useful for determine the risk assessment of copper on local
freshwater organisms in Mekong River Cambodia as well as Mekong River Basin.
Keywords ecotoxicology, acute toxicity, copper, local freshwater animals, Mekong River

INTRODUCTION
The resources of the Mekong Basin, such as fishes, other aquatic resources and plants are playmain role in food security, income and livelihood for many people across the Lower Mekong Basin.
Around 60 million people live in the lower Mekong Basin and most of people in the basin areclosely linked to the Mekong and resources of it to support their livelihood (MRC, 2007; Ferguson
et al., 2011). The development activities during the past decade and up to now, including mining,
agriculture, deforestation, grazing and urbanization have caused of extensive soil erosion andcontribute increasingly to environmental levels of heavy metals especially copper (Cu) into water
body (Ti and Facon, 2004; Coates et al., 2006)
Copper mining was known as the important sector for economics. Therefore, it represents anessential in all living organisms that is required in small amounts (Heath, 1995). Humans, otheranimals, fish and shellfish require 5-20 micrograms per gram (µg/g) for carbohydrate metabolism
and the function of more than 30 enzymes. However, too much of copper concentration which
exceed 20 microgram per gram (µg/g) will be toxic, was explained by Wright and Welbourn (2002)
and Bradl (2005). Copper has been documented as one of the most toxic metals to aquatic organismand ecosystem (Scudder et al., 1998; Bradl, 2005; Carreau and Plye, 2005). Heavy metalⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

contamination of copper (Cu) is a big concern for environment, human and aquatic organisms.
Copper (Cu) does not break down in the environment because of that it can accumulate in to plant
and animals.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US.EPA) has issued a guideline for
conducting early-life-stage toxicity test suitable for acute and chronic toxicity tests used formeasuring the aggregate toxic chemicals in an effluent or receiving water to freshwater and marineorganisms (US. EPA, 2002). In Cambodia, the information on the impact of toxicity effects ofsoluble copper on the tropical aquatic biota is limited. Therefore, many research papers were
designed and conducted on ecotoxicology on copper everywhere in the world, but most them were
the different species and different from local species in the Mekong River. The out coming of
toxicity tests for copper will contribute data to aquatic environments and ecotoxicologicalfreshwater system for environmental quality standard in order to help and protect the MekongRiver in Cambodia as well as Mekong River Basin.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of studying is focus on ecotoxicology of copper on freshwater biota of Nile tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus) and Chironomids species (Chironomus javanus) with Mekong River in
Cambodia.
METHODOLOGY
Sampling
This study was conducted in the Lower Mekong Basin of Cambodia which located in the Kampong
Cham Province (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Map showing the sampling location
Organisms
Native species of Mekong River fish Nile tilapia (O. nileticus) larvae were obtained from the
Department of Fisheries, Khon Kaen, Thailand. The tested fish larva was immediately collected
after hatching in oxygenate bags to the laboratory and handle properly to minimize injury andstress physiological in order to reduce the number of dead organisms. The test was conducted at
Ecotoxicology laboratory in Khon Kaen University. Average weight of Nile tilapia wasⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

9.717±0.040 mg which used for acute toxicity testing. Young organisms are often more sensitive
than adults. For this reason, the use of early life stages such as fish fingerling is required for all
tests. In a given test, all organisms should be taken from the same source in order to minimize theorganisms diversity of response to experimental materials (US.EPA, 2002).
Chironomids Species (C. javanus) midge larvae were cultured at ecotoxicology laboratory ofKhon Kaen University, Thailand. Organisms were cultured in a glass container, covered with a net
to trap emerging adults. Since the aquarium already contains male and female species, mating andproduction of eggs is possible. To produce eggs of similar age, each egg mass collected was placedon the beaker containing 25 mL of tap water that was aged overnight. After two days, when all
eggs were hatched, larvae were transferred on a 14 inches x 10 inches x 6 inches aquarium andgiven fish flakes for food. This was used as substrate. Overlying water was being replaced every
three days. The second instar organisms were placed individually in micro test tubes file with test
solutions. Tube was added, just enough for the organisms to create their own tubes.
Chemical and Test Procedure
The standard stock solution (100 mg/L) for studied metals was freshly prepared by dissolving ofcopper sulfate CuSO4 5H2O. The test organisms were subjected to different concentrations (450,
500,600 1000, 1500 µg/L) for the fish and (500, 800, 1000, 3000, 5000 µg/L) for C. javanus of thestock copper solution in each container. The control was kept in experimental water without adding
copper. Water quality parameters (temperature, DO, alkalinity, hardness and pH) used in containers
were periodically determined before toxicity test (table 2). In addition, the experimental medium
was aerated in order to keep the amount of DO not less than 6 mg/L (Ezeonyejiaku et al., 2011).
Acute Toxicity Test
Acute copper toxicity experiments were performed for a 4-d period (96h) using small fishes at 5days old and the second instar larva of (C. javanus). The number of dead organisms were counted
every 24 hours and removed from aquarium as soon as possible. During the toxicity test, organisms
were not fed. The experimental were performed at room temperature of 25± 1 °C, with a
Photoperiod of 12h light: 12 darkness. All control result in lower mortality, less than 10% which
revealed the acceptability of the test (US. EPA, 2002).
Water Quality
The water quality parameters measured during the test were pH 7.77 ± 0.02, Conductivity 191±
1.53 µS/cm, TDS 45±005mg/L, dissolve oxygen 10.46±0.05mg/L, and total hardness (mg2+ andCa2+) 88±4 mg/L as CaCO3. The mean value of other water quality parameters such as DOC, BOD
and alkalinity were 5.74 ±0 mg/L, 1.33±0.20 mg/L and 104±0 mg/L, respectively (Table 1).
Table 1 Water quality parameter of Mekong River for acute toxicity of copper on Nile tilapia
and C. javanus
Parameters
pH
Temperature (°C)
DO (mg/L)
EC (µS/cm)
TDS (mg/L)
Alkalinity (mg/L)
Hardness (mg/L)
BOD (mg/L)
DOC (mg/L)

ResultWater quality of Mekong River
7.77±0.02
28±0.0310.46±0.05
191±1.53
45±0
104±0
88±4
1.33±0.20
5.74± 0Ⓒ ISERD24

US. EPA, 2002
6.8-8.4
25±1
Above 80%-

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Statistical Analysis
All the results were carried out by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Duncan’s Multiple Rang Test
(DMRT) by Statistic 8 software (version 8, USA) on the Factorail experiment in Completely
Randomized Design (CRD). The significance was reported at p<0.05 levels. Toxicological doseresponse data involving quintal response (mortality) following toxicity of copper on the test species,
Nile tilapia and C. javanus larvae were determined by use of Probit Analysis LC50 Determination
Method (SPSS, version 19 software). The rate response determined at the end of the 96th hour.
Significance in 95% confidence interval (95%CI) of detected 96 hours LC50 value was determinedusing the Chi-Square technique (Ezeonyejiaku et al., 2011).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data from acute toxicity test of copper for Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) and C. javanus larvae
released that the mortality of organisms increased with increasing copper concentration andexposure time (Table 2). Copper was found toxic to Nile tilapia responding higher than C. javanus.
The Mean value 24, 48, 72 and 96 hr LC50 for CuSO4 5H2O in the Nile tilapia were 1228, 1052,
939 and 742 µg/L. Hence, the acute test of 96, 72, 48 and 24 hr showed an opposite relationshipbetween LC50 and exposure time, increase in the concentration reduces the time to kill 50% of thetilapia fish. Previous studies (Taweel et al., 2013) showed the LC50 96 hr value for copper was
1093 µg/L on the fingerline Tilapia fish (O. niloticus). However, this result is higher than present
study. Various authors in different parts of the world including tropical (Shuhaimi-Othman et al.,2013; Mastin and Rodgers, 2000, Taylor et al., 1991) have observed same and recorded differential
toxicity of heavy metal compounds against different test animals. Cusimano et al., (1986) andSolbe (1984) also reported that the acting metal (copper) might be due to the physicochemical
characteristics of the test medium, species and ages of fishes used and their susceptibility rates tothe test chemical.
Mean 24, 48, 72 and 96 hr LC50 values for Cu as CuSO4 5H2O in the C. javanus are presented
in the table 2. The 24 hr LC50 for CuSO4 was 8237 µg/L which sharply declined to 5033, 2206 and853 µg/L at 48, 72 and 96 hr, respectively. Also, it could be noted that Copper effect to the C.
javanus in the long time exposure. The 48 hr LC50 for CuSO4 was 1073 µg/L in C. ramousus third
instar larvae (Majumdar and Gupta, 2012) and the 96 hr LC50 in C. tentans and C. ramousus 170
and 183µg/L, respectively (Shuhaimi-Othman et al., 2013; Majumdar and Gupta, 2012). These
values are considerably lower than responding value in C. javanus, indicating higher vulnerability
to Cu in the former two species. Mastin and Rodgers (2000) reported that 48 hr LC50 of midge
larvae C. tentans exposed to Clearigate and Cutrine-Plus were 373.5 and 460.9 µg/L, respectively.
On the other hand, Copper sulfate was an order of magnitude less toxic to C. tentans than
Clearigate and Cutrine-Plus with a mean 48 hr LC50 1,136.5 µg/L (Mastin and Rodgers, 2000).
Percentage mortality of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) and C. javanus larvae to copper solution
with Mekong River water for 96 hours are presented in Fig. 2. From the concentration- response
obtained, it could be seen that C. javanus was more sensitive than Nile tilapia. Lower thresholdresponses of C. javanus and Nile tilapia were 538 and 462.5 µg/L, respectively. And upper
thresholds of response of CuSO4 with 100% mortality were observed for C. javanus and Nile tilapia
at 5095 and 1595 µg/L, respectively.
Table 2 LC50 Value of CuSO4 5H2O, for Nile tilapia and C. javanus
SpeciesNile tilapia
C. javanus

24h
1228
(1138-1340)
8237(5471-32105)

LC50 with 95% CL (µg/L)
48h
72h
1052
939
(890-1296)(771-1185)
5033
2206
(3035-88359)
(-)

96h
742
(562-981)
853(-)

CL= Confidence limit, LC50= Median lethal concentrations, (-) = 95% Confidence limit (lower-upper value) exposure
at 96 hoursⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1% Mortality

Nile tilapia
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Copper concentrations (µg/L)

Fig. 2 Percentage mortality of Nile tilapia and C. javanus larvae to copper solution with
Mekong River water for 96 hours
CONCLUSION
Present study indicated that mortalities for both species increase with increasing copper but LC50
value decreased as more toxic on Nile tilapia and C. javanus. The 96 hr LC50 for CuSO4 5H2O in
the Nile tilapia and C. javanus were 742 and 853 µg/L, respectively. C. javanus was found moresensitive than Nile tilapia to copper.
Copper sulphate is still commonly used in the study area and in many developing countries tocontrol the water pollution. It is also used as fungicide in agricultural fields study area where fromit could be transported into the freshwater ecosystems via surface run off. Therefore, the hightoxicity of CuSO4 to non- target organisms like aquatic organisms needs to be taken into carefulconsideration before applying it indiscriminately in freshwater system. Due to the lack of the dataon ecotoxicology of copper on the local species of Mekong River, The further studies on theconcentration of heavy metals in other tropical freshwater should be studied.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank to Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development
Center in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen University and the research collaboration project
between Loyola University Chicago and Khon Kean University supported by International Copper
Association, Ltd. (ICA).
REFERENCES
Bradl, H. 2005. Heavy metals in the environment: Origin, interaction and remediation. Elsevier/Academic
Press, London.
Carreau, N.D. and Pyle, G.G. 2005. Effect of copper exposure during embryonic development on
chemosensory function of juvenile fathead minnows. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 61 (1), 16.
Coates, D., Poeu, O., Suntornratnana, U., Nguyen, T.T. and Viravong, S. 2006. Biodiversity and fisheries in
the Mekong River Basin. Mekong development series (2).
Cusimano, R.F., Brakke, D.F. and Chapman, G.A. 1986. Effects of pH on the toxicities of cadmium, copper,and zinc to steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 43,
1497-1503.
Ezeonyejiaku, C.D., Obiakor, M.O. and Ezenwelu, C.O. 2011. Toxicity of copper sulphate and behavioral
locomotor response of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and catfish (Clarias gariepinus) species. Online J
Anim Feed Res, 1 (4), 130-134.
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the Mekong River: Lessons from salmon in the Fraser and Columbia Rivers. Environmental
Management, 47 (1), 141-159.
Heath, A.G. 1995. Water pollution and fish physiology. Lewis, Boca Raton.
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Majumdar, T. and Gupta, A. 2012. Acute and chronic toxicity of copper on aquatic insect Chironomus
ramosus from Assam, India. J Environ Biol. Jan, 33 (1), 139-42.
Mastin, B. and J. Rodgers J. 2000. Toxicity and bioavailability of copper herbicides (Clearigate, Cutrine-Plus,and copper sulfate) to freshwater animals. Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 39(4), 445-451
MRC. 2007. Diagnostic study of water quality in the lower Mekong Basin. Mekong river commission,
Vientiane . 70 pp.
Scudder, B.C., Carter, J.L. and Leland, H.V. 1988. Effects of copper on development of the fathead minnow.
Aquatic Toxicology, 12 (2), 107-124.
Shuhaimi-Othman, M., Nadzifah, Y., Nur-Amalina, R. and Umirah, N.S. 2013. Deriving freshwater quality
criteria for copper, cadmium, aluminum and manganese for protection of aquatic life in Malaysia.
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Taweel A., Shuhaimi-Othman, M. and Ahmad A.K. 2013. In vivo Acute toxicity tests of some heavy metals
to Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal of Biological Science, 13 (5), 365-371.
Taylor, E., S. Maund and D. Pascoe 1991. Toxicity of four common pollutants to the freshwater macro
invertebrates Chironomus riparius Meigen (Insecta: Diptera) and Gammarus pulex (L.) (Crustacea:
Amphipoda). Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 21 (3), 371-376.
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in Southeast Asia. Rap publication (FAO) (2004/32).
U.S.EPA. 2002. Methods for measuring the acute toxicity of effluents and receiving waters to freshwater andmarine organisms: Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,
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Wright, D.A. and Welbourn, P. 2002. Environmental toxicology (Vol. 11), Cambridge University Press.
USA.

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Research article
erdApplication of Biodegradable Film from Yam(Dioscorea alata) Starch in Thailand for Agriculture Activity
OROSE RUGCHATI*
Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok,
ThailandE-mail: oroser@nu.ac.th

KANITA THANACHAROENCHANAPHAS
Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok,
ThailandReceived 13 December 2014

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Starch sample obtained from water yam (mun lued) by wet milling process. Yam
starch films were prepared by thermal gelatinization technique casting using glycerol asplasticizer. The effect of different glycerol (1.65 and 2.00 g/100 g of filmogenic solution)
starch concentration (3.30 g/100 g of filmogenic solution) was evaluated for somecharacteristic of these films. The effect of different surfactant Span80 (1 ml/100 g offilmogenic solution) and Tween 20 (1.5 ml/100 g of filmogenic solution) was studied.
Suitable characteristic of biodegradable film from yam starch are glycerol 1.65 and span 80(1 ml/100 g) as filmogenic formulation. The temperature for obtaining gelatinized starchsolution was 70-80 °C and then dried at 45 °C for 4 hours. Film sample was molding inplastic bag form by simple sealing machine in average size 6x9 square inch. The samples
expected to be applied as agriculture bag for agriculture activity. As a result, the appearanceof film sample was smooth, transparence and glossy, with average moisture content of
25.96% and thickness of 0.01 mm. Puncture deformation and flexible increased withglycerol content. The starch and glycerol concentration were significant factors for yam
starch film characteristic. Surfactant Span80 increased smoother and reduce sticky
properties of film than Tween 20. Yam starch film as biofilms could be applied anddeveloped in qualities, and with the advantage of biodegradability.
Keywords biodegradable film, yam starch in Thailand, Dioscorea alata, agriculturalactivity

INTRODUCTION
Water yam (mun lued) or greater yam (Dioscorae alata) belonged to Family Dioscoraeceae is afood crop of economic value in Africa and Asia. The yam produces tubers, bulbils or rhizomes as astarch staple food. Edible yams being most frequently cultivated in tropical area. Originaly fromSoutheast Asia, yam tubers were distributed in all regions of Thailand. However, the main
utilization of yams tubers in Thailand only for home consumption and local economic food, not inindustrial scale. Yam also used for extraction starch in commercial scale when compare with otherstarch source such as cassava, potato, maize, wheat and sweet potato. Yam starch can be extracted
from tubers by wet milling using water as the extracting solvent. The starch extracted by thismethod are very pure. One starch content was 97-98.53% (dry basis) when estimated by enzymatic
method. The granular size of yam starch averages is 26.68 µm. Some physic-chemical
characteristics of yam starch are difference from cassava starch so it could be applied not only forfood industry but also non-food industry (Rugchati et al., 2013).
Edible and/or biodegradable films are made from renewable and natural polymers. Among thenatural polymers, biodegradable films are not meant to totally replace synthetic packaging films.
However, they do have potential to replace the conventional packaging in some applications. TheⒸ ISERD

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use of edible films and coatings has been constantly increasing in the food industry. Coatings help
meet many challenges related to the storage and marketing of food products. The functionality andperformance of edible films and coatings depend on their barrier and mechanical properties, which
in turn depend on film composition, its formation process, and the method of application onto the
product. Edible films include lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, such as cellulose, starch, and theirderivates in their formulation (Falguera et al., 2011; Carvalho, 2013). The use of a biopolymer,
such as starch can be an interesting solution as one of the most promising candidates for futurematerials because this polymer is cheap, abundant, biodegradable, and edible with thermoplastic
behavior and this is important for film production because amylose is responsible for the filmforming capacity of starches (Rugchati and Thanacharoenchanaphas, 2010; Hoover, 2001; AOAC,
1990). Plasticizers, such as glycerol, are often used to modify the mechanical properties of the film.
Plasticizers decrease intermolecular attractions between adjacent polymeric chains increasing film
flexibility, but they may also cause significant changes in the barrier properties of the film
(Bertuzzi et al., 2007; Brandelero et al, 2010; Carvalho, 2008 and 2013). Starch is one of the mostcommonly used agricultural raw materials since it is a renewable source, inexpensive (even cheaper
than polyethylene), widely available, and relatively of the most promising candidates for futurematerials because this polymer is biodegradable and edible with thermoplastic behavior that easy tohandle.
Yam starch is one alteration for polymeric carbohydrate composed of anhydroglucose units. It
is not a uniform material and most starch contains two types of glucose polymers: a linear chain
molecule termed amylose and a branched polymer of glucose termed amylopectin (Falguera et al.,2011). The ratio of amylose to amylopectin content is critical for technological applications. Yam
starch (D. alata) contains about 24-26% amylose; the ratio of amylose to amylopectin content is
0.32, and this is important for film production because amylose is responsible for the film-forming
capacity of starches (Al-Hassan and Norziah, 2012; Alves et al., 2007). The potential of starch as amaterial for edible films and for biomaterials has been widely recognized. It is an appropriate
matrix-forming material and it provides a good barrier to oxygen and carbon dioxide transmission
but a poor barrier to water vaporation (Maliet al., 2002; Bertuzziet al.,2007). One of the mostimportant limitations of the use of starch for films and coatings is the hydrophilicity of this material.
Preponderance of amylose in starches gives stronger film. The branched structure of amylopectin
generally leads to films with different mechanical properties, such as decreased tensile stress.
Surfactants could be incorporated into the film formulation to reduce surface tension of the solution,
improving the wettability and adhesion of the film. These chemicals components are characterized
for being amphiphilic. The lipophilic part of the molecule tends to be in a nonpolar environment
and the hydrophilic part prefers to be in a polar (aqueous) environment. The balance between two
governs the functionality of the surfactant at interfaces and also its influence on the properties of
the resulting films. With surfactant addition to film formulation, it is expected a decrease in water
vapor permeability values, because some hydrophobic characteristic were incorporated withcomponents. Sorbitan fatty acid esters (Spans) and the corresponding polyoxyethylene (POE)
adducts (Tweens) applied in a wide range of food, pharmaceutical and other industries. In someformulations, mixtures of Span surfactants and Tween surfactants are required, but some of thephysical properties of these mixtures are not well defined (Alves et al., 2007; Brandelero et al.,2010).
OBJECTIVE
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the influence of the presence of plasticizers (glycerol),and the influence of different surfactant (Span80 and tween 20) on Dioscorae alata film
characteristics, and the mechanical properties of starch films for suitable formulation of yam starch
film products that could be applied and developed in qualities, and with the advantage of
biodegradability in agricultural activities.
METHODOLOGYⒸ ISERD

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Raw Material
Fresh tubers of water yam or mun lued (Dioscorae alata), with uniform size and shape, without any
mechanical and pathological injuries were obtained from a local farm in Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Sample Preparation
Yam starch was extracted in the wet milling process (Rugchati and Thanacharoenchanaphas., 2010).
Amylose and amylopectin contents of yam starch were determined simultaneously by the Knutson
method (Knutson, 1986).
Film Preparation
Yam starch film was prepared by thermal gelatinization technique (Mali et al., 2002) with different
glycerol, Span80 (Arlacel 80: Sorbitan monooleate (oily liquid) HLB 4.3) and Tween 20(Polysorbate 60: Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitan monolaurate (yellow liquid) HLB 16.7) yam starchconcentration (3.30 g /100 g of filmogenic solution) (Brandelero et al., 2010; Rugchati et al., 2013).
The four filmogenic solution formulations selected were milligram of surfactant/100 g offilmogenic solution and gram of glycerol/100 g of solution (Table 1).
Table 1 Filmogenic solution formulations (100 g of solution)
FormulationabcdGlycerol (g)
1.65
1.65
2.00
2.00

Surfactant (ml)Span80 (1 ml)
Tween 20 (1.5 ml)
Span80 (1 ml)
Tween 20 (1.5 ml)

The films were prepared by casting; yam starch (dry basis) and glycerol were directly mixed
with distilled water to make batches with a total weight of 500 g. The filmogenic solutions weretransferred quantitatively to the cup of a Brabender Viscograph, and its were heated from 30 to80 °C at a constant heating rate (2 °C/min) and maintained at 80 °C for 10 min, with regularshaking (75 rpm). Gelatinized suspensions were immediately poured on rectangular acrylic plates(20x20 cm). For each experiment, the quantity of starch suspension poured onto the plate wascalculated to obtain a constant weight of dried matter of approximately 12.25 mg/cm2. The starchsuspensions were dried (45 °C) in a ventilated oven (about 4 h). The result was translucent films,
which can be easily removed from the plate. The films were equilibrated at room temperature and a
relative humidity (RH) of 70 % for 48 h before being tested (Mali et al., 2005 and 2006).
Characterization of Starch Films
Yam starch films were characterized by using electron microscopy scanner (SEM), JEOL JSPM
100 electron microscope (Japan). Water vapor permeability (WVP) ASTM E96-80 (ASTM, 1980)
with water vapor permeation tester: Lyssy L80-4000, Oxygen gas transmission (OGT) ASTM
D3985-81(ASTM, 1981) with Oxygen permeation tester Illinois 8000 (TISI Standard 1136-2536)(Rugchati et al., 2013).
Physical and Mechanical Properties
Thickness measurements: The thickness of the films was determined using a manual micrometerat 10 random positions on the films. The mean standard deviation within the film was about 5% of
the average thickness by micrometer (EDP63191 The L.S. Starrett Co., Athol, MA Micrometer).
Moisture content of film wasmeasured by infrared automatic moisture meter (MA 40
SARTORIUS), and color measurement by Hunter Lab (model DP9500) (Rugchati et al., 2013).
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Mechanical properties: The tensile properties and puncture tests were studied to determine force
using an Instron 4411 (Instron Ltd., Canton, USA) (Rugchati et al., 2013).
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted by one-way analysis of variance. Means were compared using
the Duncan's new multiple range test. Data analyses were performed using the SPSS 11.5 forWindows.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Raw Material
Some morphologilcal characteristics of the water yam tuber, leaf, starch sample, and starch granuleshape (SEM 1000X) can be seen in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Some morphologilcal characteristics of the water yam tuber A. leaf, B. whole tuber
and pulp, C. starch sample and D. starch granule
Table 2 Some physic-chemical characteristic of yam starch film
Treatment Moisture (%)
a26.00+0.04nsb
25.99+0.70nsc
25.97+0.10nsd25.89+0.74ns

Thickness (µm)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01

L*
WVP(g/m2/day)
25.09+0.54a
2105+0.5a
24.99+0.54a
2099+0.8a
24.29+0.54b
2087+0.3b
24.19+0.54b
2079+0.8b

OGT(cm3/m2/day)
13.10+0.5a
12.95+0.5a
11.42+0.5b
12.00+0.5b

Note: All values are mean±standard deviation
a–b Means within a column with different letters are significantly different (p≤ 0.05)

Table 3 Mechanical characteristic of yam starch film
FormulationabcdMax load (mm)0.54+0.09a
0.41+0.12b
0.37+0.10c
0.40+0.74b

Max SIR (Kgf)
1.08+0.00a
0.99+0.58a
0.29+0.54b
0.25+0.54b

Toughness (Kgf/mm2)0.025+0.00ns
0.023+0.05ns
0.025+0.5ns
0.024+0.5ns

Note: All values are mean ±standard deviation
a–c Means within a column with different letters are significantly different (p≤ 0.05)

The fresh root of the water yam consisted mainly of starch (65%), and the purple tuber pulp ishigh in moisture content (82%). Starch was extracted and purified from the fresh root. The color of
the starch was slightly white and fine powder. The starch granular shape was triangular and theaverage size was 26.68 µm (Rugchati et al., 2013).

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Characterization of Yam Starch Films
The appearance of yam starch film for most of the formulations was transparent, smooth, andglossy and some physic-chemical characteristic has shown on tables 2 and 3.
CONCLUSION
This research showed the characterization of yam starch film. Starch from water yam mixed withand glycerol 1.65 and span80 (1 ml/100 g) were used as filmogenic formulation. The appearance ofyam film is clearly smooth and glossy. In other characteristics, the concentration of glycerol andsurfactant were a significant factor. In mechanical properties, type and concentration of surfactant
enhanced the puncture properties and a higher concentration of glycerol and surfactant decreased
puncture and tensile properties. Glycerol concentration was a significant factor for WVP and O2.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Naresuan University, Thailand and The Higher Education
Commission for Research Funding. The authors are also grateful and special thanks to the Facultyof Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
and Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Natural Resources andEnvironment, Naresuan University.
REFERENCES
Al-Hassan, A.A. and Norziah, M.H. 2012. Starch–gelatin edible films: Water vapor permeability andmechanical properties as affected by plasticizers. Food Hydrocolloids, 26 (1) 108-117.
Alves, V.D., Mali, S., Beleia, A. and Grossman, M.V.E. 2007. Effect of glycerol and amylose enrichment on
cassava starch film properties. Journal of Food Engineering, 78 (3), 941-946.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). 1990. Official method of analysis Vol. 2. The
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 163,Virginia, USA.
Bertuzzi, M.A., Vidaurre, E.F.C., Armada, M. and Gottifredi, J.C. 2007. Water vapor permeability of ediblestarch based films. Journal of Food Engineering, 80 (3), 972-978.
Brandelero, R.P.H., Yamashita, F. and Grossmann, M.V.E. 2010. The effect of surfactant Tween 80 on thehydrophilicity, water vapor permeation, and the mechanical properties of cassava starch and poly
(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) blend films. Carbohydrate Polymers, 82 (4), 1102-1109.
Carvalho, A.J.F. 2008. Starch: Major sources, properties and applications as thermoplastic materials. in
Monomers, Polymers and Composites from Renewable Resources. Elsevier, 321-342, Amsterdam,
Netherland.
Carvalho, A.J.F. 2013. Starch: Major sources, properties and applications as thermoplastic materials. in
Handbook of Biopolymers and Biodegradable Plastics. William Andrew Publishing, 129-152, Boston,
U.S.A.
Falguera, V., Quentero, J.P, Jiménez, A., Muñoz, J.A. and Ibarz, A. 2011. Edible films and coatings:
Structures, active functions and trends in their use. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 22 (6), 292303.
Hoover, R. 2001 Composition, molecular structure, and physiochemical properties of tuber and starches:
Review. Carbohydrate Polymers, 45, 253-267.
Knutson, C.A. 1986. A simplified colorimetric procedure for determination of amylose in maize starches.
Cereal. Chem, 63 (2), 89-92.
Mali, S., Grossmann, E.V.M, Garcia, M.A, Martino, N.M. and Zaritzky, N.E. 2002. Microstructuralcharacterization of yam starch films. Carbohydrate Polymers, 50 (4), 379-386.
Mali, S., Grossmann, E.V.M., Garcia, M.A., Martino, N.M. and Zaritzky, N.E. 2005. Mechanical and thermal
properties of yam starch films. Food Hydrocolloids, 19 (1), 157-164.
Mali, S., Grossmann, E.V.M., Garcia, M.A., Martino, N.M. and Zaritzky, N.E. 2006. Effects of controlledstorage on thermal, mechanical and barrier properties of plasticized films from different starch sources.
Journal of Food Engineering, 75 (4), 453-460.
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Rugchati, O. and Thanacharoenchanaphas, K. 2010. Comparison in some characteristic of yam tubers starch(Dioscoreaceae spp.) from Thailand. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 1(2), 102-106.
Rugchati, O., Mahawongwiriya, K. and Thanacharoenchanaphas, K. 2013. Some characteristics ofbiodegradable film substituted by yam (Dioscorea alata) starch from Thailand. World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology, International Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 7 (9), 53-56.

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Research article
erdLong-Term Effects of Spent Wash Liquor on Soil Bacterial
Population in Sugar Cane Production Systems
PHRUEKSA LAWONGSA*
Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center for Sustainable Economy: (ABRCSE),
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: phrula@kku.ac.th

PIROMYA MANEEWONG
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

NARUEMON NAKSRI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

TIPPAWAN PROMCHART
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

SUTEE WONGMANEEPRATEEP
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

MONGKON TA-OUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Spent wash liquor (or Distillery Slop) is an agro-industrial wastes generated
during alcohol distillery production. Its application to the soil for agriculture is highly
beneficial due to rich in plant nutrients, organic carbon, less toxic and easily amenable formicroorganisms. An advantage is made to direct apply the spent wash liquor as asupplement fertilizer to enhance crop yield in agricultural field. Therefore, long-term effectsof spent wash liquor on soil bacterial population in agricultural crop production system isstill poorly understood. In this research, the effect of long-term application of spent wash
liquor on bacterial decomposers was investigated in sugar cane production systems in Nam
Phong watershed. Eight treatments in this research including soil with no spent wash liquor
applied (control), soil applied with spent wash liquor for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 years wereconducted. The results showed that bacterial population at 1 year after application was
significantly higher than those from control soil then, the population declined until 8 years
after application the population can reach up to 2.04 x 106 CFU/g soil. This study suggested
that application of spent wash liquor can affect the bacterial decomposer under sugar canefield. However, the application of spent wash liquor need to be tested in longer time underfarmer’s field conditions before further recommendation can be given.
Keywords spent wash liquor, sugar cane, bacterial population

INTRODUCTION
Nam Phong watershed is the most important watershed in the upper northeast region of Thailand.
Its catchment covers approximately 1,518,900 ha, extending to the five provinces of Chaiyaphum,
Khon Kaen, Loei, Nong Bua Lumphu, and Petchaboon (Sthiannopkao et al., 2007). Nowadays,
Nam Phong watershed is threatened by a variety of human activities. Besides problem of soil
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erosion from agricultural areas around Nam Phong watershed, sediments and wastewater fromindustrial areas consist of large and medium scale factories such as sugar mill, distillery mill,
paperboard mill, tapioca mill are also become a pollutant in the watershed.
Removing pollutants from wastewater by wastewater treatment is the preliminary way toremediate water and reduce soils contamination before discharging it into the river and watershed.
Among wastewater from industrial areas, spent wash liquor, agro-industrial wastes generated
during alcohol distillery production, becomes the most promising wastewater using for agricultural
production due to it contains high concentration of organic load, high amount of nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, sulphur and a large amount of micronutrients (Suganya andRajannan, 2009). There have been many studies done investigation the effect of spent wash liquor
on plant growth and yield (Rath et al., 2011; Suganya and Rajannan, 2009). However, there islimited knowledge on how spent wash liquor can shape the abundance of bacterial communities inagricultural area. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate how long-term spent wash
liquor affected the bacterial populations as well as soil properties for successful application of spentwash liquor under sugar cane production systems to reduce chemical fertilizer application and also
recycle treated wastewater for agricultural use.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of spent wash liquor on the bacterial
population in sugar cane production system in Nam Phong watershed.
METHODOLOGY
Study Sites and Soil Sampling
Study sites were selected from Nam Phong watershed, Nam Phong district, Khon Kean province
between latitude 16°42’ N to 16°48’ N and longitude 102°53’ E to 102°57’ E. The soil ischaracterized as a Chakkarat soil series. Soil samples were collected from sugar cane plantation
which cultivated sugar cane cultivar K92 on soil depth 0-15 cm. Year of the experiment was in2013. Eight treatments were used in this research, including soil with no spent wash liquor applied(control), soil applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year (1Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor
consecutively for 2 years (2Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 3 years (3Y),
soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 4 years (4Y), soil applied with spent wash
liquor consecutively for 5 years (5Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 7 years(7Y) and soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 8 years (8Y). The spent wash liquor
was used for pre-sowing irrigation at rates of 6.4 m3/ha (40 m3/1600 m2).
Analysis of Chemical Properties of Spent Wash Liquor
Spent wash liquor characteristic analyses were done by studying the chemical properties of spentwash liquor (Table 1). Chemical properties studied include pH, electric conductivity (EC), total
alkalinity (as CaCO3), total dissolved solids (TDS), total solid, total suspended solids (TSS),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO) andsalinity were investigated by APHA standard methods (APHA, 1995). Organic matter was studied
by wet oxidation method (Walkley and Black, 1934), total nitrogen (as N) by micro Kjedahlmethod (Bremner, 1960), total phosphorus (as P2O5) by Bray II and colorimetric method (Bray and
Kurtz, 1945), total potash (K2O) by extracting with ammonium acetate 1N, pH 7.0 and measured
by flame photometer.
Soil Analyses
Soil studies were conducted after spent wash liquor was used for pre-sowing irrigation 6 months byⒸ ISERD

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digging for three replications in each treatments of sugar cane production system. Soilcharacteristic analyses were done by studying the physical and chemical properties of the soil
(Table 2). Physical properties studied include soil moisture and bulk density through the core
method. Particle-size distribution and soil texture by hydrometer method. Chemical properties
studied include soil reaction by pH meter in ratio of 1:2.5 with water, EC by EC meter, cationexchange capacity (CEC) by the 1.0 M ammonium acetate (NH4OAC) method (Chapman, 1965),
total nitrogen (Total N) by micro Kjedahl method (Bremner, 1960), available phosphorus
concentration by colorimetric method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945), exchangeable potassium levelmeasured by flame photometer, organic carbon and organic matter in soil by wet oxidation method(Walkley and Black, 1934).
Bacterial Population Analysis
Bacterial population analysis was done by serial dilution plating technique on nutrient agar medium(NAM) (Dubey and Maheshwari, 2002). Plates with serial dilution plating were incubated at 28 °C
for 1-2 days. Bacterial populations were enumerated from the plates and expressed as CFU (colony
forming units) per gram soil.
Statistical Analysis
This experiment has been designed as the completely randomized design (CRD). F-test along withmethod of Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) was used to analyze the differences of theaverage on each experiment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Spent Wash Liquor Characteristic Analysis
The data of chemical properties of spent wash liquor are shown in Table 1. The results showed thatspent wash liquor used in this study were rich in organic matter and available certain nutrients. In
addition, spent wash liquor contained high pH and showed low values of biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) suggesting that using of spent wash liquor issafe for agricultural application.
Table 1 Chemical properties of spent wash liquor
Spent wash liquor
pH
Electric Conductivity; EC
Total Nitrogen (as N)
Total Phosphorus (as P 2O5)
Total Potash (K2O)
Total Alkalinity (as CaCO3)
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total Solid
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Organic matter (OM)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Dissolved oxygen (DO)Salinity

Results
7.83
6.89
0.11
0.01
0.36
2647.19
10503.33
12900.00
373.33
0.58
<5
45
0.33
3.44

Unit
dS/m
%
%
%
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
%
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
ppt

Soil Analysis
The data of physical and chemical properties of soil are shown in Table 2. Being very rich inorganic matters, the utilization of spent wash liquor in agricultural fields creates organicⒸ ISERD

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fertilization in the soil which raises the pH of the soil, increases availability of soil nutrients andcapability to retain water and also improves the physical structure of soil. The results of nutrient
contents analysis showed that application of spent wash liquor into soil significantly increased theexchangeable potassium content in the soil. Likewise, the previous report found that the applicationof spent wash liquor into Sansai soil series significantly increased the available potassium content
in the paddy field (Chatchaisiri et al., 2003).
Table 2 Physical and chemical properties of soil
Treatments
FCV
Soil
test (%)
properties
Control
1Y
2Y
3Y
4Y
5Y
7Y
8Y
Organic
matter;0.603a0.333e0.473c0.358e0.337e0.535b
0.515b0.440d*21.64
OM (%)
Total N (%)
0.027a0.013d0.02c
0.014d
0.013d
0.023b
0.023b0.018c*
29.14
Available P
a
c
e
c
b
f
g
d
48.64
36.19
24.96
36.53
42.3
20.37
13.44
33.58
*
35.26
(mg/kg)Exchangeable K
79.10c80.48c38.85e72.29d39.32e116.34a81.87c108.91b*35.20(mg/kg)Organic
carbon;0.344a0.194e0.256c0.215d0.198e0.309b
0.306b
0.263c*20.85
OC (%)
Soil pH
4.85d
5.50b
5.30c
6.41a
5.63b
5.69b
4.85d
4.74d
*
10.19
Electricalconductivity;
0.042a0.029d
0.015g0.020f0.039b
0.035c0.039b
0.023e*32.43
EC (dS/m)Cationexchange
capacity;
3.371b
3.627b
5.051b
3.559b
4.612b
1.190c8.088a1.272c*57.59
CEC(cmol/kg)
Bulk density
0.890bc
0.960a0.910b
0.910b0.950a0.950a0.860c0.855c*4.59(g/cm3)Soil
moisture
3.860d4.420b3.300f
3.550e4.150c5.880a3.415ef
4.265bc*
19.48(%)
Soil texture
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
Treatment: soil with no spent wash liquor applied (control), soil applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year (1Y), soil
applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 2 years (2Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 3
years (3Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 4 years (4Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor
consecutively for 5 years (5Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor for consecutively 7 years (7Y) and soil applied withspent wash liquor consecutively for 8 years (8Y). In column, means followed by the same letter do not differ statisticallyfrom each other at pd0.05 according to DMRT test.

Effect of Spent Wash Liquor on Bacterial Population in Sugar Cane Production System
The highest total count of bacteria was found in soil sample that taken from first year application of
spent wash liquor for 2.11 x 106 cfu/g soil (Table 3). However, bacterial population tend to
decrease when soil were applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 2-7 years. Interestingly,
after 8 years consecutively application of spent wash liquor, result showed increasing in thebacterial count as compared to sugar cane production system without any spent wash liquor
application. Jintaridth et al., 2002 reported that application of spent wash liquor into soil showed
increasing in bacterial and fungal populations at the rate of 40 m3/1600 m2 compared to treatmentusing chemical fertilizer. Moreover, Thitakamol and Kaewpinthong (2004) also found that, at therice post-harvesting period, the number of bacteria increased at the application of 40 m3/1600 m2 ofspent wash liquor and the number of fungi was increased at the using rate of 20 m3/1600 m2. The
bacterial populations can change due to longer time of spent wash liquor application. The bacterial
populations may be affected by changing in soil moisture and some certain soil nutrient such as
potassium. The results revealed that significantly higher in soil moisture and exchangeable K valueⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

were found in soil applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year (1Y) and soil applied with spent wash
liquor consecutively for 8 years (8Y) (Table 2). These findings suggested that the growth andpopulation of soil microorganisms can be influenced by chemical and physical properties of the soil
and the availability of macro nutrient elements can limit bacterial population growth in a particularsoil ecosystem.
Table 3 Effect of spent wash liquor on bacterial population
Treatment
Control
1Y
2Y
3Y
4Y
5Y
7Y
8Y
F-testCV (%)

Bacterial count (cfu/g soil)
1.45 x 106 b
2.11 x 106 a
1.48 x 106 b
7.07 x 105 d
1.08 x 106 c
8.67 x 105 cd
7.73 x 105 d
2.04 x 106 a*
40.97

Treatment: soil with no spent wash liquor applied (control), soil applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year (1Y), soil
applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 2 years (2Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 3
years (3Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 4 years (4Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor
consecutively for 5 years (5Y), soil applied with spent wash liquor for consecutively 7 years (7Y) and soil applied withspent wash liquor consecutively for 8 years (8Y). In column, means followed by the same letter do not differ statisticallyfrom each other at pd0.05 according to DMRT test.

CONCLUSION
The study of long-term effects of spent wash liquor on soil bacterial population in sugar cane
production systems has shown that the highest total count of bacteria was found in soil sample thattaken from first year application of spent wash liquor and then bacterial population tend to decrease
when soil were applied with spent wash liquor consecutively for 2-7 years and raised up in soil
sample that taken from eight years consecutively application of spent wash liquor. This finding
suggested that bacterial populations may be affected by changing in soil physical and chemical
properties such as soil moisture and some certain soil nutrient such as potassium. Therefore, anessential soil element for plant growth influences the microbial population as these nutrient
elements are also needed for microbial growth and activity. However, the application of spent wash
liquor need to be tested in longer time under farmer’s field conditions before further
recommendation can be given.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by research grants from Khon Kaen University; project no. 562402 and
572702.
REFERENCES
APHA, AWWA, WPCF, 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 16th Edition.
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Pollution Control
Federation, Washington, D.C., USA.
Bray, R.H. and Kurtz, L.T. 1945. Determination of total, organic, and available forms of phosphorus in soils.
Soil Sci., 59, 39-45.
Bremner, J.M. 1960. Determination of nitrogen in soil by the Kjeldahl method. J. Agr. Sci., 55, 11-33.
Chapman, H.D. 1965. “Cation exchange capacity,” in Methods of soil analysis: chemical and microbial
properties. Black, C.A. Ed., vol. 9 of Agronomy Series, American Society of Agronomy. USA. 891-901.
Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Chatchaisiri, K., Chanchareonsook, J., Suwannarat, C. and Panichsukpatana, S. 2003. Utilization of paper
mulberry pulping waste water and distillery slop as sources of potassium for rice grown on Sansai soil
series. Proceedings of 41th Kasetsart University Annual Conference. Thailand. 26-33.
Dubey, R.C. and Maheshwari, D. K. 2002. Practical microbiology. S. Chand and Co., New Delhi, India.
Jintaridth, B., Kanjanathanaset, K., Inthasothi, T., Leaungvutiviroj, C. and Charoenchamratcheep, C. 2002.
Utilization of spent wash liquor for rice production in acid sulphate soils. Presentation: poster 17th
WCSS, 14-21 August. Paper No. 2282.
Rath, P., Pradhan, G. and Misra, M.K. 2011. Effects of DSW (distillery spent wash) and fertilizer on growthand chlorophyll contents of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum L.) plant. Recent Res. Sci. Technol., 3,169-176.
Suganya, K. and Rajannan, G. 2009. Effect of one time post-sown and pre-sown application of distillery
spent wash on the growth and yield of maize crop. Bot. Res. Inter., 2, 288-294.
Sthiannopkao, S. Takizawa, S. and Wirojanagud, W. 2007. Assessment of seasonal variations of surface
water quality in the Phong Watershed, Thailand. Thammasat Int. J. Sci. Technol., 12, 36-43.
Thitakamol, T. and Kaewpinthong, S. 2004. Utilization of distillery slop for the rice production in Khon
Kaen province. Ramkhamhaeng University Research Journal, 7 (Special Issue), 132-151.
Walkley, A, Black, I. A. 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter,and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci., 37, 29-38.

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Research article
erd

Plant Diversity on Slightly Saline Soils in Chi River Basin ofNortheast Thailand
SARAWUT DEEPROM
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

VIDHAYA TRELO-GES*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mai : vidtre@kku.ac.th

BUBPHA TOPARK-NGARM
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

SAMANG HOMCHUEN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

TONGIN KUMMEE
Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This research is aimed to documenting the diversity of plant species that arefound on slightly saline soils in the Chi river basin of Northeast Thailand. Both in the dry
and the rainy seasons of 2013, plant surveys were conducted at selected sites in threeprovinces (Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen, and Kalasin) by using a quadrat sampling technique.
Soils under the dominant plant species were collected for physical and chemical analyses.
From the study, a total of 155 plant species belonging to the 72 families were recorded.
Five of those were classified as halophytes, and included Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus
diversifolia, Synostema bacciformis, Pluchea indica and Gisekia pharnaceoides. The
dominant species in the selected sites of three provinces were Cynodon dactylon,
Heliotropium indicum, Melochia corchorifolia, Ageratum conyzoides, Coldenia procumben,
Glinus oppositifolius and Panicum repens, respectively. In the dry season, the average soil
electrical conductivity under the dominant plant species at Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen andKalasin provinces were 2.52, 0.7 and 0.54 dS/m, respectively. In the rainy season, theaveraged soil electrical conductivity under the dominant plant species were decreased to
0.61, 0.37 and 0.14 dS/m in Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen and Kalasin provinces, respectively.
In all studied areas during in both seasons, the amounts of exchangeable sodium were in thesame direction as the values of electrical conductivity. Soil pH values at all studied areas inboth seasons were in an acidic condition. However, the pH values were lower in the dry
season than in the rainy season. Soil moisture under the dominant plant species was higher
in the rainy season than that in the dry season.
Keywords plant diversity, saline soil, halophytes

INTRODUCTION
The northeast region of Thailand, known as Isan, covers an area of 170,226 sq. km or one third of
the entire country. The region situates on Korat plateau which is distinctly raised from the Central
region. The plateau tilts downward from the Phetchabun mountain range in the west of the region
towards to Mekong River. The plateau consists of two plains: the southern Khorat plain, which isdrained by the Mun and Chi rivers, and the northern Sakon Nakhon plain which is drained by the
Loei and Songkhram rivers. The two plains are separated by the Phu Phan mountain range. The soil
is mostly sandy, with substantial salt deposits. Soils in Northeast Thailand are salt-affected due toⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

salt bearing rocks (Department of Land Development, 1991), particularly in Nakhon Ratchasima,
Khon Kaen, Roi Et, Chaiyaphum and Mahasarakham provinces (Department of Mineral Resources,
1982). Saline soils currently occupy an area of approximately 17% of the region and that area isincreasing annually. A rather large part of the arable land in this region is salt-affected to varying
degrees. Generally, narrow areas, which are strongly salt-affected, are scattered from the western
hilly areas to the undulating regions, and the relatively weakly salt-affected wide areas are spreadthroughout the low-lying flat regions, especially along the big rivers. The degree of soil salinity inthe salt affected areas can be classified into three categories: 1) Severe salt affected soil is the area
which more than 50% of the soil exhibits surface salt patches. Soil salinity ranges from high to veryhigh. This area known as deteriorated land, covers about 0.2 million hectares and cannot be used
for any agricultural activity. 2) Moderate salt affected soil is the area which 10-50% of the soil
surface is covered with salt patches. The area is about 0.6 million hectares and the land is used as
rice paddies, but the yield is very low. 3). Slightly salt affected soil is the area which salt patches on
the soil surface occur in less than 10% of the area. There are about 2 million hectares, and most of
the area is comprised of rice fields with low yields (Arunin, 1984) (Fig. 1). Soil salinity has become
one of the major determinants of crop productivity in the Northeast Thailand and has an adverse
impact on the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, as well as on plant growth andyield (Marschner, 1995). To grow crops successfully, these soils must be improved. Investigations
carried out at various research locations in the world have shown that salt-affected soils can be
improved by the planting of salt tolerant plant species. In an effort to identify and dominant the salt
tolerant plant species present on naturally occurring saline soils, it is therefore, necessary to study
the soil properties and vegetation cover that are found on saline soil. The gains from this study will
be valuable, and the dominant species, that have been observed, will deserve further attention as
potential candidates for restoring the salt affected areas. In addition, the presence or absence of
certain plants can give valuable clues to indicate the degree of soil salinity.

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 1 Categories of salt affected areas: a) severe, b) moderate and c) slightly
METHODOLOGYThis study has aimed to documenting the diversity of plant species and investigating the soil
properties under the dominant species on slightly saline soils in the Chi river basin of Northeast,
Thailand. Plant surveys were conducted on 9 selected sites in 3 provinces (Chaiyaphum,
Khon Kaen and Kalasin) during both the dry season (April) and the rainy season (October) of 2013by using a quadrat sampling technique (Fig. 2). Plant specimens were collected and identified fromwithin 108 sample plots (1x1 m). The dominant species were analyzed by totally averaging each of
the plant covers.
To study soil properties, soil samples under each of the dominant species found in the study
area were collected separately at the depth of 0-15 cm and were brought back to the laboratory forphysical and chemical analyses in both the dry season and the rainy season. The moist soil samples
were analyzed for the moisture content, pH (1:2.5 soil: water), ECe (saturation extract), organic
matter and exchangeable Na+. A good indicator of potential salinity problems is the depth andquality of the groundwater table. If groundwater table are both saline and shallow or rising, there is
the potential for salinity problems to occur in the future (Kohyama et al., 1993). Therefore, in thisⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

study, the depth of water table has been measured in the middle of both the rainy and dry seasonsby using a piezometer. In addition, water samples were collected to determine the salinity in orderto determine the quality of the groundwater.

Fig. 2 The study area in 3 provinces (Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen, and Kalasin) of Northeastern
ThailandRESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For soil properties on slightly saline soil in the dry season, the average soil electrical conductivity
under the dominant plant species at Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen and Kalasin were 2.52, 0.7 and 0.54
dS/m, respectively. In the rainy season, the average soil electrical conductivity under the dominant
plant species decreased to 0.61, 0.37 and 0.14 dS/m in Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen and Kalasin,
respectively. The amounts of exchangeable sodium were in the same direction at electricalconductivity values for all areas studied in both seasons. Soil pH at all studied areas in both seasons
were in an acidic condition. However, soil pH values were lower in the dry season as compared to
the rainy season as found by Topark-ngarm (1990). Soil moisture under the dominant plant species
was higher in the rainy season than in the dry season (Table 1).
Table 1 Soil properties in the dry season and the rainy season in the study areas (Mean±SD)
Soil properties
pH (1: 2.5 H2O)
ECe (dS/m)
OM (%)+
Exchangeable Na(ppm)
Soil moisture content(%)

Chaiyaphum Province
Dry season
Rainy season
5.30 ± 0.19
5.93 ± 0.48
2.52 ± 0.94
0.61 ± 0.57
0.83 ± 0.14
0.82 ± 0.22

Khon Kaen Province
Dry season
Rainy season
4.31 ± 0.39
4.56 ± 0.26
0.70 ± 0.20
0.37 ± 0.27
0.74 ± 0.16
0.85 ± 0.13

Kalasin Province
Dry season
Rainy season
4.13 ± 0.15
4.41 ± 0.17
0.54 ± 0.34
0.14 ± 0.05
0.68 ± 0.01
0.66 ± 0.10

12.86 ± 1.90

2.82 ± 2.28

3.00 ± 1.28

1.33 ± 0.96

1.57 ± 0.69

0.31 ± 0.16

4.61 ± 0.92

20.24 ± 4.11

5.35 ± 0.63

13.14 ± 5.57

3.30 ± 0.61

11.65 ± 2.38

The water table at the Chaiyaphum site is more shallow than at the other sites. In addition, thegroundwater salinity is also higher, and that makes the soil salinity at Chaiyaphum site higher thanat the other sites (Table 2).
Table 2 The water table depth and groundwater salinity
Site
Chaiyaphum Province
Khon Kaen Province
Kalasin Province

Water table (cm)
Dry season Rain season
194
42
> 200
105
> 200
116

Ⓒ ISERD

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Groundwater salinity (dS/m)
Dry season
Rain season
2.82
1.20
2.16
1.52
1.78
0.76

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

In the plant study, a total of 155 plant species belonging to the 72 families have been recorded.
Five of those were classified as halophytes: Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus diversifolia, Synostema
bacciformis, Pluchea indica and Gisekia pharnaceoides (Fig. 3). The dominant species in theselected sites of the three provinces were Cynodon dactylon, Coldenia procumbent, Ageratum
conyzoides, Glinus oppositifolius, Melochia corchorifolia, Heliotropium indicum and Panicum
repens, respectively (Fig. 4). In the rainy season, the number of plant species at every study site
was higher due to a decrease in soil salinity as compared to the dry season.

Azima sarmentosa

Maytenus diversifolia

Synostema bacciformis

Pluchea indica

Gisekia pharnaceoides

Fig. 3 The halophytes found in the study area
The dominant species found on the slightly saline soils were quite different from those foundon high saline soils and moderate saline soils. Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus diversifolia, andPluchea indica were the dominant species found in areas of high salinity (Kulna et al., 2012).
Combretum quadrangulare, Imperata cylindrical, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum repens,
Sphaeranthus afraricanus, Glinus oppositifolius and Fimbristylis disticha were the dominant
species dicovered growing in moderate salinity (Chason et al., 2014). Also, Cynodon dactylon,
Coldenia procumben, Ageratum conyzoides, Glinus oppositifolius, Melochia corchorifolia,
Heliotropium indicum and Panicum repens were the dominant species found growing in slightly
salinity.

Cynodon dactylon

Coldenia procumben

Melochia corchorifolia

Ageratum conyzoides

Heliotropium indicum

Glinus oppositifolius

Panicum repens

Fig. 4 The dominant species found in the study area in the dry season
Table 3 Cover areas and soil electrical conductivity of dominant species in the study area inthe dry season
Plant Name
Cynodon dactylon
Coldenia procumben
Ageratum conyzoides
Glinus oppositifolius
Melochia corchorifolia
Heliotropium indicum
Panicum repens etc.

Cover areas (%)
16.53
14.58
13.33
12.92
12.50
10.83
8.33

Ⓒ ISERD

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ECe (dS/m)
0.87 ± 0.97
0.86 ± 0.93
0.74 ± 0.80
0.32 ± 0.11
1.03 ± 1.26
1.34 ± 1.10
0.88 ± 0.85

Number of plant species (species)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Soil electrical conductivity (dS/m)

Fig. 5 The relationship between number of plant species and the average soil electricalconductivity (ECe) in the dry season (less salinity more plant species)
CONCLUSION
From the study, some native plants in Northeast Thailand have been found to have become well
adapted to saline conditions, and these plants are called halophytes. The presence of some
halophytes is generally indicative of a saline soil. There is a natural variation in the ability of plants
to tolerate salinity. Most of plant species can grow well when soil ECe is low. On the other hand,some plant species can tolerate in the soil which have high ECe value (Fig. 5). Therefore, thepresence or absence of certain plants can give valuable clues to indicate the degree of soil salinity.
Cynodon dactylon, Coldenia procumben, Ageratum conyzoides, Glinus oppositifolius, Melochia
corchorifolia, Heliotropium indicum and Panicum repens are the dominant species in areas ofslightly salinity. This study has not experimentally evaluated plant species for their use in therestoration or re-vegetation of salt affected areas. However, comparable salinity levels and species
found in the areas suggest that the dominant species observed in this study would be valuable anddeserve further attention as potential candidates for the restoration of salt affected areas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was support by The Research Group of Problem Soils in Northeast Thailand, Facultyof Agriculture, The Groundwater Research Center, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University
and Graduate School of Khon Kaen University for supporting the publishers’ research fund. The
authors wish to thank the editor for making suggestions and improving the language of themanuscript.
REFERENCES
Arunin, S. 1984. Characteristics and management of salt-affected soils in the Northeast of Thailand. In:
Ecology and Management of Problem Soils in Asia. FFTC Book Series No. 27. Food and Fertilizer
Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region. Taipei, Taiwan, 336-351.
Chason, S., Trelo-ges, V., Topark-ngarm, B. and Homchuen, S. 2014. Study on plant species diversity withsoil properties in moderate saline soil of Chi River, Northeast Thailand. Book of Abstracts. The 5th
ICERD-International Conference on Environmantal and Rural Development. 18-19 January 2014.
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Department of Land Development. 1991. Distribution of salt affected soils in the northeast region 1:100,000
map. Department of Land Development, Thailand.
Department of Mineral Resources. 1982. Geologic map of Thailand. Department of mineral resources,
Thailand.
Kohyama, K., Wichaidit, P., Pramojanee, P., Sukchan, S. and Wada, H. 1993. Salinization in the watershedof Northeast Thailand. In: ADRC (ed.) “Research Activities of ADRC contributed to Agricultural
Development in Northeast Thailand”, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
Kulna, W., Trelo-ges, V., Topark-ngarm, B. and Homchuen, S. 2012. Study of relationships of some soil
properties on plant species diversity in serious saline soil of Chi river basin. The 9th National
Conferences of Agricultural Academic. 6-7 December 2012. Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Sean
Campus, Thailand.
Marschner, H. 1995. Mineral nutrition of higher plants. 2nd Edition. Academic Press, UK.
Topark-ngarm, B., Patcharapreecha ,P., Goto, I. and Kimura, M. 1990. Studies on saline soils in Khon Kaen
Region, Northeast Thailand. II. Seasonal changes of physical and chemical properties. Soil Sci. Plant
Nutr., 36, 289-298.

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Research article
erd

Circumstances of Survey Education Conducted in Japanese
Universities
TAKAHIKO KUBODERA
Chuo College of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: h1okazaw@nodai.ac.jp

YOSHIHARU HOSOKAWA
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan

MASAHIRO TASUMI
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, JapanKATSUHIRO SASADA
College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan

EIJI MATSUO
Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 22 December 2014

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Contents of the survey education conducted in civil engineering departments ofuniversities in Tokyo were investigated by using their syllabus, to grasp the current state ofsurvey education in Japan. As a result, in the order of the number of departments that teachthe particular items, “Theory of error”, “Traversing”, “Leveling”, “Plate table surveying”,“Global positioning System (GPS) surveying”, “Photogrammetry”, “Geographic
Information Systems (GIS)” and “Remote sensing”. It was found that land-based surveying
techniques, such as “Traversing”, “Leveling” and “Plate table surveying”, were treated
preferentially over aerial-data based surveying, such as “GPS surveying”,“Photogrammetry” and “Remote sensing”. Furthermore, to grasp the items taught asuniversity course content reflect the techniques actually used in work situations, the content
of 6 textbooks used for lectures at the universities was investigated by comparing with the
General Standard of Operation Specifications for Public Surveys (General Standard). The
General Standard is used as the model standard when surveying companies work actually.
As a result, not many textbooks cover such operationally demanded techniques. As otherproblems; given that the latest technique may be a major technique in the future, it isnecessary to teach the latest survey techniques. The latest techniques, which have not been
described as survey items in the General Standard, were also investigated, such as “Mobile
Mapping System (MMS)”, “3-D laser scanners” and “Photogrammetry with satellite
imagery”. So as to improve these problems, the authors developed a new textbook forteaching surveying based on an investigation of courses offered in the survey departmentsof universities. In the developed textbook, the survey techniques described in the GeneralStandard and the latest techniques are included.
Keywords survey education, university, operational technique, textbookⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

INTRODUCTION
The population of the world reached 7 billion in 2012. The populations of Africa and Asia are
increasing particularly rapidly. It is predicted that in 2050 the population of Africa and Asia will be
2.2 and 1.2 times that in 2012 respectively (United Nation, 2012). World irrigated area has been
also increasing year by year (Earth Policy Institute, 2009). To produce enough food for thisincreasing population, it is important to conduct land improvement and irrigated land expansion,
including the development of agricultural land and the construction of channels for irrigation anddrainage of such land. In conducting land improvement projects, surveying techniques to know thecoordinates, elevation, gradient, area and topographic features of the agricultural land and the skill
to create maps of the surveyed land are indispensable.
From the 1950s through the 1980s, the major surveying techniques used in agricultural landdevelopment were angle measurement by using a transit and plate table surveying, which is a
simple way of conducting onsite surveying. By 2000, most surveyors were using equipment thatwas up to date for that time. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and the use of total
stations (TS) became mainstream. The use of equipment that was up to date for that time changed
the surveying techniques from analog-based ones to digital-based ones. At the same time, theprecision of observations and the accuracy of results have improved.
In Japan, surveying techniques are taught at engineering and agricultural universities. The
qualification of assistant surveyor is granted upon graduation from many such universities.
However, the surveying techniques taught at such universities are those that were in themainstream from the 1950s to the 1980s. Few universities teach the latest techniques that are usedin actual working situations (Kunii et al., 2006).
In this study, the syllabus contents of some of the Japanese universities were investigated toclarify the relationship between the technical items taught in the lectures of the universities and thetechniques used in actual working situations. The investigation aims at commenting on thesurveying techniques that will be required in future university education.
METHODOLOGY
To know what items of surveying are taught at universities, the course content of universities wasinvestigated based on their syllabi. As there are many universities that teach surveying in Japan, we
extracted 13 departments of 11 universities in Tokyo that have engineering departments or courses.
The surveying items taught in the lectures at these 13 departments were investigated. The items
included traversing and leveling. For each technical item, the number of departments that teach theparticular item was counted, and the percentage of departments teaching each technical item (theadoption rate) was calculated.
To grasp the items taught as university course content reflect the techniques actually used inwork situations, the content of six textbooks used for lectures at the universities was investigated(Ohki, 1998; Ishii et al., 1999; Nakamura and Shimizu, 2000; Fukumoto et al., 2003; Asano and Iba,
2004; Hasegawa et al., 2004). The investigated items were the techniques described in the GeneralStandard of Operation Specifications for Public Surveys (General Standard), which is used as themodel standard by surveying companies. The textbooks were investigated as to whether they haveitems such as “Connected traverse”, “Detail survey by TS”, “GNSS” and “Digital stereo plotter”.
The latest techniques, which have not been described as survey items in the General Standard,
were also investigated, such as “Mobile Mapping System (MMS)”, “3-D laser scanners” and“Photogrammetry with satellite imagery”.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Content of Survey Courses at Japanese Universities

Table 1 shows the technical items adopted in the surveying education at the 13 departments.
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Departments that taught the “Theory of error” numbered 11, as did those that taught the“Traversing”. These are the largest numbers. The “Leveling” was taught by 10 departments, the“Plate table surveying” was taught by 9 departments, the “Global positioning System (GPS)surveying” by 9 departments, the “Photogrammetry” by 6 departments, the “Geographic
Information Systems (GIS)” by 5 departments and “Remote sensing” by 4 departments. The mostcommonly taught items in the 13 departments were “Theory of error and “Traverse survey”. The
next most commonly taught items were “Leveling”, “Plane table surveying”, “GPS surveying”,“Photogrammetry”, “GIS” and “Remote sensing”.
The reason that “Theory of error” was found to be so commonly taught is thought to be thatthe subject is important in the theory of surveying, which includes the processing of observed dataand statistics.
The basics of surveying include knowledge of coordinates and topographic maps. There are
two groups of techniques for obtaining data for coordinates and topographic maps. There are those
conducted on the land, such as TS and leveling, and those conducted using aerial data obtained bysatellites and airplanes. It was found that the university lectures emphasize the land-based
techniques, such as traverse surveying, leveling and plane table surveying, over the aerial databased techniques, such as GPS surveying, photogrammetry and remote sensing. It is thought thatpriority is placed on the land-based surveying because it is directly related to survey training atuniversities.
Table 1 Technical items adopted in the surveying education at the 13 departments
Technical item
Theory of error
Traversing
Leveling
Plane table surveying
GPS surveying
Photogrammetry
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Remote sensing

Number of departments teaching
the technical items
11
11
10
9
9
6
5
4

Adoption rate (%)
84.6
84.6
76.9
69.2
69.2
46.2
38.5
30.8

Results of Investigation of the Textbooks Adopted for Surveying Lectures in the Universities
The General Standard has been revised in accordance with advances in survey techniques. For
example, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) was first described in the General Standard
in 2011. GPS, which originated in the US, and Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS),
which originated in Russia, are integrated in GNSS. The plotting instruments for photogrammetry
in the 2013 General Standard were changed from analog to digital stereo instruments.
Table 2 shows the techniques described in the textbooks adopted for lectures at the universities
and those described in the General Standard. The textbooks are denoted as Textbook A, B, C, D, E,
F, in the order of the year of publication of the first edition. The investigated items of “Connected
Traverse”, “Detail survey by TS”, “GNSS” and “Digital stereo plotter” are described in the
General Standard.
All of the investigated items are included in the courses that are offered at the departments
shown in Table 1. However, some of the textbooks do not have the investigated items. This must be
because such items were not described in the General Standard when the first editions of the
textbooks were published. It is must be meaningful that Textbooks C and D have explanations on
digital stereo plotting instruments, which were not include in the standard items at the time of
publication of the first editions of the textbooks, because it is possible for the latest techniques
introduced in textbooks to become major surveying techniques in later years. The description of
GNSS in Textbook F must be added in a later revision.
Based on the above, it is necessary to continuously revise textbooks to include the latest
techniques and the techniques that meet the needs of the times.
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Table 2 Description of survey techniques in 6 textbooks and the current techniques
described in the General Standard
Textbooks adopted for lectures in the universities
A
B
Year of publication of textbooks A to F (First edition) 1998 1999
Description of survey
Connected traverse○○
techniques in the×○
Detail survey by TS*
General Standard
GNSS surveying
××××
Digital stereo plotter*: Total Station ○: described in textbook ×: undescribed in textbook

C
2000

D
2003

E
2004

F
2004

○
○
×
○

○
○
×
○

○
○
×
×

○
○
○
○

Results of Investigation of Six Textbooks used for Surveying Lectures at the Universities
Table 3 shows the results of investigation of textbooks that are used for the lectures of theuniversities and the latest techniques that are not described in the General Standard. Textbook B
introduces the latest techniques, such as MMS, even though it is not described in the GeneralStandard. From a viewpoint of educating future engineers, it is necessary to adopt textbooks as
introducing the latest technologies, because such information is useful in motivating students tolearn advanced areas and to start their research.
Table 3 Description of survey techniques in 6 textbooks and the latest techniquesthat are not described in the General Standard
Textbooks adopted for lectures in the universities
Year of publication of textbooks A to F (First edition)

A
1998

B
1999

C
2000

D
2003

E
2004

F
2004

The latest
Mobile Mapping System (MMS)
techniques that are
3-D laser scanners
not described in
the General
Photogrammetry with satellite imagery
Standard

×

○

×

×

×

○

×

×

×

×

×

○

×

×

×

×

×

×

○: described in textbook ×: undescribed in textbook

Fig. 1 Newly compiled surveying textbook published in April 2014
Title: Newer surveying -Fundamentals and applications with newest technology- (in Japanese)

Development of Materials for Teaching Surveying at Schools
The authors developed a new surveying textbook to address the problems and tasks identified in theabove discussion. The survey techniques described in the General Standard and the latest
techniques that address the needs of the times were included in this textbook. The new textbook has
an impressive 253 pages. The newly compiled textbook, which was highly evaluated by the editorsof a publishing company, was published under the title of Newer surveying -Fundamentals andapplications with newest technology-. (Okazawa et al., 2014) (Fig. 1). However, it is clear that thisⒸ ISERD

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new textbook will become obsolete, as survey techniques are continuously developing. While being
the evaluation, it is important to continuously revise the textbook to address the changes of thetimes.
CONCLUSION
The study has clarified the following:(1) At engineering universities in Tokyo, 84.6% of departments taught theory of error, 84.6%
taught transverse surveying, 76.9% taught leveling, 69.2% taught plane table surveying, 69.2%
taught GPS surveying, 46.2% taught photogrammetry, 38.5% taught GIS and 30.8% taught remotesensing. It was found that land-based surveying techniques, such as traverse surveying, levelingand plane table surveying, were treated preferentially over aerial-data based surveying, such as
GPS surveying, photogrammetry and remote sensing.
(2) Textbooks C and D introduced the technique using a digital stereo plotting instrument eventhough the instrument was not a standard item at the time of first publication of the two textbooks.
Given that the technique later became a major survey technique, it was found that introducing thelatest techniques in textbooks is important.
The authors developed a new textbook for teaching surveying based on an investigation ofcourses offered in the survey departments of universities and the textbooks used at universities. The
survey techniques described in the General Standard and the latest techniques, which address theneeds of the times, have been included in the new textbook. It is thought that continuous revision toaddress the latest techniques and needs of the time is required, because surveying techniques
rapidly develop with the time. It is important to consider the textbook in English, though the
published textbook was in Japanese. Because the common language of study is English for students
in developing countries.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Grant-aid from Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
The authors thank for cooperation of Mr. Taizo Kin (Corona Publishing Co., Ltd.) at the textbook
publication.
REFERENCES
Asano, S. and Iba, H. 2004. Latest surveying primer. Jikkyo Shuppan Co., Ltd. (in Japanese).
Earth Policy Institute. 2009. Data centre -Food and Agriculture-, World irrigation area and irrigated area per
thousand people, 1950-2007. Washington, D.C., USA. (available from; http://www.earthpolicy.org/index.php?/datacenter/xls /book_pd4_ch2_8.xls. accessed 1st Dec. 2014).
Fukumoto, T., Koga, Y., Saga, A., Ogino, M., Sano, M., Shikada, M., Wada, Y. and Hayakawa, K. 2003.
Ace surveying. Asakura Publishing Co., Ltd. (in Japanese).
Hasegawa, M., Kawabata, Y., Ohtsuka, H., Fujimoto, G., Takefuji, S., Sumida, E., Michihiro, K. andYoshioka, N. 2004. Basic surveying. Denkishoin Co., Ltd. (in Japanese).
Ishii, I., Kamiura, M., Tanaka, S., Himeno, K., Maruyama, T., Motoda, Y. and Kameno, T. 1999. Latest
surveying. Morikita Publishing Co., Ltd. (in Japanese).
Kunii, Y., Chikatsu, H., Ohdake, T. and Ono, K. 2006. Computer-assisted surveying education using 3D
simulator. International archives of the Photogrammetry. Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Science, XXXVI, 166-170.
Nakamura, H. and Shimizu, E. 2000. Surveying. Gihodo Shuppan Co., Ltd. (in Japanese).
Okazawa, H., Kubodera, T., Sasada, K., Tasumi, M., Hosokawa, Y., Matsuo E. and Mihara, M. 2014. Newer
surveying -Fundamentals and applications with newest technology-. Corona Publishing Co., Ltd. (inJapanese).
Ohki, M. 1998. Surveying. Morikita Publishing Co., Ltd. (in Japanese).
United Nation. 2012. World population prospects -The 2012 revision-. (available from; http://www.un.org/
en/development /desa/population/, accessed 11th Dec. 2014).
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Research article
erd

Circumstances of Surveyor License Acquisition System inJapan
TAKAHIKO KUBODERA
Chuo College of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: h1okazaw@nodai.ac.jp

YOSHIHARU HOSOKAWA
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan

MASAHIRO TASUMI
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, JapanKATSUHIRO SASADA
College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan

EIJI MATSUO
Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 22 December 2014

Accepted 1 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The license acquisition system of surveyors in Japan is composed by two levels ofnational license; the surveyor and the assistant surveyor. The survey Act, which determines
the qualifying standard for licensing, accept several routes for acquiring the license,
depending on the situations of applicants. Two primary route of license acquisition are bypassing the national qualifying examination and by graduating at designated universities,
junior colleges, technical colleges and technical schools. The circumstances of surveyor
license acquisition system in Japan were investigated from the Survey Act and the national
qualifying examination. It became clear that the surveyor has been required the newtechnologies and a wide range knowledge for survey. So as to clarify the abilities of thesurveyors who passed the national qualifying examination and of those who graduated fromthe above university or technical school, the ability verification test of assistant surveyors
was given. As a result, it can be said that the former group performed better than the latter.
In order to reduce the difference of difficulties for license acquisition, the contents ofcurrent survey educations in higher education should be improved. This paper presented thecircumstances of the national license in Japan, including the details of the national
qualifying examination and other routes of the license acquisition, and indicated the
problems.
Keywords surveying, qualification system, surveyor, assistant surveyor, license

INTRODUCTION
For the sustainable development of developing countries, it is important to make regional
development projects and to construct infrastructures. As surveying techniques play a great role in
the implementation of sustainable development projects in developing countries, engineers who
have basic surveying education are basically required. The knowledge on the present condition andⒸ ISERD

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issues related to acquiring qualifications of surveying in Japan will be certainly helpful to
implement training in surveying education in developing countries.
In Japan, there are two national qualifications: one for surveyor, and the other for assistantsurveyor. The basic survey by the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan and public surveys,
for which the expenses are covered by the national or local governments, are done solely by
qualified surveyors and assistant surveyors. It is possible for qualified surveyors to establish theirown surveying businesses. In Japan, many national qualifications in the engineering field are
obtained through appropriate education and national qualifying examinations. These include thequalifications of consulting engineer, execution manager of civil engineering, and land and house
investigator. The qualification of surveyor is given to those who passed the national qualifying
examination, or to those who completed education at designated universities, junior colleges,
technical colleges and technical schools (hereinafter: relevant schools). There are multiple routes
for obtaining the surveyor qualification. It is thought that the present system for qualifying
surveyors and assistant surveyors and the problems related to education and the qualifying system
for surveyor and assistant surveyors require some investigations.
Koshimizu et al. (2008) investigated the qualification system for surveyors in Germany,
France, Canada, the U.S.A. and Australia, and reported that the systems in these five countries
were much better developed, qualitatively and quantitatively, than that of Japan. Japanese technicalschools have a system whereby foreign students can learn surveying. An according to the interview
for foreign students of the technical school (Chuo College of Technology), in Uganda, the surveyor
qualification is able to be obtained through studies of surveying and graduation from a university,and through membership in the surveyors’ association. In Nepal, the surveyor qualification is also
obtained by graduation from a university that provides surveying as a subject. Basically, it isimportant to learn knowledge and techniques of surveying by attending schools (Dagtekin, 2012;
Enemark, 2005). The objectives of this paper are to present the state of licensing in Japan and to
discuss the related problems.
METHODOLOGY
The complicated Japanese qualification system for licensing surveyors and assistant surveyors,which has two routes, is investigated based on the Survey Act (Japan Association of Surveyors,2014). The characteristics of Japan's national qualifying examination for surveyor and assistantsurveyor licensing are summarized by investigating the questions of the examinations conducted in2007 to 2014 and by using the passing rate of the examinations (Geospatial Information Authorityof Japan, 2014a).
In order to clarify the abilities of the surveyors who passed the national qualifying
examination and of those who graduated from the relevant schools, an ability verification test is
given to verify the difference in ability. It is given to 10 assistant surveyors: five who obtained theirlicenses by graduating from the relevant schools, and five who obtained their licenses by passing
the national qualifying examination. The abilities of the two groups are compared by checking thenumber of correct answers and percentage of correct answers.
The number and percentage of correct answers are used to determine ability. All theexaminees are students studying at a technical school (Chuo College of Technology) to obtain thequalification of surveyor. The test is given without advance notice to know their ability without
them having special preparation. The test consisted of questions from previous national qualifying
examination for assistant surveyors. The national qualifying examination for licensing assistantsurveyor has 28 four-choice questions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Present State of the National Qualifying Examination for the Surveyors (Assistant Surveyors)
The questions on the national qualifying examination for licensing surveyors and assistantⒸ ISERD

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surveyors cover the following: “Traversing”, “Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)”,“Leveling”, “Topographic surveying”, “Photogrammetry”, “Map compilation”, “Engineering
surveying” and “Geographic Information System (GIS)”. A wide range of knowledge is requiredfor one to obtain a license in this field. Basically, the questions are on the items and surveying
techniques described in the General Standard of Operation Specifications for Public Surveys(hereinafter: the General Standard).
The required knowledge has been changing with the times. In Japan, “Plane table surveying”
was deleted from the General Standard in 2008, and the knowledge on “Topographic surveying”
by total station (TS) became a requirement for the examinees. The name of the “Global Positioning
System (GPS) survey” was changed to “GNSS survey” when the General Standard was revised in
2011. In recent years, questions related to such areas as “Digital stereo plotter”, “GIS”, “GNSS
survey using GNSS-based control station” and “Airborne laser surveying” have been included in
the national qualifying examination in Japan.
As stated above, new technologies and a wide range of questions that meet the needs of thetimes are included in the national qualifying examination. Because of the above-mentioned changes,
the national qualifying examination for licensing surveyor and assistant surveyor differs from othernational qualifying examinations, whose questions have not been changed greatly (Masuyama,2009). A notable characteristic of the qualifying examination for surveyor and assistant surveyor isthat the examination reflects new technologies. Therefore, the acquisition of knowledge on new
surveying technologies is indispensable.
Table 1 shows the results of national qualifying examination for licensing surveyor andassistant surveyor done in the eight years from 2007 to 2014 (Geospatial Information Authority ofJapan, 2014a). The number of applicants, which is about 13,000 in each year, is stable over time.
The average rate of test-takers who pass is 27.7% for the assistant surveyor test and 9.7% for thesurveyor test. The data shows that the examination for licensing surveyor is a national qualifying
examination with a high level of difficulty in Japan.
Table 1 Results of national qualifying examinations for licensing surveyor and assistantsurveyor
Class
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014

Assistant surveyor
Number of
Number ofPassing ratepassing
examination(%)
candidates-takers
11,052
2,654
24.0
10,8582,435
22.4
10,5202,704
25.7
10,387
2,757
26.5
10,233
2,192
21.4
10,551
4,289
40.7
10,596
2,248
21.2
11,118
4,417
39.7
Average of passing rate
27.7

Surveyor
Number of
Number ofPassing ratepassing
examination(%)
candidates-takers
2,398
274
11.4
2,203
219
9.9
2,170
181
8.3
2,256
144
6.4
2,162
258
11.9
2,281
279
12.2
2,457
127
5.2
2,394
290
12.1
Average of passing rate
9.7

For the national qualifying examination for licensing surveyor and assistant surveyor, there areno academic requirements. For example, a high school student can take the examination. Students
at industrial and agricultural high schools nationwide are encouraged and instructed to obtain thequalification. Every year, many high school students pass the national qualifying examination(Osaka city Miyakojima technical high school; 2014, Miyazaki Prefectural Miyakonojo
Agricultural High School; 2014, Tokyo metropolitan Tanashi technical high school; 2014). Figure
1 shows the routes for one to obtain surveyor and assistant surveyor licenses by passing thenational qualifying examination. From this figure, it is found that it is even possible for one toobtain the qualification of surveyor even if one does not have an assistant surveyor qualification.
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Even a person with sufficient work experience has to pass the national qualifying examination
to obtain the surveyor license if that person has not graduated from the relevant schools as
illustrated in Fig. 2. However, if a person with an assistant surveyor license graduates from atechnical school whose purpose is to educate surveyors, that person is able to obtain the surveyor
license without passing the national qualifying examination. In Japan, there are two technicalschools that fall into the above-described category (Geospatial Information Authority of Japan,
2014b). One of these two schools graduates more than 90% of its students every year. Generally,
graduating from a relevant school is the shortest route for obtaining the surveyor license for adults
and high school students who have obtained the assistant surveyor license.

A candidate for surveyor and assistant surveyor(Regardless of academic requirements)

The national qualifying examination forassistant surveyor license
Pass
Successful candidates can obtainthe “Assistant Surveyor License”

Enter to technical schoolfor surveying

The national qualifying
examination for surveyor license
Pass

Pass

Graduate

Successful candidates of the national qualifying examination or graduatesof technical school can obtain the “Surveyor License”

Fig. 1 Flow chart of acquisition of surveyor license via national qualifying examination
Acquiring Qualification of Surveyor / Assistant Surveyor at Relevant Schools
Figure 2 shows the routes for obtaining the qualifications of surveyor and assistant surveyor by
graduating from the relevant schools. It is possible for the graduate of a relevant school who hasearned required number of credits to register as an assistant surveyor with the Geospatial
Information Authority of Japan. If a person who graduated from the relevant school has therequired years of work experience in surveying, then that person is able to obtain the qualificationof surveyor without passing the national qualifying examination, even the person does not have thequalification of assistant surveyor. The range of work related to surveying does not necessarilyneed to cover a range as wide as that of the national qualifying examination for licensing surveyors.
The requirement in this case is simply surveying experience. Given that an average of only 9.7% of
those who take the national qualifying examination for surveyors pass, it is advantageous forsomeone who wishes to acquire the qualification to graduate from a relevant school and to work forsome years, rather than taking the national qualifying examination. A person who acquires thequalification of assistant surveyor and then graduates from a relevant school is able to obtain thequalification of surveyor without any work experience.
The surveyor licensing system is liable to create surveyors without balanced knowledge.
Therefore, it is desirable for the relevant schools to educate their students by providing subjects that
address domestic and international regulations, which are included in the questions of the national
qualifying examination, and that address a wide range of items covered in the national qualifying
examination, including traversing, GNSS and GIS.
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A candidate for surveyor and assistant surveyor
must go to university, college technical college or technical school

University/College(Bachelor degree)

Junior College(Associatedegree)* TechnicalCollege(Associate degree)

Technical
School(No degree)

Requirement for
Graduation is 4 years

Requirement for
Graduation is 2 years

Requirement for
Graduation is 5 years

Requirement for
Graduation is a year

Graduates of each relevant school can obtain the “Assistant Surveyor License”
Work experienceof surveying
more than a year

Work experienceof surveying
more than 3 years

Work experienceof surveying
more than 3 years

Work experienceof surveying
more than 2 years
Technical School

No requirementof work
experience
Graduates of each relevant school who has work experience of surveying for each years or
graduates of technical school can obtain the “Surveyor License”*This is composed of high school education and junior college education

Fig. 2 Flow chart of acquisition of surveyor license without national qualifying examination
Results of Ability Verification Test
Roughly, there are two routes for obtaining the assistant surveyor qualification; one is by passing
the national qualifying examination and the other is by graduating from a relevant school. To assess
the relative ability of assistant surveyors qualified through the two different routes, 10 students
were given an ability verification test: five who had obtained their qualification by passing thenational qualifying examination, and five who had obtained their qualification by graduating at arelevant school.
The results of the ability verification test are shown in Table 2. The average number of correct
answers for the group of assistant surveyors who obtained their licenses by passing the national
qualifying examination was 14.2, and that for the group of examinees who obtained their licenses
by studying at a relevant school was 13.0. The number of correct answers of the former group was
1.2 higher than that of the latter group. The standard deviation for the former group was 4.0, andthat for the latter group was 4.7. The scores for the former were more narrowly distributed thanthose of the latter. Therefore, the coefficient of variation for the former was 27.9%, and that for thelatter was 36.1%. The variance of the scores of the former was smaller than that of the latter.
Correct answers as a percent of all questions averaged 50.7% for the former and 46.4% for thelatter was. The former is higher.
As a result, it can be said that the former student group performed better than the latter. The
reason for the difference in test results is thought to be that the latter group of students had not beentaught a wide range of subjects in surveying or, even if they had been taught the subjects, they had
not learned sufficiently, and the sense of purpose in studying surveying of the students in the lattergroup was more diverse than that of the former.

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Table 2 Results of ability verification test for surveying that practiced at a technical school(Chuo College of Technology)(a) Students who obtained assistant surveyor
license by passing the national qualifying
examination
Number of
Correct
Subjects
correct answers
answer
(5 students)(28 questions)rate (%)
A
15
53.6
B
9
32.1
C
14
50.0
D
13
46.4
E
20
71.4
Average
14.2
50.7
S.D. *
4.0
C.V. ** (%)
27.9* : standard deviation(b) Student who obtained assistant surveyor
license by graduating at a relevant school
Subjects(5 students)
F
G
H
I
J
Average
S.D. *
C.V. ** (%)

Number ofcorrect answers(28 questions)
17
11
9
19
9
13.0
4.7
36.1

Correct
answerrate (%)
60.7
39.3
32.1
67.9
32.1
46.4
-

**: coefficient of variation

Requiring New Materials for Teaching Surveying at the Relevant Schools
If the relevant schools are providing technical education that produces surveyors and assistantsurveyors who have poor knowledge, then the situation is problematic. It is unfortunate for society
and for surveyors who obtain licenses by graduating from relevant schools if their knowledge andtechniques are insufficient. To solve this problem, it is necessary to further enhance the educational
content qualitatively and quantitatively at the relevant schools. New educational materials need tobe created by taking into consideration the latest technologies, which address the changes of thetimes, and the questions on the national qualifying examination, including previous questions.
Licensing via school education has an advantage over licensing via national qualifying examination,in that the students are able to learn how to use surveying equipment in their practice training andhow to produce documents, drawings and other materials after the training; they are also able tolearn how to work as members of a team, as their training is done in groups. The development of
new educational materials is required to take into consideration the above characteristic advantagesof school education.
CONCLUSION
The circumstances of surveyor license acquisition system in japan were investigated from theSurvey Act and the national qualifying examination. Further, in order to clarify the abilities of thesurveyors who passed the national qualifying examination and of those who graduated from therelevant schools, the ability verification test of assistant surveyors was given. As the results, thefollowing points are summarized.
(1) As the results of the investigation on Japan's national qualifying examination for surveyor andassistant surveyor licensing for seven years, it became clear that the characteristic of the national
qualifying examination. Namely, new technologies and a wide range knowledge for survey has
been setting in the national qualifying examination. The percentage of examination-takers who passwas 27.7% for the assistant survey examination and 9.7% for the surveyor examination. The
surveyor has been required the new technologies and a wide range knowledge for survey.
(2) Given that an average of only 9.7% of those who take the national qualifying examination forsurveyors pass, it is advantageous for someone who wishes to acquire the qualification to graduate
from a relevant school and to work for some years, rather than taking the national qualifying
examination.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1(3) As the results of the ability verification test, the students who obtained the assistant surveyor
qualification by graduating from passing the national qualifying examination were higher correct
answer rate, lower standard deviation and coefficient of variation than the students who obtainedthat qualification by graduating from a relevant school. The differences in test results are following
reasons. The latter group of students had not been taught a wide range of subjects in surveying.
Even if they had been taught the subjects, they had not learned sufficiently. The sense of purpose instudying surveying of the students in the latter group was more diverse than that of the former.
(4) Licensing via school education has an advantage over licensing via national qualifying
examination, in that the students can learn how to use surveying equipment in their practicetraining and how to produce documents, drawings and other materials after the training; they canalso learn how to work as members of a team, as their training is done in groups. In order toenhance the educational content qualitatively and quantitatively at the relevant schools, thedevelopment of new educational materials is required to take into consideration the latest
technologies, which address the changes of the times, and the questions on the national qualifying
examination, including previous questions, while taking into consideration the above characteristic
advantages of school education.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the grant-aid from Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
REFERENCES
Dagtekin, E. 2012. Training of surveying course in Dicle University faculty of architecture. Procedia - Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 292-296.
Enemark, S. 2005. The digital cadastral database and the role of the private licensed surveyors in Denmark.
Irish Institute of Surveyors, Dublin Institute of Technology, 23, 1-9.
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan. 2014a. (Website: http://www.gsi.go.jp/LAW/SHIKEN-sihosiken.html, accessed; 19 Nov. 2014).
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan. 2014b. (Website: http://www.gsi.go.jp/PCOMMENT/
SurveyAct030618_ shiteiichiran.htm, accessed; 19 Nov. 2014).
Japan Association of Surveyors. 2014. Statutes at large, Japan Association of Surveyors, p.20. (in Japanese).
Koshimizu, H., Fujimura, H. and Sakabe, S. 2008. Licensing system of surveyors in Japan and abroad.
Journal of the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, 116, 45-59. (in Japanese with abstract inEnglish).
Masuyama, K. 2009. Effective use and problem in the future of the second class civil engineering works
execution management technology authorization subject examination in engineering works system
student. Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers. Series H (Engineering Education and Practice), 1,
105-110. (in Japanese with abstract in English).
Miyazaki Prefectural Miyakonojo Agricultural High School. 2014. (Website: http://www.miyazaki-c.ed.jp/miyakonojo-ah/pg454.html, accessed; 11 Nov. 2014).
Osaka city Miyakojima technical high school. 2014. (Website: http://www.ocec.ne.jp/hs/miyakojima/c/index.html, accessed; 11 Nov. 2014).
Tokyo metropolitan Tanashi technical high school. 2014. (Website; http://www.tanashikougyo-h.metro.
tokyo.jp/cms/html/entry/ 37/5.html, accessed; 11 Nov. 2014).

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Research article
erd

Growth Performance and Feed Utilization of Common
Lowland Frog (Rana rugulosa Wiegmann) Fed with
Supplementation by Bromelain Extracted from Pineapple
Feed
RUNGKAN KLAHAN*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Phetchaburi Rajabhat University, Phetchaburi, Thailand
Email: rukiirun@windowslive.com

BANYAT SIRITHANAWONG
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Phetchaburi Rajabhat University, Phetchaburi, Thailand
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 7 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study aimed to determine the effect of bromelain extracted from the crownof pineapple supplemented in diet on growth performance and feed utilization of common
lowland frog. Diets were isonitrogenous at 35% protein and 3,000 KcalKg-1 supplemented
at 0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1 mL bromelain extraction g-1 of feed. Frog with an initial weight of 0.25
± 0.1 g were fed on feed trial in triplicate groups for 120 days. The results showed that the
enzyme extracts did not effect growth performance but enhancement the survival rate withall levels (P<0.05) especially at 1 mL/g feed had the highest feed utilization and protein
efficiency ratio (PER). The percentage of edible flesh of 0, 0.5 and 1 mL/g feed group werehigher than the 0.25 mL/g feed group. These results demonstrated that bromelain extracted
supplementation of all levels improved survival rate and feed utilization and PER especiallyat 1 mL/g feed.
Keywords common lowland frog, bromelain, pineapple, growth performance, feed
utilization

INTRODUCTION
In 2011 the total area of pineapple cultivation in Thailand is around 104,571 hectare (646,000 rai).
Prachuapkhirikhan has the largest share at 47% of the total pineapple cultivated areas of thecountry; other major growing provinces are Chonburi, Rayong, Trat, Chacheongsao, Kanchanaburi,
Phetchaburi and Ratchaburi. Thailand is the world’s number one exporter of canned pineapple. In
2011, Thailand exported canned pineapple totaling 641,167 tons (or 36,430 FCLs; 1 FCL = 17.6
tons), with the total value of 669.4 million dollars. Thailand’s main export markets are UnitedStates, EU and Russia. The waste from pineapple (peel, core, stem and crown) generally is about
for 50% of the whole fruit that causing a serious environmental problem (Ketnawa et al., 2012).
The utilization of waste as feed additive in aquatic animal feed is the alternative way for handlingthe great deal of waste problem.
Bromelain is a mixture of proteolytic enzyme, belong to a group of protein digesting enzyme
derived from the fruit or stem of pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) (Bhattacharyya, 2008; Bala et al.,2012). Bromelain is the most effectiveness in reduction of inflammatory and decreasing swelling asa natural anti – inflammatory enzyme. It’s a mixture of different thiol endopeptidase and othercomponents like phosphatase, peroxidases, glucosidases, glycoproteins, cellulose, carbohydrataseand several protease inhibitors (Bhattacharyya, 2008). Bromelain is not very specific in action but
preferentially cleaves glycol, anayl and leucyl bonds. The bromelain actions on protein
predigestion, diarrhea, digestive aid, anti thrombotic, oedema treatment and osteoarthritis andpromotes the absorption of antibiotic drug. (Corzo et al., 2012). It is contains, among othercomponents, various closely related proteinases, anti - edematous, anti - inflammatory,Ⓒ ISERD

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antithrombotic and fibrinolytic activities. Moreover, due to its safety and lack of undesired side
effects, bromelain has earned growing acceptance and compliance among patients as aphytotherapeutical drug. The pharmacological properties depend on the proteolytic activity only.
Bromelain contains several distinct cysteine proteinases that have similar but distinct amino acidsequences, as well as differences in proteolytic specificity and sensitivity to inactivation (Hale et al.,2005). From the mentioned properties, the bromelain from pineapple should be used as feed
additive in frog feed. Because of the gastrointestinal tract of tadpole and juvenile frog are similar tofish larvae that required feed all the time that causes digestive aid and dead in final. In addition, atthe disappearence of the tail stage the frog does not eat feed experiences mortality also. This
problem is often found in aquatic animal larvae. The digestion depend on digestive enzyme such asprotease, amylase and lipase especially protease because the frog is carnivorous and has the highprotein requirement (Duellman and Trueb, 1994). From the properties of bromelain and the
problem on digestion of frog, bromelain should be used as feed additive in frog feed for improving
the digestion and depressing the digestive aid and the mortality.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this study was to investigated the ability of diet supplemented with bromelian
extraction from pineapple on feed utilization, growth performance, percentage of edible flesh andsurvival rate of common lowland frog.
METHODOLOGY
Experimental Frogs
Frogs at 10 days old (initial mean weight 0.25 ± 0.10 g), produced in Petchaburi Rajabhat
University aquaculture program were randomly stocked into 1 m2 cement tank at a density of 30
frog per tank. Frogs were acclimated for 1 week with control feed (pellet feed without bromelain
supplementation) before start the experiment.
Raw Material and Crude Extract Preparation
The pineapple (Ananus comosus L.) (“Batavia”) was collected from plantation in the Ratchaburiprovince, Thailand. The fruit was washed and air dried. The crown (Fig. 1) was separated andchopped to small pieces. This study used the crown because from the previous study it was foundthat the bromelain activity (from waste: peel and crown) was highest in crown. Small pieces ofcrown were blended with cold distilled water at a 1:1 ratio for 5 min and the blended liquid wasfiltered through a sieve (250 µm) and then centrifuged at 10,000 x g at 4 oC for 20 minnutes(Ketnawa et al., 2012). The supernatant (crude extract) will be collected to mix with feed.
Experimental Diets
Frogs were fed with floating pellet diet (35% protein, 3000 Kcalkg-1 energy). Proximate
composition of the experimental diets is determined by analysis (Kjeldahl method for crude protein,
Soxhlet method for lipid, Detergent method for crude fiber, Oven drying method for moisture anddetermination of ash by muffle furnace) (AOAC, 2000). Bromelain extraction was used at 0, 0.25,
0.5 and 1 mg-1 diet as a feed supplement. In the preparation of experimental diet, bromelain weremixed with a diet and control diet was also mixed with 1 mL water for 1 g feed. These pelleted
diets were coated with fish oil at 1% and then incubated at 37 oC for 1 hour then dried in the hot air
oven at 90 oC for 2 hours. The dry pellets were placed in covered plastic bag and stored at room
temperature.

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A

B

Fig. 1 Pineapple whole fruit (A) and crown proportion (B)Experimental Procedure
Each of the four experimental diets was randomly assigned to triplicate groups of frog and all thegroups were fed with the prepared diet at 5% body weight twice daily for 120 days. Also, water
was changed for every two days for 100% throughout the study.
Analytical Method
During experiment, the mortality was recorded daily and frog in each tank were monthly counted
and weighed individually. Growth rate were monitored to determine the final weight, weighed gain,
Specific Growth Rate (SGR), average daily gain, survival rate, feed intake, Feed Conversion Ratio(FCR) and Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) were calculated according to Castell and Tiews (1980).
At the start of experiment, 50 frogs randomly were dried for the determination of body proximate
composition. At the end of the feeding trial, 10 frogs from each group (n = 30 frogs/group) wereanalyzed for final whole body proximate composition. Proximate composition of body was
analyzed following the AOAC (2000) method.
Statistical Analysis
In the experiment, all data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by
Duncan's multiple range tests. A significance level of P<0.05 was used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth Performance
The result of the growth trial showed that all groups were not significantly different (P>0.05)(Table 1). The mean final weight, weigh gain, ADG and SGR of different diets ranged between
84.94 – 98.62 g/f, 84.60 – 98.37 g/f, 0.91 – 1.11 g/f/day and 2.54 – 2.79 %, respectively. In thecontrary, survival rate in all groups fed with supplemented bromelain feed showed significantly thehighest survival rate (P<0.05). Bromelain is contains, among other components, various closely
related anti - edematous, anti - inflammatory, antithrombotic and fibrinolytic activities that promote
the great health effected on the high survival rate. The growth rate was similar with among group
because frog is carnivorous which the density effected on the growth rate. The amount of frog after
fed with supplement bromelain feed for 120 days has the high density proportion when comparedwith no supplement bromelain feed group so make the growth rate not outstanding.

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Table1 Growth performance of frog fed with supplementation diet by bromelain extracted at
120 days
Growth performance
Initial weight (g/f)
Final weight (g/f)
Weight gain (g/f)
Average daily gain (g/f/day)Specific growth rate (%/day)Survival rate ( % )a,b,c00.24 ± 0.02
98.62 ± 3.71
98.37 ± 3.73
1.11 ± 0.13
2.79 ± 0.19
75.00 ± 2.36b

Bromelain supplementation (mL/g feed)
0.25
0.5
1
0.25 ± 0.01
0.25 ± 0.01
0.26 ± 0.00
84.94 ± 2.55
89.92 ± 5.76
87.23 ± 6.75
84.70 ± 2.54
89.66 ± 5.76
86.79 ± 6.74
1.11 ± 0.39
1.09 ± 0.25
0.91 ± 0.07
2.74 ± 0.03
2.72 ± 0.28
2.54 ± 0.08
85.55 ± 5.09a
92.22 ± 1.92a
91.11 ± 7.69a

Means within a row with common superscript are significantly different (P<0.05). n = 30

Feed Utilization
The result of feed utilization of frog fed with supplementation with bromelain at different level for
120 days showed that diet containing 0.25 – 1 mL of bromelain per 1 g feed were significantly
higher (P<0.05) than controlled group especially at 1 mL of bromelain per 1 g feed group resulted
in the highest feed utilization i.e. the best FCR, FCE and PER and the worst feed intake (Table 2).
Bromelain is a mixture of proteolytic enzymes, belonging to a group of protein digesting enzyme(Bhattacharyya, 2008 and Bala et al., 2012). It’s a mixture of different thiol endopeptidase andother components like phosphatase, peroxidases, glucosidases, glycoproteins, cellulose,
carbohydratase and several protease inhibitors (Bhattacharyya, 2008 Maurer, 2001). On the other
hand, the highest caseinolytic activity at a pH 5.5 - 8 (Ketnawa et al., 2012; Corzo et al., 2012 andBala et al., 2012) these cause make it has high digestibility efficiency. In addition, bromelain has
been successfully used as a digestive enzyme following pancreatectomy, in case of exocrine
pancreas insufficiency and the advantage is it has activity in the stomach as well as the small
intestine which also shown to be an adequate replacement of pepsin and trypsin in case of
deficiency (Bhattacharyya, 2008).
Table 2 Feed utilization of frog fed with supplementation diet by bromelain extracted at 120
days
Feed utilization
Feed intake (g/f/day)Feed conversion ratio
Feed conversion efficiency (%)
Protein efficiency ratio
a,b,c

0
1.56 ± 0.02a
1.64 ± 0.52a
74.43± 8.03b
1.84 ± 0.51b

Bromelain supplementation (mL/g feed)
0.25
0.5
1
1.05± 0.15bc
1.17 ± 0.24ab
0.65 ± 0.00c
1.18± 0.14b
1.47 ± 0.43ab
0.80 ± 0.09cbb85.42± 9.81
81.59±12.01
133.99±0.21abb
1.73± 1.23
2.04 ± 0.55
3.60 ± 0.38a

Means within a row with common superscript are significantly different (P<0.05). n = 30

Carcass Composition
The effect of different bromelain supplementation level on carcass composition showed in Table 3.
The results showed that there was no significant difference on percentage of bone and skin, visceraand fat and hepatosomatic index (HSI) (P>0.05) but it effected on percentage of edible flesh(P<0.05) that showed the highest on control group, 0.5 and 1 ml/g feed and has the lowest in 0.25
mL/g feed group. The composition of the amino acid (AA) mixture that was significantly influence
the composition of the fish free amino acid (FAA) pool. However, when fish are fed a feed
supplemented bromelain, a faster absorption of FAA may lead to transient AA imbalances andconsequently to decreased protein utilization if crystalline AA are used to supplement dietary
protein.

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Table 3 Carcass composition of frog fed with supplementation diet by bromelain extracted at
120 days
Carcass composition (%)
Edible flesh
Bone and skin
Viscera and fat
Hepatosomatic index
a,b,c0
31.58 ± 1.34a
41.71 ± 0.37
28.84 ± 2.55
6.04 ± 0.12

Bromelain supplementation (mL/g feed)
0.25
0.5
1
27.63 ± 1.69b
28.72 ± 0.54ab 30.21 ± 0.48ab
43.36 ± 1.46
44.30 ± 1.97
41.10 ± 2.07
29.01 ± 1.81
28.77 ± 2.05
31.49 ± 0.14
6.38 ± 0.10
5.59 ± 1.06
6.01 ± 0.82

Means within a row with common superscript are significantly different (P<0.05). n = 30

CONCLUSION
Bromelain extracted from pineapple could be used as frog’s survival rate promoter. The
supplementation bromelain all levels improved survival rate, feed utilization and PER especially at
1 mL/g feed. It can be concluded that bromelain extracted from pineapple’s crown is useful for
aquaculture and environment to get rid of the waste from agriculture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the grant of Phetchaburi Rajabhat University.
REFERENCES
A.O.A.C. 2000. Official methods of analysis. Virginia Association of Official Analytical Chemist, Inc.
Bala, M., Ismail, N.A., Mel, M., Jami, M.S., Salleh, H.M. and Amid, A. 2012. Bromelain production:
Current trends and perspective. Archives Des Sciences, 65, 369-399.
Bhattacharyya, B.K. 2008. Bromelain: An overview. Natural Production Radiance, 7, 359-363.
Castell, J.D. and Tiews, K. 1980. Report on the EIFAC, IUNS and ICES. Working group on thestandardization of methodology in fish nutrition research, Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany. 2123 March, EIFAC Technical Paper, 26 p.
Corzo, C.A., Krzysztof, N.W. and Jorge, W.C. 2012. Pineapple fruit bromelain affinity to different protein
substrates. Food Chemistry, 133, 631-635.
Duellman E. and L. Trueb. 1994. Biology of amphibians. The Johns Hopkins University press, London.
Hale, L.P., Paula, K.G., Chau, T.T. and Cindy, L.J. 2005. Proteinase activity and stability of natural
bromelain preparations. International Immunophamacology, 5, 783-793.
Ketnawa, S., Phanuphong, C. and Saroat, R. 2012. Pineapple wastes: A potential source for bromelain
extraction. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 90, 385-391.

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Research article
erd

Mangrove Rehabilitation Using Rhizophora sp. in
Northeastern Bohol, Philippines
SAMUEL J. GULAYAN*
Bohol Island State University, Candijay Campus, Bohol, Phillipines
Email: samgulayan@yahoo.com

JESRELLJANE AARON-AMPER
Bohol Island State University, Candijay Campus, Bohol, Phillipines

EDLIN RENE B. HANDUGAN
Bohol Island State University, Candijay Campus, Bohol, Phillipines
Received 21 January 2015

Accepted 7 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract National government issued an Executive Order 26, series of 2011 – declaring
interdepartmental convergence initiative for national greening program. Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources commissioned the Bohol Island State University (BISU) CandijayCampus to facilitate the rehabilitation of degraded mangrove areas in coordination withlocal government units and in partnership of mangrove planters in Northeastern Bohol.
Hence, the main objective of the study was to to document the progress andaccomplishment of mangrove rehabilitation project in Northeastern Bohol, Philippines.
Survived mangroves were counted manually. Principal branch of mangrove was measured
to determine the growth performance in 12 months. Identified the sea shells for baseline
information and interviewed the mangrove planters for determining the problems. In thisstudy, a 48.36% survival rate was found out after one year of planting. The average growth(in height) was 6.097 cm per month. The Municipality of Candijay had the highest growthrate. Terebralia sp. (Dao-dao) and Narita sp. (Sihi) are the common sea shells found in thereforested areas. Proper selection of site is important before planting Rhizophora sp.
Keywords mangrove, reforestation, survival, sea shell, rehabilitation, propagule

INTRODUCTION
Mangrove is a type of forest growing along tidal mudflats and along shallow water coastal areas.
Its ecosystem is primarily dominated by mangrove trees which is the primary producer. These
trees interacts with associated aquatic fauna, and social and physical factors of the coastal
environment (Melana et al., 2000a). Mangrove trees produces leaf litter and detrital matter, which
are valuable sources of food for animals in estuaries and coastal waters. It is also use as firewood incoastal communities and most bakeries because of its heating value, but a greater volume isexported to Japan as a source of rayon (Melana et al., 2000b).
Philippines is endowed with lush coastal ecosystems including mangrove. Unfortunately, thehuge area of mangrove forest in the country decreases into 120, 000 ha in the year 1981 from anestimated coverage of 450,000 ha in 1918. This has happened due to the rapid degradation during
1960’s and 1970’s when the government set a national policy that encourages expansion of theaquaculture. This reduces the forest into 117,700 hectares (DENR, 1995) that disturbed the whole
coastal ecosystems.
In 2011, the national government with the leadership of President Benigno Simeon Aquino III
issued the Executive Order No. 26, s. 2011 – declaring and interdepartmental convergence
initiative for a national greening program. This order strengthened after the issuance of Executive
Order No. 23, s. 2011 – mandated the DA-DAR-DENR convergence initiative to develop anational greening program in cooperation with the Department of Education, Commission onⒸ ISERD

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Higher Education, Department of Social Welfare and Development and Department of Budget andManagement, private sector and other concerned agencies and institutions.
The Bohol Island State University Candijay Campus was commissioned by the Bureau ofFisheries and Aquatic Resources to rehabilitate the degraded mangrove areas in Northeastern Bohol.
Fifty three (53) hectares of intertidal zones were planted with Rhizophora sp. in year 2013 incollaboration with local communities and local government units in Northeastern Bohol.
OBJECTIVES
The general objective of this study was to document the progress and accomplishment of mangrove
rehabilitation project in Northeastern Bohol, Philippines. Specifically, the study aims to:
1. determine the survival rate of Rhizophora planted after one year,
2. determine the growth rate after year of planting,
3. identify the sea shells for baseline information in the rehabilitated areas, and
4. identify the problems encountered in planting and management of Rhizophora.
METHODOLOGY
Location
Project sites are located in the four coastal municipalities of Northeastern Bohol, Philippines
namely; Candijay, Mabini, Bien Unido and Talibon (Fig. 1). Coordinates for Talibon are
10˚09’55.55”N; 124˚20’57.25”E, then 10˚10’56.2”N; 124˚23’13.5”E for Bien Unido;
9˚55’20.04”N; 124˚32’32.23”E for Mabini and 9˚49’05.78”N; 124˚34’17.13”E for Candijay. These
municipalities were chosen intentionally because these are the areas where the Bohol Island State
University- Candijay Campus is working for mangrove rehabilitation using Rhizophora sp. with thecoordination of the local government units and in partnership with mangrove planters.
Procedures
General purpose of the study was presented to the local government officials of the four coastal
municipalities in Northeastern Bohol for their information and guidance about the activity. Support
from them was obtained. Data on the numbers of Rhizophora sp. planted in the four coastal
municipalities in Northeastern Bohol were then gathered from the Extension Office of Bohol Island
State University-Candijay Campus. The data were validated by the mangrove planters.
Census was applied in the counting of planted Rhizophora with participation of mangrove
planters. Tally counters, slateboards and pencils were used for recording and counting of live
Rhizophora sp. in four coastal municipalities in Northeastern Bohol. Sea shells were identified toestablish baseline information in the reforested area. Assistance from mangrove planters were
utilized especially on the naming locally of sea shells then after it was referred to the field guide
published by FAO (1998) for right identification and naming scientifically.
Growth rate was measured inside the 6 ha mangrove plantation. This area is equivalent to 10%
of 53 ha of planted Rhizophora sp. Eighteen plots were ramdomly established in 6 ha with 1 plot
per hectare, and in every plot has 10 samples of mangrove trees. Samples were measured with tip
measure with the aid of slateboard and pencil. The aimed was to determine the growth in height ofplanted mangroves.
Problems encountered in planting and management of Rhizophora sp. were gathered throughan informal discussion with the 30 mangrove planters in four coastal municipalities in Northeastern
Bohol. Problems were listed and collated and then it was presented to the other members of thecommunities for verification and validation of the data.

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PHILIPPINESTALIBON

BIEN UNIDO

MABINICANDIJAY

Legend:Study sites
Fig. 1 Map of Bohol

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the four coastal municipalities of Northeastern Bohol that involved in mangrove
planting using Rhizophora sp. The largest area planted with Rhizophora sp. is in the municipalityof Mabini. It was planted in the lower intertidal zones near the river banks. The Municipality ofCandijay has the second largest area where the species was planted in the middle and upperintertidal zones, followed by the municipality of Bien Unido and Talibon where the mangroves
planted mostly in the lower intertidal zones of the island. All the mangroves were planted in 2013.
Table 1 Rehabilitated mangrove areas in Northeastern Bohol using Rhizophora sp.
Municipalities
Candijay
MabiniBien Unido
Talibon
Total

Total area per municipality (Ha)
19
27
4
3
53

Table 2 Rhizophora sp. that survived in the rehabilitated mangrove areas (53 ha)
Municipalities
Candijay
MabiniBien Unido
Talibon
TOTAL

Number of Rhizophora
sp. planted
63,32789,991
13,332
9,999
176,649

Numbers of survived
Rhizophora sp.
46,463
23,774
8,901
2,687
81,825Ⓒ ISERD

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Survival rate (%)
73.37
26.42
66.76
26.87
48.36

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Table 2 presents the number of Rhizophora sp. that survived in four coastal municipalities inNortheastern Bohol after one year of planting. It was found out that Candijay has 73.37% survival
rate followed by Bien Unido with 66.76% survival rate, Talibon with 26.8%, and Mabini with26.42%. Overall, the average survival rate of Rhizophora sp. planted in Northeastern Bohol is
48.36%. It was observed that the mangroves planted in the midle and upper intertidal zones havegood survival rate compared to those planted in the lower intertidal zones near the river banks.
Table 3 shows the identified sea shells in the rehabilitated mangrove areas in four coastal
municipalities in Northeastern Bohol. Reason of identifying the sea shells in the rehabilitated areas
was to establish baseline information. It was found out that there are eleven species of sea shells in
the municipality of Mabini and Talibon, eight in Bien Unido and seven in Candijay, Bohol. The
most dominant and common species in the four municipalities are Terebralia sp. (Dao-dao) andNarita sp. (Sihi). These species occurs widely in the mangrove system (Crowe, 1997).
Table 3 Sea shells identified in the rehabilitated area in northeastern Bohol
Municipality(s)Mabini, Bohol

Bien Unido, Bohol

Talibon, Bohol

Candijay, Bohol

Scientific nameTerebralia sp.
Apolymetis sp.
Narita sp.
Bursidae sp.
Telescopium sp.
Crassostrea sp.
Donas sp.
Anadara sp.
Solen sp.
Protothaca sp.
Perna sp.
Terebralia sp.
Narita sp.
Bursidae sp.
Anadara sp.
Protothaca sp.
Conidae sp.
Pinna sp.
Morola sp.
Terebralia sp.
Narita sp.
Anadara sp.
Protothaca sp.
Perna sp.
Conidae sp.
Pinna sp.
Motorola sp.
Cuarium sp.
Turbo sp.
Unidentified sp.
Terebralia sp.
Apolymetis sp.
Bursidae sp.
Telescopium sp.
Crassostrea sp.
Morola sp.
Saccostrea sp.

Sea shell species
Local nameDao-dao
Toway
Sihi
Lubot-anay
BagongonTagnipis
Punaw
Litob
Tudlo dato
Balisaha
Amahong
Dao-dao
Sihi
Lubot-anay
Litob
Balisaha
Liswe
Tab
Tandok-tandok
Dao-dao
Sihi
Litob
Balisaha
Amahong
Liswe
Tab
Tandok-tandok
AninikadTaktakonWasay-wasay
Dao-dao
Toway
Lubot-anay
BagongonTagnipis
Tandok-tandok
Sihi

Fig. 2 presents the growth (in height) performance of mangrove planted. Kruskal Wallis Test
was used in determining significant difference on the growth of the mangrove planted between sites.
Tukey’s post hoc test was then used afterwards. It was found out that the average mean of growthin height is 6.097 cm per month and that the growth of the mangrove planted in Mabini differsfrom Candijay, Bien Unido and Talibon. Rhizophora is best suited in the intertidal zone (Feller andSitnik, 1996).
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00

MUNICIPALITY

Fig. 2 Growth performance of Rhizophora sp. in terms of heights (in cm.)

Problems EncounteredFig. 3 presents the problems encountered in planting and management of Rhizophora sp. From
the data we could see that the barnacles gave greatest problem of the project and to the mangrove
planters, followed the fishing inside the rehabilitated areas. Same problem met by the mangrove
planters in Thailand who used Rhizophora mucronata (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2000). This problem
highly contributed to the low survival rate.

Suitability of the areas
Gleaning inside the rehabilitated areas
Fishing inside the rehabiltated areas
Barnacles
0

5

10

15

20

25

No. of Individuals
Fig. 3 Problems encountered in planting and management of Rhizophora sp. (n=30)
CONCLUSION
It is concluded that Rhizophora sp. planted in the middle and upper interterdal zones has higher
survival rate compared to the mangrove planted in the lower intertidal zones near the river banks.
The occurence was due to the infestation of barnacles in the mangroves planted. In terms of growthrate, the Municipality of Candijay had the highest since the mangrove was planted in the lower
intertidal which suites them best. With regards to the sea shells, it was observed that Terebralia sp.
and Bursidae sp. are common in all the rehabilitated areas.
REFERENCES
Crowe, T.P., 1997. The distribution of Terebralia palustris (Linne) with respect to microhabitat in mangrove
forests of Darwin Harbour I: Description of patterns. In: Hanley, J.R., Caswell, G., Megirian, D. andLarson, H.K. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Marine Biological Workshop. The Marine
Flora and Fauna of Darwin Harbour, Northern Territory, Australia. Museums and Art Galleries of theNorthern Territory and the Australian Marine Sciences Association, 435-443.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

DENR Statistics. 1995. Environmental and natural resources atlas of the Philippines. Environment Center of
the Philippines Foundation. 1998. Manila, Philippines.
Erftemeijer, P.L.A. and Lewis, R.R. 2000. Planting mangroves on intertidal mudflats: Habitat restoration or
habitat conversion?. Proceedings of the ECOTONE VIII Seminar Enhancing Coastal Ecosystems
Restoration for the 21st Century, Bangkok: Royal Forest Department of Thailand. 156-165.
Feller, I.C. and Sitnik, M. 1996. Mangrove ecology: A manual for a field course. A Field Manual focused on
the Biocomplexity on Mangrove Ecosystems. Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
FAO. 1998. Species identification guide for fishery purposes. The Living Marine Resources of the Western
Central Pacific. Volume 1 Seaweeds, Corals, Bivalves and Gastropods. Edited by Carpenter, K.E. andNiem, V.H.
Melana D.M., Melana, E.E. and Mapalo, A.M. 2000a. Mangrove management and development in thePhilippines. A paper presented during the meeting on “Mangrove and Aquaculture Management” held at
Kasetsart University Campus, Bangkok, Thailand on February 14-16, 2000.
Melana D.M., Joseph Atchue III, Yao, C.E., Edwards, R., Melana, E.E. and Gonzales, H.I. 2000b. Mangrove
management handbook. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Manila, Philippines throughthe Coastal Resource Management Project, Cebu City, Philippines. 96 p.

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Research article
erd

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI): Assessment on SRI
Farmers’ Contribution to the Rice Markets
SOPHY CHES*
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences,The University of Tokyo, Japan
Email: sophy_ches257@yahoo.com

YAMAJI EIJI
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 8 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract One of the main reasons of food shortage in some areas of Cambodia is low
productivity. Conventional farming practice is believed to cause the low yield. The System
of Rice Intensification (SRI) proved to increase the yield has been introduced and practiced
in Cambodia. Therefore, it is very interesting to research whether SRI farmers are able toshare their contributions to the market since SRI can provide higher yields. This study aims
to assess whether SRI farmers can contribute their products to the markets that are still
immature and inaccessible. A households survey and field observations were conducted inthree rain-fed villages in the southern part of Cambodia: two in Kampot Province and one
in Kampon Speu Province. Findings revealed that besides the sufficiency of selfconsumption, most of selected farmers are able to sell products to the markets and based on
the expenditure on agricultural input and income analyses, farmer could earn profits
although labor is the highest cost. It was also found that prices set by middlemen in thevillage are slightly cheaper than the one set on the market. However, farmers agree to sell to
middle men because they would spend more on transportation and labor fee if they wanted
to sell directly to the market. Importantly, collective sale in a large amount helps farmers to
get higher prices compared to an individual sale. Results also indicate that practicing SRI
positively increases the household’s production and leads to the increase of village
production, possibly also to national level production, therefore, the surplus can becontributed to the rice markets.
Keywords system of rice intensification (SRI), conventional practice, rice market,
collective sale, farmers’ contribution

INTRODUCTION
Cambodia is known as an agrarian country, which heavily depends on its agricultural sector as thecore of economic growth. According to records, since 1995 Cambodia produced a rice surplus(Hang Chuon and Suzuki, 2005) and has been able to export paddy to other countries such as
Thailand, and Vietnam. However, most of the exporting activities are conducted in informal ways.
The middle men or brokers determine the price and demand for products since farmers do not haveadequate access to market information (CDRI, 2014). Although Cambodia could produce a rice
surplus, it did not refer that all rice producing farmers could make themselves at subsistence level.
Farmers are still facing shortage of food resulting from low production. IFAD in Cambodia (n.d.)said that 1.6 million rural households face seasonal food shortages every year and conventionalfarming practice causes low yields. In 2009 about 110,530 Cambodian farmers with area of 59,785
ha were practicing a new method that can improve their rice yields (Chhay, 2010). This renewedsystem is called the System of Rice Intensification (SRI). This technique can increase yields up to
15 to 20 t/ha when farmers can apply the methods well and improve the soil (Uphoff, 2004).

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OBJECTIVE
It is very interesting to know whether SRI farmers are able to share their contribution to the rice
markets since SRI can increase the yields. Therefore, this study aims to assess whether SRI farmers
can contribute their products to the markets that are still immature and inaccessible.
METHODOLOGY
The fieldwork was conducted during February and March, 2014 in Kampot and Kampong Speu
provinces of Cambodia. Farmers including SRI and Non-SRI Farmers were selected from eachvillage (A1-A3, B1-B3, and C1-C3) for the household interviews. Farmers were selected randomly
among other farmers assigned by village chiefs upon the requests of the author.
Field observation and document review: Village resources, farming land and the status ofagricultural practices in the village can be noticed in order to create real images for the research.
Journals and reports on SRI practices and promotion were also reviewed in order to understand thecurrent SRI practices in Cambodia.
Data analysis: It was done by using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Data arecondensed and critically discussed in order to respond to the above-mentioned objective.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Village Based Information
In village A (Trapaing Russey), six farmers of total household farmers are practicing SRI; while invillage B (Khnheay Khang Lech) there are 86 out of 198 and 42 out of 84 households in village C(Mohaleap). Data on land use is not available in village B, even the village chief has still availed
any confirmation from the upper level. About 50% and 94% of total area in village A and C,
respectively, are used for agricultural activities. Selected farmers got the SRI trainings from same
local NGO. Farmers in Village A and B started to practice SRI in 2004 or 2005; while farmers in
Village C in 2006.
Table 1 Village based information for 2013
Description
No. of Total Household
No. of Farmer Household
No. of SRI Household
Area (ha)Agricultural Area (ha)Available Jobs

Village A
181
181
6
216.9
132.9
Farmers, businessmen,
factory and construction
workers, NGO staff, etc.

Village B
200
198
86
Farmers, businessmen,
factory and construction
workers, NGO staff, etc.

Village C
86
84
42
193.8
145
Workers, farmers,
tailors, handmade craftmakers, etc.

Based on the field observation, there is a disparity between villages A and B and village C interms of the location of residential houses. In villages A and B, houses are scattered far from one toanother. There is a long distance between one house and another due to innumerable paddy fields
in between. Farmers have their own personal small ponds. In village C, also a rain-fed area,
residential houses are gathered in one place. Paddy fields are outside the residential areas. With few
ponds in the village, rainfall is stored at the reservoir.
Information on Selected Farmers
Majority of selected farmers have more than one farming plots. Therefore, some farmers can growrice twice per year. It is impossible for a farmer possessing one plot to grow rice twice on the same
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plot since water is available only in the rainy season. Normally, the main source of water is rainfall.
The average plot size is about one hectare, which included both conventional and SRI practices.
The production difference between SRI and conventional practices are shown in Table 2. Majorityof SRI farmers are able to increase their yields after practicing SRI although some still get the sameamount. It is believed that poor water management might be one of main constraints causing SRI
yield having no significant different from the conventional yield. Proper water management isdifficult to be conducted in these rain-fed areas where rainfall is unstable and there is no irrigation
system. Still, at least SRI can help farmers increase their yields with their own adaptive conditions.
Table 2 Information on selected farmers
FarmerArea (ha)Varieties

Practice

A1

Conv.
Production (t)(a) 0.70
LRV (Korchor Chab)
Conv.
2.50
(b) 0.15
LRV (Car51)
0.32
A2
SRI
(c) 0.10
LRV (Korhorm)
0.30(d) 0.60
LRV (Korchor Chab)
1.00
A3
SRI
(e) 0.48
LRV (Korhorm)
0.60(f) 1.00
LRV (Korhorm)
Conv.
1.30
B1
(g) 1.00
ERV (Jasmine)
SRI
1.00
B2
(h) 1.00
ERV (Jasmine)
SRI
0.80(i) 2.00
LRV (Korhorm)
2.00
B3(j) 0.06
LRV (Korchor Chab)SRI
0.10(k) 0.40
ERV (Jasmine)(l) 0.88
LRV (Chhmarprum)
1.50
C1
SRI
(m) 1.98
ERV (Jasmine)
2.00
C2(n) 1.00
LRV (Chhmarprum)SRI
1.20(o) 0.50
LRV (Riangchey)
0.70
C3
SRI
(p) 0.50
ERV (Jasmine)
0.80
Source: Ches and Yamaji, 2014
LRV: Late Ripening Varieties; ERV: Early Ripening Varieties; Conv.: Conventional* No past data available because just started growing ERV in 20132013 SRI
Production (t)
0.32
0.30
1.30
0.80
2.00
1.00
2.00
0.20
0.80*
1.75
3.00
1.62
1.00
1.00

Increased
Production byplot in %
0%
0%
+30%
+33%
0%
+100%
+25%
+100%
+17%
+50%
+35%
+43%
+25%

Total Expenditure on Rice Growing in 2013
The main items of expenditure include seed, fertilizer, irrigation and hired labor. Seeds, local
varieties exchanged among inside or outside villagers, have been stored from previous harvesting.
Then, farmers do not spend on seeds. However, farmers spend more on hired labor; followed bychemical fertilizer and irrigation (Table 3). The cost of hired labor varies based on the working
condition. The land preparation work costs about 20,000Riel to 30,000Riel and transplanting work
costs from 10,000Riel to 15,000Riel per day per person. Harvesting work is paid based on theamount of the harvest. Farmers stated that the costs keep increasing due to less labor in the village.
People leave the village for other non-farming jobs. The costs of hired labor can be negotiated.
However, some farmers did not spend or spent less on hired labor cost because they could get help
from neighbors or worked with their family members. Although water is important, most of the
farmers did not spend money on it; they strongly depend on rainfall. The cost of irrigation was theexpenditure on fuel for pumping machines. Water was pumped from small streams, reservoirs orfrom ponds nearby their farms or houses. In case of village C, acquiring water from the reservoir islimited because the same water source is also used for raising animals.
Most of the farmers spent a lot of money on chemical fertilizers to add up on amount of theorganic ones. Normally, chemical fertilizers are used during the land and nursery preparation.
Some farmers did not spend on them because they used only organic fertilizers; compost which
they produced by themselves or some farmers just collected and applied the animal wastes andleaves to the field. However, farmers have tried to reduce or kept the same amount of chemicalfertilizers. They understand the adverse impacts of chemical fertilizers on the soil quality and on
their health.
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Table 3 Total expenditures on rice growing in 2013
Items (Riel)
Chemical
Seed
Irrigation
Fertilizer
A1(a) 0.70
090,00010,000(b) 0.15015,8000A2(c) 0.10
019,4000(d) 0.60000A3(e) 0.48
070,0000(f) 1.000
155,000
0B1(g) 1.00
000B2(h) 1.00
000(i) 2.00
0495,0000
B3(j) 0.06
00
10,000(k) 0.40
080,0000(l) 0.880174,000
45,000C1(m) 1.980240,000
45,000C2(n) 1.00
0360,000
0(o) 0.50
010,0000C3(p) 0.50000Source: Household Interview; 1USD=4,000Riel (basic estimation)
FarmerPlot (ha)Hired Labor
438,000
138,000
138,000
000
050,000459,000
88,0000257,000
370,000
255,000
75,00075,000Total Expenditure
USD
Riel(Calculation)
538,000
134.50
153,800
38.45
157,400
39.35
0070,00017.50
155,000
38.75
0050,00012.50
954,000
238.5098,00024.50
80,00020.00
476,000
119.00655,000
163.75615,000
153.7585,00021.25
75,00018.75

Table 4 Details of paddy price and sold amount
FarmerPlot (ha)Varieties

2013
Production (t)A1(a) 0.70(b) 0.15(c) 0.10(d) 0.60(e) 0.48(f) 1.00(g) 1.00(h) 1.00(i) 2.00(j) 0.06(k) 0.40(l) 0.88(m) 1.98(n) 1.00(o) 0.50(p) 0.50

LRV
LRV
LRV
LRV
LRV
LRV
ERV
ERV
LRV
LRV
ERV
LRV
ERV
LRV
LRV
ERV

2.50
0.32
0.30
1.30
0.80
1.30
2.00
1.00
2.00
0.20
0.80
1.75
3.00
1.62
1.00
1.00

A2
A3
B1
B2
B3
C1
C2
C3

Sold
Amount
(Kg)
300
1000
1000
1000
500
1700
800
2400
1000
1000

Price
(Riel/Kg)

Total Income
Riel

Self-Consumption
1,200
360,000
Self-Consumption
1,000
1,000,000
Self-Consumption
1,000
1,000,000
1,350
1,350,000
1,350
675,000
1,000
1,700,000
Self-Consumption
1,600
1,280,000
Self-Consumption
1,200
2,880,000
930
930,000
Self-Consumption
1,400
1,400,000

USD (Calculation)
90.00
250.00250.00337.50168.75425.00320.00720.00232.50350.00

Incomes and Profits for Each Household
All selected farmers grow Jasmine variety for early growing season due to its popularity. Even
farmers possessing single plot are able to sell some to the market such as Farmer B2. Farmers
prefer to sell total amount of Jasmine paddy to the markets and keep the LRV paddy for
consumption. Middlemen buy paddy directly from the farmers. Price set by middlemen is cheaper
than the price set at the markets. However, farmers agree to sell; otherwise, they will spend moreon transportation and labor costs if they were to sell directly at the market. Importantly, collective
sale (some farmers put their products together in order to get a bigger amount of products) help
farmers to get higher prices compared to an individual or one-time sale. Moreover, collective salehelps middlemen to save the time to buy the large amount of paddy. That is why; middlemen can
set the higher price for farmers. For example, Jasmine variety (ERV) sells for 1,600R/kg if farmers
can collect a big amount and sell. Otherwise, the price is only 1,350Riel to 1,400Riel per kg forsingle sale. The collective sale could happen due to two possible reasons: (1) the short distance
between each household’s house or plot where farmers easily gather their products and (2) goodⒸ ISERD

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relationship with the neighboring household. According to household interviews, farmers statedthat their harvests for a year are enough for their family consumption and were able to sell thesurplus to middlemen. This means that farmers could earn some profits from their farming
activities. Total expenditure and incomes of each selected farmer are referred to Table 3 and Table
4 respectively. The Fig. 1 clearly illustrates that besides the sufficiency for self-consumption,
farmers also could earn the profit by selling their surplus. The negative income as shown in Fig. 1
is the value of the paddy amount for self-consumption.
800

720

600

556.25US Dollars

425

400

337.5
337.5
250250

200

134.5

0

0

90
38.4551.5539.35
0

a
-200

b

-134.5c-39.35250
211.25
17.50

0

d

38.75

e-17.5fg

Total Expensehi163.75

119

24.50

12.5

0

350
331.25320300238.5
186.5
168.75156.25j-24.5

Total Income

20

0

k

Profitl

232.5
153.7578.75
21.250

m

n

18.75

o-21.25

p-119

Fig. 1 Expenditure, incomes and profits for each household
Table 5 Surplus produced by SRI farmers in each village
Farmer
A1
A2
A3
B1
B2
B3
C1
C2
C3

Increased Production by
Family
0%
+31%
+100%
+25%
+4.8%
+36%
+35%
+33%

Ratio of Increased
Production

Average No. of SRIHousehold

Surplus Produced by
SRI Farmers+22.5%

3%+0.68%+33.3%

43%+14.3%+35.0%

50%+17.5%

Contribution to the Rice Markets
Increased production in percentage for each family was the average of all plots that each farmer has.
The ratio of increased production, derived from the increase of total production of selected families,
in village A, B, and C is 22.5%, 33.3% and 35.0% respectively. As shown in Table 2, most of theselected farmers are practicing SRI and it led to increase in their conventional yield. It can be
deduced from the study that SRI farmers contributed to increase in production in each village.
With the average number of total SRI household in each village, total surplus produced by SRI
farmers in village A, B, and C is 0.68%, 14.3% and 17.5% respectively (Table 5). It can beconcluded that practicing SRI positively increases the household’s production and leads to theincrease of village production as a whole. Thus it can be explained that a village has moreproduction to share to rice markets besides the sufficiency of self-consumption of each householdin the village. Finally increase in the number of SRI farmers in each village will increase the village
production. Possibly, increase the number of SRI also leads to the increase of national paddy
production in Cambodia. Average of SRI yield in Cambodia was recorded as 3.48 t/ha (ranging
from 2.7 to 4.2 t/ha) with SRI applied area of 59,785 ha in 2009 (Chhay, 2010). However,according to data from Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) the averagenational yields were 2.84 and 3.17 t/ha in 2009 and 2011 respectively. With these data, at least
within the rice growing area of 59,785 ha, only in 2009 SRI could increase the rice production
about 22.5%. Therefore, it can be concluded that increase the number of SRI as well the SRIⒸ ISERD73

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

applied areas will increase not only the household production but also the country production. This
will lead to the increase the paddy supply in the rice markets.
CONCLUSION
As explained and discussed so far, most of the selected farmers can share their products to the rice
market although selling and buying processes are happening indirectly via the middlemen.
However, collective sales can help farmers to get better prices. Since the national paddy production
is still low, increase in the number of SRI farmers as well as SRI applied areas can increase thehousehold and village production as well as possibly lead to the increase of the country production
and the surplus can be contributed to the rice market.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is deeply grateful to the farmers and village chiefs in three rain-fed villages in Kampong
Speu and Kampot Provinces for their friendly cooperation during interviews. Furthermore, manythanks to my mother Mrs. Pheng Phany, my father Mr. Ches Chea, my sister Ms. Ches Sopheap
and Mr. Kwan Vinhsou for assisting me during my fieldwork and Mr. Lim Sopokhem for spendingtime to proofread my paper. Without their kind supports, this paper would not be finished. FinallyThanks are given to Ms. Tuba Zahra and Ms. Vanessa Landriault for helping in editing this paper.
REFERENCES
Chhay, N. 2010. Overview of SRI application and adaptation in Cambodia. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries. (Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/SRI.CORNELL/overview-of-sri-applicationand-adoption-in-cambodia, Accesed on 10th April, 2015.)
Ches, S. and Yamaji, E. 2014. Impacts of the system of rice intensification (SRI): Labor requirement
analyses in Cambodia. Oral presentation by Power Point File for Paddy and Water Environment
Engineering [PAWEES] Conference. 30-31 October, 204 in Kaoshiung, Taiwan.
Cambodia Development Resource Institute [CDRI]. 2014. Annual development review 2013-14. Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
Hang Chuon, C. and Suzuki, N. 2005. Characteristics of the rice marketing system in Cambodia. Faculty ofAgriculture, Kyushu University, Japan, 50 (2), 693-714.
International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD]. (n.d.). Rural Poverty in Cambodia. (Retrieved fromhttp://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/home/tags/cambodia, Accesed on 25th April, 2015.)
Uphoff, N. 2004. System of rice intensification responds to 21 st century needs. (Retrieved fromhttp://archieves.dailynews.lk/2004/08/03/bus15.html, Accesed on 27th April, 2015.)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Evaluation of River Water Quality in Agricultural
Watershed with the Environmental Standards
TOSHIMI MUNEOKA*
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: muneoka@obihiro.ac.jp

YURI YAMAZAKIThe United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Iwate University, Iwate, JapanSACHIYO WAKOU
Ibaraki Prefectural Government, Ibaraki, Japan

MASATO KIMURA
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanOSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 20 January 2015

Accepted 25 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Japan has general environmental standards for organic matter in its public water
bodies. However, there are no environmental standards for nutrient salts such as phosphorus(P) and nitrogen (N) in river water. In this study, the water quality of rivers at normal waterlevel was evaluated in agricultural watersheds by focusing on water quality standards. The
investigated sites are in the Tokachi area (24 watersheds; upland and dairy farming) and the
Nemuro area (11 watersheds; large-scale dairy farming), which are in Eastern Hokkaido.
The investigations were carried out in the two agricultural areas in 2005, 2006 and 2012.
Electrical conductivity (EC) and water temperature were measured at the same time as riverwater samples were collected in the two areas. Water quality was analyzed for potential ofhydrogen (pH), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids (SS), total
phosphorus (T-P), total nitrogen (T-N) and other values. Most of the values associated withorganic matter, such as pH, BOD and SS, in river water were within the thresholds for the
standards of The Environmental Standards Concerning the Conservation of the Living
Environment (Rivers). In contrast, some values of nutrient salts (N and P) exceeded thethresholds (T-P≦0.1 mg/L, T-N≦1.0 mg/L). Many of the watersheds in the Tokachi area
had T-N concentration in excess of 1.0 mg/L. This suggests that the concentrations of
nutrient salts (P and N) increase with increases in agricultural land development in awatershed. For the evaluation of river water quality in agricultural watersheds, it was foundto be necessary to measure both organic matter and nutrient salts as indices of water quality.
And it was found that controlling the runoff of P and N from agricultural land is essential
for water quality conservation in public water bodies.
Keywords organic matter, nutrient salts, agricultural watershed, environmental standard

INTRODUCTION
In countries around the world, the river water quality is seriously worsening. As is well known,
agriculture has been pointed out as a cause.
The authors have long been researching the concentration of nitrogen in river water at normal
water levels by targeting two areas with different agricultural land use (Yamazaki et al., 2013;
Muneoka et al., 2013; Yamazaki et al., 2014; Muneoka et al., 2014). This research has been under
way in Eastern Hokkaido, which has precious regional characteristics in the Asian monsoon region,Ⓒ ISERD

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with consideration of study results pertaining to the concentration of nitrate nitrogen in river waterfrom the study performed by Tabuchi et al. (1995). Based on the accumulation of these basic data,
it is expected that study and research will make further progress toward measures for controlling
the runoff of nitrogen into rivers in agricultural and forest watersheds.
Japan sets general environmental standards for organic matter in its public rivers. However,there are no environmental standards for nutrient salts such as phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) inriver water. Therefore, while the evaluation of land use in agricultural and forest watersheds thatuse nitrogen concentration in river water as an index has progressed, there are few cases that use
other nutrient salts (e.g., P) as well as organic matter as indices for evaluating the water quality ofrivers.
In this report, the present condition of river water quality at normal water levels in Eastern
Hokkaido was evaluated within agricultural watersheds, with reference to water quality standards.
METHODOLOGY
General Description about the Studied Watershed and the Study on River Water Quality
The maps of study sites are shown in Fig.1. The Tokachi area, which has 24 watersheds on the
Tokachi River system and the Shikaribetsu River system (No. 1 to 24), is located in thenorthwestern part of the Tokachi General Sub-prefectural Bureau, and it is an area with upland anddairy farming. The Nemuro area, which has 11 watersheds on the Shibetsu, the Tokotan and the
Nishibetsu River systems (A to K), is located in the western part of the Nemuro Sub-prefectural
Bureau, and it is an area mainly of dairy farming. In both of these areas, large-scale farming has
been operated, and there have been no considerable changes in agricultural land use in either area
since 1985.

Fig. 1 Outline of the Tokachi and Nemuro areasⒸ ISERD

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For the years 1981 to 2010, the annual mean air temperature and the yearly precipitation were
5.9 °C and 840.7 mm at Komaba in the Tokachi area, and 5.4 °C and 1158.0 mm at Nakashibetsu
in the vicinity of the Nemuro area. Both areas have a relatively cold climate with low rainfall.
The investigation of the river water quality was conducted at the normal water level at 35
sampling points. Electrical Conductivity (EC) and water temperature were measured at sampling
points. And discharge was also measured on the rivers in small watersheds (varied between 22 and25 by year). Items analyzed to determine water quality varied with each year. This study used
potential of hydrogen (pH), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids (SS), total
phosphorus (T-P) and total nitrogen (T-N) and other values as indices of water quality. The
investigations were carried out during late August to early September in 2005, 2006 and 2012.
Environmental Standards for River Water in Japan
Water quality in Japan is regulated by the Environmental Water Quality Standards Concerning theConservation of the Living Environment (Rivers), which uses organic matter as indices (Table 1).
The standard values are divided into 6 stages (Type-AA to Type-E) according to the suitable use of
the water, with each acceptable range specified as follows: pH (always between 6.5 and 8.5), BOD(between 1 mg/L and 10 mg/L) and SS (between 25 mg/L and 100 mg/L).
Table 1 The Environmental Water Quality Standards Concerning the Conservation of the
Living Environment (Rivers (Extract))
Standard values
Type

pH

BOD

SS

AA
A
B
C
D
E

between 6.5 and 8.5
between 6.5 and 8.5
between 6.5 and 8.5
between 6.5 and 8.5
between 6.5 and 8.5
between 6.5 and 8.5

1 mg/L or lower
2 mg/L or lower
3 mg/L or lower
5 mg/L or lower
8 mg/L or lower
10 mg/L or lower

25 mg/L or lower
25 mg/L or lower
25 mg/L or lower
50 mg/L or lower
100 mg/L or lower※※ No floating matter on the surface of the water

Table 2 Some water quality standards on the nutrient salts (N and P)(a) The Environmental Quality Standards
Concerning the Protection of the Human Health (Extract)
Combined concentration of NO3-N and NO2-N

10 mg/L or lower(b) The Environmental Quality Standards
Concerning the Coservation of the Living Environment
Standard values
Type

T-N

T-P

Lakes
（Appendix 2)

Ⅰ
Ⅱ
Ⅲ
Ⅳ
Ⅴ

0.1 mg/L or lower
0.2 mg/L or lower
0.4 mg/L or lower
0.6 mg/L or lower
1.0 mg/L or lower

0.005 mg/L or lower
0.01 mg/L or lower
0.03 mg/L or lower
0.05 mg/L or lower
0.10 mg/L or lower

Seas（Appendix 2)

Ⅰ
Ⅱ
Ⅲ
Ⅳ

0.2 mg/L or lower
0.3 mg/L or lower
0.6 mg/L or lower
1.0 mg/L or lower

0.02 mg/L or lower
0.03 mg/L or lower
0.05 mg/L or lower
0.09 mg/L or lowerⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

In Japan, there are two major water quality standards that use nitrogen, and nutrient salts, as
indices. The Environmental Quality Standards Concerning the Protection of Human Healthspecifies the highest acceptable combined concentration of nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) and nitrite
nitrogen (NO2-N) as 10 mg/L (Table 2(a)).
As shown in Type-V in Table 2(b) of Appendix 2 of the Environmental Water Quality
Standards Concerning the Conservation of the Living Environment (Lakes) and Type-IV in Table
2(b) of Appendix 2 of the Environmental Water Quality Standards Concerning the Conservation of
the Living Environment (Seas), acceptable concentration of total nitrogen (T-N) is regulated at 1
mg/L or lower.
Further, in Type-V in Table 2(b) of Appendix 2 of Environmental Water Quality Standards
Concerning the Conservation of the Living Environment (Lakes), which is the water quality
standard that uses phosphorus as an index, the acceptable concentration of total phosphoru s (T-P)
is regulated at 0.1 mg/L or lower, and in Type-IV in Table 2(b) of Appendix 2 of said standards(Seas), the acceptable concentration of total phosphorus (T-P) is regulated at 0.09 mg/L or lower.
However, there are no environmental standards for nutrient salts in river water of public water
bodies. In this report, by referring to the water quality standards mentioned above, "thresholdlevels" that use nutrient salts (N and P) as indices were established by specifying T-P as 0.1 mg/Lor lower and T-N as 1.0 mg/L or lower to evaluate water quality.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Evaluation of Water Quality using Organic Matter as an Index
In Table 3, the pH of river water was within the range of 7.1 to 8.0 for the Tokachi area and 7.3 to
7.7 for the Nemuro area, both of which satisfied the standard values in Type-AA (betwee 6.5 and
8.5). BOD was within the range of <0.5 to 3.1 mg/L in the Tokachi area, which exceeded thestandard values of Type-B (3 mg/L or lower) at only 1 spot. BOD was within the range of <0.5 to
1.2 mg/L in the Nemuro area, which satisfied the standard values of Type-A (2 mg/L or lower). SS
was within the range of <1 to 39 mg/L in the Tokachi area, and <1 to 13 mg/L in the Nemuro area,
which exceeded the standard values of Type-AA to B (25 mg/L or lower) at only 1 spot.
Therefore, the indices of organic matter for river water at normal water levels in agricultural
watersheds in Eastern Hokkaido were mostly within the standard values in every year when the
study was carried out, regardless of differences in size of watershed area or the area of upland andpasture as a share of the watershed.
Evaluation of Water Quality using Nutrient Salts as Indices
The T-P concentration in river water was within the range of 0.024 to 0.39 mg/L in the Tokachi
area, which exceeded the threshold level at 9 spots, and 0.060 to 0.23 mg/L in the Nemuro area,
which exceeded the threshold level at 5 spots (Table 4).
Next, T-N concentration was within the range of 0.25 to 10 mg/L in the Tokachi area, which
exceeded the threshold level at 17 spots. In the Nemuro area, it was within the range of 0.19 to 3.2
mg/L, which exceeded the threshold level at 6 points (Table 4).
Therefore, the spots where the values exceeded the "threshold level" of nutritional salts saw arelatively high share of upland field and pasture in watersheds (22 to 95%), and runoff had highconcentrations of T-N.
The authors consider that it is necessary to measure both organic matter and nutrient salts as
indices to evaluate river water quality in agricultural watersheds. In addition, it was found that
controlling the runoff of P and N from agricultural land is essential for water quality conservationin public water bodies. To accomplish these, systematic watershed management is required thatgives consideration to both agricultural land use and farming.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Table 3 Water quality using organic matter as an index (2005, 2006 and 2012)
Measuring values
Measuring values

Investigate area Investigate area
（Sampling spots）（Sampling spots）
pH

BODpH
(mg/L)

BOD(mg/L)SS (mg/L)

SS (mg/L)

Tokachi（24～spots）
Tokachi Area （24spots）Area7.1
8.0

7.1 ～
<0.5
～ 8.0
3.1※

※

<1 ～
～ 3.1
39
<0.5

<1 ～ 39

Nemuro(11～
spots)
Nemuro Area (11spots) Area 7.3
7.7

7.3 ～
<0.5
～7.7
1.2

<0.5
<1 ～ 1.2
13<1 ～ 13※※exceeded
theofstandard
of1Type-B
exceeded the standard
value
Type-Bvalue
at only
spot at only 1 spot

Table 4 Water quality using nutrient salts an index (2005, 2006 and 2012)
Investigate area
（Sampling spots）

Measuring values
T-P (mg/L)

T-N (mg/L)※

Tokachi Area （24 spots）

0.024 ～ 0.39 (9 spots)

0.15 ～10※ (17 spots)

Nemuro Area (11 spots)※
0.060 ～ 0.23 (5 spots)※
0.19 ～ 3.0 ( 6 spots)※

the number which exceeded the threshold level( T-P >0.10mg/L; T-N >1.0mg/L )CONCLUSION
Evaluations of river water quality using the environmental standards in Japan show that organic
matter at normal water levels in agricultural regions in Eastern Hokkaido are within the standard
values. In contrast, it was confirmed that nutrient salts constantly run off at high concentrations. In
order to consider measures for controlling the runoff of nutrient salts (especially nitrogen) withboth sustainable agriculture and environment conservation in mind, constructing comprehensive
watershed management is an urgent issue. In the future, we would like to contribute to measures forthe evaluation of land and water conservation in wide water catchment areas with Asian monsoon
climate by applying the environmental standards in Japan for the evaluation of river water quality
in other agricultural regions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude to the research assistance provided by the students, Obihiro
University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine.
REFERENCES
Muneoka, T., Yamazaki, Y., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
nitrogen runoff characteristics in agricultural watersheds after enforcement of animal waste regulation.
IJERD, 4 (2), 56-61.
Muneoka, T., Yamazaki, Y., Wakou, S., Kimura, M. and Tsuji, O. 2014. Evaluation of Nitrate Pollution inRiver Water at Agricultural Watershed. IJERD, 5 (2), 51-55.
Tabuchi, T., Yoshino, K., Shimura, M., Kuroda, S., Ishikawa, M. and Yamaji, E. 1995. Relation between
land use and nitrate concentration of outflow water from watersheds of agricultural and forest area, Japan.
Trans. of JSIDRE, 178, 129-135 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
difference of agricultural land use in watersheds and long term fluctuation on the river water quality.
IJERD, 4 (1),152-157.
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S., Kimura, M. and Tsuji, O. 2014. Evaluation of the ion components
for the estimation of total nitrogen concentration in river water based on electrical conductivity. IJERD, 5(1), 160-164.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Research article
erdCharacteristics of Ion Components in River Water with
Multivaraite Analysis and Piper Diagram in Agricultural
Area
YURI YAMAZAKIThe United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Iwate University, Iwate, JapanTOSHIMI MUNEOKA*
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: muneoka@obihiro.ac.jp

SACHIYO WAKOU
Ibaraki Prefectural Government, Ibaraki, Japan

MASATO KIMURA
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanOSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 20 December 2014

Accepted 25 April2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The Tokachi and Nemuro areas are large-scale agricultural land, and are locatedin Eastern Hokkaido. Increases in nitrogen concentrations in the river water caused by theoutflow of excess nitrogen from an agricultural land in the Tokachi and Nemuro area havebeen reported. Here we considered the characteristics of the origin of river water quality
with multivariate analysis and piper diagram in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas withdifferent agricultural land use. The main agricultural land uses in the Tokachi area are
upland and dairy farming. It is an area mainly of dairy farming in the Nemuro area. The
investigation was carried out in late August 2005. We analyzed the following ion
parameters: Cl-, NO3-, NO2-, SO42-, HCO3-, CO3-, PO43-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ byliquid chromatography. NO3- and SO42- were higher in the Tokachi area; the values of NO3and SO42- were 0.71-31 mg/L and 1.9-39 mg/L in the Tokachi area and 0.44-9.7 mg/L and
2.0-19 mg/L respectively. On the other hand, HCO3- and Na+ were higher in the Nemuroarea; 6.4-31 mg/L and 3.3-9.9 mg/L in the Tokachi area and 13- 42 mg/L and 5.8-15 mg/L
in the Nemuro area respectively. The plot in piper diagram showed that most of the riverwater samples in the Tokachi area fall in the field of mixed Ca-Mg-Cl type of water. Somesamples are also representing Ca-Cl and Ca-HCO3 types. The most of the samples in the
Nemuro area fall in the field of Ca-HCO3 types, and some samples also representing Na-Cl
types. This result suggests that the outflow of excess nitrogen from the agricultural land
affected river water quality in the Tokachi area while the mixing of seawater and geologicalcomponent affected river water quality in the Nemuro area.
Keywords agricultural area, river water quality, ion components, multivariate analysis,
piper diagram

INTRODUCTION
Large-scale agriculture is practised under harsh climatic conditions in Eastern Hokkaido, Japan,
and nitrate pollution of river water and ground water in this region has been reported (Tabuchi et al.,
1995; Matsumoto and Tou, 2006). Studies on several watersheds have shown that nitrogenconcentrations in the river water are strongly correlated with the proportion of upland areasⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1(Tabuchi et al. 1995; Nagumo and Hatano 2000; Woli et al. 2004).
We had previously investigated the long-term river water quality in the Tokachi and Nemuro
areas, where the agricultural land use is mutually different (Yamazaki et al., 2013, 2014; Muneoka
et al., 2013). It was shown that the nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the river water was higher in
the Tokachi area and the electrical conductivity was higher in the Nemuro area, when the
proportion of agricultural land was in the same range in each sampling point (Yamazaki et al.,2013). It was inferred that, apart from the nutrients run off from agricultural land, regional
differences was the reason for such differences. The percentages of ionic components were also
different in the Tokachi and Nemuro area (Yamazaki et al., 2014). It is necessary to elucidate not
only the water quality but also the origin of the river water to reduce water pollution in the
agricultural area.
In this study, we examined the characteristics of river water quality by multivariate analysis
and piper diagram to analyse in detail the differences in ionic components within the river water in
the Tokachi and Nemuro areas.
METHODOLOGY
The study sites are outlined in Fig. 1. The Tokachi area, which consists of a total of 24 watersheds
in the Tokachi river system and in the Shikaribetsu river system (No. 1 to 24), is in the northwestern part within the jurisdiction of Tokachi General Sub-prefectural Bureau. It is an area of
upland and dairy farming. The Nemuro area, which consists of a total of 11 watersheds in the
Shibetsu, the Tokotan, and the Nishibetsu river systems (A to K), is located in the western partwithin the jurisdiction of Nemuro Sub-prefectural Bureau. It is mainly an area of dairy farming. In
both these areas, large-scale farming has been pursued, and there have been no substantial changes
in agricultural land use in either area since 1985.

Fig. 1 Outline of the Tokachi and Nemuro areasⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

For the years 1981 to 2010, the annual mean air temperature and the yearly precipitation were
5.9 °C and 840.7 mm, respectively, at Komaba in the Tokachi area, and 5.4 °C and 1158.0 mm,
respectively, at Nakashibetsu in the vicinity of the Nemuro area. Both areas have a relatively cold
climate with less rainfall than other agricultural areas of Japan.
The investigation of the river water quality was conducted at the normal water level at 35
sampling points. The investigations were carried out in late August 2005. We analysed theconcentrations of following ions as parameters: Cl−, NO3−, NO2−, SO42−, HCO3−, CO3–, PO43−, NH4+,
Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ by liquid chromatography.
We used the cluster analysis and the piper diagram to classify the trend of ionic components in
the river water. A cluster analysis is a group of multivariate techniques. It is often used to analysewater quality characteristics. We used the R package and Ward’s method for cluster analysis. A
piper diagram is a method for water quality classification by graphical representation. It is used foran observation of ground water and river water quality. A piper diagram shows the characteristics
of water by the location of the plot in the key diagram from the proportion of equivalentconcentration of cations and anions. In this study, we used the Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, HCO3−, Na+, K+,
Ca2+ and Mg2+ for the piper diagram. The results are classified into five types: Cl-SO4-NO3 type,
Ca-HCO3 type, Na-HCO3 type, Na-Cl type, and mixed type.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ion Concentrations in the Tokachi and Nemuro Areas
Table 1 shows the concentration of ionic components in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas. Ca 2+ and
HCO3− were the main ionic components in both areas. However, the trend of ionic components
differed between the two areas. The concentrations of NO3− and SO42− were 0.71–31 mg/L and 1.9–39 mg/L, respectively, in the Tokachi area and 0.44–9.7 mg/L and 2.0–19 mg/L, respectively, in
the Nemuro area. The average concentrations of these components were found to be higher in the
Tokachi area. On the other hand, concentrations of HCO3− and Na+ were 6.4–31 mg/L and 3.3–9.9
mg/L, respectively, in the Tokachi area and 13.5–42.1 mg/L and 5.8–15 mg/L, respectively, in the
Nemuro area. The average concentrations of these components were found to be higher in the
Nemuro area.
Cluster Analysis
Cluster analysis was conducted to classify the tendency of ionic components in the river water.
Figure 2 shows the results of cluster analysis for each sampling point in the Tokachi area (nos.
1–24) and the Nemuro area (A–K) in a dendrogram. NH4+, NO2− and PO42− were excluded from thecluster analysis because their values were too small. The dendrogram shows four major clusters.
The sampling points in the Tokachi area were classified into clusters 1, 3 and 4. The sampling
points in the Nemuro area were classified into clusters 1 and 2. The cluster 1 and 2 tended toinclude the sampling points that had high concentration of cationic components and the proportionof agricultural land use was less than 50%. Meanwhile, the cluster 3 and 4 tended to include thesampling points that had high concentration of anionic components and the proportion ofagricultural land use was more than 50%. The river water quality was different between both areas
except few sampling points from the cluster analysis. We verified the difference of the river water
quality in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas by the piper diagram.
Piper Diagram
Figure 2 (a, b) shows the piper diagram of the ionic components in the two areas. The piper
diagram was classified by the cluster 1–4 (a) and the proportion of agricultural land (b). Many
sampling points in the Tokachi area belonged to the mixed type. In addition, the cluster 4 belonged
to the Na-SO4-NO3 type, and it was confirmed that the proportion of (SO4 + NO3) and (Ca2 + Mg)Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

increased due to the agricultural activities in the cluster 4. In the Nemuro area, many sampling
points belonged to the mixed type and to the Ca-HCO3 type. Only D in cluster 2 belonged to the
Na-Cl type, because of the commingling of the sea water or hot spring water into the ground water.
Furthermore, as shown in Fig 2(b), which shows if the proportion of agricultural land use was lessthan or more than 50%, the sampling points in the Tokachi area, which had high proportion of the
agricultural land, were located at upper part of the key diagram. On the other hand, it was notconfirmed whether the clear difference of ionic components in the Nemuro area was due to thesmall or large proportion of agricultural land. From these results, the river water quality was foundto be very different in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas. In addition, the ionic components of the riverwater in the Tokachi area were influenced by agriculture, whereas the ones in the Nemuro area
were influenced by other geological features.
Table 1 Ion concentrations in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
Ion concentration (mg/L)

Sampling
point

Na

+

K

+

NH4

+

Ca

Tokachi area
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Average

5.5
3.3
3.8
3.7
5.0
8.7
5.4
5.4
7.5
9.9
9.1
8.5
3.7
8.2
6.6
9.4
8.7
7.0
3.8
5.8
5.1
6.3
8.6
8.4
6.6

1.3
1.4
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.6
2.8
3.7
2.3
3.6
5.8
4.9
1.5
2.4
2.7
3.6
3.8
4.1
1.7
2.1
2.2
3.6
4.1
3.6
2.8

0.018
< 0.01< 0.01< 0.010.039< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.010.003< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01
0.020

Nemuro area
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
Average

5.8
7.1
8.9
13.0
13.0
8.6
9.9
12.0
15.0
13.0
12.0
10.8

0.6
0.9
1.7
0.9
1.2
1.3
2.2
2.4
1.6
1.9
3.6
1.7

< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01< 0.01

Mg2+

Cl-

NO3-

NO2-

HCO3- SO42-

PO43-

Total

6.9
3.3
3.1
3.2
6.5
7.6
9.1
9.6
8.1
28.0
18.0
17.0
5.7
20.0
13.0
21.0
24.0
15.0
6.5
13.0
11.0
22.0
27.0
16.0
13.1

1.5
0.9
0.8
0.9
1.6
1.8
2.9
3.1
2.0
8.7
6.0
5.3
1.2
6.5
3.7
7.3
7.0
4.8
1.2
3.0
3.0
4.1
8.7
4.6
3.8

3.3
1.6
1.7
1.8
3.9
6.1
5.2
5.5
5.1
8.0
9.1
7.9
1.5
6.6
5.0
12.0
9.7
6.7
1.3
4.1
3.5
5.8
7.0
6.8
5.4

0.71
0.75
0.84
0.89
2.5
2.1
15.0
15.0
3.9
27.0
20.0
19.0
1.1
30.0
12.0
22.0
31.0
13.0
0.66
12.0
6.6
15.0
16.0
11.0
11.6

< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.050.095< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.050.099
0.079< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05
0.091

13.5
9.3
9.6
6.4
12.9
29.2
13.0
15.5
17.6
31.1
25.9
22.4
14.3
13.4
19.5
17.7
21.2
16.4
15.7
17.4
18.9
31.1
30.8
22.1
18.5

9.2
4.0
3.4
3.2
8.0
7.0
6.8
6.5
6.7
39.0
18.0
18.0
2.0
36.0
10.0
35.0
30.0
23.0
1.9
10.0
8.1
11.0
36.0
17.0
14.6

<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001
0.01
0.005
0.003
0.10
0.25
0.18
0.08
0.05
0.18
0.01
0.12
0.07
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.07
0.10
0.02
0.08

41.9
24.6
25.2
21.8
42.0
64.1
60.2
64.3
53.2
155.5
112.2
103.2
31.1
123.2
72.7
128.1
135.6
90.1
32.8
67.4
58.4
99.0
138.3
89.5
76.4

4.3
5.4
11.0
6.6
9.3
6.1
13.0
23.0
9.9
13.0
20.0
11.1

1.3
1.3
2.5
1.3
2.1
1.9
3.5
6.0
3.1
3.3
4.7
2.8

2.3
3.4
5.6
9.6
8.6
3.7
6.4
11.0
5.7
6.6
11.0
6.7

0.44
1.0
4.2
< 0.05
1.8
2.2
5.3
9.7
0.58
3.7
8.9
3.8

< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05< 0.05

13.5
15.3
23.8
12.6
17.9
17.5
28.2
42.1
20.5
24.7
34.0
22.7

2.0
2.5
3.6
11.0
8.8
2.5
2.4
5.4
19.0
13.0
6.3
7.0

0.05
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.04
0.11
0.08
0.03
0.22
0.19
0.08
0.10

30.3
37.0
61.4
55.1
62.7
43.9
71.0
111.6
75.6
79.4
100.6
66.2

2+

Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Fig. 2 Dendrogram from cluster analysis

Fig. 3 Piper diagram of the ionic components in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
Correlation Matrix of Ion Concentrations
Table 2 shows the correlation matrix of ion concentrations within the Tokachi and Nemuro areas.
NO3− and SO42− showed a strong correlation in the Tokachi area. It was recognized that the NO3−
and SO42− in the river water was derived from chemical fertilizer because an ammonium sulfate
was mainly used for a nitrogen fertilizer in the Tokachi area. In the Nemuro area, Na+ had a strong
correlation with SO42−. There is a hot spring in the upper part of the Nemuro area. The spring
quality is sodium-sulfate spring. It was inferred that the proportion of Na+ in the river water wasincreased due to the hot spring water mixed into the ground water. Especially, D, E, and I in the
Nemuro area which was classified into cluster 2 (Fig. 2) and belonged to near Na-Cl type in thepiper diagram (Fig. 3), showed high proportion of (SO4+Na). Ca2+ and Mg2+ had a strong
correlation with NO3− within the two areas, it was considered that these ionic components eluted
easily due to use of fertilizer and soil acidification in the agricultural area.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Table 2 Correlation matrix of ion concentrations in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
Tokachi area
Na+

K+

Ca2+

Mg2+

Cl-

Nemuro area
SO42-

HCO3-

Na+

1.00

K+

0.68

1.00

Ca2+

0.81

0.72

1.00

Mg2+

0.84

0.75

0.96

1.00

Cl-

0.91

0.77

0.80

0.85

1.00

SO42-

0.80

0.57

0.89

0.95

0.79

1.00

HCO3-

0.73

0.57

0.74

0.64

0.58

0.48

1.00

NO3-

0.74

0.70

0.87

0.89

0.82

0.84

0.45

NO3-

Na+

K+

Ca2+

Mg2+

Cl-

SO42-

HCO3-

NO3-

1.00

1.00

0.37

1.00

0.43

0.89

1.00

0.43

0.86

0.98

1.00

0.69

0.64

0.76

0.67

1.00

0.86

0.04

0.07

0.11

0.29

1.00

0.29

0.86

0.98

0.98

0.63

-0.06

1.00

0.16

0.89

0.95

0.92

0.63

-0.23

0.97

1.00

CONCLUSION
Based on our results, the proportion of (SO4 + NO3) and (Ca + Mg) increased due to chemicalfertilizer in the Tokachi area. In contrast, many sampling points in the Nemuro area belonged to the
Ca-HCO3 type and to the mixed type, and it was not confirmed whether the difference in ioniccomponents was due to a small or large proportion of agricultural land. Our results revealed thatthe river water quality in the Tokachi area was affected by the agricultural activity, whereas theriver water quality in the Nemuro area reflected the impact not only of agricultural activity but alsoof other geological features and regional nature.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude to the research assistance provided by the students, the
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine.
REFERENCES
Matsumoto, T. and Tou, S. 2006. Risk assessment of nitrate pollution in groundwater based on theenvironmental nitrogen-assimilation capacity of agricultural lands in Hokkaido. Jpn. J. Soil Sci. Plant
Nutr, 77, 17-24 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Muneoka, T., Yamazaki, Y., Wakou, S,. Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
nitrogen runoff characteristics in agricultural watersheds after enforcement of animal waste regulation.
IJERD, 4 (2), 56-61.
Nagumo T and Hatano, R. 2000. Impact of nitrogen cycling associated with production and consumption offood on nitrogen pollution of stream water. Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 46 (2), 325-342
Tabuchi, T., Yoshino, K., Shimura, M., Kuroda, S., Ishikawa, M. and Yamaji, E. 1995. Relation between
land use and nitrate concentration of outflow water from watersheds of agricultural and forest area, Japan.
Trans. of JSIDRE, 178, 129-135 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Woli KP, Nagumo T, Kuramochi K and Hatano R. 2004. Evaluating river water quality through land use
analysis and N budget approaches in livestock farming areas. Sci Total Environ, 329 (1-3), 61-74
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
difference of agricultural land use in watersheds and long term fluctuation on the river water quality.
IJERD, 4 (1),152-157.
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S,. Kimura, M., and Tsuji, O. 2014. Characteristics of ion components
in river water with multivariate analysis and piper diagram in agricultural area. IJERD, 5 (1), 160-164.

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Research article
erd

Mitigating Splash Erosion with Applying Bacillus subtilis
Natto
AYA KANEKO IKAWA
Research Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp

YUTA ISHIKAWA
Research Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, JapanSERGIO AZAEL MAY CUEVAS
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 20 December 2014

Accepted 25 April2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Soil erosion from upland fields affects not only soil productivity but also water
environment. From the viewpoints of soil and water conservation, many strategies for
mitigation of soil erosion were discussed. Especially, conservation strategy for mitigatingsplash erosion which is the first process of soil erosion should be considered. Moreover,biological crust mixing with microorganisms has been focused as one of the treatments forsplash erosion. Therefore, two objectives were determined in this study. The first is toevaluate the effect of Bacillus subtilis Natto adding on mitigating splash erosion, and thesecond is to investigate the kinetic energy of raindrop to break the binding force of soil
particles with hyphae of Bacillus subtilis Natto. Raindrop experiment was carried out withstainless cans and Mariotte bottle of splash erosion apparatus. Stainless cans were filledwith soil, and then Bacillus subtilis Natto was applied. In addition, raindrop energy waschanged through controlling the height of Mariotte bottle. Based on the experimental
results, there was a tendency that soil loss from the cans applied Bacillus subtilis Natto wassignificantly lower than controlled cans. In addition, it was observed that Bacillus subtilis
Natto mitigated splash erosion until kinetic energy of raindrop at 4.86×10-5 J/drop.
Therefore, it was concluded that Bacillus subtilis Natto is applicable for mitigation ofsplash erosion.
Keywords splash erosion, Bacillus subtilis Natto, biological crust

INTRODUCTION
Large amounts of soils were released from upland fields by rainfall and surface runoff. Soil erosion
is a cause of decreasing soil productivity. Moreover, soil erosion causes water pollution such as
eutrophication in watersheds. Therefore, some conservation strategies for soil erosion such as
buffer strips installation (Kawai et al., 2007; Gopal and Mihara, 2008; Siriwattananon et al., 2009,
Torillo and Mihara, 2011, 2014) have been discussed.
On the other hand, conservation strategies for mitigating splash erosion which is the firstprocess of soil erosion should been considered. In this connection, making soil crust has been
considered as a proper treatment for mitigating splash erosion. Soil crust formation was affected by
microorganism activity, root growing, soil animal activity or mineral interaction (Six et al., 2002).
Therefore, microorganism growing is important for mitigating soil loss. There was a report by
Shimomura et al. (2007) that growing microorganisms in soil is able to reduce soil loss. However,it was not discussed about specific species of microorganism for mitigate raindrop erosion.
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So, this study focused on Bacillus subtilis Natto which is a kind of Gram-positive bacteria.
Bacillus subtilis Natto can make spore which has tolerance for acid, ultraviolet or heat (Hosoi,
2003). In addition, Bacillus subtilis Natto creates hyphae which contain viscous material as γ-polyglutamic acid (Hara, 1990).
In this study, two objectives were determined. One is to evaluate the effect of Bacillus subtilis
Natto adding on mitigating splash erosion and the other is to investigate the kinetic energy ofraindrop to break the binding force of soil particles with hyphae of Bacillus subtilis Natto.
METHODOLOGY
In this study two experiments were conducted, the evaluation of Bacillus subtilis Natto addition on
mitigating splash erosion, and the investigation of the kinetic energy of raindrop to break thebinding force of soil particles with hyphae of Bacillus subtilis Natto.
Evaluation of Bacillus subtilis Natto Addition on Mitigating Splash Erosion
Bacillus subtilis Natto used in this experiment was laboratory made (Fig. 1). It consists of a dry
powder which contained 1.08×107 colonies formed units per gram (cfu/g) of Bacillus subtilis Natto.
Soil properties are shown in Table 1. Stainless cans of 1.1 cm diameter and 1.0 cm deep werefilled up with Andosol soil. Then Bacillus subtilis Natto powder at 1 g/cm2 was applied to soil.
After applying Bacillus subtilis Natto, stainless cans were put in incubator set at 37 ºC for 2 weeks.
Every day, physiological saline solution at 0.8 ml was applied to each can.

Fig. 1 Bacillus subtilis Natto powder

Fig. 2 Stainless canTable 1 Characteristics of the soil (volcanic ash soil)
Specific
gravity

Gravel2.63

1.97

Particle size distribution %Coarse
Fine
Silt
sand
sand
12.3
27.8
0

Clay

Soil
texture

pH

EC
μS/cm

39.3

CL

5.74

155

Mariotte bottle

Steinless can

Fig. 3 Apparatus for raindrop experimentFig. 4 Outline of raindrop experiment

Raindrop experiments were carried out with a Mariotte bottle as shown in Figs. 3-4. A needleof DIK-6000 artificial rainfall simulator was attached with Mariotte bottle. Water was dripped fromⒸ ISERD

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a height of 18.0 cm. Based on the observation and calculation, kinetic energy of raindrops was
2.36×10-5 J. For an experiment, 50 raindrops were applied to soil sample of each can.
Kinetic Energy of Raindrop to Break Binding Force of Soil Particles with Hyphae
Bacillus subtilis Natto powder and soil sample used in this experiment were the same as the firstexperiment. Bacillus subtilis Natto at 1.01×107 colonies were observed in the powder.
Raindrop experiments were conducted employing Mariotte bottle as well as the firstexperiment. Raindrop was applied at the heights of 20, 40, 60 and 80 cm. Kinetic energies ofraindrop in each height were observed and calculated based on the Eq. (1). Raindrop mass wasmeasured with dried filter paper and raindrop velocities of each height was measured byphotographs shuttered at 1/100 second. The results of observed and calculated kinetic energy ofraindrops are indicated in Table 2.
Kinetic energies of raindrop, Ek (J) =1× 𝑀 × 𝑣2
2

(1)

Where M is raindrop mass (kg), v is raindrop velocities of each height measured byphotographs at 1/100 second (m/s).
Table 2 Raindrop energies in each height
Kinetic energy
×10-5 J
3.26
4.86
9.66
13.8

Height of raindrop
cm
20
40
60
80
Analysis of Soil Loss

After raindrop experiments, the mass of soil particles splashed out from the samples was measured.
Then soil loss rate was calculated with Eq. (2).
Soil loss rate (%) = (1 −Remained soil mass in the stainless can (g)) × 100
Initial soil mass in the stainless can (g)(2)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Bacillus subtilis Natto Addition on Mitigating Splash Erosion
Fig. 5 shows the rate of soil loss in stainless cans. In control cans, about 20% of soil was released
from cans. On the other hand, in case of stainless cans with Bacillus subtilis Natto, the rate of soil
loss was reduced to 13%. Moreover, based on the results of statistical analysis, significant
difference at p≦0.01 was observed between the rate of soil loss of control and that of Bacillus
subtilis Natto added.
In addition, as a result of microscope observation, hyphae of Bacillus subtilis Natto was
observed in soil applied with Bacillus subtilis Natto as shown in Fig. 6. So, it was considered that
Bacillus subtilis Natto formed biological crust with hyphae growing.
Therefore, it was considered that Bacillus subtilis Natto is applicable to mitigate splash
erosion.

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Rate of soil loss (%)

30

A**

20
B**

10

0

Control

Bacillus subtilis Natto
added

Hyphae**Significant difference at p≦0.01

Fig. 5 Rate of soil loss

Fig. 6 Hyphae in soil

Kinetic Energy of Raindrop to Break Binding Force of Soil Particles with Hyphae
Figure 7 shows the relationship between the rate of soil loss and the kinetic energy of raindrop.
According to the results, the rate of soil loss increased with the kinetic energy of raindrop in bothcans of control and Bacillus subtilis Natto added. As a result of statistical analysis, confidence
interval at 99% was observed for both regression lines of the rate of soil loss of control and that of
Bacillus subtilis Natto added.
The changes in soil loss rate were shown in Fig. 8. Bacillus subtilis Natto reduced the soil loss
rate at kinetic energy of raindrop from 3.46 to 4.86×10-5 J. In addition, significant difference wasobserved between the rate of soil loss of control and Bacillus subtilis Natto added. However, when
the kinetic energy of raindrop was larger than 9.66×10-5 J, significant difference was not observed.
Therefore, it was considered that biological crust formed by Bacillus subtilis Natto was notbroken by splash erosion until 4.86×10-5 J of kinetic energy.
25
A

Rate of soil loss (%)

20

Rate of soil loss (%)

25

A A
A

15

10
5

A**

a*

B**

b*

0
3.26
Control

4.86
9.66
Kinetic energy (×105 J/drop)

20
15
Bacillus Subtilis Natto added

y = 1.7295x - 1.0745
R = 0.9835**

10

Control5

y = 1.4547x + 2.5968
R = 0.9953**

0

13.8

0

Significant
difference
at **p<0.01, * p<0.05
Bacillus
Subtilis
Natto added
Significant difference at **p≦0.01,*p≦0.05

Fig. 7 Relationship between rate of soil
loss and kinetic energy of raindrop

5
10
Kinetic energy (×10-5 J)

15**Confidence interval at p≦0.01

Fig. 8 Changes in soil loss rate

CONCLUSION
In this study, two experiments were carried out to investigate the effect of Bacillus subtilis Nattoaddition for mitigating splash erosion. Based on the experimental results, the rate of soil loss wasdecreased by Bacillus subtilis Natto addition. Moreover, hyphae of Bacillus subtilis Natto wereobserved in the soil which Bacillus subtilis Natto was applied. So, it was considered that Bacillus
subtilis Natto is able to form biological crust with growing hyphae.
In addition, there was a tendency that Bacillus subtilis Natto mitigated splash erosion until
kinetic energy of raindrop at 4.86×10-5 J/drop.
Therefore, it was concluded that Bacillus subtilis Natto is applicable to mitigate splash
erosion. In addition, it was found out that biological crust formed with Bacillus subtilis Natto startedⒸ ISERD

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to break at kinetic energy of raindrop 4.86×10-5 J/drop.
The results of this study showed that microorganisms which create viscid hyphae such as
Bacillus sp. may be applicable to mitigate splash erosion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude to the members of Lab. of Land and Water Use Engineeringin Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan for the meaningful discussion.
REFERENCES
Gopal, T. and Mihara, M. 2008. Palm shell filter strips as a conservation strategy in mitigating soil andnutrient losses. Eco-Engineering, 20 (2), 59-65.
Hara, T. 1990. Root of Natto. Chemical and Biology, 28 (10), 676-681, (in Japanese).
Hosoi, T. 2003. Probiotic effects of Bacillus subtilis (Natto). Journal of the Brewing Society of Japan, 98(12), 830-839.
Kawai, T., Kawamura, S. and Mihara, M. 2007. Effect of width in grass buffer strips on trapping
characteristics of soil and nutrient components using Ophiopogon japonics Ker-Gawl. Paper on
Environmental Information Science, 21, 591-594, (in Japanese).
Shimomura, S., Tomisaka, M., Shimada, M., Kobayashi, M., Fujisawa, H., Kurihara, J., Sakurai, J., Tagata,
S., Ozawa, K., Nagumo, F., Hoshikawa, A. and Nakano, T. 2007. Experimental studies on theeffectiveness of natural microorganisms on the ground surface at controlling erosion. Kouei Forum, 15,
21-29, (in Japanese).
Siriwattananon, L., Kawai, T. and Mihara, M. 2009. Effect of grass buffer strips using Ophiopogon japonicus
on reducing soil and nitrogen losses under different fertilization. Journal of Environmental Information
Science, 37 (5), 61-66.
Six, J., Feller, C., Denef, D., Ogle, S.M., de Moraes Sa, J.C. and Albrecht, A. 2002. Soil organic matter, biota
and aggregation in temperate and tropical soils - Effects of no-tillage. Agronomie, 22, 755-775.
Torillo, J. Jr. and Mihara, M. 2011. Soil erosion control by coconut husk buffer strip in Bohol island ofPhilippines. International Journal for Environmental and Rural Development, 2 (1), 25-30.
Torillo, J. Jr. and Mihara, M. 2014. Effects of retting treatment on coconut husk buffer strips for eliminating
nutrient losses. International Journal for Environmental and Rural Development, 4 (2), 185-190.

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Research article
erd

An Approach for Monitoring the Reforestation andConservation Efforts by Local Communities
HISASHI MORI*PASCO CORPORATION, Tokyo, Japan
Email: fammori@hanno.jp

AWADH KISHOR SAH
PASCO CORPORATION, Tokyo, JapanBHUWNESHWAR PRASAD SAH
PASCO CORPORATION, Tokyo, JapanMINAMI YAMAYAPASCO CORPORATION, Tokyo, JapanSENTHIL SELVARAJ
PASCO CORPORATION, Tokyo, Japan
Received 21 October 2014

Accepted 26 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Considering Philippines’s well defined commitment toward social forestry
system since 1970s, we examined its purpose of contribution, motivation and achievement
toward reforestation and forest conservation through interviews with related stakeholders,
as well as decadal forest cover changes by analyzing the forest type classification map of
two different period of time which were prepared based on Earth Observation Satellite(EOS) image data and field sampling. EOS based forest cover change analysis, coupledwith field sampling and stakeholder consultation, resulted into definitive facts and figures,
which can be used for reforestation and forest conservation decision making process.
Keywords community people, forest restoration, forest land-use plan, satellite image

INTRODUCTION
The Philippines has been carrying out Social Forest Program (SFP) since 1970s in order to preserve
the forest properly excluding government owned forest land. In the SFP, indigenous people andlocal communities have effectively used and managed remaining forest in their territories, and thegovernment took the initiative in developing community based monitoring and information system.
Under such circumstance, reforestation through National Greening Program (NGP) and forest
plantation with the participation of local communities has been extended throughout the country.
This Study has been conducted in Mangatarem area of Pangasinan province where local
communities have been dedicating to the forest restoration. Their effort is actively supported by
local government, NGO and DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources).
The main focus of this study is to analyze change of its spatial distribution in forest coveragein their land by using ASTER satellite images, which is one of the widely used EOS for such
purpose.
OBJECTIVE
The forest land cover is concentrated in the hilly area of Mangatarem town. The area has been wellmanaged for restoration of the forest land through series of creation of forestland and conservationⒸ ISERD

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activities by local communities. The area therefore was selected as a study site to examine theeffect of those efforts by local communities’ participatory forest conservation activities. The
location of the study site is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Location of the study area
METHODOLOGY
In order to analyze decadal forest cover changes, forest land cover types and its distribution has
been mapped by using EOS images acquired at two different period of time. Changes of the forest
cover were examined in association with the forest land use plan and participatory forest
management where local people had been involved in forest restorations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Current Status of Forest Conservation and Management in Mangatarem LGU
In the mountain of the study site, high endemic species of plants and animals (terrestrial vertebrate
species) are found, which has been confirmed by the recent surveys. Municipal Local Government
Unit (MLGU) of Mangatarem and DENR, in partnership with Haribon Foundation, have worked
together to further educate the Mangatarem community on forest restoration and conservation withthe support of donation from Japanese companies for planting trees (Municipality of Mangatarem,2013). The Forest Land Use Plan (FLUP) was developed for the conservation of the biodiversity of
the area. The location of the targeted activities is illustrated in Fig. 2, which form the part of thisstudy site.

NGP

sites

Fig. 2 Forest Land Use Plan (DENR, LGU (～2040)) over the study area and reforestation
areas (above) by NGP (DENR)Ⓒ ISERD

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Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of forest restoration by the community
Villagers of the communities, participating in the activity of restoration and conservation, arededicating themselves to planting trees, growing seedlings and taking care of the forest under the
FLUP. And the work is coordinated by MLGU with the technical and financial support from
Haribon Foundation; a local NGO; and Japanese companies respectively. For Japanese companies,
it is part of their CSR activities, while for Haribon Foundation, it is non-profit social contribution.
The concept is shown in Fig. 3. The generous contribution from all collaborating institutions,
mentioned above, resulted into the formulation of a Forest Land Use Plan (FLUP) (Borlagdan etal., 1990).
Land use in the forest land is restricted not to log without permission in accordance with the
FLUP (Fig. 2) and preserved strictly in some area. In parallel with the FLUP, afforestation has been
conducted since 2013 under the National Greening Program of DENR.
Social-Economic Factors of the Communities Surrounding the Forest Land
As discussed in previous section, effort of the local communities and LGU toward the participatory
forest conservation and restoration in the area is significant. Considering this fact, the study was
conducted through interviews to the stakeholder consisting of villagers in order to grasp the
purpose of contribution, dependence on the forest, livelihood and motivation to get involved in theCommunity-based Forest Management (CBFM). We therefore examined Mangatarem villagers’
considerations and activities toward the Forest Management & Conservation using outcome of theinterviews. As a result, following facts were found.
a. Profile of the community: Local government of Mangatarem consists of 82 barangays. Most of
the community people are engaging in farming rice and vegetables. Out of 82 barangays, 9 get
involved in CBFM. Furthermore, 10 barangays are participating in restoration of the forest under
NGP.
Table 1 Involvement in the forest restoration and conservation
Type
CBFM
NGP
Total No. of
Barangays

No. of Barangays
91082

Remarks

Including CBFM and NGP

b. Interviewee and findings: We interviewed 27 villagers in the barangays whose average age was
44.6 years old. Among them, the oldest interviewee was 78 years old and the youngest was 24
years old. In the interviews to the villagers, from relevant community, the main questions were (1)Ⓒ ISERD

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motivation to participate in the forest management and conservation, (2) main method ofcontribution to the forest management and conservation activities, (3) expectation from theirinvolvement in the forest management and conservation, and (4) measure to improve livelihood.
The obtained replies have been listed as shown in Table 3.
Table 2 Profile of interviewee
Type
Average age
Youngest
EldestNumber of Interviewee

Age
44.6 years old
24 years old
78 years old
27 Villagers

Table 3 Mangatarem villagers’ considerations and activities toward the forest conservation
and restoration
Factors noted
Motivation

Main Method of Contribution

Expectation from theiractivities
Measure to improve
livelihood with forest
management

Outstanding Answer
・Improve livelihood (80% of villagers interviewed)
・Yield and gain the co-benefits from the forest (80%)
・Preserve the forest for sustainable environment (88%)
・Nursery of seedling (80%)
・Plant seedlings (92%)
・Preserve forest for sustainable environment (81%)
・Grow and take care of planted trees (62%)
・Increase income and by-product (50%)
・Restoration of natural environment and biodiversity (95%)
・Mitigation of disasters (90%)
・Better landscape for people inhabiting (62%)
・ Plant valuable trees (75%)
・Enhance natural resources for Ecotourism (75%)

Degradation and Restoration of the Forest in the Area
To know what have happened in the areas where the people of the communities involved in
restoration and preservation of the forest under the FLUP, decadal forest cover changes has been
analyzed using the forest type classification map of two different period of time.
a. Land use and forest type classification: Land use including forest types, which is useful input
for forest management practice, were classified using ASTER satellite image. There are four
different types of forest cover in the study area (Fig. 4). The definition of each category of forest
types is given below.
Closed forest:
A type of forest with canopy cover over 70%
Degraded forest: A type of forest which possess uneven sizes of crown with some noticeable
open land
Open forest:
A type of forest with vegetation cover almost below 50% and grass landwith scattered trees
Agro forest:
A type of forest categorized as man-made plantation
Degraded forest is mostly found in hilly land adjacent to Zambales Mountains, whereas theclosed forest on relatively steep slopes of the mountain. And the open forest is embedded amongthem.
b. Forest Cover Change in FLUP Forest Land: The change in area of forest land during 10 years(2001-2010) was estimated to verify the significant change between the forest relatively close to
the communities involved in reforestation and conservation and the other forest land areas. The
summary of the result is shown in Table 4.
As shown in Fig. 5, forest area in the “Strict Restoration-Zone “decreased while the forest in
Restoration Zone-1 even increased slightly.
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Fig. 4 Land use and forest type classification
It should be noted that the area falling on the restoration-zone 1 is situated in the vicinity ofcommunities and villagers that have positively contributed to afforestation and planting trees.
Table 4 Decadal change of each forest type accommodating FLUP
Zone

2001 Area in (Ha)Closed Degraded Open
ForestForest Forest

Strict Restoration Zone 3,498.0
365.0
Restoration Zone1
117.9
Restoration Zone2
46.5
Production Zone

4,027.4

658.9
473.2
189.6
128.8
1,450.5

88.7
176.4
27.3
26.3
318.6

Total
4,245.5
1,014.7
334.8
201.6

5,796.5

2001

2010 Area in (Ha)Closed Degraded Open
ForestForest Forest
3,152.4
212.5
19.7
34.7
3,419.2

705.0
758.7
272.9
237.8
1,974.4

38.4
108.2
16.4
10.9
173.9

Total
3,895.8
1,079.3
309.0
283.4

5,567.4

2010

Decadal change of forest classification image

Restoration-zone

Fig. 5 Comparison of decadal change of the forest area

(Features in red color on the left picture in below line depict the recovery of young forest)Ⓒ ISERD

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Focusing on the change in each zone of the FLUP, the Closed Forest inside “Strict
Restoration-zone” has been preserved relatively well, say 90% of existing forest remain unchanged,
while the forest area decreased accounting for 48% in other restoration zones. On the other hand,
restoration of forest has been found in Restoration-zone resulting in increase of the forest cover by
48% overall, however they fall in degraded forest (secondary forest in this case).
These facts infer the seedlings or shrub in the grassland in the study area have grown high andbigger after nearly 10 years as seen in Fig. 6.
Since Mangatarem LGU have been dedicating to encouraging the villagers to participate in therestoration of forest, where each barangay shall establish at least 10 hectares of woodlots within the
production zone identified under FLUP. Their effort seems to bring significant effects in the forest
restoration.

Fig. 6 Restoration of the grass land with shrub after 10 years
CONCLUSION
Monitoring of the forest change in the forest land where local people of the communities are
involving in restoration of the forest was examined and proved to be effective to certain extent inorder to verify their efforts. To make it more conclusive that the forest conservation can besustainably continued, method to evaluate the effect brought from participatory restoration of theforest seems to be more important. It is because of the stakeholders can be encouraged to sustain
their incentives for participating in forest conservation activities since increase of the biomass will
be valued as a credit under the scheme such as REDD+ mechanism.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is noted that great contribution of other organizations such as Japan Space Systems (JSS) and
Department of Environment and Natural Resource (DENR) remained vital to complete this study.
JSS provided ASTER satellite data and DENR played a courteous role of collecting the related
data. Deep appreciation is given to DENR local staff as well as staff of Mangatarem LGU who
assisted in the field work and helped in conducting interviews with villagers, especially to Engr.
Tomas Vergata and staff of Haribon Foundation, Ms. Maria Belinda de la Paz and Mr. Noel A.
Resurrecion.
REFERECNCE
Borlagdan, S.B., Alegado, E.M., Carillo, I.M. and Alcaria, J.F.A. 1990. Social forestry network, The Cebu
Integrated Social Forestry Project, Network Paper No. 10c. Cebu, Philippines.
Municipality of Mangatarem. 2013. Critical Habitat Management Plan, 2014-2018. Pangasinan, Philippines.

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Research article
erd

Cultural Ecosystem Service Assessment in a SemiMountainous Area of Japan: Case in Toyota City
KIICHIRO HAYASHI*
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Email: maruhaya@esi.nagoya-u.ac.jp

MAKOTO OOBANational Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, JapanYASUHIRO HASEGAWA
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan
Received 4 December 2014

Accepted 26 April 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract One of the categories included in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)developed in 2005 is cultural ecosystem services (CESs), which includes a variety offactors such as aesthetic values, recreation and ecotourism. In order to assess the CESs, asimple questionnaire survey was conducted in a semi-mountainous rural town in Japan. The
town of Inabu in Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture, was selected for the case study. The faceto-face (FTF) survey was conducted from October to November 2012 and prioritized forestrelated sites in the town. According to the results, aesthetic values received the highest
score among the CESs, followed by recreation and ecotourism, while each forest-relatedsite had a different combination of CES values. By using cluster analysis, three clusters
were identified: aesthetic values, recreation and ecotourism, and ‘others’. In some sites, the
CES scores differed between residents and visitors such that residents recognized a wider
variety of CES than visitors did.
Keywords cultural service, biodiversity, ecosystem service, forest, JapanINTRODUCTION
Cultural ecosystem service (CES) is one of the ecosystem service (ES) categories in theMillennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) developed in 2005 (MA, 2005). The CES category
includes ten benefits, such as spiritual and religious values, aesthetic values, recreation andecotourism, cultural heritage values, educational values, and several others (MA, 2005). There havebeen several studies on ES assessment (MA, 2005; Costanza et al., 1997; Milcu et al., 2013). Whilemost of these studies focused on ESs (such as provisioning and regulating), the studies on CESs
were limited (Brancalion et al., 2013). However, in the field of environmental economics,
numerous studies have evaluated part of the CES, such as recreation or aesthetic value (TEEB,
2010). These studies endeavoured to place a monetary value on the cultural aspects of nature; insome cases, it was difficult to divide the values of each separate aspect from the whole. Recently,
the number of studies focusing on CES assessment has increased (Daniel et al., 2012; Brancalion,
et al., 2013; López-Santiago et al., 2014; Garcia-Nieto et al., 2013; Ota et al., 2013; Weyland andLaterra, 2014). Some of these utilized questionnaire surveys in an attempt to capture the people’s
perception of CESs. For example, Brancalion et al. (2013) studied aesthetic values, recreation andtourism values, religious and psychological values, educational values, knowledge generation, etc.
in the Brazilian forest restoration project. López-Santiago et al. (2014) studied 16 ESs including
tranquillity and relaxation, tourism, cultural identity, hunting, and aesthetic value in the case oftranshumance in Spain. Ota et al. (2013) conducted a subjective assessment study on 36 ESs
including 11 CES-related items. However, these studies did not focus on the identification andprioritization of forest-related sites in small scale areas. Also they did not capture the ESⒸ ISERD

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characteristics of the sites which would be needed for spatially large scale assessment.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this study was to identify major forest-related sites in a semi-mountainous area andthe characteristics of their CESs by employing a simple survey method. The town of Inabu in
Toyota City, Japan, was selected for the case study.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
Toyota City is located in Aichi Prefecture (Fig. 1). Inabu (the city branch office of which is at
35.216N, 137.509E) is located in the northeast part of the city, where about 87% of the area isforested (Toyota City, 2014a). The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) states that the averageannual temperature for this area in 2013 was 11.9 °C and the average precipitation was 1785.0 mm(JMA, http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/index.html). The area of the town is approximately 99 km2. The
town has about 2,600 residents (Toyota City, 2014b) and is located 50–60 km east of Nagoya City,
which is the third largest metropolitan area in Japan. The town is a typical example of a Japanesesemi-mountainous area.
(c)

(b)

(a)

Nagoya city

Branch office of the city
Toyota city
Yahagi riverJapan

Aichi Prefecture

Inabu town

Fig. 1 Maps of the study area: (a) Japan with the Aichi Prefecture in the star symbol, (b)Aichi Prefecture outlined in black, Toyota City outlined in grey, rives in blue, (c) Inabu
outlined in red
Source: (a) and (b) made by ArcGIS10.1 and (c) satellite image ©JAXA/ Distribution RESTEC

Methods
First, a document survey focusing on CESs was conducted in order to identify forest-related sites inInabu. Second, a simple open-ended questionnaire was developed to ascertain respondents’opinions of 11 sites (Table 1); they could choose sites and also add others freely. The survey also
contained questions on basic individual attributes including age, gender, municipality of residence,
visiting frequency, etc. The reason for employing an open-ended format was to capture the people’s
direct opinions of a site. Third, a face-to-face (FTF) survey was conducted from October toNovember 2012 by the authors, research staff, and students in the author’s lab with residents andvisitors at local sites. Among the 11 sites, three (namely, Ooidaira Park, Donguri-no-sato (adjacent
to Donguri Hot Spring and the Inabu Cultural Exchange Facility), and Mennoki Primary Forest)
were selected as locations for the FTF survey as well as Inabu branch city office at a local event
because the other sites received too few visitors during that season. Also during this period,
interview surveys were conducted with an Inabu branch city officer, the city tourist office, a local
museum, local knowledgeable people, and several other persons. Fourth, after collecting the answer
sheets, two of the authors divided the responses for each site among the CESs based on theclassifications of the MA (2005). If there was at least one explanation of a CES of a site, score‘one’ was assigned to that CES for the site; if not, score ‘zero’ was assigned. Then, scores for eachⒸ ISERD

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CES were summed up both by site and overall. In cases where an answer sheet included several
comments on a number of sites, each comment was treated as an individual comment for the site.
Table 1 Eleven forest-related sites in Inabu, Toyota City
Site name

General description

Donguri Hot Spring
Hot spring located near National Road 153 with some restaurants and shops
Ooidaira Park
Memorial park for a great man in this area and now is famous for autumn leaves
Mennoki Primary Forest
Primary forest of Fagus crenata and designated as a quasi-national park
Big Weeping Cherry Trees 370 year old tree in Zuiryuuji Temple and designated as a prefectural natural treasure
OthersTakadoya Wetland (famous for autumn leaves), Big Japanese Judas Trees (prefectural
natural treasure), Oshikawa Waterfall, Big Ginkgo Tree (city natural treasure),
Natsuyakejyou Mountain (hiking spot, famous for Lycoris sanguinea var. kiushiana),
Inabu Cultural Exchange Facility, Wariyama (historical shared mountain forest system)
Source: Inabu Tourist Office (2014) amended by the authors

After collecting the data, a statistical analysis was conducted. First, as a basic study, afrequency distribution was developed for each CES in order to examine the cultural aspects of theInabu forest sites as a whole. Second, the number of comments was totalled by site in order to gain
an understanding of how the people prioritized the different areas. For this calculation, comments
for a site were excluded if they were obtained through an onsite survey. For example, if an onsite
survey was conducted in Ooidaira Park, comments on the park from that survey were excluded in
the site totals. This exclusion was only applied to the calculation of site totals, and every effective
answer sheet was used in the other analyses. Third, a cluster analysis on the total number ofcomments by site was conducted to categorize the CESs. Fourth, specific characteristics were
examined by site and by residence. Fifth a logistic regression analysis was conducted focusing on
cultural heritage values. The statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS statistics ver.22 (IBM).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 2 shows the data collected in the FTF surveys. A total of 92 valid answer sheets werecollected (95 were collected in all). In these valid answer sheets, there were 271 comments
discussing all 11 sites.
Fig. 2(a) shows the percentage of responses that each cultural service received. Aesthetic
values ranked highest among the CESs, followed by recreation and ecotourism. In order to compare
the FTF survey results, the following data was developed: first, the explanations given by the Inabu
Tourist Office website (Inabu Tourist Office, 2014) of the sites’ various cultural resources wereanalysed and divided among the CESs. If there was an explanation of a cultural aspect, score ‘one’
was assigned to the CES in question. If not, ‘zero’ was assigned. Second, the total scores for each
CES were calculated. When the FTF survey results were compared with the Inabu Tourist Office
data, it was found that the two highest scoring subcategories were the same: aesthetic values andrecreation and ecotourism. One significant difference was that cultural heritage values werementioned far more frequently on the Inabu Tourist Office website than in the FTF results.
Fig. 2(b) shows the number of comments that each site received with Ooidaira Park earning
the most, followed by Donguri Hot Spring, Big Weeping Cherry Trees, and Mennoki Primary
Forest (listed in descending order). There was very little data available on forest site tourism. Aichi
Prefecture (2013) statistics reported that in that year, Donguri-no-sato received the most visitors,
followed by Donguri Hot Spring and Ooidaira Park. The other forest sites were not listed in thestatistics.
Next, a cluster analysis (using average linkage between groups and squared Euclidean
distance) revealed that the CESs provided by the Inabu forests were categorized into three clusters:
aesthetic values, recreation and ecotourism, and ‘others’ (Fig. 3).
Specific characteristics were examined by site and by residence. High scoring CESs differedamong the sites (Fig. 4(a)). For example, Ooidaira Park scored highest, nearly 80%, in aesthetic
values. However, Donguri Hot Spring scored highest, over 90%, in recreation and ecotourism.
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Furthermore, in some sites the CES scores differed between residents and visitors. Fig. 4(b) showsthat the Mennoki Primary Forest received high scores in aesthetic values, cultural heritage values,
and recreation and ecotourism (in descending order) from residents. Visitors, on the other hand,ranked aesthetic values and recreation and ecotourism highly while rarely mentioning cultural
heritage values. Fig. 4(c) shows the sum of all the scores for all sites for both residents and visitors.
Visitors had more focused values than residents did, as their scores were concentrated on aesthetic
value and recreation and ecotourism. Additionally, residents placed a higher priority on cultural
heritage values. The total scores by residents were larger than visitors’ even though they completed
fewer answer sheets (Table 2). Thus, it may be concluded that residents recognized a wider varietyof CESs and better understood each site.
Fig. 5 shows the spatial characteristics of aesthetic values and cultural heritage values for
Ooidaira Park and Mennoki Primary Forest (by ArcGIS 10.1, ESRI). For both sites, the spatial
range of visitors for aesthetic values (Figs. 5(a) and (c)) was wider than that for cultural heritage
values (Figs. 5(b) and (d)).
Table 2 Basic data from the collected answer sheets and comments in Inabu
Number of answer sheets collected
Answer sheets All collected
Valid collected
GenderMale answer sheets
Female answer sheets
No data for gender
Residence
Inabu residents
Visitors to Inabu

N
95
92
38
48
6
38
54

%
100.0
41.3
52.2
6.5
41.3
58.7

Number of comments received
Age
Under 20 year old
20–39 years old
40–59 years old
Over 60 year old
No data for age
Residence Inabu residents
Visitors to Inabu
Total comments received

N
20
62
71
110
8
141
130
271

%
7.4
22.9
26.2
40.6
3.0
52.0
48.0
100.0

(b)

(a)

Fig. 2 Percentage of scores of each CES and the number of explanations on the Inabu
Tourist Office website(%) (a) and number of comments by forest sites (N=229)+ (b)Note: N=229 means that 42 comments (which were collected in on site surveys) were excluded from the total number ofcomments (N=271)

Fig. 3 Cluster analysis for forest sites by CES in Inabu (using average linkage
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(a)

(c)

(b)

Fig. 4 Percentage of CES scores for Donguri Hot Spring+ and Ooidaira Park++ (a), percentage of
CES scores for Mennoki Primary Forest+++ (b), total CES scores for all sites++++ (c)Note: +total scores N=44, ++total scores N=86, +++total scores N=46, ++++total score N=313

(a)
(a)

(b)

(d)

(c)

Inabu
Inabu

ToyotaToyotaCity
City

Fig. 5 Total Ooidaira scores by municipality for aesthetic values (a) and cultural heritage
values (b), and Mennoki Primary Forest scores for aesthetic values (c) and cultural
heritage values (d) by visitors’ municipality of residence, blue symbol means
Inabu branch office
Table 3 Logistic regression analysis of cultural heritage values in Mennoki Primary Forest(Method = backward stepwise (Wald, P-value in 0.1 and out 0.1))
Basic data
B
Number of comments
Included in analysis (N=35)
Dependent variable
Cultural heritage values (1: yes, 0: no)
Independent variables
Gender: 1: male, 0: female
Age range: 1:<20, 3:20–39, 5:40–59,7: 60<
Visiting frequency: 1: several/y- 5:everyday+
Residence: 1: residents in Inabu, 0: visitors

Model Summary:

Variables in the Equation
S.E.
Wald df Sig

Exp(B)

Model 1
Visiting frequency

Age range
GenderConstant
Model 2
Residence
GenderConstant

Hosmer and Lemshow test
Chi-square
df

-.928
.766
3.681
-5.166

.442
.399
1.755
2.501

4.409
3.698
4.401
4.266

1
1
1
1

.036
.054
.036
.039

.395
2.152
39.705
.006

2.157
2.288
-4.383

1.225
1.220
1.490

3.102
3.519
8.649

1
1
1

.078
.061
.003

8.642
9.856
.012

Sig.

Cox and Snell
R squareModel 1
1.112
6
.981
.301
Model 2
.171
2
.918
.213
+: converted to values by 3/year, 4.5/half year, 2.25/month, 1.56/week and 2/3/day, and calculated log

Nagelkerke R
square.502.355

To clarify the factors of cultural heritage values, logistic regression analysis was conducted on
Mennoki Primary Forest with cultural heritage values set as the dependent variable. Table 3 shows
the basic data and the results of two selected models. First, nonparametric correlations among thevariables were checked. Residence and visiting frequency had a rather high correlation of –.570**;
thus, two types of variable selection were tested. Model 1 included all of the variables and Model 2
used ‘residence’ instead of ‘visiting frequency’. Both results showed that residence-related factors,
namely visiting frequency and residence, were one of the effective variables along with gender.

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CONCLUSION
In the study, a simple method was used to assess CESs. According to the results, aesthetic values
scored highest among CESs, followed by recreation and ecotourism. Furthermore, each forest site hada different combination of CES values. By using cluster analysis, three clusters were identified:aesthetic values, recreation and ecotourism, and ‘others’. In some sites, the CES scoring differed
between residents and visitors, indicating that residents recognized a wider variety of CES values
than visitors did, such as cultural heritage values. Future studies should include a variety of
respondent attributes, such as economic condition and education. By utilizing the results, further
studies on detailed and comprehensive assessments of CESs could be conducted. In the future, by
upgrading the study method, the beneficiaries, and the burden of cost for biodiversity or ES
provisions could be identified. This identification may be useful in the development of better policies
such as payment for ecosystem service (PES) and biodiversity offset policies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank for Toyota City Inabu Branch; Inabu Tourist Office; Group on Jyouga Mountain Lovers;
Furuhashi Museum; Donguri Hot Spring; A. Dhakal, T. Ota, and others for supporting the survey.
This research was supported by the fund from the ‘Funding Program for Next Generation WorldLeading Researchers’ from JSPS and MEXT, Japan, and the fund of Nagoya University, ESI.
REFERENCES
Aichi Prefecture. 2013. Aichi tourist recreation user statistics. Aichi Prefecture, Japan. (in Japanese)
Brancalion, P.H.S., Cardozo, I.V., Camatta, A., Aronson, J. and Rodrigues, R.R. 2013. Cultural ecosystemservices and popular perceptions of the benefits of an ecological restoration project in the Brazilian
Atlantic forest. Restor. Ecol., 22 (1), 65-71.
Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O’Neill,
R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. and van den Belt, M. 1997. The value of the world’s
ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387, 253-260.
Daniel, T.C., Muhar, A., Arnberger, A., Aznar, O., Boyd, J.W., Chan, K.M.A., Costanza, R., Elmqvist, T.,
Flint, C.G., Gobster, P.H., Grêt-Regamey, A., Lave, R., Muhar, S., Penker, M., Ribe, R.G.,
Schauppenlehner, T., Sikor, T., Soloviy, I., Spierenburg, M., Taczanowska, K., Tam, J. and Von derDunk, A. 2012. Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109 (23), 8812-8819.
Garcia-Nieto, A.P., Garcia-Llorente, M., Iniesta-Arandia, I., and Martin-Lopez, B. 2013. Mapping forest
ecosystem services: from providing units to beneficiaries. Ecosyst. Serv., 4, 126-138.
Inabu Tourist Office. 2014. Inabu tourist office web site, Japan. http://inabu-kankou.com/ (in Japanese)
López-Santiago, C.A., Oteros-Rozas, E., Martín-López, B., Plieninger, T., González Martín, E., andGonzález, J.A. 2014. Using visual stimuli to explore the social perceptions of ecosystem services incultural landscapes: the case of transhumance in Mediterranean Spain. Ecol. Soc., 19 (2), 27. (available
from; http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-06401-190227)
MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island Press,
Washington, D.C., USA.
Milcu, A.I., Hanspach, J., Abson, D. and Fischer, J. 2013. Cultural ecosystem services: a literature review
and prospects for future research. Ecol. Soc., 18 (3), 44. (available from; http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES05790-180344)
Ota, T., Hayashi, K., Ito, H. and Ooba, M. 2013. Exploratory data analysis of subjective importance toecosystem services provided by a restored ecosystem: a case of forest in Toyota City, Aichi. J. Hum. Env.
Symbiosis, 22, 38-50. (in Japanese)
TEEB. 2010. The Economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: ecological and economic foundations. ed
Kumar P, Earthscan, Oxford, UK.
Toyota City. 2014a. Toyota forest white paper of 2012. Toyota City, Japan. (in Japanese)
Toyota City. 2014b. Population in Toyota city. Toyota City, Japan. (in Japanese)
Weyland, F., Laterra, P. 2014. Recreation potential assessment at large spatial scales: A method based in theecosystem services approach and landscape metrics. Ecol. Indic., 39, 34-43.
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Research article
erdNutrient Value and Palatability for Cattle on Corn Stover
SilageBUNNA CHEA*
Centre for Livestock Development Studies, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: bunna_chea@yahoo.com

THEARY HOUT
Centre for Livestock Development Studies, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SEREY MOB
Centre for Livestock Development Studies, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

KOUCH THENG
Centre for Livestock Development Studies, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

MOM SENG
Centre for Livestock Development Studies, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 6 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract As cultivated areas in Cambodia have increased, feed resources for feeding andgrazing cattle have decreased significantly. Plantings of yellow corn, however, haveincreased substantially, in particular, in the north-west of Cambodia; consequently, a hugeamount of corn residue is being produced but remains unused, despite offering potential asa cattle feed, particularly after ensiling. The aim of this study was to identify nutritive value
and palatability of corn stover silage for cattle feeding. Corn stover was chopped at
approximate 4 to 6 cm in length and ensilaged with different treatments as follows: 15%
water (CSN), 3% salt+15% water (CSSa), 3% sugar palm+15% water (CSSu), and 10% rice
bran+15% water (CSRB). Cattle were adapted over a 5 day periods and 1 kg of each silage
was offered to each animal. The result shown that crude protein content in silage increasedon average from 6.41 to 9.7%. Within the treatments the chemical composition of dry
matter, crude protein, organic matter, ash and crude fiber were similar. However, the intake
of silage was significantly different. Cattle consumed more CSSu (177.88 gDM) than theother types of silages and ate about 100 gDM or less. CSSa was the lowest intake. In
conclusion, sugar (palm sugar) should be added to reach carbohydrate requirement in orderto help the silage fermentation process as the stover was mature with high DM% andneeded additional flavour added to the silage.
Keywords cattle, corn stover silage, flavour, palatability, silage

INTRODUCTION
Cattle play an important role in Cambodian farming systems and contribute to the householdincome. The estimated cattle population in 2011 was about 3,406,972 heads (DAHP, 2012).
The total estimated quantity of corn produced in 2012 was 780,774 tons, 83.9% of red cornand 16.1% of white corn, that was mostly grown in Battambang (106, 789.00 ha), Pailin (27,347.00ha), and Kandal (18,805.00 ha) and 4,028,404 tons of fresh corn residue (leave, stem, bushes andcob) was produced in 2010 (FAO, 2012).
Cambodian cattle farmers depend mainly on the use of natural feed resources (Mob et al.,2014), and feed availability is the most significant constraint on cattle production in Cambodia(Pen et al., 2009; Mob et al., 2014). Martin (2013) recommended that some corn stover should beⒸ ISERD

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left in the field to conserve the soil, improve crop water-use efficiency, and feeding cattle. However,
the remaining should be used for other purposes, although, currently, few cattle farmers utilize theresidue for feeding (Mob et al., 2014). Feeding or grazing cattle in cropland after harvesting only
provides feed to cattle for short while. Moreover, during the harvesting period, other natural feed
resources are in abundance, leading to less use of fresh crop residues. Limin (2001) suggested thatstoring maize as silage can be an outstanding way to store maize crop residues, but to maximize
quality, it has to be ensiled using proper methods to create an anaerobic environment.
The fibrous increasing in the plants can lead to undesirable results of silage as a rapid
development of mould from difficult of removing oxygen (Randy et al., 1999) and inefficient
fermentation (Clark et al., 2009). Moreover, the more mature the plants the less digestible the dietssince there are a loss of nitrogen and carbohydrate (Randy et al., 1999). These studies attempted to
improve the quality of silage by adding extra carbohydrates during the silage making process.
Silage can be fed any time and is very palatable to livestock (Anon, 2013) and increases
productivity of beef and dairy cattle (Chin, 2002). The large amount of corn residues produced in
Cambodia can be stored and fed to cattle via hay making and silage making (Martin, 2013).
However, feed intake becomes a constraint for cattle production (Mob et al., 2014). By improving
the palatability of silage by using additives, intakes can be improved.
OBJECTIVE
This study was conducted to identify chemical contents of corn stover silage mixed with different
additives, and to investigate their effects on palatability.
METHODOLOGY
Silage Preparation and Experimental Animals
At harvesting time 105 day-old, sweet corn stover was obtained from farmers in Lerkdek district,Kandal province, Cambodia and cut into 5 cm lengths above the cob. Then, the stover was
immediately transported to Royal University of Agriculture (RUA) and chopped into
approximately 4 to 6 cm lengths using a cutter machine. The chopped stover was fermented for 75
days with different ensilaging treatments: 15% water (CSN), 3% salt+15% water (CSSa), 3% sugar
palm+15% water (CSSu), or 10% rice bran+15% water (CSRB) and transferred into plastic bagswith each bag weighing 2kg and hand compress.
Four crossbred Haryana beef cattle, 2 bulls (2.5 year-old) and 2 cows (3 year-old), wereassigned to study on the palatability of corn stover silage. Prior to the experiment, all cattle wereadapted at least 5 days with corn stover fermented with 15% water. After that four trays containing
1 kg each of the four kinds of silage were offered to each animal at 8 am. At first, animals wereallowed to smell the silage for about 2 minutes and then they were allowed to select and eat for
about 10 minutes. The residues were collected and recorded then sub-sampled for chemical
analysis.
Data Collection and Analysis
After 75 days of ensilaging, samples of each silage were collected and analysed for dry matter(DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), crude ash (Ash) according to AOAC (1955) andcrude fibre (CF) (Van Soest et al., 1991) at graduate school laboratory, Royal University ofAgriculture. Prior the experiment, the silages (200 g) were taken for chemical analysis and also
after the experiment.

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Data Analysis
All data obtained from the present study were subjected to One-way ANOVA of variance using
SPSS 16.0 for analyze of the average of chemical composition of silage and feed intake. Significant
differences between the variables were identified using LSD multiple range test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Preservation of crop residues can be challenging to some producers as it needs proper methods andprocedures to ensure the silage is in good condition. Harvesting plants for making silage must
consider the stage of maturity of the plant. Moisture content in plant is very important if the plant is
too young or too old; it can affect the quality of silage. In this study, we tried to use the mature crop
residue that is produced in large quantities in local areas.
Before ensiling, the stover had 6.41% crude protein and the dry matter was 45% (Table 1).
However, after preservation, the crude protein increased to about 9.7%. There were no differences
between treatments in crude protein content, with an observed range from 9.15 to 10.45% (Table 2).
This finding agreed with those of Kilmer and Hoyer (2012) that ensiling can produce high feed
quality for ruminants.
Table 1 Chemical composition of samples
SamplesCorn stover
Rice bran

DM (%)CP (%)OM (%)Ash (%)

CF (%)

45.00
93.05

6.41
11.53

85.12
84.18

0.35
0.41

22.30
11.56

Table 2 Chemical composition of corn stover silages
Type of corn stoversilagesDM (%)CP (%)OM (%)Ash (%)

CF (%)

Mean

Mean

Mean

Mean

Mean

CSN
CSSa
CSSu
CSRB
SEM
P

40.09
35.74
40.21
42.63
1.41
0.399

9.32
9.87
9.15
10.45
0.22
0.153

88.83
80.80
84.14
86.40
1.23
0.103

0.31
0.50
0.44
0.39
0.02
0.116

25.22
23.75
24.14
22.61
0.56
0.456

(CSN: Corn stover + no additives, CSSa: Corn stover + added salt, CSSu: Corn stover + added sugar palm, CSRB: Cornstover + added rice bran, SE: Standard Error Mean, P: Probability)

There were significant differences between the treatments (P=0.000) in the amount of silage
eaten by cattle (Table 3). In ten minutes eating, cattle showed a strong preference for CSSu (177.88
g). Consumption of other types of silage was about 100 g or less. CSSa (57.21 g) had the lowest
intake.
As the corn stover was collected to ensile at harvesting stage that cause to the lack ofcarbohydrate and moisture (45% DM, Table 1). Sugar palm and rice bran (grade 3) were used toencourage the silage fermentation in which the acetic bacteria play a vital role in silage
fermentation process. This agree with Yokota and Ohshima (1997) that used raw or/and defatted
rice bran to better additive on the fermentation quality of the silage. The less intake of CSRB in the
study may come from the long term preservation (75 days). According to Limin (2001), adding true
carbohydrate such as molasses could encourage the fermentation process and Limin (2014) also
indicated that silage additive with molasses effects on lactic fermentation, reducing silage pH,
discouraging a clostridia fermentation and proteolysis, and generally decreasing organic matter
losses that it agreed with those of Keady (1996) that used molasses as silage additive improvesilage preservation and silage DM intake, but did not show the silage digestibility or animalⒸ ISERD

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performance. From our results, adding palm sugar to silage not only improved silage fermentation
but also increased palatability for cattle in comparison to non-additive silage and it provided
include a good odour, colour, flavour, and texture. Jerry (2013) claimed that some researchattempted to prove adding salt to forage material at the time of ensiling can improve silage
fermentation, and with his result not only adding 40 g of salt/1 kg of fresh sorghum did show
positive effect, but it did also with the combination of lactic bacteria. However, it is argued by thestudy of Shockey and Borger (1991) that adding salt (4 g of salt/1 kg fresh alfalfa) would inhibit
growth of Clostridium and lactic acid bacteria result the silage was not well-preserved. With our
result, adding salt 3% made less intake and short-preservation. Adding 15% water could increase
artificial moisture and can aid in dissolving sugar and salt. According Jerry (2013) found that no
additive sorghum silage contained 13.1 and 5 g/kg dry matter of butyric and propionic acidrespectively result from fermentation by clostridia bacteria that lead to less energy value andreduced palatability.
Table 3 Silage intake of corn stover silages (gDM)
Type of corn stover silages
CSN
CSSa
CSSu
CSRB

Mean
105.13b57.21c177.88a81.34bc

SEM
10.29

P
0.000

(CSN: Corn stover + no additives, CSSa: Corn stover + added salt, CSSu: Corn stover + added sugar palm, CSRB: Cornstover + added rice bran, SE: Standard Error Mean, P: Probability, significant different: a>b>c)

CONCLUSION
The study shows that ensiling corn stover increases its crude protein content by 3.29%. Corn stover
ensiled with added sugar is more palatable for cattle than the corn stover silage without additives,or with added salt or rice bran.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The most sincerely thanks are to Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research(ACIAR): ASEM/2010/049, the Center for Livestock Development Studies, and graduate schoollaboratory, Royal University of Agriculture for their kind support on research fund and facility. The
author also wishes to acknowledge the contributions of Miss Chenda EN and Miss Sreychou
HENG who conducted the chemical analysis at graduate school, Royal University of Agriculture.
REFERENCES
Anon, 2013. Silage making for small scale farmers. FAO/USAID. (available from; http://pdf.usaid.
gov/pdf_docs/PNADQ897.pdf)
AOAC., 1995. Official method of analysis, 16th ed. Animal Feeds: Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, VA, USA.
Chin, F.Y. 2002. Ensilaging of tropical forages with particular reference to South East Asian systems,
Department of Veterinary Seriveces, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Paper presented at the 13 thInternational Silage Conference, 11-13th September, 2002. (available from: http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/pasture/spectopics/chinpaper.htm)
Clark I., James B., Mike P., Linden G., and Jody G. 2009. Harvesting corn silage by plant moisture.
AG/Farmland/2009-03pr. (available from; extension.usu.edu/htm/publications/file=10450)
DAHP, 2012. Summarize report of animal production and health tasks in 2011 and proposed in 2012 (Khmer
Version). Department of Animal Production and Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
FAO, 2012. National assessment of Cambodia’s main crop and fodder resources (draft final report), Centre
for Livestock and Agricultural Development, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. 7-9, 25-26.

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Keady, T.W.J. 1996. A review of the effects of molasses treatment of unwilted grass at ensiling on silage
fermentation, digestibility and intake, and on animal performance. Irish Journal of Agricultural and Food
Research, 35, 141.
Kilmer, L. and Hoyer, S 2012. Making quality corn silage. (Retrieved March 25, 2014. From; http://www.
extension.iastate.edu/dairyteam/)
Jerry W.S. 2013. Salt may improve corn and sorghum silage fermentation. (Retrieved May 19, 2015. From:
www.saltinstitute.org/wp.../First-Quarter-2013-Sorghum.pdf)
Limin, K.J. 2001. Silage fermentation and additives. (Retrieved January 09, 2014, from: http://www1.
foragebeef.ca/$Foragebeef/frgebeef.nsf/all/frg69/$FILE/silagefermentationadditives.pdf)
Limin, K.J. 2014. A review on silage additives and enzymes. (Retrieved May 19, 2015, form:
http://ag.udel.edu/anfs/faculty/kung/articles/a_review_on_silage_additiv)
MAFF, 2013. Annual report for agriculture forestry and fisheries 2012-2013. Phnom Penh: MAFF.
Martin, R. 2013. Crop residues as a potential cattle feed in north-west Cambodia. ACIAR project
ASEM/2010/049 (Crops+Cows=Cash): discussion paper, September 2013.
Mob, S., Seng, M., Theng, K., and Chea, B. 2014. Cattle production systems in NW Cambodia. LivestockResearch for Rural Development. Volume 26, Article #42. (Retrieved April 3, 2014, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd26/3/sere26042.htm)
Pen, M., Savage, D., Stür, W. and Seng, M. 2009. Constraint to cattle production of small-scale farmers in
Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia. In: Proc. of the Tropentag 2009 Conference on International
Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural Development. (Retrieved July 09,
2013, from: http://www.tropentag.de/2009/abstracts/full/528.pdf.)
Randy, S., Joe, L. and Kevin, S. 1999. Here are some tips on corn silage harvest management. *A version ofthis article appeared in July, 1999 issue of Hoard’s Dairyman. (Retrieved March 14, 2014, from:http://www.uwex.edu/ces/dairynutrition/documents/csharv99.pdf.)
Shockey, W.L. and Borger, D.C. 1991. Effect of salt on fermentation of alfalfa. 2. Treatment with sodium
chloride, Clostridium butyricum, and lactic acid bacteria. J. Dairy Sci. 74:160-166
Van Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.B. and Lewis, B.A., 1991. Methods for dietary fiber neutral detergent fiber andnon-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science, 74, 3583-3597.
Yokota, H. and M. Ohshima. 1997. Silage quality of napier grass (Pennisetum pupureum Schum.) ensiled
with rice bran. Anim. Sci. Technol. 68, 305-309.

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Research article
erd

Growth Rate of Acropora nobilis Attached to Table Type
Framework
JESRELLJANE AARON-AMPER*
Bohol Island State University, Candijay Campus, Bohol, Philippines
Email: jesrelljane@gmail.com

JOSUEH M. GULAYAN
Bohol Island State University, Candijay Campus, Bohol, Philippines

CHRISTOPHER OLAVIDES
Bohol Island State University, Candijay Campus, Bohol, Philippines

SAMUEL J. GULAYAN
Bohol Island State University, Candijay Campus, Bohol, Philippines
Received 22 January 2015

Accepted 6 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The Municipality of Panglao has been experiencing constant pressures caused byhuman and natural factor that affect the resources within the municipality particularly thereefs. Reefs are underwater structures created by the growth of corals. It has the highest
gross of primary productivity in marine systems. However, sustainable practices to maintainthe state and well-being of reefs have been largely ignored. Transplanting coral fragments
or ramets is one way of restoring damaged portion of reefs. Hence, this study aims todetermine the survival and growth rates of ramets in a table type framework deployed at 5,
10, and 20 m depth in three months. Coral fragments found scattered on the reef bottoms
were cut into smaller fragments (ramets). There were 16 ramets attached in a single coral
nursery unit. One hundred forty three representing three levels of depths and three
replicates per depth. Monitoring was conducted monthly. The survivorship of Acropora
nobilis was found out to be at 88.7%. Ramets had overgrown the plastic cable ties as well as
steel bars indicating three dimensional growths. The growth rate of the ramets were highbut there was no significant difference found with depth (p=0.066). The highest growth rate
was found out to be at 20 m, with a mean growth rate of 0.81 cm mo⁻ . The high survivaland growth rate of A. nobilis proves that it is a good species for coral reef restoration in
Panglao, Bohol.
Keywords coral, growth rate, framework, branching coral, survivorship

INTRODUCTION
Coral reefs have been in existence for many decades, an evident result of the complex constructive
process. Among the five major marine ecosystems, coral reefs have the highest levels of marine
biodiversity on earth, and play a big role in the highly tangible environment. In the Southeast Asia,a nearly 100,000 km of coral reef (34% of the world’s total) can be seen. The species that areprimarily abundant around the area are the branching corals, the same species that can be found in
the coral reef ecosystem of Panglao, Bohol (USC, 2012).
Branching corals have been slowly declining due to illegal fishing practices, tourism,
overfishing, global warming and pollution from land populated areas. A small change in theenvironmental parameters caused by the aforementioned activities can significantly affect up to
50% of the growth rate of this species (Crabbe and Smith, 2005; Jimenez and Cortes, 2003;
Macdonald and Perry, 2003; Kaandorp, 1999). Hence, many have tried developing a technologythat could conserve the coral reef ecosystem and mitigate the negative impacts (Lee et al., 2009:Ⓒ ISERD108

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

Shaish et al., 2008; Raymundo et al., 2007; Rinkevich, 1995). Recently, researchers in thePhilippines also started developing such technology, and pilot tested it at the different parts of thePhilippines through the Coral Reef Rehabilitation Project. In this project, the itinerary is usuallyfocused on the coral reef restoration and no studies have been done yet on the growth rate of ramets
attached to nurseries deployed at different depths. It is in this context that this study will find its
merits.
OBJECTIVESThis study aims to measure the growth rate of Acropora nobilis in 3 different water depth layers(i.e., 5, 10, 20 meters during the lowest low tide) in Alona Beach, Panglao Island, Bohol,
Philippines.
Specifically, this study aims to
1. determine the survivorship of the ramets attached to the units, and
2. compare the growth rate of the A. nobilis in the 3 different water depth layers
METHODOLOGY
Site Description
This study was conducted in Alona Beach, Tawala, Panglao, Bohol (Fig. 1) from April-August,2013. Alona beach is located at the south part of the island. It has fringing reef that experiences
northeast monsoon from November to March and southwest monsoon from June to October, ashallow reef flats that are mostly composed of fine sediments, sands, seagrasses, seaweeds, andalgae, and a fore reefs that extend up to several meters with coral cover of approximately 10
percent. Alona beach has been subjected to both natural and human induced destruction such as thetyphoon Bupha or locally known as Pablo, improper anchorage, and poor buoyancy control of thedivers.

Fig. 1 Map of the study site in PanglaoⒸ ISERD

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Coral Nursery Construction
The coral nursery units, Table type were constructed from March 28-April 3, 2013 at Tawala,
Panglao, Bohol. The nurseries were made up of 9 mm round bar materials, measuring 50 cm lengthby 50 cm width, and 40 cm depth with four fixed series of 9 mm round bars running the whole
length with 10 cm gap in between and another four fixed series of 9 mm round bars running thewhole width with the same gap in between. Additionally, a steel plate was connected to each of thenursery’s foot so that it can be fixed on the bottom minimizing movement due to waves andcurrents. Each nursery was tagged randomly.
Collecting Fragments and Transplanting in Nursery
Fragments of Acropora nobilis were collected along the Alona strips. These were placed in red or
yellow crates and were brought to waist level seawater. The fragments were cut into 5 cm
(SD±0.05) smaller fragments (ramets) using hack saw. A plastic caliper was used to measure themaximum height of the ramets for growth rate determination. Tagging of ramets using dymo tags
were done. All ramets were tied firmly with plastic cable ties for anchorage and will be attached tothe coral nursery unit in a complete randomize manner. There were 16 ramets in a single coral
nursery unit. Overall, there were 144 ramets representing three levels of depths, and three replicatesper depth.
Deployment of the Framework Units
A pumpboat was rented when the framework units were deployed. Three framework units were
deployed everyday for three consecutive days. The frameworks were attached to PVC rafts thatwere tied to the outriggers of the pumpboat so that the ramets will remain submerged in theseawater. The units at (20, 10, and 5 m) were placed perpendicular to the shoreline.
Survival and Growth Rate Determination
Survival was monitored every month for three months by recording the status of each ramet as dead,partially dead, bleaching, live, or missing.
After one week of deployment of the units, ramets were photographed with underwater
camera. Growth measurement was done using a plastic caliper for calibration. Growth rate wascalculated by using Eq. (1):
DGR= (Lf – Li) / t₂ - t₁

(1)

where: Lf = final length, Li = initial length, t₂ = days terminated, and t₁ = start of study. The sameprocedures were done after three months.
Maintenance
A monthly dive was done to remove fouling organism (algae, sponges, etc), predators (crown ofthorns, sea stars, corallivore snails, etc.), and other debris.
Data Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using Systat 12. In lieu of one-way analysis of variance (oneway-ANOVA) for the growth rate, a non-parametric analysis, Kruskall-Wallis test was used since
the data failed to meet the assumptions even after transformation.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Survivorship of the Ramets
Fig. 2 shows that the nurseries deployed in five meters had the highest number of live ramets while
the nurseries at ten meters depth had the highest number of partially dead and dead ramets.
Survival of all ramets was 88.7% for Acropora nobilis which is lower compared to the 94.8-95.8%of the Andaman Sea (Putchim et al., 2007) but is more or less equivalent to the 87% survivorshipof the transplanted corals in the outfall of North Florida, USA (Thornton et al., 2000). The cutting
and attachment process did not apparently affect their survival. One of the principal concerns about
coral transplantation is the effect of relocation. Many have moved corals to different environments
and experienced difficulties due to many changes in its habitat (Thornton et al., 2000). The highsurvival rate of the ramets in this study could be due to the lack of relocation effects.
60
50
40
30

5

20

10

10

20

0
Dead

Partially Bleaching
Dead

Live

Missing

Fig. 2 Survivorship of the ramets at 20, 10, 5 meter depth
Growth Rate
First month after deployment, the ramets started to form new branches (Fig. 3). After three months,
the ramets had overgrown the plastic cable ties as well as steel bars (Fig. 4).These indicates that theramets deployed in three different depths have actually grown three-dimensionally. But, thesegrowth rate showed no significant difference (p=0.066) with depth (Fig. 5). The mean growth rate
at 20 m is 0.081 cm/d⁻ (SD ± 0.005) while, 10 m has a mean growth rate of 0.078 cm/d⁻ with (SD± 0.009) and 5 m depth has a mean growth rate of 0.052 cm/d⁻ with (SD ±0.008). If computedmonthly, 20 m has a mean growth rate of 0.81 cm mo⁻ while, 10 m has a mean growth rate of 0.78
cm/mo⁻ and 5 m depth has a mean growth rate of 0.52 cm/mo⁻ which is higher compared the 0.41
cm/m⁻ of the A. grandis and 0.23 cm/m⁻ of the A. muricata deployed at 8-10 m of the Andaman
Sea (Putchim et al., 2007).

Fig. 3 Ramets forming new branchesⒸ ISERD

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Fig. 4 Ramets overgrowing the steel bar and cable ties

growth rate (cm/day)

0.100
0.080
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.000
5

10
depth

20

Fig. 5 Growth rate at 20, 10, 5 meter depth
CONCLUSION
In view of the results and discussion, the following generalizations are drawn:
1. Fix-to-bottom framework type is an ideal technique in doing coral reef restoration as it caneliminate the natural predators (e.g., crown of thorns, corralivore snails) from eating the corals
that causes mortality to the nurseries. Secondly, it requires lesser maintenance compared toother types of nurseries.
2. Broken live fragments that measures 5 cm (SD±0.05) used as initial growth can give anassurance that the transferred ramets can survived and healed when attached to the nurseries.
3. Ten meter depth is so far the most ideal in doing coral reef restoration using Acropora nobilis
due to its fast growth rate and less mortality rate.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researchers are grateful to their friends who contributed a lot to the realization of the research
namely: Dexter Piloton, Gerold Aton, Myko Ocol of Bohol Island State University, CandijayCampus and Dominic Belleza of University of San Carlos, Cebu City.
REFERENCES
Crabbe, M.J.C. and Smith, D.J. 2005. Sediment impacts on growth rates of Acropora and Porites corals fromfringing reefs of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Coral Reefs, 24, 437-441.
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Jimenez, C. and Cortes, J. 2003. Growth of seven species of scleractinian corals in an upwelling environmentof the eastern Paciﬁc (Golfode Papagayo, Costa Rica). Bulletin of Marine Science, 72, 187-198.
Kaandorp, J.A. 1999. Morphological analysis of growth forms of branching marine sessile organisms along
environmental gradients. Marine Biology, 134, 295-306.
Lee, C.S., Walford, J. and Goh, B.P.L. 2009. Adding coral rubble to substrata enhances settlement ofPocillopora damicornis larvae. Coral Reefs, 28, 529-533.
Macdonald, I.A. and Perry, C.T. 2003. Biological degradation of coral framework in a turbid lagoon
environment, Discovery Bay, North Jamaica. Coral Reefs, 22, 523-535.
Meesters, E.H., Bak, R.P.M., Westmacott, S., Ridgley, M. and Dollar, S. 1998. A fuzzy logic model topredict coral reef development under nutrient and sediment stress. Conservation Biology, 12, 957-965.
Raymundo, L.J., Maypa, A.P., Gomez, E.D. and Cadiz, P.L. 2007. Can dynamite-blasted reefs recover? A
novel, low-tech approach to stimulating natural recovery in fish and coral populations. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 54, 1009-1019.
Rinkevich, B. 1995. Restoration strategies for coral reefs damaged by recreational activities: the use of sexualand asexual recruits. Restoration Ecology, 3, 241-251.
Putchim, L., Thongtham, N., Hewett, A. and Chansang, H. 2007. Survival and growth of Acropora spp. in
mid-water nursery and after transplantation at Phi Phi Islands, Andaman Sea, Thailand. Proceeding of
the 11th international Coral reef symposium, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.
Shaish, L., Levy, G., Gomez, E., and Rinkevich, B. 2008. Fixed and suspended coral nurseries in thePhilippines: Establishing the first step in the “gardening concept” of reef restoration. Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 73, 86-97.
Thornton, S.L., Dodge, R.E., Gilliam, D.S., DeVictor, R. and Cooke, P. 2000. Success and growth of corals
transplanted to cement armor mat tiles in southeast Florida: implications for reef restoration.

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Research article
erd

Determinants of Learners’ Intention to Continue Using theE-learning Program of the Agricultural Training Institute(ATI)
MERRIAN PIQUERO SOLIVA*
Agricultural Training Institute-Regional Training Center VII, Bohol, Philippines
Email: aticv.7@gmail.com
Received 16 February 2015

Accepted 6 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The study investigated the influence of the learners’ attitude, perceived
satisfaction and perceived e-Learning effectiveness, on their intention to continue using the
ATI’s e-Learning program for agriculture and fishery in the Philippines. This study was
conducted in the 16 regions of the Philippines where the ATI Network of Regional Training
Centers were located. The respondents included 960 adult-learners, consisting of eLearning enrollees and e-Learning graduates from 2009 to 2012. More than half, (58.9%) of
the respondents were females, and nearly two-thirds (66.1%) were married. Their age level
ranged from 16 to 63 years old with a mean age of 36 years old. More than half (56%) of
the respondents were college graduates. More than two-thirds (67.9%) were agriculturalextension workers and had a fair experience with e-Learning. They believed that the ATI'se-learning System is well-established, secure and stable. In its entirety, the respondents
were satisfied with the course lab used by ATI. They preferred that a multi-media
instruction would be used and recognized that the e-Learning system quality and theinteractive learning activities of the program are important. The respondents pointed outthat operating e-Learning boosted their self-efficacy/confidence and that the e-learning
system is effective because it facilitated their learning efficiency, performance andmotivation. They intended to continue the use of the ATI's e-Learning program because
they could access a wide array of free digital resources like the course materials used thatwere placed online and the instructions provided were clear and easy to understand. It
enhanced their knowledge and skills that are relevant to their field of specialization. They
perceived the course contents as sufficient and related to their interests and they could
easily contact the online support team anywhere to answer their queries. In addition, they
perceived the instructions provided as sufficiently clear and easy to understand. Learners’ability towards the e-learning program, as well as their perceived satisfaction andeffectiveness of the program were significantly related with their intention to continue using
the ATI’s e-Learning program.
Keywords e-learning, learners’ intention, e-extension Philippines, ATI, extension,
agriextension

INTRODUCTION
People who care for personal growth and development need to continue learning. This is anchoredon the idea that learning is a never-ending process. Losing the drive to learn and explore new
methods to enhance the innate knowledge is a plain manifestation of ceasing to grow.
Working for community development is a noble endeavor; thus, it needs continuous learning.
It also entails crossing boundaries from the so-called traditional learning to modernized kind oflearning in order to achieve what is ought to be achieved and accomplished.
Leary and Berge (2006) disclosed that there is a need to improve agricultural education
throughout the world. With agricultural technologies that can facilitate increase in food security
especially in the developing world, there is a greater chance that income generating activities of therural people can be modified, enhanced or improved.
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Stienen et.al (2007) pointed out that majority of the rural population in the developing
countries depend on agriculture. With the dwindling supply of natural resources needed for
agricultural production, this sector faces major challenges of enhancing crop production activities
and programs. The increasing demand for agricultural products, however, offers opportunities for
producers to improve their livelihoods. Thus, there is a need to inform and educate farmers about
the technologies they can possibly use to improve crop production. The use of information andcommunication technology (ICT) has been identified as a potential information dissemination
strategy.
As stipulated in the Philippine Government's Medium Term Philippine Development Plan
Year for 2010-2016 (http://www.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/pdprm2011-2016.pdf),
the Department of Agriculture (DA) is responsible for boosting the income of farmers as well as
reducing the incidence of poverty in the rural sector. The Agricultural Training Institute (ATI),
which is the extension arm of DA is responsible for training the agricultural extension workers andtheir clientele. It facilitates the conduct of multi-level training programs to ensure that research
results are communicated to the target farmers thus, promotes rural development
Because the Philippine government only has meager resources, and since there are priority
plans set by the government, agricultural training and extension activities have little share in theannual budgetary allocation. Indeed, much of the budget goes to infrastructure development andimprovement.
Moreover, Viñas (2010), in her presentation during the Strategic Review of Decentralization
for the In-depth Study of Decentralization, pointed out that the major issues and challenges facedby the agriculture sector include the rising number of extension workers in local government units(LGUs) who are slowly deteriorating due to (a) lack of opportunity for technical trainings; (b) lackof scholarship grants; (c) demoralization and non-motivation from the local executives; (d) political
appointment/accommodation; and (e) no authority to provide policy, allocate extension resources
and monitor the implementation of agricultural extension.
Against this backdrop, Republic Act 8435 of the Philippines, otherwise known as theAgriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 or AFMA, was put into law to strengthen the
support services for modernizing agriculture and fisheries, and at the same time empower people
particularly the stakeholders to help attain sustainable agricultural development with the hope thatthe food security program will be given highest priority in response to poverty alleviation. The DAATI is tasked to assist the local government units’ extension system in improving its effectivenessand efficiency through capacity building and complementary extension activities such as technicalassistance, training of personnel, improvement of physical facilities, extension cum research andinformation support services in coordination with state universities and colleges. Among the DAATI’s main clients are the agricultural extension workers (AEWs) who need to be updated with the
new agricultural technologies and extension delivery modalities.
With this, the Department of Agriculture mandated ATI, through the Department Order No. 3,
Series of 2007, to lead in the provision of e-Extension services in collaboration with various
agencies, bureaus and organizational units of DA. This aims to integrate and harmonize
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) - based extension delivery system for
agriculture and fisheries.
Raab, Ellis and Abdon (2002 as cited by Liaw, 2007) stressed that e-Learning “is the latest
breakthrough of distance learning where instructors and learners are separated by distance, time, orboth. Through network technologies, e-Learning creates, fosters, delivers and facilitates learning
anytime and anywhere.”
Thereby, this study intends to investigate the determinants of learners’ intention to continue
using the ATI’s e-learning program for agriculture and fishery in the Philippines.

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METHODOLOGYThis study was conducted in the 16 networks of ATI Regional Training Center in the Philippines.
A total of 960 respondents composed of adult-learners (both e-learning enrollees and graduatesfrom 2009-2012.
These respondents were chosen through purposive random sampling at a fixed number of 60
per region from the total population of 5,200 by which the researcher believed that this number isconsidered to be doable (http://e-extension.gov.ph/elearning/course/report/stats/index.php).
However, such method was not materialized for the following reasons: a) some of the respondents
from other regions were no longer employed in the Local Government Unit in the municipality
since they were hired on casual and/or contractual basis. With the change of administration, these
personnel were co-terminus with the incumbent elected officials; b) contact numbers and e-mailaddresses were no longer active, hence, they were not contacted and reached; c) most of thestudents in the state colleges and universities graduated and they were not from the locality andtheir contact information such as mobile numbers and e-mail addresses were no longer active.
Thus, the researcher opted to send randomly via electronic mail on the addresses given by
ATI-Central Office; whereby, each region varied in terms of number, some had higher while others
got lower and a few stick to the desired number.
Table 1 Distribution of Respondents
RegionNumber of Respondents

CAR
ITCPH
Region I
Region II
Region III
Region IVa
Region IVb
Region 5
Region VI
Region VII
Region VIII
Region IX
Region X
Region XI
Region XII
Region XIII
TOTAL

62
37
60
51
42
44
88
59
50
115
65
38
70
23
38
118
960

A survey questionnaire was administered and it was duly supplemented with a focus-group
discussion and is implemented and duly managed by e-Extension Coordinators who are responsible
in the full operation and implementation of e-learning and other activities per region, respectively.
Aside from actual distribution and retrieval of survey questionnaire, the researcher also sends
and generates it through electronic mail.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The respondents in this study included 960 adult-learners (both e-Learning enrollees and graduatesfrom 2009-2012) in all 16 regions in the Philippines.
Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, totals, percentages, and ranges were used to analyze
the respondents' attitudes; perceived satisfaction; perceived usefulness of the e-Learning and theirintention to continue using the ATI's e-Learning program for agriculture and fishery and theirsocio-demographic characteristics.

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To analyze the relationships among independent and dependent variables, Spearman Rank
Correlation and Chi-Square test were used. Cronbach's alpha, on the other hand, estimated theinternal reliability of all the items in the survey.
More than half (58.9%) of the respondents were females. Majority (66.1%) were married. The
age of the adult-learners ranged from 16 to 63 years with a mean of 36 years. The respondents got
high educational attainment which consisted of college graduates (56%); post graduate (28.4%);
college level (10.4%); high school (4.8%) and vocational (0.3%). Most (67.9%) of the respondents
were agricultural extension workers.
Generally, the respondents had fair level of experience from the scale of 1 having noexperience and 5 as very well experienced in terms of typical software applications plus web
development with a mean of 3.12; with all of the above skills plus some programming with a meanof 2.76 and extensive programming with a mean of 2.42. However, the adult-learners who alreadyexperienced using the internet had obtained a mean of 4.03 and those who had experienced word
processing and/or spreadsheet (Microsoft Applications) got a mean of 3.84.
Basically, the respondents agreed with a mean rating of 3.76 as to their beliefs on the stabilityof ATI’s e-Learning program system used because it is already established and secured.
The adult-learners' agreed on all given items towards course lab satisfaction, having an overall mean rating of 4.17.
In terms of likelihood of using the multimedia instruction on their intention to continue using
the ATI’s e-learning program for Agriculture and Fishery in the Philippines, the respondents agreed
with a mean of 3.96. As a whole, the respondents’ perception agreed on their use of the multimedia
instruction.
As to the adult-learners' satisfaction of the e-Learning System Quality of the program, therespondents agreed that they were satisfied with a mean rating of 4.04.
In terms of learners' perception on interactive learning activities, the respondents agreed withan over-all mean rating of 4.24 that there was assistance provided for the interactive learning
activities of ATI.
All respondents agreed that they were confident in using and operating the e-Learning
program with almost the same mean results of 4.0. Moreover, this result was strengthened since
their responses were found to be consistent with the same standard deviation of 0.8.
As for the respondents’ perceived self-efficacy, all of the respondents agreed that they wereconfident in using and operating the e-Learning program with almost the same mean results of 4.0.
Moreover, this result was strengthened since their responses were consistent with the same standard
deviation of 0.8.
For the respondents’ perceived e-Learning effectiveness, majority agreed that they believe elearning can assist learning efficiency; learning performance and motivation.
When asked for the respondents’ intention to continue the use of the ATI’s e-Learning
program, they agreed to further use the program because they could access a wide array of free
digital resources, like the course materials used that were placed online and the instructions
provided were clear and easy to understand. These responses were generated both on the survey
questionnaire and focus group discussion. Moreover, they also agreed that the course contents ofthe said program were sufficient and related to their interests. Furthermore, they could also easily
contact the online support team anywhere to answer their queries.
Generally, the respondents intended to continue using the ATI’s e-Learning program toenhance their knowledge and skills that are relevant to their field of specialization with a grandmean of 4.14.
As to the most consistent responses among the five given items, the second statement which is
to continue using the e-Learning program because instructions provided are sufficiently clear andeasy to understand, got the least standard deviation which is 0.740.
On the Relationship between the Learners’ Attitude towards the Program, findings revealed
that the learners’ attitude towards the system stability has a positive moderate values of correlation
with multi-media instruction, e-Learning system quality and perceived satisfaction with theprogram, having 0.433, 0.456 and 0.454 respectively. However, the learners’ attitude towards thesystem stability appeared to have a positive weak correlation with the interactive learning activities,Ⓒ ISERD

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perceived effectiveness and the intention to continue the program with values 0.380, 0.374 and
0.390, respectively.
Furthermore, having ranges between 0.40 and 0.59 correlation coefficient, the learners’
attitude towards course lab satisfaction showed to have a positive moderate correlation among allenvironmental factors that affect learners’ intention to continue using the ATI’s e-Learning
program, the perceived satisfaction and perceived effectiveness of the program as well as theirintention to use the said program.
Meanwhile, all the correlation coefficients that ranged between 0.40 and 0.59 showed that theenvironmental factors that affect learners’ intention to use the program also appeared to have adesirable moderate correlation with the results of their perceived satisfaction, perceived
effectiveness and intention to continue using the ATI’s e-Learning program.
Furthermore, the findings illustrated a positive moderate correlation between the learners’
perceived satisfaction and the learners' perceived effectiveness of the program and their intention tocontinue using the said program with values 0.444 and 0.527, respectively.
To sum up, all the Spearman correlation analyses on the selected variables illustrated that the
respondents’ attitude towards the program, how they perceived the satisfaction and effectiveness ofthe program and their intention to continue the use of ATI’s e-Learning program were most likely
related to all other items answered.
The above mentioned findings were also strengthened by the use of Chi-square analyses thatexamined the significance of relationships among the responses on the items answered to all
selected variables.
As to the strengths and challenges of the e-learning program, the adult-learners considered thestated challenges in terms of their participation as manageable and that they could cope with itdespite the hindrances that could possibly occur in the e-Learning program with an over-all mean
rating of 2.92.
In terms of the extent of influence on the implementation of the program, the respondents
answered neutral with an over-all mean of 2.67 wherein they considered these given statements as
manageable.
CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are drawn:
1. Most of the adult-learners are in the middle-age category and are college graduates, married andagricultural extension workers and generally have a fair experience with e-Learning.
2. The ATI’s e-Learning program is well-established, secured and stable. In its entirety, therespondents are satisfied with the course lab used by ATI.
3. The respondents prefer to use a multi-media instruction program. The adult-learners haverecognized that the e-Learning system quality of the program is important as well as theinteractive learning activities.
4. Operating the e-Learning system of ATI can boost self-efficacy/confidence of extension
workers. The e-Learning program is effective because it assists them in their learning efficiency,
performance and motivation.
5. The adult-learners intend to continue the use of the ATI’s e-Learning program because they canaccess a wide array of free digital resources. Consistent with FGD results where learner’s said
that: “I intend to continue with e-learning for it gave me satisfaction whenever I see my grades;
the knowledge I gained, and the multimedia presentation is enjoyable,” quoted by a studentlearner. Moreover, an agricultural extension worker-learner said that: “Agriculture is a very
dynamic field. I need to update my know-how in my field.”
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is made possible through the scholarship granted to the author through the Expanded
Human Resource Development (EHRDP) of the Agricultural Training Institute. She further wishesⒸ ISERD

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to thanked Dr. Asterio P. Saliot, ATI Director; Dr. Carolyn May O Daquio, ATI-RTC VII Center
Director and Mr. Andrew L. Soliva, RSW, the author’s husband and soulmate.
REFERENCES
E-extension Website of the Philippines. (n.d.) (Retrieved March 27, 2014, from http://e-extension.gov.ph/elearning /course/report/stats/index.php).
Leary, J. and Berge, Z. 2006. Trends and challenges of e-learning in national and international agriculturaldevelopment. International Journal of Education and Development using Information andCommunication Technology (IJEDICT), 2006, 2, 51-59
Liaw, Shu-Sheng. 2007. Investigating students’ perceived satisfaction, behavioural intention, andeffectiveness of e-learning: A case study of the Blackboard system. Science Direct. 2007
The National Economic and Development Authority. (Retrieved October 13, 2012, from http://eextension.gov.ph/elearning/course/report/stats/index.php)
Stienen, J., Bruinsma, W. and Neuman, F. 2007. How ICT can make a difference in agricultural livelihoods.
International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD) Agriculture. The Commonwealth
Ministers Reference Book
Viñas, Y.G. 2010. Decentralization in agriculture sector. Drawn from the presentation during the strategic
review of decentralization for the indepth study of decentralization. (Retrieved November 7, 2012, from:searca.org/index./da decentralization agriculture/download)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Educational Benefits of Green Tourism School Trips inJapan
YAMAMOTO TADAO*
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Email: tady@env.agr.hokudai.ac.jp
Received 24 December 2014

Accepted 6 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Japan, green tourism (rural tourism) continues to grow in popularity. This formof tourism is expected to increase the nation’s interest in agriculture and promote moreinteractions between urban and rural people. In Hokkaido, school trips that include handson agricultural activities are becoming widely accepted as a new type of green tourism.
However, despite wide acceptance, the effects of these trips and related hands-on activities
have not been sufficiently evaluated. In this research, the author investigated theeducational benefits of school-trip-style green tourism. Surveys were conducted on students
from three high schools (n = 597 students) after they had participated in school trips in2013. The surveys showed that students without any past experience in agriculture tended
to have stronger positive feelings towards agricultural activities and farmers. In addition,
students also became more interested in becoming farmers in the future. Moreover, becauseof such visits, the students showed increased interest in food and crops. However, theirawareness of agricultural water-use facilities, management organization, and themultifunctional benefits of agriculture was low; this lack of awareness was not related toprevious agricultural experience. Therefore, to understand the fundamental benefits ofagriculture, simple hands-on activities are not enough. In addition, the program must
include lectures that explicitly demonstrate how agriculture preserves natural resources,
contributes to a green society, and feeds the nation.
Keywords green tourism, questionnaire research, agricultural experience, school trip

INTRODUCTION
In Japan, green tourism (GT) has been recently promoted and tested as a way to help revitalize
rural communities and stimulate interactions between urban and rural people. Green tourism is also
called rural tourism, agro-tourism, or ecotourism. Over the current decade, the number of facilities
involved in rural tourism has doubled in Hokkaido, which is in the northern part of Japan. This
increase is especially prominent in the Kamikawa and Sorachi districts. The increase in the numberof facilities is mainly due to increase in the number of visits to farms, farm homesteads, and otheragricultural activities. This increased interest correlates with increases in the number of school trips
to agricultural areas that were triggered by the Children’s Rural Area Interaction Project (2008–)
and the Integrated Study in Schooling (2004–) (Ikegami, 2003, Sawauchi et al., 2009). The
diffusion of GT is believed to be contributing to growing public interest in agriculture and rural
areas. Green tourism is also believed to be improving public understanding of land improvement
projects because young people who have had experiences in rural areas will be part of the next
generation that will implement policies for managing those areas. Therefore, it is important for us
to understand how participants are affected by school trips to rural and agricultural areas.
However, there have been few evaluations of the effects of GT on participants or of whether
current GT programs provide an adequate educational experience. Many previous studies of GT
have been confined to its institution worldwide or to the possibility of using GT as a marketingstrategy for activating interest in local agriculture. Moreover, few studies have been performed onany impact that GT may have on visitor awareness, appreciation, or understanding of agriculturalproblems. A few studies of using agricultural visits as educational platforms have involvedⒸ ISERD

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elementary students in the research (Yamada, 2006, 2008), and a few studies were intended forhigh school students. In analyzing student and farmer attitudes to rural tourism with agriculturalactivities, Kuraoka et al. (2009) found that many students reported positive reactions to theirinteractions with farmers and to farmer lifestyles. Sawauchi et al. (2009) surveyed high school
students who had participated in school trips with agricultural activities; their findings showed thatstudents tended to appreciate the connections with nature and the influence on social life provided
by the agricultural experience. These studies serve as the theoretical foundation for this study.
The purpose of this study is to determine how school trips with agricultural activities affectstudents awareness towards agriculture and whether such trips affect students attitude towards ruralcommunities.
METHODOLOGY
The author surveyed second-grade high school students in ordinary senior high school “A” inTokyo and in ordinary senior high schools “B” and “C” in Hiroshima Prefecture. These students
were participants in school trips with agricultural activities in Naganuma Town, Hokkaido
Prefecture. Each set of students participated in agricultural activities over three days and two nightsfrom September to October in 2013. For students from the A and C high schools, questionnaires
were returned within one week after their trip. For students in the B high school, the questionnaires
were collected soon after their visit. Naganuma Town has participated in these school trips for a
decade, and each school has participated for over two years.
The questionnaires addressed three main issues: (a) awareness of land improvement and water
management facilities, (b) satisfaction with the school trip experience, and (c) educational
evaluation after the experience. Questions addressing parts (b) and (c) were based on previous
studies by Yamada (2006) and Sawauchi et al (2009). Statistical analyses of student responses were
performed using Microsoft Excel and statistics software R.
Table 1 Respondent attributes
Question
GenderResponses(n=596)

Farmland situation around theresidence(n=596)
Are your family or relatives
farmer?
(n=594)
Did you have an agriculturalexperience before this schooltrip?
(n=597)
When have you experienced
agriculture at first?
(multiple answers allowed)(n=373)
Have you ever stayed in farmer
house for trip?
(n=597)

No existence
204 (34.2)

Before entering
elementary school81 (21.7)

Male
268 (45.0)
In patches
305 (51.2)
Yes
243 (40.9)

Female328 (55.0)
Spreading around87 (14.6)
No
351 (59.1)

Yes
373 (62.5)

No
224 (37.5)

Elementary schooldays
304 (81.5)

Junior high school days
130 (34.9)

Yes
171 (28.6)

No
426 (71.4)(n: valid respondents number, The values in parentheses mean % of valid responses)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Respondent Attributes
More than 50% of respondents reported at least partial farmland near their residences, while about
35% stated that there was no farmland near their residences. About 40% of the students were in a
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family of farmers or had relatives who were farmers. Almost 60% of students had had an
agricultural experience before this school trip, and many of them had experiences in theirelementary schools. About 70% of respondents had not stayed overnight in a farmhouse. The
results are summarized in Table 1.
Awareness of Land Improvement District and its Facilities
Regarding awareness of land improvement districts, agricultural water-use facilities, andagricultural multi-functionality, more than 85% of the students answered they don’t know (Fig. 1).
Since the survey was carried out after the agricultural visit, the author presume that students did notreceive specific instruction about these issues during trip preparation or during the agricultural visit
itself.
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Do you know "Land Improvement
district"?
Do you know spefifically land
improvement facilities and agricultural
water management facilities?
Do you know multifunction that agriculture
and agricultural water management system
have?
Yes

I have heard of it

I know a bit

No

Fig. 1 Survey results for student awareness of land improvement district and its facilities
Impression of the Tour
Table 2 shows the results concerning impressions about the agricultural experience and staying in
farmhouses. The table clearly shows that most students had positive interactions with the farmers
and they were impressed by the surrounding landscape. As to the particular agricultural activities,
more than 60% of the students participated in harvesting, about 41% did other work, and about
35% did weeding. These percentages sum to more than 100% because many students performed
more than one activity. Many of the other-work activities involved shipping, such as sorting andpacking associated with the harvest season during which the visits were done. Majority students
reported that their most memorable activity was spending time with the host farmers; they wereless affected by the agricultural activities or with looking at the landscape.
Educational Effects of Agricultural Activities
Table 3 shows the results for educational effects of the agricultural activities. Students were asked
to rate their degree of change in awareness at one of five levels via one of these possible responses:
agree (5), agree a little (4), neither agree or disagree (3), disagree a little (2), or disagree (1). The
table gives the average of these possibilities for each question. Moreover, for each question, a large
average score corresponds to a large change in awareness. As in previous studies (Yamada, 2008,
Kurauchi, 2009), the questions were divided into three categories: connections with nature, mental
attitudes, and connections with social life.
For many questions, the average scores fell between 3.0 and 4.0; this indicates that the school
trips generally had a positive influence on the mental attitudes of the students. These results are
generally corresponding to those in a previous study. In this study, there were four questions that
had scores above 4.0, while in the previous study, less than six had scores above 4.0. Scores wereless than 4.0 for the following two questions: “you felt a joy or pleasure to take harvests” and “youⒸ ISERD

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became to mind an importance of cooperation and partnership.” But in the previous study, the samequestions had scores above 4.0.
For the question “you felt a joy or pleasure to take harvests,” responses of “agree” weresegregated by high school as follows: about 50% in high school A, about 40% in B, and less than
30% in C. These differences between schools caused the smaller average compared to the previous
results. These differences might be related to the relative amounts of time students in each school
actually spent in harvesting. Comparing the different farming activities, the ratios of students that
did harvesting were in the order A > C > B. So participation in harvesting was not lower in highschool C. However, overall work times were generally shorter for students in school C. In
particular, for students in school C, 51% of the work time was within two hours. But for students inschools A and B, only 30% of the work time was within two hours (Table 4 ).
For the question “you became to mind an importance of cooperation and partnership,” 70% of
the students in each school answered “agree” or “agree a little.” However, for high school C, thepercentage of “agree” was lower than those for the other two schools. This explains the smaller
average score for this question. Responses to the two questions, “you became to mind an
importance of cooperation and partnership” and “you felt a joy or pleasure to take harvests” had ahigher correlation (0.695) than other relations. So, although we anticipated that the amounts ofwork time would influence the responses to these two questions (“mind of cooperation andpartnership” and “joy or pleasure to harvesting”), correlations were low between work time and the
responses.
Table 2 Impressions of agricultural activities and living in a farmhouse
Question
Could you enjoy theinteraction with farmers inthis school trip?
Could you enjoy the rurallandscape in this school
trip?
Which kinds of farming
work did you do ?
(Multiple answers
allowed)not at alla littleneitherquite a lot

very much

10(1.7%)

8(1.3%)

13(2.2%)

98(16.4%)

467(78.2%)

7(1.2%)

13(2.2%)

16(2.7%)

132(22.1%)

429(71.9%)

seedingtransplantation

weeding

harvestingothers17(2.8%)

6(1.0%)

206(34.5%)

353(59.1%)

247(41.4%)

Which matters do you
stand out in your memoryin this school trip?
(Multiple answers
allowed)life in farmers
house such as
meal or sleep

talking andspending alongwith host farmer

spendingdays alongwithfriends

agriculturalexperiences

viewing of
rurallandscape319(53.4%)

367(61.5%)

309(51.8%)

284(47.6%)

211(35.3%)

Only one question had a score below 3.0:“you’d like to become a farmer in the future.”
Responses to this question for each high school were 2.72 in school A, 3.16 in B, and 2.46 in C.
The average for the three schools was 2.72 (Table 3). Schools B and C are in the same prefecture. It
is somehow expected that more local students would prefer to become farmers than urban students
but results show that, even in the same prefecture, attitudes towards employment differ greatly.
Correlations were comparatively higher between “you’d like to become a farmer in the future” andeach of these questions: “mind to care about nature and creature grew up,” “your knowledge andunderstanding to food and crops deepened,” and “your knowledge to agriculture deepened.” Thismeans that more activities in agricultural programs like these have the potential to encourage
certain students to engage in farming in the future.
Compared to other relations, correlations were lower between respondent attributes andperceived educational benefits of the visits. This suggests that earlier agricultural experiences andstudent residential environments were not direct factors in changing students attitudes towards
agricultural activities. This indicates the possibility that future education can improve students
attitudes towards agriculture.
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Table 3 Educational effects of school trip with agricultural activities
Question
(a)

(b)

(c)

Connection with nature
you felt a joy or pleasure to take harvests.
mind to care about foods grew up.
mind to care about nature and creature grew up.
you have become interested in food and crops.
you have become interested in nature and creature.
your knowledge and understanding to food and crops deepened.
you developed abilities of observation and scientific knowledge tonature and creature.
Mental phase
you became to be cheerful and vigorous person.
you are able to get widly sense of value.
your sensibility was cultivated.
Aggressiveness and independence grew up.
you became to be even-tempered person.
you became to be a patient person.
your expressiveness improved.
your imagination faculty improved.
Connection with social life
you understood an importance of sweating with effort.
you became to mind an importance of cooperation and partnership.
you'd like to live in this region.
you became interested in agriculture.
your knowledge to agriculture deepened.
you have thought seriously about your future (e.g., occupation ).
your knowledge to region you stayed in deepened.
you'd like to become a farmer in the future.

Score

Previous
Score*

3.95
4.29
4.10
4.03
3.78
3.77

4.46
4.18
4.17
4.02
3.84
3.61

3.46

3.22

3.86
3.67
3.30
3.69
3.46
3.58
3.49
3.43

3.79
3.71
3.49
3.42
3.38
3.33
3.28
3.28

4.09
3.95
3.63
3.73
3.73
3.68
3.72
2.72
3.78

4.27
4.21
3.69
3.63
3.63
3.60
3.52
2.46
3.84

note：Score means the average point of the following answer.
5=Agree, 4=Agree a little, 3=Neither agree nor disagree, 2=Disagree a little, 1=Disagree.
*Quoted from Sawauchi et al.（2009）

Table 4 Working time in a day
School
A
B
C

0-1
6.1%
5.4%
18.0%

How many hours did you work in a day? (average)
1-2
2-3
3-4
25.0%
38.3%
17.9%
21.8%
22.4%
19.7%
33.2%
21.2%
17.6%

4-5
6.6%
17.0%
6.8%

Over 5( hr)
6.1%
13.6%
3.2%

CONCLUSION
In this study, surveys were administered to high school students who had participated in school
trips to farms in rural areas. During the trips, students interacted with farmers and their families andengaged in agricultural activities. The surveys were designed to measure the educational benefits inparticular agricultural, provided by the trips. The results show that agricultural activities during thetrips were effective in increasing students interests in agriculture, particularly for those students
who had had no previous exposure to farming. These results were generally corresponding to thosein a previous study. The author expected that students attitudes would depend on their place ofresidence and on earlier agricultural experience; however, no such tendency was exhibited in thisstudy. Although many students had strong positive reactions to their time spent with farmers, thestudents had little awareness of land improvement policies that support rural agriculture or of themultifunctional effects of agriculture on society. To deepen students awareness of these issues, notⒸ ISERD

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only should students participate in agricultural activities, but farmers should also explain the role ofland improvement and the many benefits agriculture provides to society.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Naganuma Town which supported this research and each school
cooperated with questionnaire research.
REFERENCES
Ikegami, K. 2003. Agricultural education in elementary education, agriculture/ agricultural education/diffusion of agriculture (editorial supervisor; Soda O.). Rural Culture Association Japan, 399-461.
Kuraoka, K., Sawauchi, D., Yamamoto, T., Sajiki, T. and Toguchi, T. 2009. An analysis on agriculturalexperiences of a school trip. The Review of Agricultural Economics, 64,105-111.
Sawauchi, D., Kuraokaoa, K., Sajiki, T., Toguchi, T. and Yamamoto, T. 2009. Evaluation of high school
students’ agricultural experiences during a school trip, Journal of Rural Problems, 45 (1), 133-136.
Yamada, I. 2006. A tool of planning programs of agricultural experience for children based on the relation
between way of programs and educational effects. Technical Report of the National Institute for RuralEngineering, 204, 23-31.
Yamada, I. 2008. The effects of agricultural experience on the emotion and interest of children: A
comparative study of three urban primary schools, Journal of Rural Problems, 170, 326-336.

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Research article
erd

Assessment on the Solid Waste Management and Sanitation
Programs in the Municipality of Balilihan
RIAME T. TUICO
Bohol Island State University, Balilihan Campus, Bohol, Philippines
Email:catherine_napiñas@yahoomail.com

JOCELYN P. LUMACTUD
Bohol Island State University, Balilihan Campus, Bohol, Philippines

EVANGIELYN P. LUMANTAS
Bohol Island State University, Balilihan Campus, Bohol, Philippines

DHOREE MAY R. MARAVILLA
Bohol Island State University, Balilihan Campus, Bohol, Philippines

ROCELL S. SILAGAN
Bohol Island State University, Balilihan Campus, Bohol, Philippines

ERNESTO B. ALIJAY
Bohol Island State University, Balilihan Campus, Bohol, Philippines

VIRGILIA D. TEJADA, MAg. Dev.
Bohol Island State University, Balilihan Campus, Bohol, Philippines
Received 20 February 2015

Accepted 13 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The study was conducted to assess the sanitation and solid waste management(SWM) programs and its practices implemented by the Municipality of Balilihan, Bohol
during the Academic Year 2013-2014. This study used the descriptive-survey method withthe aid of a researcher’s made questionnaire which was administered to 1,152 respondents
representing 31 barangays of Balilihan. Based on the result, it was found out that most of
the respondents oftentimes practice the proper SWM and the programs are oftentimes
observed. In terms of Sanitation, majority of the respondents always practice the proper
way and the programs are always observed. The conclusions revealed that SWM programs
and SWM practices have a consistent result of oftentimes observed and oftentimes
practiced. These simply explained that the programs and measures were known to some
respondents and some did not give attention to support the programs. Sanitation programs
and practices were also consistent of always observed and always practiced. The resultshows that the residents nowadays learned to care for sanitation unlike in the past where
sanitation was given less attention. It is recommended that the Local Government Unit ofBalilihan should collaborate with other stakeholders for public campaigns on proper
sanitation and SWM practices. Also, strict monitoring and evaluation should be developed
to provide clear strategic direction to Local Integrated Solid Waste Management andprocurement of additional vehicles to enhance the efficiency in the garbage collection.
Another, that activities such as Barangay Participatory Evaluation and Assessment, Houseto-House Campaign, convene the residents for an Orientation Seminar on solid waste
segregation, Posting of streamers, posters, house tags and bill boards should be undertaken
to raise awareness on solid waste management and encourage the public to recycle
recyclable items.
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INTRODUCTION
One of the problems confronting the country today is the solid waste disposal. The disposal ofwaste materials has become a race between education and catastrophe. Through man’s activities,
his own environment has been disturbed and so, degraded resulting to the disruption of theecological balance (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2008). It implies that future waste will pose
greater health and environmental risks. Meanwhile, in the present condition in Balilihan, it isevident that in the past ten years, municipality’s population, infrastructure facilities and businessactivities have been increasing. These socio-economic changes, however, have resulted in risingsolid waste generation and it is aggravated by improper SWM practices of waste sources. At
present not only the poblacion barangays are being served by the municipal waste collection
services, but the entire 31 barangays are included.
Recognizing the need to take steps in addressing this solid waste problem and pursuing thethrust to make Balilihan as an eco-tourism site, the Local Government of Balilihan has developed
the Ten-Year Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan (ISWM) for 2009-2018 (Municipality of
Balilihan, 2009). The town is implementing strategies to improve local solid waste management.
This plan was not made only to satisfy the mandate of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
of 2000 or RA 9003, but also to guide the LGU to achieve its Vision, Mission, and Goals for aneffective ISWM Program that would aid in the LGUs general long term objective for a responsible
development in the municipality.
As for that basis, to show that BISU Balilihan Campus as an educational institution supports
the program of the local community, the faculty were motivated to conduct a study that determine
how far the local government unit of Balilihan have implemented their Solid Waste Management
and Sanitation Programs and to further assess the practices of the Balilinhon on solid waste
management and sanitation and in one way helped enrich the consciousness of the people andbecome responsible in their actions. Besides, this will serve as a guide in improving the well-beingof the town and could further upgrade the living standards through a clean and healthy environment(Austral, 2008; Bordador, 2005; Navarro, 2010).
OBJECTIVE
The study was conducted to assess the status of implementation of the sanitation and solid waste
management programs of the Municipality of Balilihan, Bohol and to assess further the practices of
the Balilinhon on solid waste management and sanitation during the Academic Year 2013-2014.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study used descriptive survey method with the aid of a questionnaire. Its main purpose is toassess the implementation of the SWM and Sanitation Programs set by the Local Government of
the Municipality of Balilihan. This study was also designed to assess the practices of solid waste
management and sanitation in every household.
Sampling Procedure
The local of the study was the municipality of Balilihan. It was composed of 31 barangays with a
total household of 3840. 30% of the total household population which is 1152 was the sample size.
The respondents were chosen through random sampling in which, 30% of the population of every
purok in every barangay was randomly selected.
Methods of Data CollectionⒸ ISERD

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The researchers asked permission from the office of the Municipal Mayor to conduct this study.
Barangay Captains of the different barangays were also informed before the questionnaires were
distributed.
The prepared questionnaires were validated through pilot testing to neighboring town. The
final copy of the questionnaire was translated into Mother tongue language for the respondents tofully understand each statement.
The validated copy of the questionnaire was distributed personally to the respondents.
Retrieval was done immediately after answering. It was tabulated and interpreted when all the data
were gathered.
Hundred percent of the respondents answered all items in the questionnaire. Since theresearchers personally distributed the questionnaire to the respondents, they will be able toemphasize the importance of their responses.
Analytical Procedures
To determine whether the programs are properly implemented by the Local Government ofBalilihan, the average weighted mean was used.
∑ 𝑓𝑤

Formula: WM = ∑(1)𝑓where WM = weighted mean, f = frequency, w = weight
The means were interpreted and given the scale values for Programs and Practices.
Weighted Mean
3.25 – 4.00
2.50 – 3.24
1.75 – 2.49
1.00 – 1.74

Description
Always Practiced/ Always Observed(Habitual-Above the median)
Oftentimes Practiced/Oftentimes Observed (A little above the median)Seldom Practiced/Seldom Observed(A little below median)
Never Practiced/Never Observed

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 Assessment on solid waste management programs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Waste Management Programs
Full waste segregation of wastes into biodegradable, recyclable, residual
and special wastes;
No segregation, no collection policy;
Information dissemination campaign through general assemblies, stickers
are posted in public areas and leaflets for the use of biodegradable
environmental friendly materials.
Livelihood programs for recyclable materials
Prohibition of burning and dumping of waste in an open area or vacantpublic lots.
Give incentives at the Barangay level for greater implementation on Solid
Waste Management and Environmental clean-up.
Requiring local farmers to practice organic fertilizer.
Promote the following waste practices: waste reduction, recycling andcomposting.
Prohibition of dumping of waste in an open area or vacant public lots.
Average Weighted Mean

WM

Description

3.23

Oftentimes Observed

3.15

Oftentimes Observed

3.20

Oftentimes Observed

3.14

Oftentimes Observed

3.16

Oftentimes Observed

3.07

Oftentimes Observed

3.11

Oftentimes Observed

3.18

Oftentimes Observed

3.19
3.15

Oftentimes Observed
Oftentimes Observed

Table 1 shows the Solid Waste Management Programs in the household sector. This shows thatmost of the programs are “oftentimes observed” with an average weighted mean of 3.15 in spite ofits strict implementation.
The government is one of the agencies that take a very critical rule in conserving theenvironment since they have the full authority to control the massive negative effect against thedestructive environmental practices.
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Likewise, the government is doing a massive campaign on the use of biodegradable
environmental friendly materials. However, the result indicates the need to further empower the
campaign to elevate their responses as shown in item no. 3 with an WM of 3.20. On the other hand,
one way of motivating residents to promote proper implementation on Solid Waste Management is
to give incentives to those who are good followers to the imposed policy. However, therespondents revealed that there is a need to initiate “gimmick” to encourage the residents toparticipate in such program. This item has a WM 0f 3.07.
Furthermore, the responses of the remaining items fall into “oftentimes practiced”. These areitem number 4 and 7 which is an indication that there are still SWM programs which are not fullyrecognized by the people within the area.
On the other hand, hundred percent of the respondents answered all items in the questionnaire.
Since the researchers personally distributed the questionnaire to the respondents, they will be able
to emphasize the importance of their responses.
Table 2 Actual solid waste management practices
Solid Waste Management Practices
A. Disposal of Waste
1. Biodegradable Waste
a. No burning
b. Used as fertilizer
c. Placed in the compost pit
d. Practice segregatione. Leave it to decompose elsewhere
Average Weighted Mean
2. Non-biodegradable such as plastic, cellophane, bottles, styroforea. No burningb. Placed in the garbage can for non-biodegradable waste.
c. Send to the garbage collector
d. Self recycling to those that can be utilizede. Market sellable waste
Average Weighted Mean
3. Breakablea. Put/throw to garbage container intended for delicate and fragile.
b. Market sellable wastes
c. Recycle and utilize
d. Sent to the garbage collector.
Average Weighted Mean
B. Other Practices
1 . Comply waste collection schedule.
2 . Refrain from using disposable plastic materials.
3 . Participate community clean-up activities

WM

Description

3.03
3.07
3.58
3.03
2.30
3.14

Oftentimes Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced
Always Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced
Seldom Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced

3.03
3.12
3.05
3.3
3.75
3.25

Oftentimes Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced
Always Practiced
Always Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced

3.03
3.28
3.25
2.99
3.13

Oftentimes Practiced
Always Practiced
Always Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced
Oftentimes Practiced

2.94
2.45
3.85

Oftentimes Practiced
Seldom Practiced
Always Practiced

Table 2 indicates the SWM Practices of the respondents. It shows that item “Placed it in thecompost pit got the highest mean response of 3.58 with the qualitative response of “Always
Practiced”. The result implies that the respondents often practiced to decompose theirbiodegradable waste and placing it in the compost pit. Item on “Leave it to decompose elsewhere
got the lowest weighted mean of 2.3. The respondents are cognizant of the possible health andenvironmental problems if their wastes are scattered anywhere.
In terms of non-biodegradable wastes, it shows that item “Market sellable wastes and self
recycling to those that can be utilized” got the mean of 3.75 and 3.3 respectively with a descriptive
rating of “Always Practiced. The respondents observe thrift and even make money out of theirwastes. While on the other hand, items, “Placed it in the garbage can for non-biodegradable waste,
no burning, and sending it to the garbage collector were rated as Oftentimes practiced by the
respondents. This means that there are still respondents who are not fully aware of the negative
outcome of their activities.
Table 2 also indicates the SWM practices in terms of fragile/breakable and hazardous wastes.
The practices that always perform by the respondents are the marketing of sellable waste andⒸ ISERD

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recycling and utilizing wastes. Other important practices are leaved behind. It means that majorityof the people are not so careful of the probable accidents or other problems which their acts may
cause.
On the other hand, other practices aside from waste disposal waste are shown on the table. As
manifested, participating community clean-up activities were always practiced by the respondents.
This is a manifestation that the people are cautious in maintaining the cleanliness of theirsurroundings. However complying collection schedule and refraining from using disposable plastic
materials were oftentimes practiced.
Table 3 Assessment on sanitation programs
Sanitation Programs
Municipal ordinance requiring all household to use water sealed toilet.
Regular checking of water supply by sanitary inspector.
Municipal ordinance requiring all household to create safety septic tank.
Conducting symposium, lectures, forum or campaign about sanitation.
Regular monitoring of commercial water refilling station and private water
sources by sanitary inspector.
6 . Ordinance prohibiting the dumping of solid waste, toxic materials andgarbage in canals and drainage.
Average Weighted Mean
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

WM
3.91
3.62
3.86
3.21

Description
Always Observed
Always Observed
Always Observed
Always Observed

3.61

Always Observed

3.73

Always Observed

3.66

Always Observed

Table 3 shows the various sanitation programs formulated by LGU Balilihan. Based on the
results, the implementation of the programs and measures was always observed by its constituents.
It garners an average weighted mean of 3. 66. Based on the results, item 1 which is “Municipal
ordinance requiring all household to use water sealed toilet” got the highest rating of 3.91 whichmeans always observed. Authorities strictly implemented, evaluated and monitor the program.
They also provide free water sealed toilet for the less fortunate just to ensure full implementation of
the program.
In addition, the item 3 which is “requiring all households to create safety septic tank” and item
6 “The ordinance prohibiting the dumping of waste in canals and drainage” got second in the rank.
Based on the result, majority of the respondents are already disposing their wastes in a septic tank.
However, there are still few, especially those who are situated far from their neighbors, who justthrow their wastes in their yard or drainage. They believed that as long as they cannot bring any
problem to other people, it is just fine to throw their garbage anywhere.
The Municipality of Balilihan has abundant water supply. Based on the result, the residents ofBalilihan always observed that these sources of water (water refilling stations, private water
sources and other water supply) were regularly checked by the public sanitary inspector. In fact,
there were only rare cases of health problems among the residents which is caused by contaminatedwater supply.
Table 4 presents the Sanitation Practices related to toilet facilities; water supply; sewage,refuse container, laboratory, canals and drainage system in the household area. Based on the result,
the respondents were always using clean water sealed toilet with the average weighted mean of
3.96, functional septic tank with 3.93, adequate supply of water for toilet maintenance with 3.93.
The respondents are educated already of these proper sanitation practices.
In terms of water supply, majority of the respondents answered “always practiced” thatbottled drinking water from a supplier is handled, stored and protected from contamination with thehighest average weighted mean of 3.73. This means that the respondents were very cautious of thewater they drink. It’s a good sign that they are protecting their health against illnesses and diseases.
It also revealed in the table that the respondents always dispose sewage discharge in a proper
receptacle, make use of functional lavatory, provide tight fitting lids to refuse container, and makesure that drainage are in good working condition with an average weighted mean of 3.92, 3.90,
3.86 and 3.74 respectively. The respondents have responded positively the programs of themunicipality.

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Table 4 Actual sanitation practices
Sanitation Practices
Toilet1 . Use of clean water sealed toilet.
2 . Make use of adequate supply of water for maintenance.
3 . Utilize functional septic tank.
Average Weighted Mean
Water Supply
1 . Make use of drinking water from a source (pipe) that passed the requirementsof sanitary inspection.
2 . Bottled drinking water from a supplier is handled, stored and protected fromcontamination.
3 . Regular checking of water stored in the container against contamination andinsects.
Average Weighted Mean
Refuse Container, Lavatory, Canals and Drainage
1 . All sewage discharge are disposed in a proper receptacle.
2 . All refuse containers are provided with tight – fitting lids or cover andmaintained to be vermin (pests, rats, mice, cockroach, etc.) proof.
3 . Make use of functional lavatory.
4 . Make sure that canals and drainage are in good working condition that allow
the flow of water and free from vermin (pests, rats, mice, cockroach, etc.)
Average Weighted Mean

WM

Description

3.96
3.93
3.93
3.94

Always Practiced
Always Practiced
Always Practiced
Always Practiced

3.39

Always Practiced

3.72

Always Practiced

3.68

Always Practiced

3.60

Always Practiced

3.92

Always Practiced

3.86

Always Practiced

3.90

Always Practiced

3.74

Always Practiced

3.85

Always Practiced

CONCLUSION
1. Solid Waste Management Programs were not fully enforced in the Municipality of Balilihan
as supported by the Solid Waste Management Practices in the household.
2. Lack public awareness and information campaign of the significant impact of the proper solid
waste management.
3. Decomposed waste is not properly used for fertilizer by the farmer.
4. There are still residents who dispose biodegradable waste within their compound.
5. Irregular schedule of garbage collection result to dumping of garbage in the roadside.
REFERENCES
Austral, L.P. 2008. Awareness on environmental issues, college students, university of Bohol, Tagbilarancity: Proposed Enhancement Program. University of Bohol, Phillipine.
Bordador, M.C.V. 2005. College biology. Anvil Publishing, INC.
Cunningham, W. and Cunningham M. 2008. Principles of environmental science, inquiry and applications.
Published by McGraw-Hill, USA.
Navarro, V.N. 2010. Biodegradable waste management in duero vermi composting model. University of
Bohol, Phillipine.
Salgados, J.M. 2010. Solid waste awareness, practices, problems and issues of households in Tagbilaran
City: Intervention Program. Unpublished Dissertation, Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Phillipine.
Municipality of Balilihan. 2009. Ten (2009-2018) years integrated solid waste management plan.
Municipality of Balilihan, Phillipine.

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Research article
erd

Impacts of Pyroligneous Acid to Biological and Chemical
Properties of Depleted Soil in Bohol, Philippines
JOSE T. TRAVERO*
Bohol Island State University, Bilar Campus, Bohol, Philippines
Email: jose_travero@yahoo.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 6 March 2015

Accepted 15 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This paper presents a part of a bigger research project to validate the use of
Coconut Shell Pyroligneous Acid (CSPA) in agriculture and to find out its efficacy inrehabilitating a depleted soil in Bohol, Philippines. Specifically, this study will find out the
impacts of CSPA on the biological and chemical properties of depleted soil. Pyroligneousacid used in this study is a by-product of coconut shell charcoal making. The CSPA wasused in combination with rain water. There were three concentrations used: 10%, 20% and30%. Soil samples from depleted site in an upland farm were brought to the laboratory for
analysis. Soil acidity changes in all treatments in an indirect proportion and organic matterhas increased by 1 in soils receiving 10% and 30% CSPA and 0.5 in soils receiving 20%
CSPA. From a baseline data of an “extremely acid soil”, soils receiving 10% and 20%
CSPA lowers to “strongly acid” category while those receiving 30% changed to “verystrongly acid”. Soils applied with 10% and 20% CSPA did not change the phosphorous
value but it decreased by 3 in those applied with 30% CSPA. All treatments did not makeany changes in potassium deficiency. For its biological study, it was found out that soil
fauna in all treatments has a moderate Simpson’s index value. There were seven groups ofarthropods found: order Acarina of class Arachnida and orders Coleoptera, Collembola,
Dermaptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera of class Insecta. It was found out thattreatments that received high percentage of pyroligneous acid got a high faunal population.
The study concluded that pyroligneous acid has demonstrated impacts to the biologicl andchemical aspects to a depleted soil. The higher the rate of CSPA, the higher the populationof arthropods. Pyroligneous acid has changed the chemical property in terms of soil pH
value, Organic Matter value and phosphorous value. Potassium remains deficient before
and after treatment in all levels.
Keywords pyroligneous acid, depleted soil, arthropods, soil fauna, coconut shell

INTRODUCTION
Soil degradation is now a global problem that requires global efforts to mitigate. This requires new
approaches in managing this very important resource for food security and sustainability. It isimperative that for us to mitigate we will find alternative technologies in agriculture to replacethose that are considered “destructive” to the life of the soil especially those which are proven to be
one of the causes of soil degradation like synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
According to Stan Cox in his opinion column of Aljazeera, one-third of Earth's soil isdegraded because of unsustainable farming methods, which could lead to a major food crisis. He
said that “countries whose land is in the worst trouble are often, but not always, countries wherelarge numbers of people live in poverty. In just 10 countries - India, Bangladesh, Brazil, China,
Thailand, Mexico, Philippines, Democratic Republic of Congo, Vietnam and Burma - more than
530 million people are feeling the impact of land degradation directly. Worldwide, 1.5bn people
are feeling it (Cox, 2012).
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In its project preview of Australian Center of International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)
Project in Bohol, the World Agroforestry Center noted that “soil erosion and associated losses ofnutrients from arable land are an important economic problem in the Philippines and closely
associated with ecosystem health and function. These are also issues which are predominantly
associated with the steeply sloping uplands and areas with highly erodible soils. Within the
agricultural province of Bohol, 45% of the island is designated as agricultural land and supports
80 % of the island’s population. However, nearly two thirds of the agricultural land has a slope ofgreater than 18 % and receives more than two meters of rainfall per year. In a previous ACIAR
project LWR/2001/003 it was concluded that activities that have the highest adverse impact on
agricultural sustainability (and therefore long term economic sustainability) in the upper Inabanga(the largest watershed on Bohol), included: up and down cultivation on sloping lands, continuous
use of nutrient-depleting crops such as corn and cassava, and extensive cultivation of steep uplandsoils (World Agroforestry Center, nd.).
Pyrolysis can serve as wood waste recycling process which will reduce environmental hazards.
Its by-product, the pyroligneous acid is a potential input to replace chemical pesticides for organic
agriculture purposes. In a slide presentation of Laemsak N. as cited by Tiilikkala et.al. (2010), it isnoted that one of the fast growing areas of bio-business is based on the use of pyrolysis
technologies. Charcoal (biofuel and biochar) has been the main product of the conventional
pyrolysis for a long time in most of the cases but recently by-products of the process (green
chemicals) have become more and more important. Locally produced wood vinegar has been used
as a pesticide in countries where synthetic chemicals have not been available, or where the price ofthe chemicals has been too high for small scale farmers. Globally, the need to minimize theenvironmental risks resulting from pesticides leaching to ground water and waterways hasbolstered the use of wood vinegar as a biocide and pesticide (Tiilikkala et al., 2010). Hence, there
is a need also to look into the impacts of this input to the biological and chemical aspects of the soil
to help determine its usefulness in pest and fertilizer management and therefore can be of benefit inrestoring depleted soils.
The aim of this research was to find out the impacts of coconut shell pyroligneous acid on the
biological and chemical properties of a depleted soil in Bohol, Philippines.
METHODOLOGY
Research Location
This research project was conducted in a controlled condition at Oikos Garden, Bilar, Bohol,
Philippines. However, soil samples were taken from a degraded upland community of Carmen,
Bohol.

Fig. 1 Map of research siteⒸ ISERD

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There were two experimental set-ups established: one for the study of soil fauna and one forthe study of chemical properties.
Soil Fauna
This aspect of the study was to find out the effect of coconut shell pyrolignoeus acid on the soil
inhabitants of degraded soil. Soil samples were taken from the degraded uplands of Carmen, Bohol.
Soil was analyzed as clay loam with a pH value of 4.1 which is “extremely acidic” and 3.0%
organic matter. It has a phosphorous content of 12 ppm and deficient in potassium.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles (1.5 liter soda bottle) were used as observation
containers. PET bottles were cut crosswise leaving the straight portion and holes were made on thesides of the bottles. These bottles were filled up with the collected soil and treatments wereassigned. The treatments were as follows: Control, 10% CSPA, 20% CSPA and 30% CSPA byvolume. There were four bottles assigned for each treatment as observation of soil fauna was done
four times in a weekly basis. Hence, 16 PET bottles with soil were embedded on the ground at 20
cm deep and secured in a secluded area of the experimental field. Four observations for eachtreatment were done 7, 14, 28 and 42 days after the PET bottles with soil were embedded on the
ground.
To collect the organisms present in the soil, an improvised Berlese funnel was prepared using
a one gallon empty plastic water container. Soil was placed on the funnel with a 100 w bulb on topof the soil. Underneath the funnel was a glass with alcohol to catch the soil organisms. Soilarthropods extracted from the soil were identified under the microscope.

A

C

B

Fig. 2 Soil samples in PET bottles (a), improvised Berlese funnel (B), andidentification of arthropods (C)Chemical Property

B

A

Fig. 3 Experimental set-up (A) and pechay 30 days after planting (B)Experimental set-up was established in a nursery of the Oikos Garden. This part of the study was tofind out the impact of CSPA on soil property. Black plastic potting bags were used. Using the soil
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samples collected from the degraded upland of Bohol, a randomized complete block design(RCBD) was installed. Four bags were planted with pechay for each treatment and replicated fourtimes. The treatments were as follows: Control (No CSPA), 10% CSPA, 20% CSPA and 30%
CSPA. First application of CSPA was done one week before planting and the second was done one
week after planting. Subsequent application was done on a weekly basis. Soil analysis was done
before and after the study
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil Fauna
Data collection showed one order of Arachnida (Acarina) and six orders of Arthropods that wereidentified in all treatments. The arthropods identified included the following: Coleoptera,
Collembola, Dermaptera, Diptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera. Each treatment has a population of8, 8, 33 and 55 for Treatments 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Figure 4 shows the total population ofarthropods in all treatments after four collection and counting periods that is 7, 14, 28 and 42 days
after the PET bottles were embedded on the ground.
Simpson’s dominance index indicated that all treatments had a moderate value. However,based on population data, Treatments 3 and 4 showed higher population than Treatments 1 and 2. It
means high percentage of CSPA will increase population of soil organisms.
Chemical Properties

Number of Arthropods

Baseline information about the soil used in this study was obtained and it was found out that such
soil is characterized as clay loam with a pH value of 4.1 which is extremely acid. It has an organic
matter content of 3% with 12 ppm phosphorous and deficient in Potassium.
After one season of pechay (one month), soil analysis indicated some changes as reflected inTable 2.

Treatments

Fig. 4 Total arthropod population by treatment

Fig. 5 Representative arthropods collected from soils in PET bottlesⒸ ISERD

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Table 1 Arthropod population by order per treatment
Treatments

Population
by OrderArthropods

Treatment 1 (Control)
Acarina
Coleoptera
DipteraHymenoptera

1
4
1
2

Acarina
Coleoptera
HemipteraHymenoptera

2
3
1
2

Acarina
Coleoptera
Collembola
Dermaptera
DipteraHymenoptera

9
4
1
1
1
17

Acarina
Coleoptera
Collembola
Dermaptera
Hymenoptera

28
6
6
1
14

Treatment 2 (10%)

Total Population
Per Treatment
88Treatment 3 (20% CSPA)

33

Treatment 4 (30% CSPA)

55

Table 2 Soil aanalysis before and after treatment
Baseline Soil Analysis

Soil pH
Organic Matter (%)
Phosphorous(ppm)
Potassium (ppm)

4.1
3.0
12
Deficient

Treatment 1(Control)
4.1
3.0
12
Deficient

Treatment 2

Treatment 3

Treatment 4

5.2
4.0
12

5.1
3.5
12

4.5
4.0
9

Deficient

Deficient

Deficient

Soil acidity or pH value changes in all treatments in an indirect proportion. This implies that
CSPA can lower the pH value of soil and so it can neutralize soil acidity. From a baseline data ofan “extremely acid soil”, Treatments 2 and 3 lowers to “strongly acid” category while Treatment 4
changed to “very strongly acid”. Treatments 2 and 3 did not change the phosphorous value but it
decreased by 3 in Treatment 4. All treatments did not make any changes in potassium deficiency.
The organic matter has increased by 1 in Treatments 2 and 4 and 0.5 in Treatment 3. This study
confirms the work of Li and Wang (2014) that addition of wood vinegar to the soil decreases soil
pH.
CONCLUSION
Based on the result of the study, it is concluded that coconut shell pyroligneous acid has
demonstrated impacts to the biological and chemical aspects of depleted soil. The higher the rate of
CSPA, the higher the population of arthropods. CSPA has changed the chemical property in termsof soil pH value, Organic Matter value and Phosphorous value. Potassium value remains deficient
before and after treatment at all levels.

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REFERENCES
Cox, S. 2012. The world can’t afford to keep wasting soil (updated Jan 12; 2012. cited September 20, 2014.
Available from: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/01/20121992725118465.html)
Tiilikkala, K., Fagernas, L. and Tiilikkala, J. 2010. History and use of wood pyrolysis liquids as biocide andplant protection product. The open agriculture journal, 2010 (4).
Li, Z-H. and Wang, X-D. 2014. Effect of wood vinegar on soil properties and plant growth. Journal of Plant
Nutrition and Fertilizer, 20(2), 510-516. (Available from: http://www.plantnutrifert.org/EN/10.11674/
zwyf.2014.0229)
World Agroforestry Center. n.d. ACIAR Bohol - Evaluation and adoption of improved farming practices on
soil and water resources in Bohol Island. Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. (cited July 12, 2014 Available
from:http://www.worldagroforestry.org/regions/southeast_asia/philippines/projects/aciar-bohol)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Pre-Rice or Post-Rice Mungbean Productivity with
Chemical and Bio-Compost Fertilizer under Rainfed
Conditions
ANAN POLTHANEE*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: panan@kku.ac.th

ARUNEE PROMKHAMBUT
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

JAWAPA MANAONOK
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

RANGRONG TABOONMUANG
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 16 December 2014

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this research was to investigate the effect of chemical and biocompost fertilizer application on growth and yield of mungbean when grown as pre-or postrice under rainfed conditions, as well as economic return of growing mungbean. A
randomized complete block design (RCBD) was used, with four fertilizer application
treatments; soil applied as basal NPK, folia applied chelate EDTA compound, folia appliedbio-compost and control. The results showed that soil applied NPK produced the maximum
seed yield when mungbean grown as pre-or post-rice crop. In economic return, soil applied
as basal NPK provided the maximum net benefit (565US $/ha) when mungbean grown as
pre-rice crop. While, folia applied bio-compost gave the highest net benefit (295US $/ha)mungbean grown as post-rice crop.
Keywords mungbean, chemical fertilizer, bio-compost fertilizer, chelate EDTA compound,rice-based cropping systems

INTRODUCTION
Mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) is an excellent source of high quality protein (25%). It has also
proved to be an ideal crop for pre-rice or post-rice crop in early and late rainy season with the shortmaturing, legume crop (Choudrary et al., 2011). Northeast Thailand is generally considered to haverice fields with particularly infertile soils with coarse texture (Wade et al., 1999). Mungbean is ahigh responsive to nutrients (Choudrary et al., 2011). Hence, nutrients requirement of mungbean
can be met by supplying nutrients through chemical fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers
with different application methods such as application to soil, seed priming and foliar application.
Numerous studies have shown the usefulness of spraying micronutrients on grain crops(Schnappinger et al., 1969; Agrawal, 1992; Modaihsh, 1997). However the information on use of
bio-compost to improve productivity of mungbean is neglected. The objective of this research was
to investigate the effect of chemical and bio-compost fertilizer application on growth and yield of
mungbean when grown as pre-rice or post-rice crop under rainfed conditions.
METHODOLOGY
Field experiments were conducted during May to July 2014 for pre-rice mungbean and December
2013 to March 2014 for post-rice mungbean. Rainfed lowland rice in Northeast Thailand isⒸ ISERD

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commonly sloping land, which determines groups of paddy land type, upper, medium and lower
fields. Pre-rice mungbean crop grown in the upper field, while post-rice mungbean crop grown in
the lower field. Since, the upper fields have a low chance of encountering to waterlogging
condition with rainfall intensity during the early wet season. For the lower fields, stored soil waterat the end of wet season may be sufficient for a quick maturing legume crops. The soil was sandyin texture of upper fields with pH (5.05), total N (0.025%), available P (7.02 mg/kg), exchangeable
K (16.78 mg/kg) and organic matter (0.544%). For lower fields, soil was sandy loam in texture withpH (5.55), total N (0.022%), available P (6.81 mg/kg), exchangeable K (52.44 mg/kg) and organic
matter (0.234%). Bulk density value average at 0-15 cm soil depth was about 1.61 and 1.45 g/cm3
for pre and post-rice mungbean plots at planting, respectively.
The treatments consist of four fertilizer application; soil applied as basal NPK of fertilizer
grade 15-15-15 (N - P2O5 – K2O) at rate of 156 kg/ha, folia applied chelate EDTA compound at rateof 2 gm/liter of water, folia applied bio-compost (producing from pig placenta) at rate of 10 cc/literof water. Bio-compost were analyzed for total N 3.8%, total P 0.15% and total K 0.78%. Soil
applied as basal dose just before seed sowing. Folia Chelate EDTA (micronutrients) and biocompost were sprayed to the crop at 15, 30 and 45 days after planting (DAP). Zero-tillage waspracticed for post-rice mungbean and conventional tillage was used for pre-rice mungbean. The
mungbean cultivar Chainat 72 was seeded in December 17, 2013 and May 15, 2014 with spacing
50 cm × 20 cm between row and plant. The mungbean crops were thinned to two plants per hill at
10 DAP. Weed control was done by hand once at 15 DAP in pre-or post-rice mungbean crop. No
pesticide was used in pre-rice mungbean crop.
Data on top dry weight (stem + leaf) were recorded by drying samples in an oven at 60 °C for
72 h. The pods number per plant, seeds number per pod, 100 seeds weight and seed yield were
measured at harvest. The nutrient concentration of mungbean leaf was determined for N, P and K atflowering in pre-rice mungbean crop. The nutrient uptake was calculated by leaf dry weight (kg/ha)
x concentration (%) and divided by 100 for N, P and K uptake.
Soil moisture content was determined by gravimetric measurements at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45
cm depth. Field capacity (FC) and Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) were estimated with pressure
plate equipment. The crop received rainfall about 26 mm in December 2013 at 5 DAP. Later,
rainfall did not occur in the entire the growing period when mungbean grown as post-rice crop. Soil
moisture content observed which close to PWP at 45 DAP until harvest (Fig.1). The minimum airtemperature during the growing period was about 14.5, 13.7 and 19.2°C in December 2013,
January and February 2014, respectively. When mungbean grown as pre-rice, the crop received
rainfall about 257 mm. Soil moisture content was observed in available range (FC and PWP)
throughout the growing period (Fig. 2). The minimum air temperature was recorded about 25.0,
25.8 and 24.7 °C in May, June and July 2014, respectively.
10

10
9

8

Soil moisture content (%)

Soil moisture content (%)

9

Field capacity

7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Permanent wilting point

0
18

27

Dec

12

29

Jan

9

16

Feb

2

8

Field capacity

7
6
5
4
3
2

Permanent wilting point

1
0

9

24

Mar

Fig. 1 Soil moisture content (%) at 0-15 cm(xxx), 15-30 cm (--) and 30-45 cm (- - -)depth during the growing period in
post-rice mungbeanⒸ ISERD

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30

7

15

21

28

5

12

May
June
Fig. 2 Soil
moisture content(%) atJuly
0-15 cm(xxx), 15-30 cm (--) and 30-45 cm (- - -)depth during the growing period in
pre-rice mungbean

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth, Yield and Yield Components of Mungbean at Harvest
Fertilizer application was not significantly affected on pod number per plant, seed number per pod
and 100 seeds weight, but it was significantly difference on top dry weight and seed yield of
mungbean when mungbean grown as pre-rice crop (Table 1). The maximum top dry weight andseed yield were obtained in soil applied NPK treatments.
Fertilizer application had no significant effect on top dry weight and pod number per plant, but
had significant effect on seed number per pod, 100 seeds weight and seed yield of mungbean whengrown as post-rice crop (Table 2). The soil applied NPK treatments produced maximum seednumber per pod, 100 seeds weight and seed yield of mungbean.
Table 1 Growth, yield components and yield of mungbean at harvest as affected by fertilizer
application when grown as pre-rice crop
Treatment

Top dry weight
Pod no. per
Seed no. per1000 seed
per plant (g)
plant
pod
weight (g)Control
11.8 b
9.6
5.7
8.2
Soil applied NPK
19.8 a13.9
7.4
8.5
Folia applied chelate
18.4 a12.4
7.1
8.1
Folia applied bio-compost
16.7 ab
11.5
6.3
8.0
F-test
*
ns
ns
ns
23.3
24.4
22.4
8.1
CV (%)
NS = Not significant, * Significant at P < 0.05
Mean followed by the same letter at the same column was not significantly difference by LSD.

Seed yield(kg/ha)427.1 c666.9 a571.7 b566.2 b*
11.6

Table 2 Growth, yield components and seed yield of mungbean at harvest as affected byfertilizer application when grown as post-rice crop
Treatment

Top dry weight
Pod no. per
Seed no. per1000 seed
per plant (g)
plant
pod
weight (g)Control
4.4
4.4
5.1 c
8.3 b
Soil applied NPK
5.5
6.1
7.4 a
8.9 a
Folia applied chelate
4.6
5.6
6.7 b
8.6 ab
Folia applied bio-compost
4.6
5.3
6.6 b
8.6 abF-testnsns**
CV (%)
13.4
17.2
3.5
36.
NS = Not significant, * Significant at P < 0.05
Mean followed by the same letter at the same column was not significantly difference by LSD.

Seed yield(kg/ha)229.8 c324.7 a276.8 b273.4 b*7.5

Table 3 Nutrient concentration in leaves and nutrient uptake of mungbean at flowering asaffected by fertilizer application when grown as pre-rice crop
Treatment

Concentration (%)
Nutrient uptake (kg/ha)
N
P
K
N
P
K
Control
4.10
0.322
2.30
36.3 b2.8 b19.3 bSoil applied NPK
5.26
0.361
2.49
86.6 a6.1 a43.8 aFolia applied chelate
4.73
0.335
2.34
66.1 ab
4.6 ab
31.6 abFolia applied bio-compost
4.41
0.336
2.28
46.5 b3.6 b21.5 bF-test
ns
ns
ns
*
*
*
CV (%)
13.0
9.9
8.9
25.3
26.1
32.4
NS = Not significant, * Significant at P < 0.05
Mean followed by the same letter at the same column was not significantly difference by LSD.

Nutrient Concentration and Uptake of Mungbean at Flowering
Fertilizer application had no significant effect on N, P and K concentration of mungbean leaves atflowering when grown as pre-rice crop (Table 3). However, soil applied NPK tend to give thehighest N, P and K concentration of mungbean leaves at flowering.
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Fertilizer application was significantly affected on N, P and K uptake of mungbean leaves atflowering (Table 3). The maximum N, P and K uptake were recorded in the soil applied NPK
treatments.
Economic Return of Growing Mungbean
All fertilizer application treatments provided good net income than control treatments. The
maximum net benefit was obtained in soil applied NPK treatments when mungbean grown as prerice crop, while the highest net benefit was observed in folia applied bio-compost treatments whenmungbean grown as post-rice crop (Tables 4 and 5).
Table 4 Yield, gross income, production cost and net income of mungbean when grown as pre–rice crop by different fertilizer application
Treatment

Yield (kg/ha)

Gross income
Production cost
Net income(US $/ha)(US $/ha)(US $/ha)Control
427.1
533.9
175.8
358.1
Soil applied NPK
666.9
833.6
268.6
565.0
Folia applied chelate
566.2
707.8
203.9
503.9
Folia applied bio-compost
571.7
714.6
182.9
531.7
Note : Planting material = mungbean seed 50 baht/kg, NPK 19 baht/kg, chelate EDTA compound 400 baht/kg and biocompost 20 baht/liter; Market price of mungbean seed 40 baht/kg; 1 US $ = 32 Thai baht; Production cost = Material
cost + land preparation for mungbean growing; Household labor is considered as farming labor

Table 5 Yield, gross income, production cost and net income of mungbean when grown aspost –rice crop by different fertilizer application
Treatment

Yield (kg/ha)

Gross income
Production cost
Net income(US $/ha)(US $/ha)(US $/ha)Control
229.8
287.3
39.1
248.2
Soil applied NPK
324.7
405.9
131.9
274.0
Folia applied chelate
276.8
346.0
67.2
278.8
Folia applied bio-compost
273.4
341.8
46.2
295.6
Note : Planting material = mungbean seed 50 baht/kg, NPK 19 baht/kg, chelate EDTA compound 400 baht/kg and biocompost 20 baht/liter; Market price of mungbean seed 40 baht/kg; 1 US $ = 32 Thai baht; Production cost = Material
cost + land preparation for mungbean growing; Household labor is considered as farming labor

In pre-rice mungbean, soil applied NPK produced the maximum seed yield. However, allfertilizer application treatments gave higher seed yield than the control treatments. The soil applied
NPK produced the maximum seed yield due to better plant development through nutrient uptake,where primary growth elements were available in sufficient amount. The obtained results are inagreement with the findings of Graham and Ascher (1993).
The sufficient N, P and K concentration in leaves of legumes crops at flowering stage wasabout 5.1%, 0.4% and 2%, respectively (Makay and Leefe, 1962). In this study, The N, P and K ofleaves at flowering stage in soil applied NPK treatments were 5.26%, 0.361% and 2.49%,
respectively. This indicates that N, P and K in soil provided an adequate amount for mungbean
growth at flowering stage in soil applied NPK treatments.
Folia application of chelate EDTA increased seed yield over control. This agree with research
work by Modaihsh (1997) and Mondal et al. (2011). Similarly, folia spray of bio-compost fertilizer
produced higher seed yield than in control, due to better in plant growth. This agree with study by
Buasri et al. (2010).
In post-rice mungbean, soil applied NPK also gave the highest seed yield. However, allfertilizer application treatments produced higher seed yield than the control. This was due tofertilizer application provided better shoot growth and subsequently produced good quality of allyield components. Soil application NPK as well as folia sprays of chelate EDTA and bio-compost
supplemented availability of nutrients to mungbean crop. This agree with many research works byGraham and Ascher (1993); Ali et al. (2008); Modaihsh (1997) and Thalooth et al. (2006).
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Mungbean seed yield in post-rice crop was lower than in pre-rice crop. This was due to postrice mungbean the crop subjected to water stress at pod formation growth stage. This caused thehighest reduction of pods number per plant. Similarly results were also reported by Thalooth et al.
(2006). In addition the mungbean suffered from low temperature (below 15 °C) at seedling growthstage during December 2013 to January 2014. The temperature recorded below 15 °C may
inhibited mungbean seeding growth was reported by DOA (2000).
CONCLUSION
All fertilizer application treatments produced higher seed yield than control. The soil applied asbasal NPK gave the highest seed yield when mungbean grown as pre-rice or post-rice crop.
However, in economic return the soil applied NPK provided the maximum net benefit whenmungbean grown as pre-rice crop. While, folia applied bio-compost gave the highest net benefit
when mungbean grown as post-rice crop. The results of those studies also suggested that mungbean
is suitable to grow as pre-rice rather than post-rice crop.
REFERENCES
Agrawal, H.P. 1992. Assessing the micronutrient requirement of winter wheat. Communications in Soil
Science and Plant Analysis, 23, 2555-2568.
Ali, S., Riaz Khan, A., Mairaj, G., Arif, M., Fida, M. and Bibi, S. 2008. Assessment of different crop
nuturient management practices for yield improvement. Australian Journal of Crop Science, 2 (3), 150157.
Buasri, P., Lauprasert, P. and Udomporn, T. 2010. Efficiency of bio-compost liquid produced from golden
apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) on mungbean growth. KKU Journal for Public Health Research, 3(2), 37-45.
Choudhary, H.R., Sharma, O.P., Yadav, L.R. and Choudhary, G.L. 2011. Effect of organic sources andchemical fertilizers on productivity of mungbean. Journal of Food Legumes, 24 (4), 324-326.
Department of Agriculture (DOA). 2000. Good agriculture practices for mungbean. Department ofAgriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative, Bangkok, Thailand. 49p.
Graham, R.D. and Ascher, J.S. 1993. Nutritional limitations of sub-soils. In: Plant nutrition from genetic
engineering to field practice. pp. 739-742. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordercht.
Makay, D.C. and Leefe, J.S. 1962. Optimum leaf level of N, P and K in sweet corn and snap beans. Can. J.
Plant Sci., 42, 238-246.
Modaihsh, A.S. 1997. Foliar application of chelated and non-chelated metals for supplying micronutrients towheat grown on calcareous soil. Experimental Agriculture, 33, 237-245.
Mondal, M.M.A., Rahman, M.A., Akter, M.B. and Fakir, M.S.A. 2011. Effect of foliar application of
nitrogen and micronutrients on growth and yield in mungbean. Legume Research, 34 (3), 166-171.
Schnappinger, M.G., Martens, D.C. and Hankins, G.W. 1969. Response of corn Zn-EDTA and ZnSO4 infield investigations. Agronomy Journal, 61, 834-836.
Thalooth, A.T., Tawik, M.M. and Magda Mohamed, H. 2006. A comparative study on the effect of folia
application of zinc, potassium and magnesium on growth and yield of mungbean grown under water
stress. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2 (1), 37-46.
Wade, L., Fukai, S., Samson, B.K., Ali, A. and Mazid, M.A. 1999. Rainfed lowland rice-physicalenvironment and cultivar requirements. Field Crops Research, 64, 3-12.

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Research article
erd

Biodiversity of Soil Invertebrates in Sugar Cane Plantations
with the Different Application of Sugar Distillery SpentWash
DUANGRAT THONGPHAK*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mail: duathg@kku.ac.th

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

THAMMARED CHAUASAVATHI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this study was to compare the biodiversity of soil invertebrates inthe various utilization of spent wash liquor in sugar cane plantations. Soil invertebrates
were collected in the four different spent wash liquor applications: 1) control plot, 2)applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year plot, 3) applied with spent wash liquor for 2 years
plot and 4) applied with spent wash liquor for 4 years plot. The soil invertebrate samples
were collected by random sampling during November 2012 to October 2013. The results
showed that a total of 7 orders comprising 42 species of 31 families were collected in thisstudy. The density of soil invertebrates in the areas of spent wash liquor application was
significantly higher than those in the control plot. The Shannon-Wiener’s species diversity
index indicated that the diversity was the highest in the plantation applied with spent wash
liquor for 2 year (2.26), followed by that of applied with spent wash liquor for 4 years(2.06), applied with spent wash liquor at 1 year (2.04) and lastly the control plot (1.57).
Keywords soil invertebrates, spent wash liquor, sugar cane

INTRODUCTION
Thailand is a major producer of sugar and sugar industry offers employment potential andcontributes substantially to economic development. There are about 47 sugar cane mills in Thailand.
The sugar industry produces a huge amount of wastes every day, which is rich in organic materialand characteristically less toxic and easily amenable for microorganisms. Alcohol is produced by
the fermentation of molasses. The liquor left after the sugar production is spent wash. The
application of spent wash liquor in the sugar cane area can increased nutrients content in soil suchas phosphorus potassium calcium and magnesium (Soongsud et al., 2007). Soil invertebrates areimportant in the functioning of nearly all environments, with changes in species composition
potentially reflecting changes in the ecosystem (Madden and Fox, 1997). Knowledge of diversity
helps in understanding changes in ecosystem complexity. Soil macro-invertebrates play afundamental role in soil processes. They are integral to the cycling of organic matter and associatednutrients, and physically alter soil structure through movement (Jouquet et al., 2006; Wolfe andKlironomos, 2005). Loss or high of invertebrate diversity can adversely affect soil processes,
ultimately altering the availability and composition of nutrients within the soil (Ehrenfeld and Neal,
2001; Jouquet et al., 2006; Belnap and Susan, 2001). Soil invertebrates also contribute to thesuccession of above ground vegetal communities through provision of resources, as well as
selective consumption of available resources (De Deyn et al., 2003). Thus, maximum retention of
invertebrate biodiversity is beneficial to biotic communities above and below the soil surface. The
function of soil invertebrates within their communities, and their effects upon the environment, areⒸ ISERD

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often disproportionate to their abundance (Lavelle, 1996). The objective of this study was tocompare the biodiversity of soil invertebrates in various utilization of spent wash liquor in thesugar cane areas.
METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out monthly in the Nampong district, Khon Kaen province in the northeastern part of Thailand during November 2012 to October 2013 (Fig. 1). The study sites werelocated within four sugar cane plantations were selected based on different management: 1) control
plot, 2) applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year, 3) applied with spent wash liquor for 2 years and4) applied with spent wash liquor for 4 years. The soil insect and soil invertebrate were collectedusing hand collecting and Berlese funnel methods (Southwood, 1994) (Fig. 2). For hand collecting
on soil surface was set five sampling sites (1 m2/site) in each plot. The sampling sites were sampled
for soil invertebrates lived on soil surface and within soil depth at 10 cm using Berlese funnel
methods. The samples were then classified by morphospecies and stored in 75% ethanol. All insect
specimens were identified at least up to taxonomic order using the identification guides of
Triplehorn and Johnson (2005) and Bolton (1994). The specimens were also compared with thereference collections at the Insect Museum, Faculty of Agriculture, Khonkaen University. The
Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index (Krebs, 1999), was used to calculate the diversity of soil
invertebrates collected. The formula of the Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index used is presented asfollows
H’ = Σ (pi)(lnpi)(1)i=1
where H’= Species diversity index, s = Number of species and pi = Proportion of the total sample
belonging to ith species.
The evenness index (Krebs, 1999) was calculated to determine the equal abundance of soil
invertebrates in each study site as follows:
Evenness =

𝐻′
𝐻′𝑀𝐴𝑋

(2)

where H’ = Observed index of species diversity and H’MAX = Maximum possible index of diversity.
The diversity values for Shannon-Weiner were classified based on scale developed by
Fernando (1998) and is presented in Table 1.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result showed that a total of fourteen orders comprising 51 species in 24 families werecollected in this study (Fig. 3). The diversity of soil invertebrates in applied with spent wash liquor
area was significantly higher than those in the control plot. The dominant insects in all areas wereHymenoptera (42.43%) followed by Coleoptera (23.06%), and Araneae ( 5.75%), respectively (Fig.
4 A and B). The sugarcane area applied with spent wash liquor for 2 years (Plot 3) has the highest
abundance of Order Hymenoptera followed by the control plot (Fig. 5). Only one subfamily ofFormacinae under Hymenoptera has been found in all areas.
Table 1 Classification of species richness indices (adopted from Fernando 1998)
Relative values
Very highHigh
Moderate
Low
Very low

Species diversity>3.50
3.00 – 3.49
2.50 – 2.99
2.00 – 2.49
<1.99

Evenness>0.75
0.50 – 0.74
0.25 – 0.49
0.15 – 0.24
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Fig. 1 Study area at Nam Phong district in Khon Kaen Province (red) in Northeastern
ThailandFig. 2 Soil invertebrate sampling methods

A

B

C

D

Fig. 3 Example of soil invertebrates (A) Order Coleoptera (B) Order Isoptera(C) Order Hymenoptera (D) Order Diplura
The diversity of insect in this study is presented in Fig 6. Overall, the results show that insect
diversity value for all of the sugarcane plantation areas was low diversity with H´=2.04-2.32 while
the evenness index were similar in all areas with 0.56-0.46. The Shannon-Wiener’s species
diversity index indicated that the diversity was the highest in the plantation applied with spent wash
liquor for 1 year (2.32), followed by the plantation applied with spent wash liquor for 4 years (2.23),
applied with spent wash liquor for 2 years (2.15) and lastly the control plot (2.04).
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etc.
AranaeDipteraHomoptera
Hemiptera
Isoptera
Orthoptera
Collembola
Hymenoptera
Coleoptera
0

10

20

30

40

Percentage of insects orderFig. 4 Taxonomic of soil invertebrate in all areas

Number of sample

1200
1000
800

Plot 4

Plot 3600

Plot 2Plot 1400
200
0Order of soil inveterbrate

Fig. 5 Taxonomic of soil invertebrate in different land management
Plot 1 = control plot, Plot 2 = applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year ,Plot 3 = applied with spent wash liquor for 2 years and Plot 4 = applied withspent wash liquor for 4 years
(A)

(B)

0.70

2.50

0.60

2.00

0.50

Evenness (J')

Shannon index (H')

3.00

1.50
1.00

0.40
0.30
0.20

0.10

0.50

0.00

0.00
Plot 1Plot 2Plot 3

Plot 1Plot 4

Plot 2Plot 3

Plot 4

Land types

land types

Fig. 6 Comparison between Shannon index (A) and evenness (B) of species diversity in eachplantation
Plot 1 = control plot, Plot 2 = applied with spent wash liquor for 1 year,
Plot 3 = applied with spent wash liquor for 2 years and Plot 4 = applied withspent wash liquor at 4 years

Results of this study show that the sugar cane plantations after land application of spent wash
liquor has high diversity and abundance of insect fauna compare with the control plot. The increasein soil invertebrate diversity in the application of spent wash liquor area may be due to increasedⒸ ISERD

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nutrients content in soil. The majority of insects found in this study were Hymenoptera (ants) andColeoptera (beetles). This is because the ants and beetles may be occurred most of the time in thisstudy. We observed that the ants were the most common and the greatest number of insect species
at the sugarcane plantation. Nigel and Paul (1992) stated that ants are found in the most terrestrial
habitats. Most are predators and as such are critical component of aboveground and soil
communities. They are usually less spectacular effects on the environments.
CONCLUSION
It may be concluded that the diversity of soil invertebrates in the sugar cane plots applied withspent wash liquor was significantly higher than those in control plot. If an understanding of
microhabitats used by specific ant species can be developed, along with the key trophic interactions,then the potential of using insects as terrestrial indicator species for detecting environmental
changes can potentially be reliably and easily with low cost and time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Khon Kaen University funding 2013 under the project
Relationships between soil insect and arthropod diversity and utilization of spent wash liquor in
economic crop area in Nam Phong watershed. Special thanks to Integrated water Resource
Management Centre in Northeast, Thailand.
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Chapman & Hall, London, UK. 524 pp.
Triplehorn, C.A. and Johnson, N.F. 2005. Borror and Delong’s introduction to the study of insects. 7th ed.
Brooks/Cole. 864 pp.
Wolfe, B.E. and Klironomos, J.N. 2005. Breaking new ground: Soil communities and exotic plant invasion.
Bioscience, 55, 477-487.

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Research article
erd

Efficiency of Vermicompost on Growth and NutrientsContent of Young Rubber Trees (Hevea brasiliensis)
KIRIYA SUNGTHONGWISES*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mail: skiriy@kku.ac.th
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Vermicompost originates from the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms.
Its microbial activity is 10 to 20 times higher than in the soil and contains a higher
saturation of nutrients than organic materials. Moreover, vermicompost is also believed tocontain hormones and enzymes which it acquires during the passage of the organic matter
through the earthworm gut. The hormones and enzymes are believed to stimulate plant
growth and discourage plant pathogens. The analysis of the ability of vermicompost
through their interactions on seedling growth and nutrients content of Hevea brasiliensis
will enable to decrease the use of chemical fertilizers while increasing crops yield and forsustaining crop production. In this study, the effect of using vermicompost on growth andnutrients content of rubber seedlings has been studied. Four treatments were supplied withratios of 1) 100 g/plant of 15-15-15, 2) 50 g/plant of 15-15-15 combined with 500 g/plant ofvermicompost, 3) 500 g/plant of vermicompost and 4) 100 g/plant of 15-15-15 combinedwith 500 g/plant of vermicompost. The results showed a significant rise in growth andnutrients content of rubber seedlings by increasing ratio of vermicompost combined with 50
g/plant of 15-15-15. Obviously, rubber seedlings were mostly appeared in the stem dryweight, N and K content in the leaves part and N, P and K content in the stem part after 6
months in vermicompost applying.
Keywords growth, major nutrients, rubber seedling, vermicompost

INTRODUCTION
In Northeast Thailand, natural rubber is mainly produced by smallholder farmers. N, P and K are
essential elements for plant growth and development. Additionally, the majority of soils inNortheast Thailand are acid and sandy. Soils have low water holding capacity, low organic matter
content, low cation exchange capacity and low availability of nutrients for plant uptake (Bruand etal., 2004). This poor inherent soil fertility decreases further when the soil is cropped. This has
resulted in decreasing quality and quantity of crop yields (Leaungvutiviroj et al., 2006).
Applications of chemical fertilizers at high levels can degrade soil and water resources in the longterm, leading to the loss of ecosystem services and decrease of agriculture sustainability. Latex
yield indicates the growing condition and yield potential of rubber tree. Growth and development
depends on many factors such as weather, clone planted, location, water and fertilizers. Akpan et al.
(2007) reported that soil constitutes the major aspect of the environment that greatly affects thegrowth and productivity of rubber trees. The use of organic and inorganic fertilizers increases theefficiency use of chemical fertilizers and soil remediation (Rubber Research Institute of Thailand,1997).
Vermicomposts are products derived from the accelerated biological degradation of organic
wastes by earthworms and microorganisms. Its microbial activity is 10 to 20 times higher than in
the soil (Chaoui, 2010). Vermicompost contains a higher saturation of nutrients that believed tocontain hormones and enzymes which acquires during the passage of the organic matter throughthe earthworm gut. The hormones and enzymes are believed to stimulate plant growth anddiscourage plant pathogens (Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2004). Hua et al. (2008) found that water andnutrients are the two main factors limiting Hevea brasiliensis growth and its latex yield. Akpan etⒸ ISERD

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al., (2007) suggested that fertility status of soil has some influence on rubber latex yield. Especially,acid sandy soils in Northeast Thailand are low levels of soil parent materials. This has resulted indecreasing quality and quantity of crop yields (Leaungvutiviroj et al., 2006). The aim of thisresearch was to investigate the effect of vermicompost on growth and nutrients content of Hevea
brasiliensis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Treatments
The Hevea brasiliensis RRIM 600 field experiments were conducted at Khon Kaen University,
Khon Kaen province, Northeast Thailand in 2013. Northeast Thailand is characterized by a tropicalclimate with an acid sandy soil. Vermicompost produced from cow manure was applied at rates of
500 g/plant (d.w.) to young rubber trees. Chemical fertilizer (15-15-15 kg NPK) was applied at
rates of 100 g/plant after a month of sowing date. Four treatments were supplied with ratios of 1)
100 g/plant of 15-15-15, 2) 50 g/plant of 15-15-15 combined with 500 g/plant of vermicompost, 3)
500 g/plant of vermicompost and 4) 100 g/plant of 15-15-15 combined with 500 g/plant ofvermicompost (Table 1).
Table 1 Treatments studied at Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen province,
Northeast Thailand in 2013
Treatment

15-15-15 kg NPK

Vermicompost

Tr1 Control

100 g/plant-Tr2

50 g/plant

500 g/plant

Tr3-

500 g/plantTr4

100 g/plant

500 g/plant

PlantsYoung rubber tree
(RRIM 600)
Young rubber tree
(RRIM 600)
Young rubber tree
(RRIM 600)
Young rubber tree
(RRIM 600)

Young Rubber Trees Plantation and Sampling
The Hevea brasiliensis RRIM 600 were transferred to cement blocks with 1 plant/block to control
the organic and chemical fertilizers applied. The plants were grown under natural raining and field
condition. Growth and development were measured at the end of each month for 6 months. Whole
plant samples were harvested for assessment of shoot dry weight, number of leaves, plant high,trunk circumference, stem diameter and macronutrients content (N, P and K) in the shoot. All
leaves and stems of young rubber trees were placed into paper bags, oven-dried at 80 qC for 3-4
days before the weight of shoots was determined.
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) Measurements and Ash Alkalinity
For each sample of above-ground biomass N content was measured by micro-Kjeldahl withindophenol blue, P content by wet oxidation and spectrophotometry and K content by wet
oxidation and flame photometry.
Statistical Analysis
The experiment was conducted in Completely Randomizing Design (CRD) with 4 replications. An
analysis of variance was done on data obtained from each parameter in each treatment. All analysis
were carried out using Statistical analysis version 8.0. Least significant differences (L.S.D.) were
calculated at p < 0.05 and Duncan’s multiple-range test was used to test significant differences
between treatments. Standard deviation was also calculated for the variance.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth and Nutrients Uptake of Young Rubber Trees
Acid-weathered soils of the tropics and subtropics are particularly prone to P deficiency.
Worldwide, phosphorus is considered as the principal yield-limiting nutrient along with nitrogen(Zahran, 1999). Phosphorus deficiency is a primary constraint to plant growth in many terrestrial
ecosystems (Bonser et al., 1996). Under low soil pH, phosphate is adsorbed on clay minerals andother factors such as low soil moisture affect the availability of phosphorus (Karmarkar et al.,
1997; Roychaudhary et al., 2003). P deficiency has two main causes: (i) the low content in total P
of some soils poor in organic matter or highly weathered, and (ii) the complexation of P withcations such as Ca, Al or Fe, which makes P unavailable to the plants, as in acid soils. Nitrogen (N)elements is a key component of amino acids, proteins, chlorophyll, enzymes and it’s also involved
with the metabolic effect. Phosphorus (P) affects the rate of growth of the circumference and latex
during the beginning of rubber growth (Punnoose et al, 1976). Potassium (K) is a criticalcomponent of enzymes that aid in the protein synthesis, carbohydrate and sugar delivers, acid –base control, the opening - closing of the stomata. Moreover, allows all parts of the plant and rootsystem are strong and resistant to disease and insects. However, excessive amounts of K fertilizer
will decline Mg and Ca of rubber trees and P fertilizers are not always available or affordable tofarmers in the tropics. The experimental strategy employed during this research enabled todetermine the possibility of vermicompost applying for 6 months on growth and nutrients uptake ofyoung rubber trees cv. RRIM600. The results founded that no statistical difference wassignificantly greater for the growth of leaves and stems of young rubber (Fig. 1). As the suitablechemical formula fertilizer for small rubber trees is 20-8-20 with the rate of 410 g/plant (Rubber
Research Institute, 1997) which its far from our practices. However, the application of 15-15-15 by
50 g/plant with 500 g/plant of vermicompost statistically significant difference in K accumulationin the trunk (Fig. 4) and their rates of application likely tends to produce vegetative growth, N and
P accumulation of young rubber trees (Figs. 2 and 3). This probably related to phosphorus elementin the vermicompost and also other important nutrients are found such as calcium, magnesium andpotassium nitrate. However, not only macronutrients those are vital to the growth of rubber trees.
Micronutrients including manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), boron (B) and themolybdenum (Mo) are also necessary which are typically found in humus. Future research theincreasing in volume of vermicompost application with a suitable chemical formula fertilizer may
enable to promote the growth and nutrients uptake of young rubber trees cv. RRIM600.
a
a

a

a
A

A

A

A

Fig. 1 Vegetative growth of rubber seedling cv. RRIM600 after 6 monthsⒸ ISERD

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A
A

A

A

a

a

a

a

Fig. 2 N content of rubber seedling cv. RRIM600 after 6 months

A

A

A
A
a

a

a

a

Fig. 3 P content of rubber seedling cv. RRIM600 after 6 months

A

A
A

a

A

ab

ab

b

Fig. 4 K content of rubber seedling cv. RRIM600 after 6 months
CONCLUSION
The application of vermicompost with chemical fertilizer with the young rubber trees cv. RRIM
600 found that 50 g/plant of 15-15-15 combined with 500 g/plant of vermicompost significantly
increase in K content and tend to promote the growth and N, P content after 6 months. While theⒸ ISERD

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application of 100 g/plant of 15-15-15 combined with 500 g/plant of vermicompost and 500 g/plant ofvermicompost are not significantly increase in leaves growth and N, P and K content. This work
provides a first step towards by using vermicompost as bio-fertilizers for improving rubber growthand nutrient uptake, soil fertility and sustainable crop production in nutrient poor systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Khon Kaen University Research Fund (2557), Incubation
Researcher Project (2555) and Knowledge Development of Rubber Tree in Northeast ResearchGroup. Institute of Research for Development (IRD) under Jeunes équipes associées à l'IRD (JEAI)
research project and the partnership Land Use changes and Soil Ecosystem Services (LUSES) arealso thanked.
REFERENCES
Akpan, A.U., S.O. Edem and N.U. Ndaeyo. 2007. Latex yield of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell Argo) as
influenced by clone planted and locations with varying fertility status. Journal of Agriculture & Social
Sciences, 3, 28-30.
Bonser, A.M.Y.M., Lynch, J. and Snapp, S. 1996. Effect of phosphorus deficiency on growth angle of basalroots in Phaseolus vulgaris. New Phytol, 132, 281-288.
Bruand, A, Hartmann, C., Santi, R.A., Pramuanpong, S., Poss, R. and Hardy, M. 2004. Composition, fabric,
and porosity of an Arenic Haplustaff of Northeast Thailand: Relation to penetration resistance. Soil
Science Society of America Journal, 68, 185-193.
Chaoui, H. 2010. Vermicasting (or Vermicomposting): Processing organic wastes through earthworms.
Factsheet. 1-7.
Gajalakshmi, S. and Abbasi, S.A. 2004. Earthworms and vermicomposting. Indian Journal of Biotechnology,
3, 486-494.
Hua, Y.G., Chen, Q.B., Lin, Z.M. and Luo, W. 2008. Coupling effects of water and chemical fertilizers on
Hevea brasiliensis latex yield. Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, 19, 1211-1216.
Karmakar, S., Mittra, B.N. and Ghosh, B.C. 1997. Comparative efficiency of organic and industrial wastes in
improving productivity of acid lateritic soil under rice-groundnut cropping system, p. 24-27. In First All
India Peoples Technology Congress, February 21-23, Calcutta, India.
Leaungvutiviroj, C., Piriyprin, S. and Limtong, P. 2006. Study on relationship between soil microorganisms
and nutrient elements of Vetiveria zizanioides and Vetiveria nemoralis in some problem soils of Thailand.
Thailand DC16 Speaker: Pitayakorn Limtong.
Punnoose, K.I., Potty, S.N., Mathew, M. and George, C.M. 1976. Response of Hevea brasiliensis fertilizers
in south India. Proceedings, International Natural Rubber Conference, 1975, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
84-107.
Raychaudhury, M., Ngachan, S.V., Raychaudhury, S. and Singh, A.L. 2003. Yield response of groundnut todual inoculation and liming of an acid hill Ultisol of Manipur. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 73, 86-88.
Rubber Research Institute of Thailand. 1997. Application of rubber. 27.
Zahran, H.H. 1999. Rhizobium-legume symbiosis and nitrogen fixation under severe conditions and in anarid climate. Microbiol. Molecu. Bio. Rev., 63, 968-989.

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Research article
erdFloodplain Mapping Using HEC-RAS and GIS
in Nam Phong River Basin, Thailand
NARETH NUT*
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: nnareth@rua.edu.kh

VICHIAN PLERMKAMON
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Floodplain management and mapping is a new and applied method for the riverengineering and is essential for prediction of flood hazards. The lower Phong Basin area
regularly goes more or less under flooding every year in the monsoon season due to lack offlood protection and limited resources. Most of the flood protection works are carried out atthe local level without preplanning and considering the problems at the river basin scale.
Traditionally, individuals or communities have been trying to develop their own strategies
for minimizing the effects of floods. However, due to limitation of resources andknowledge, many householders are unable to protect their properties or possessions fromfloods. A methodology was applied to integrate hydraulic simulation model, HEC-RAS and
GIS analysis for delineation of flood extents and depths within a Nam Phong River innortheast of Thailand. It is necessary to simulate complicated hydraulic behaviour of theriver in a more simple way for the purpose of managing and performing all river training
works. In this research, the steady flow was used to simulate flood along 148 km end of
Nam Phong River starting at upstream from Ubolratana Dam to Chi River in Northeast of
Thailand. Floodplain mappings were derived using integrating of HEC-RAS and GIS
analysis. Delineation of flood extents and depths within the floodplain were conducted indifferent return periods. Critical flooding area along the river was distinguished based on
the grid layer of flood depths. The results indicated that hydraulic simulation by integratingwith GIS analysis could be effective for various kinds of floodplain management andmapping and give as different scenarios for river training works and flood mitigation
planning.
Keywords Nam Phong river, floodplain mapping, GIS, HEC-RAS model, Thailand

INTRODUCTION
The Nam Phong Watershed is the largest basin in the northeast of Thailand which provides animportant water resources for agriculture, electricity generation, aquaculture, domestic uses,
industrial and recreational purposes (KKU, 2003). In Nam Phong flood prone areas, flood causes
severe economic and social disruptions to many living households. Nevertheless, floodplain in
Lower Phong Basin is still in a very rudimentary stage and no serious concern on comprehensive
flood damages. In this area, most of the flood protection works are carried out at the local level
without preplanning and considering the problems at the river basin scale. Traditionally,
individuals or communities have been trying to develop their own strategies for minimizing theeffects of floods. However, due to limitation of resources and knowledge, many householders areunable to protect their properties or possessions from floods.
The most important factors affecting the intensity and flood return period in each region are:volume and time of upstream surface runoff and river or flood conditions, physical characteristics
of watershed (area, morphology), hydrological characteristics of the watershed (rainfall, storage,
evapotranspiration), and human activities (Noori, 2001). Flooding is a hazard with seriousⒸ ISERD

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socioeconomic consequences for all activities and infrastructure within an affected floodplain. Thus,
accurate delineation of flood extents and depths within the floodplain is essential for flood
management officials to make sensible and fair decisions regarding construction, insurance andother regulated practices on land and property potentially affected by flooding (Noman et al., 2003).
Computer models play a pivotal role in facilities such as storm drains, culverts, bridges, andwater quality as well as quantity-control structures which is an important design component ofthese facilities involving with hydraulic analysis to determine conveyance capacity. Recently,
computer models are developed and used for predicting and preventing natural disasters worldwide(Barbad et al., 2002; Earles et al., 2004; Abdalla et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2006).
Barbad et al. (2002) made flood zoning maps of the Sepid Rood River in Gilan Province, Iran,using Iranian cartographical maps of 1: 25000, cross sections measured by Iran Rasad Consulting
Engineers, and ArcView, HEC-RAS and HEC-GeoRAS software. They concluded that a
combination of GIS and the HEC software is feasible and makes the calculations easily. Earles et al.
(2004) demonstrated the utility of the HEC-GeoRAS model for floodplain delineation anddetermination of key hydraulic parameters and also, HEC-RAS capability of producing hydraulicresults in Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA. Abdalla et al. (2006) introduced hybrid approach forflood risk assessment through GIS. The results indicated that the developed methodology was
efficient in modeling and visualizing the spatial extent of different flood scenarios and in
determining flooded areas at risk. Yang et al. (2006) developed a direct-processing approach toriver system floodplain delineation by using GIS and HEC-RAS. Due to the efficiencies of thementioned methods, the purpose of this research was to identify the flood frequency analysis andflooded area and further created floodplain mappings based on the change of return periods or
flood events in Lower Phong Basin using HEC-RAS and GIS.
METHODOLOGY
Study area: This research was conducted in Lower Phong Basin located in the northeast of
Thailand bordering to Udon Thani, Mahasarakham, Chaiyaphum and Nong Bua Lamphu provinces.
The length of river is approximately 148 km that flows northwestward to southeastward to join Chi
River and ultimately draining into the Mekong River. The area of study was approximately 2993.95
km2 (Fig. 1). The lower part of the watershed consists mainly of paddy fields, agricultural land, andfactories and is heavily populated. The land surface in the watershed is generally undulating andsloping towards the east and southeast. The elevation of the relatively flat area around the
Ubolratana reservoir is about 190 m. The western watershed consists of many mountain ranges
with an average elevation of 900 m, and up to 1,300 m (FAO, 1985). Geographic location of thestudy area is in between Latitude N 160 23’ 39” to N 160 46’ 37” and Longitude E 1020 36’ 22” toE 1020 57’ 51”.
Datasets: The analyses of this research relied on two types of data; annual peak flow and GIS data
including cross-sections, elevation points and topographic map. Peak flow data of Nam Phongbasin was simulated from SWAT model with 12-year rainfall records from 2000-2012 water year,
and with the daily model calibration from 2004-2007 (R2=0.93). After evaluation of the accuracy ofthe data, Gumbel Distribution Method was employed for flood frequency analysis (only 14 major
sub-basins were calculated, whereas the small sub-basins were ignored). The analyzed data used as
input for the hydraulic simulation of the river reaches which divide into upper reach from
Ubolratana Dam to Nong Wai Weir and lower reach from Nong Wai Weir to Chi River.
Calibration for roughness coefficient: The roughness coefficients, which represent the surface’s
resistance to flow and are integral parameters for calculating water depth, were initially estimatedusing the Chow classification by Chow (1959). The Manning’s coefficients used for different zonesof the Nam Phong River varies between 0.025 and 0.075. Flood inundation results are derived
separately for each cross section in the main channel. Model parameters can largely be divided into
two categories (Gilard, 1996): (i) parameters that can be directly inferred from observation, such asarea, extent, depth, volume etc., and (ii) parameters that cannot be directly observed at the model
scale and will need to be estimated, such as roughness. Manning roughness coefficient n, togetherⒸ ISERD

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with the channel geometry is considered to have the most important impact on predicting
inundation extent and flow characteristics. Most of the methods from literature for estimating
roughness values are useful in establishing the range of roughness values for a river reach.
Calibrated roughness values are, however, effective at the reach scale (Beven and Carling, 1992).
Calibration is an inverse problem associated with identification, and is used to determine unknown
constants or parameters in a model. Calibrating the Nam Phong River model roughness values
involved running the hydraulic model several times and changing the Manning roughness
coefficients, first estimated from Chow tables, until the best fit between the simulated and observed
water level and water extend is found.
Floodplain mapping: For the floodplain delineation, the ArcView GIS software package,developed by the Environmental Systems Research Institute, was used as the computerdevelopment environment for this research. Topographic map of the study area with scale of
1:50,000 were applied for based map using 3D analyst capability of ArcView GIS. DEM is used
for preparation required data for hydraulic simulation in HEC-RAS, whereas the 113 surveyedcross-sections of the Nam Phong River have relative elevation which GPS have been used for
determining absolute and correct positioning of all cross-sections and elevation points. The HECGeoRAS extension is used in conjunction with 3D analyst for interpolation of digital terrain data
and Spatial Analyst for proper display of the output flow depth grids and velocity grids. HECGeoRAS had been used to import RAS geometry form HEC-RAS which represents stream
floodplains as a computed water surface elevation at each cross-section. During the data import
step, these elevations, along with the distance from the stream centerline to the left and rightfloodplain boundaries, are brought into ArcView GIS and stored in the cross-section parameter
table. As inputs, the script requires the cross-section line theme and the cross-section parameter
table. The output is a line theme that is identical to the cross-section theme in location andorientation. Using the water surface profile at each cross-section, DEM with resolution 5 mobtained from Water Resources and Environmental Institute (WREI, 2012) was represented theentire floodwater surface. The water surface lines were used as break-lines, and the cross-section
bounding polygon was used to bind the aerial extent of the water surface. When they were viewed
in conjunction with the terrain DEM or TIN, flooded areas can be seen. The three-dimensional
floodplain view is quite useful for floodplain visualization.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present finding, flood frequency analyses were carried out with peak discharge data for 12
years (2000–2012) by the Gumbel’s Distribution method which it is a suitable method in thecondition like Thailand. The maximum annual water discharge from sub-watershed was calculated
for flooding occurrences for 5-year, 10-year, 25-year, 50-year and 100-year return periods (Table1). Flood frequency analysis was used as the steady flow data for simulation in order to further
analysis the floodplain area at the Nam Phong watershed. Critical depth for upstream and criticaldepth for downstream was considered as boundary conditions for this analysis. Other inputs such as
Manning’s n value, river system schematic, contraction and expansion coefficients, flow regime
entered to model and HEC-RAS model has run for steady flow regime. The result indicated only
three-major rivers: Huai Sai Bat, Huai Suea Ten, Huai Khum Mum could reach to the big
discharges based on changing of return period of flooding, whereas the other small sub-basins could
produce less discharge which would be caused less effect to the floodplain area. Fig. 2 show
floodplain mapping of the affected area and depth for the 10 and 100 years flooding events. Criticalflooding area along the river could be distinguished basing on the grid layer of flood depths, andthe flooding occurred mainly at the downstream of the basin which it is more populated,economical and industrious areas.

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Nong Wai
Weir

Chi River

Fig. 1 Location of the study area
Table 1 Maximum discharge (m3/s) of 14 sub-basins from the SWAT model based on return
periods (2000-2012)
Nam
Phong
River

Upper
Reach

Lower
Reach

Tributary
Name

Sub-basin
Name

Peak
Flow
(m3/s)

βuReturn Periods of Flood Frequency Analysis

Huai Chot
Huai Khum Mum

Sub-basin 08
Sub-basin 03

27.26
189.90

5.37
39.25

8.19
54.28

Huai Sai

Sub-basin 02

565.10

6.31

8.94

18.41

23.15

29.13

33.58

37.98

Huai Suea Ten

Sub-basin 04

169.7017.76

113.91140.54153.86

170.70183.19195.59Huai Yang 1

Sub-basin 09

84.67

16.30

27.37

51.82

64.05

79.51

90.97

102.35

Huai Hin Lat
Huai Kao Khot
Huai Nong Pla
Huai Pha Khue
Huai Plalai
Huai Sai Bat
Huai Siao
Huai Yai
Huai Yang 2

Sub-basin 12
Sub-basin 13
Sub-basin 16
Sub-basin 20
Sub-basin 18
Sub-basin 19
Sub-basin 06
Sub-basin 15
Sub-basin 10

9.09
48.03
68.36
40.37
36.26
478.00185.80
95.75
22.52

0.87
1.40
6.81
3.82
2.53
73.72
33.37
12.62
2.72

6.29
42.98
43.15
26.49
27.11
155.74
91.46
46.44
13.07

7.59
45.08
53.37
32.22
30.90
266.31141.51
65.37
17.16

8.24
46.13
58.48
35.09
32.79
321.63166.55
74.84
19.20

9.06
47.45
64.94
38.71
35.19
391.53198.19
86.81
21.78

9.67
48.44
69.73
41.40
36.96
443.38221.66
95.68
23.70

10.27
49.41
74.48
44.07
38.73
494.85244.96104.4925.60Ⓒ ISERD

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5 YR

10 YR

25 YR

50 YR

100 YR

16.24
113.15

20.27
142.6125.36
179.8329.14
207.4432.88
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

a) 10-year-flood eventb) 100-year-flood event

Fig. 2 Flood-affected area of 10 and 100 years flood event
Table 2 shows the analysis of the flooded areas revealed that a larger percentage more than 76%
and 17% of paddy field and miscellaneous land lied in a floodplain area followed by urban,
cultivation and forest area comprising 2%, 1.35% and 1.15%, respectively in accordance with theflooded areas of 5-year, 10-year, 25-year, 50-year and 100-year return periods. Anyways, there was
not much (almost no flood) affected by the flood to the industrial land based on these various return
periods it was because the topography of this area was too high to be effected by the flooding. It also
illustrated that 2.56 km2, 2.85 km2, 0.10 km2, 36.87 km2, 154.89 km2, 1.93 km2, 3.59 km2 ofcultivation area, forest, industrial land, miscellaneous land, paddy field, uncommercial land and urban
are respectively inundated by 5-year flood. Similarly, 3.59 km2, 3.08 km2, 0.21 km2, 43.33 km2,
192.18 km2, 2.60 km2, 5.01 km2 of cultivation, forest, industrial land, miscellaneous land, paddy field,
uncommercial land and urban are respectively inundated by 100-year flood, which it is showed thatthe flooded area increased with flooding intensity, mostly paddy field was moderately inundated(0.49 % changes) by different year flooding from 5 - 100 years, and slightly followed by urban area,
and cultivation, whereas the uncommercial and industrial are the least effected.
Table 2 Flooded areas (%) according to the landuse types based on return periods
Total flood damage area (km2)
Landuse Types
Cultivation
ForestIndustrial land
Miscellaneous land
Paddy Field
Uncommercial land
Urban Area
Total

5 years
Flood
Area
%
2.56
1.26
2.85
1.41
0.10
0.05
36.87
18.18
154.89
76.38
1.93
0.95
3.59
1.77
202.78100.0010 years
Flood
Area
%
3.44
1.45
3.05
1.28
0.21
0.09
41.13
17.27
182.76
76.76
2.60
1.09
4.91
2.06
238.10100.00Ⓒ ISERD157

25 years
Flood
Area
%
3.47
1.44
3.07
1.28
0.21
0.09
41.65
17.33
184.36
76.72
2.60
1.08
4.93
2.05
240.28 100.00

50 years
Flood
Area
%
3.50
1.44
3.08
1.27
0.21
0.09
42.24
17.40
186.16
76.69
2.60
1.07
4.96
2.04
242.75 100.00

100 years Flood
Area
3.59
3.08
0.21
43.33
192.182.60
5.01
250.01

%
1.43
1.23
0.08
17.33
76.87
1.04
2.00
100.00IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

CONCLUSION
This study focused on a systematic approach in the preparation of floodplain modeling integratingof hydraulic simulation with GIS analysis. The major tools/models used in this method were onedimensional numerical model HEC-RAS and ArcView GIS for spatial data processing and HECGeoRAS for interfacing between HEC-RAS and ArcView GIS. Results of this study can separate
high-hazard from low-hazard areas in the floodplain to minimize future flood losses. Hydraulics
simulation for floodplain mapping could be beneficiary in several aspects for land and water
resources management and also engineering purposes. It can be applied to prevent unwise land use
in flood prone areas and flood insurance studies, based on modeling of water surface elevations fordesign flood events. The evaluation of floodplain delineation are rather complex and demanding
activities, which require a comprehensive approach to hydraulic floodplain simulation and can belargely enhanced by using GIS capabilities. It can be concluded that the usage of GIS for theundertaking of a hydraulic simulation is as the potential to both of accuracy improvement and costsaving for floodplain and flood hazard mapping. Moreover, the combination of ArcView GIS andHEC-RAS provides powerful tools for planners and decision makers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors would like to acknowledge for the financial support from The Greater Mekong Subregion(GMS) and also grateful thank to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vichai Sriboonlue and staffs at Water Resources
and Environmental Institute (WREI) and Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty ofEngineering, Khon Kaen University (KKU) for their support and data collection for the research
process.
REFERENCES
Abdalla, R., Vincent, T.C., Wu, H., and Maqsood, I. 2006. A GIS-supported 3D approach for flood risk
assessment of the Qu'Appelle River, Southern Saskatchewan. Int. J. Risk Assess. Manage., 6, 440-455.
Barbad, M., Behnia, A., and Motiei, H. 2002. Flood zoning in watersheds by combining GIS andmathematical models. 6th International Seminar of River Engineering.
Beven, K., and Carling, P.A. 1992. Velocities, roughness and dispersion in the lowland River Severn. In:
Lowland Floodplain Rivers: Geomorphological Perspectives (ed. by Carling, P.A. and Petts, G.E.), 7193, John Wiley, Chichester, UK.
Chow, V.T. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw Hill Inc., Singapore.
Earles, T.A., Wright, K.R., Brown, C., and Langan, T.E. 2004. Los Alamos forest fire impact modeling. J.
Am. Water Resour. Assoc., 4, 371-384.
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1985. Inland fisheries in multiple-purpose river basin planningand development in tropical Asian countries three case studies. (Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/ 003/ X6861E/X6861E00. )Gilard, O. 1996. Flood risk management: Risk cartography for objective negotiations. Proc., 3rd IHP/IAHS
George Kovacs colloquium, UNESCO, Paris.
Khon Kaen University (KKU). 2003. Research on environmental management of the Pong watershed. Khon
Kaen University, Thailand.
Noori, S.A. 2001. GIS in flood warning systems. M.Sc. thesis, University of Ferdowsi Mashhad, Iran.
Noman, N.S., Nelson, E.J., and Zundel, A.K. 2003. Improved process for floodplain delineation from digitalterrain models. J. Water Resour., 129, 427-436.
Water Resources and Environmental Institute (WREI). 2012. GIS topographic data of Lower Nam Phongwatershed. Unpublished.
Yang, J., Townsend, R.D., and Daneshfar, B. 2006. Applying the HEC -RAS model and GIS techniquesin river network floodplain delineation. Can. J. Civil Eng., 33, 19-28.

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Research article
erd

The Application of Deficit Water and Fertilizer upon Yield
and Water Footprint in Baby CornRATGON SUEBKAM
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

VIDHAYA TRELO-GES*
Facuty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: vidtre@kku.ac.th
SUPASIT KONYAI
Faculty of Enginerring, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2014

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Baby corn (Zea mays L.) is one of the most significant and lucrative agricultural
products grown in Thailand. Thailand, the largest exporter of baby corn in the world, has
an average export income of 33 million dollars each year. However, Thai farmers income
levels were lower for baby corn cultivation whereas a result of an increase in production
factors. The objective of this study is to assess the appropriate water usage and fertilizer
application on clay loam soil, in order to create higher yields of baby corn production. The
experiment involved split-plot in randomize complete block design with three
replications. Treatments consisted of three main plots of variable irrigation supply 1) 40%
allowable depletion content (ADC), 2) 60% ADC, and 3) 80% ADC. Each plot acted in
combination with four sub plots: 1) control, 2) 94-31-31 kg/ha (N-P2O5-K2O), 3) 47-1616, and 4) 47-47-47 kg/ha. The results found 40% ADC irrigation the most favorable toincrease pod weight and water usage efficiency. The findings also proved this method tohave the least amount of reduction in green, blue, and total water footprint amounts. Past
fertilizer applications found that 94-31-31 kg/ha fertilizer enhanced pod weight andlength, as well as corn height, and water usage in both amount and efficiency. The
fertilizer 47-47-47 kg/ha resulted in decrease of green, blue, and total water footprint
amount compared with other sub plots. A 40% ADC irrigation combination with 94-31-31
kg/ha yielded the highest pod weight and water usage efficiency compared with all othertreatments. Moreover, the water footprint demonstrated the least amount of decrease ingreen, blue, and total water footprints compared with other treatments.
Keywords baby corn production, water depletion, water footprint, fertilizer utilization.

INTRODUCTION
Baby corn (Zea mays L.) is one of the most significant and lucrative agricultural products grownin Thailand. Thailand, the largest exporter of baby corn in the world, has an average export valueof 33 million dollars each year (98% of which is frozen baby corn). The majority areas of baby
corn plantation on 4 provinces such as Supanburi, Kanchanaburi, Nakhon-Phatom and PhathumThani in central region of Thailand were approximately 75% of all baby corn plantation areas.
However, Thai farmers income levels were lower for baby corn cultivation whereas a result of anincrease in production factors. While the average yield of baby corn per hectare was relatively
low (7,500 to 9,375 kg/ha). Thai farmers struggled to increase production to more profitablelevels (12,500 to 15,625 kg/ha). The demand of larger yields, under a reduced budget, required
farmers to seek optimal irrigation and fertilization applications for baby corn production(Agriculture Economic Bureau, 2010). The relationship between crop yield and water andfertilizer usage, has been a major focus of agricultural research (Howell, 1990).
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The ‘water footprint’ was introduced as an assessed indicator of water usage in plant
production by Kongboon and Sampattagul (2012). Their study of the water footprints forsugarcane and cassava in northern of Thailand found that the water footprint in cassava (509L/kg) was greater than that of the sugarcane (202 L/kg), as a result of different climates andcultivation areas. The Department of Agriculture (2005) reported that baby corn assimilated
macro nutrients, in the order of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. The optimal soil propertiesof baby corn were found to be loam, sandy loam, and clay loam soil texture class sufficient
aeration, organic matter of at least 1.5%, and available P of more than 10 mg/kg, andexchangeable K of more than 40 mg/kg. Research of the interaction and effects of plant irrigation
requirements and fertilizer applications in baby corn production has become essential.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to determine the optimum water usage and fertilizer application
on clay loam soil for baby corn production.
METHODOLOGY
Climate and Location of Experimental Areas
This study was conducted in 2011 and 2012 on a farm in Phathum Thani province, in the central
region of Thailand. The experimental field is located in Alluvial Plain (altitude 4 m, 14o11/ Northand 100o53/ East) where the climate is moist and tropical. The hot season, February to May; andthe rainy season, June to October; are expressed in Fig. 1 (Thai Meteorological Department,
2010).

Fig 1. Weather data of 30 years (1980) to (2010) in Pathum Thani province of Thailand
Treatments and Data Collected
Soil samples were collected on the farmer’s field at depths of 0-60 cm (Rangsit soil series, Veryfine, mixed, semiactive, acid, isohyperthermic Sulfic Endoaquepts). Soil texture classes were clay
loam to clay (sand 27 - 40%, silt 25 - 28%, and clay 35 - 45%), soil bulk density 1.99 to 1.33
g/cm-3, hydraulic conductivity 0.002 to 0.02 cm/hr-1, and available water depth of 9.67 to 10.77
mm. Chemical properties of soil samples were pH 3.87 to 4.19, organic matter 1.60 to 2.42,
available P 3.4 to 70.1 mg/kg, exchangeable K 270.7 to 349.0 mg/kg, and exchangeable Ca 634.2
to 1,542.0 mg/kg. The experiment was designed split in RCBD with three replications.
Treatments consisted of three main plots: 1) 40% allowable depletion content (ADC), 2) 60%
ADC, and 3) 80% ADC. Irrigation treatments were provided through a trickle irrigation system oftape lines; which were spaced to emit 20 cm at the rate of 2 L/hour, in combination with four subⒸ ISERD

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plots: 1) control, 2) 94-31-31 kg/ha (N-P2O5-K2O), 3) 47-16-16, and 4) 47-47-47 kg/ha. In thisstudy, the SG-17 hybrid variety of baby corn was used as the crop material. Each plot consisted ofeight rows, ten meters in length. The rows were spaced 50 cm apart, with 50 cm spacing between
plants in each row. The seeds were grown between 2 April to 31 May 2011 in the first year; andbetween 10 February to 9 April 2012 in second year. Baby corn pods were collected from each of
the six rows and six plants, from the center of each plot. The data of this experiment wereanalyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the means compared by Duncan’s multiple
rank tests (DMRT), using MSTAT-C statistical software (Cochran and Cox., 1957).
Calculating Plants Water Usage
The amount of irrigation supply was determined by the Penman-Monteith equation, and reference
evapotranspiration in the treatments was computed using Eq. (1).

(1)
Where ETo is the reference evapotranspiration (mm/d),∆ slope vapor pressure curve(kPa/oC), Rn net radiation at the crop surface (MJ/m2/d), G soil heat flux density (MJ/m2/d), T
mean daily air temperature at 2 m height (oC), psychrometric constant (kPa/oC), U2 wind speed
at 2 m height (m/s), and es-ea saturation vapor presser deficit (kPa). Actual evapotranspiration was
calculated by following Eq. (2), (Allen et al., 1998).
(2)
ETc adj is actual evapotranspiration (mm/d), Ks water stress coefficient either non soil water
stress Ks = 1 or soil water limiting Ks < 1 and Kc crop coefficient; crop coefficient in the initial
growth stage 0.65, mid-season growth stage 1.22, and at the end of late growth stage 0.61.
Evaluations followed protocol according to the (Irrigation Research Bureau, 2010).
Computing the Water Footprint
Water footprints consist of three components: green, blue, and grey water. The green water
footprint, consisting of rainwater, evaporated during crop growth. The blue water footprint refers
to surface and ground water usage in plant areas, which also evaporates during crop growth. The
grey water footprint is the volume of freshwater for dilution, in which waste water becomes thedrinking water quality standard. The computation of green and blue components of crop water
usage (CWU) was calculated by summation of the daily evapotranspiration and irrigation supply;
by following Eqs. (3) and (4), (Hoekstra et al., 2011).
(3)

(4)
3

CWU is crop water usage (m /ha), ET green daily evapotranspiration (mm/d), ET blue irrigation
amount (mm/d); lgp denotes the length of growing period (in days), and 10 is the value used toconvert units from (mm) into (m3/ha). Calculations of green and blue water footprints within eachperiod are determined by Eqs. (5) and (6), (Hoekstra et al., 2011).
(5)Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1(6)Where WF proc is the water footprint (m3/ton or L/kg), and Y is the economic yield (ton/ha).
The grey water footprint is calculated by following Eq. (7)(7)
Where α is leaching–run off fraction of nitrogen fertilizer assumed 10%, AR performchemical fertilizer application (kg/ha), Cmax is the maximum acceptable concentration of nitrate
found (drinking water quality standard is 50 mg/l), and Cnat the natural concentration for pollutant
nitrate from cultivation. The total water footprint of the crop growing process is the sum of green,
blue, and grey water footprints, demonstrated in Eq.(8), (Kongboon and Sampattagul, 2012).
(8)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yield Components
This results were achieved when 40% allowable depletion content (ADC) increased corn height,
pod weight, pod length, and water use efficiency to 188.75 cm, 7.75 ton/ha, 9.61 cm, and 3.26kg/m3, respectively. Production of 60% ADC measured 180.61 cm, 7.54 ton/ha, 7.54 cm, and3.19 kg/m3. A yield of 184.37 cm, 6.81 ton/ha, 923 cm, and 2.54 kg/m3 was produced of 80%
ADC. Enhancement of the 80% ADC's finest pods showed no significant difference whencompared with both the 40% ADC and 60% ADC.
Aydinsakir et al., (2013) reported that sweet corn production, affected by deficit water,
reduced corn height, pod diameter, pods length, and seed weight/1,000 seeds. The pod amount,however, was not reduced. Past applications of fertilizer, applied at 94-31-31 kg/ha (N-P2O5-K2O),
yielded the highest corn height, pod weight, pod length, amount of pods, and amount and water
use efficiency (192.61cm, 8.82 ton/ha, 9.57 cm, 146,234 pods/ha, and 3.59 kg/m3 , respectively).
In comparison, the fertilizer application of 47-47-47 kg/ha yielded 188.82 cm, 8.62 ton/ha, 9.64
cm, 141,111 pods/ha, and 3.50 kg/m3.The application of 47-16-16 kg/ha yielded 179.20 cm, 6.98
ton/ha, 9.34 cm, 123,889 pods/ha, and 2.84 kg/m3. Lastly, the control treatment yielded 177.67
cm, 5.03 ton/ha, 9.19 cm, 95,679 pods/ha, 2.06 kg/m3, and 2.16 kg/m3 and was considered not
significant. Cela et al., (2011) studied 0, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 300 kg N/ha application on sweetcorn production in a semi-arid climate in Spain which found that 100 kg N/ha provided thegreatest increase in sweet corn production. The interaction of the main plot combined with subplots having 40% ADC was associated with 94-31-31 kg/ha fertilizer, which had the greatest
affect upon pot weight and water efficiency. The exception was corn height, pod length, and pod
amount, which proved to be insignificant.
Water Footprint
This study found that the 40% ADC showed the least reduction of green, blue, grey, and total
water footprint amounts (490, 340, 16 and 845 L/kg), 60 % ADC yielded 606, 423, 23 and 1,051
L/kg-1; and 80 % ADC at 809, 482, 22, and 1,313 L/kg, respectively. This result correspondedwith Jeswani and Azapagic, (2011) who reported that total water footprint within sweet corn
production, in each region of the world; ranged from 354 to 2,434 L/kg. In sub plots factors, inwhich the green, blue, and total water footprints were reduced the most using 47-47-47 kg/ha
obtained results of 444, 303 and 763 L/kg.

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Sub plots(N-P2O5-K2O kg ha-1)Ⓒ ISERD

163

187.80a190.93a183.35a192.91a188.75Ans
173.27a192.18a175.35a181.65a180.61A
171.93a194.73a178.91a
191.89a184.37A
177.67B*
192.61A
179.20B
188.82AB
ns
4.56
5.68

Corn height
(cm)

Pods
weight(ton ha-1)
5.78a
9.40a
7.36a
8.45a
7.75Ans
5.41a
8.86a
7.06a
8.82a
7.54A
3.91a
8.21a
6.53a
8.60a
6.81A
5.03B**
8.82A
6.98A
8.62A
ns
17.53
10.60

Pods
length
(cm)
9.20a
9.57a
9.60a
10.07a9.61Ans
9.33a
9.87a
9.27a
9.40a
9.47A
9.03a
9.27a
9.17a
9.47a
9.23A
9.19Ans
9.57A
9.34A
9.64A
ns
4.96
4.00
103,899cd
147,777a
125,740b
126,852b
126,065Ans
97,963de
142,037ab
119,630bc
139,074ab
124,675A
85,185e148,889a
126,297b
157,407a
129,445A
95,679B**
146,234A
123,889A
141,111A
*
15.38
8.00

Pods amount(pods ha-1)

Water use
efficiency(kg m-3)
2.45a
3.96a
3.10a
3.54a
3.26Ans
2.27a
3.77a
2.99a
3.73a
3.19A
1.45a
3.06a
2.43a
3.22a
2.54A
2.06B**
3.59A
2.84A
3.50A
ns
17.69
10.46

Green water
footprint(L kg-1)
721b
362b
490b
386b
490B*
657b
565b
661b
541b
606B
1,547a
529b
757b
404b
809A
975A**
485B
636AB
444B
**
24.13
30.14

Blue water
footprint(L kg-1)
487b
256b
342b
276b
340B*
479b
385b
454b
372b
423A
895a
322b
451b
259b
482A
621A**
321B
416AB
303B
**
21.36
25.56

Grey water
footprint(L kg-1)
3e
27b
18bcd
14cde
16Ans
7de
41a
24bc
20bc
23A
4e
39a
28b
15cde
22A
5C**
36A
23AB
16BC
*
27.02
31.55

Caution: ns = non significant )P>0.05(, * = significant at )P < 0.05(, ** = significant at )P <0.01( and Different letters indicated significant different by DMRTControl
94-31-31
40 % ADC
47-16-16
47-47-47
Mean
Control
94-31-31
60 % ADC
47-16-16
47-47-47
Mean
Control
94-31-31
80 % ADC
47-16-16
47-47-47
Mean
ControlMean
94-31-31
sub plots
47-16-16
47-47-47
Interaction main plots x sub plots% CV (main plots)% CV (main plots x sub plots)

Main plots

Table 1 Showed yield and water footprint of Baby corn production
Total water
footprint(L kg-1)
1,211b
644b
850b
676b
845B*
1,143b991b
1,139b933b
1,051B
2,447a890b1,237b679b1,313A
1,600A**
842B
1,075B
763B
**
22.86
28.17

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

The proved less than the mixture of 94-31-31 kg/ha, which had results of 485, 321, and 842
L/kg; as well as the 47-16-16 kg/ha mixture, with 636, 416, and 1,075 L/kg. Another control
treatment found 975, 621 and 1,600 L/kg to be significant. Whereas, the control treatment which
held the lowest grey water footprint at 5 L/kg, less than 47-47-47 kg/ha was the 16 L/kg together
with 47-16-16 kg/ha, the 23 L/kg and the 94-31-31 kg/ha at 36 L/kg, which were very significant.
The interaction of both the irrigation and fertilizer applications, found 40% ADC combined with
94-31-31 kg/ha fertilizer, to produce the greatest decrease in green, blue, and total water
footprints with the exception of the grey water footprint.
CONCLUSION
Results indicate that 40% ADC irrigation application yielded the highest corn height, pod weight,
and water use efficiency; as well as producing the greatest decrease in green, blue, and total water
footprints (compared with both the 60% and 80% ADCs). Past fertilizer applications found 9431-31 kg/ha enhanced corn height; pod weight, length, and amount as well as water usage
efficiency. In contrast, 47-47-47 kg/ha offered the least reduction of green, blue, and total water
footprint content compared with other sub plots. The association of 40% ADC with the 94-31-31
kg/ha-1 application is recommended for farmers, in the parameters of pod weight, and water usage(including footprint contents) in both clay loam and clay soil. However, economic factors
involving profit and budget for unit costs are not considered here.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the Graduate School of Khon Kaen University Fund. Additional
thanks to the Department of Agriculture support laboratory room, for samples analyzed in thisproject.
REFERENCES
Agriculture Economic Bureau. 2010. The effective for baby corn production. Ministry of Agriculture andCo-operation. 68 p.
Allen, R.G., Perreira, L.S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. 1998. Guidelines for computing crop water requirement.
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper. 300 p.
Aydinsakir K., Erdal, S., Buyuktas, D., Bastug, R. and Toker, R. 2013. The influence of regular deficit
irrigation application in water use, yield and quality components of two corns (Zea mays L.)
Agriculture Water Management, 128, 65-71.
Cela S., Santiveri, F. and Lloveras, J. 2011. Optimum nitrogen fertilizer rates for second-years corn
succeeding alfalfa under irrigation. Field Crops Research, 123, 109-116.
Cochran, W. and Cox, G. 1957. Experiment Design. Wiley. New York. USA.
Department of Agriculture. 2005. The recommend of economic agronomy fertilizer application. Ministry ofAgriculture and Co-operative. 122 p.
Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., Aldaya, M.M. and Mekonnen, M.M. 2011. The water footprint
assessment manual. Earthscan. 204 p.
Howell, T. 1990. Relationship between crop production and transpiration, evapotranspiration and irrigation.
Irrigation of Agriculture Crops. Agronomy Monograph, 30, 391-434.
Irrigation Research Bureau. 2010. The 40 types of crop coefficient. royal irrigation department. 40 p.
Jeswani H.K .and Azapagic, A. 2011. Water footprint: methodologies and a case study for assessing theimpacts of water use. Journal of Cleaner Production,.19, 1288-1299.
Kongboon, R. and Sampattagul, S. 2012. The water footprint of sugarcane and cassava in northern Thailand.
Social and Behavioral Science, 40, 451-460.
Thai Meterological Department. 2010. Climate statistic. Thai Meteorological Department. Bangkok,
Thailand.

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Research article
erd

Site-specific Soil Conservation Approaches in Desertificationprone Areas in the Inner Mongolia Region, China
KINGSHUK ROY*
College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, Japan
Email: roy.kingshuk@nihon-u.ac.jp

TOSHIHARU SHIMOWATARI
College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kanagawa, JapanZHANG WEI
China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
Received 20 January 2015

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Desertification is still a severe problem in the Inner Mongolia region of China,
despite the country’s efforts to stop land degradation. The authors carried out periodic fieldsurveys for over a decade in different desertification-prone arid lands of Northern China.
Based on a series of experiments and analyses, this paper proposes locally-tailoredtechnologies that can ensure greater participation, and lead to more effective, sustainablemeasures to combat desertification in the area. Specifically, the potential of both cotton andcoal ash as water-holding materials was experimented with sandy soil. From the results, anamount of 0.5% (by weight) cotton and 3% (by weight) alkali-treated coal ash (named
artificial zeolite) mixed with sandy soil could ensure water retention in the soil and sofacilitate upland crops growing in arid environments. The results also showed that, if mixed
individually with the soil, both of these materials demonstrated constant positive effect aswater-holding materials. However, dual application (both the items mixed together withsoil) did not show constant positive effect. In addition, to diversify the potential uses of coalash, the effects of artificial zeolite as a particle film sprayed over plant-leaves were also
tested. The results showed that cotton plants with a particle film that were grown in sandy
soil tended to transpire less water than those plants without a particle film on their leaves.
Finally, since the properties of applied forms of coal ash (i.e. the artificial zeolite) differ
based on the processing methods (alkali treatment) used, proper selection of the type of
artificial zeolite could further diversify its potential uses, for example as a salinity mitigatorin arid soil.
Keywords desertification, site-specific, water-holding material, arid land, sustainability

INTRODUCTION
Afforestation has been the most popular measure used to combat desertification in many arid land
areas of the world as well as in the Inner Mongolia region in China, which is experiencing severe
desertification. Afforestation plays a very significant role in desertification control, but planting
trees is not the only measure against desertification. Instead, when only the planting of trees is
considered and no measures are considered regarding farmland to enhance the per area unit output,
the prevention of desertification fails in many cases (Fan and Zhou, 2001). Massive man-madeforests that include plants, such as poplar, larches, pines, birches, oaks, elms, lindens, and willows,
have been established in the Inner Mongolia region to prevent desertification; however, the illegal
cutting down of plants, i.e., deforestation, occurs frequently in the region (Liu, 2014). Despite
different land conservation and restoration efforts undertaken by the Chinese communes based on
ideological motivation and regulatory steps, the reality is that the encroaching rate of desertification
due to deforestation exceeds the status of prevention (Cao, 2008). Such a situation emphasizes theⒸ ISERD

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necessity of revising the basic strategies for participation in land conservation. In other words, sitespecific sustainable soil conservation approaches could encourage the mitigation of thedesertification syndrome in the Inner Mongolia region. This study thus investigated the potential
natural resources in north China that could feasibly be used as a tool(s) to combat desertification ina sustainable way. We identified the cotton plant as an alternative/complementary plant in the Inner
Mongolia region because China is the largest producer of cotton in the world and because domestic
production is mainly concentrated in the northwest Xinjiang region (Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
region), which is a neighbor province of Inner Mongolia. The climate and ecology of the Xinjiang
and Inner Mongolia regions are very similar. Unlike other quick growing forest plants in Inner
Mongolia, such as poplars and pines, perennial cotton plants have little value as an alternative fuelor precious wood, and are less likely to be the target of illegal wood-cutters. At the same time,
cotton has a high potential to be a cash crop. Therefore, to introduce and to grow the cotton plant inInner Mongolia would not be a difficult task from eco-environmental and socio-economic
standpoints; however, since the existing status of the production, marketing, and distribution
channels of cotton products (cotton wool and fibers) are concentrated in the Xinjiang region, andbecause the people in the Inner Mongolia region are not accustomed to growing cotton as uplandcrops, to make the cotton a cash crop in the Inner Mongolia region, problems associated withcertain factors, such as extension, marketing, and price-fixing, would arise at the initial stage
because of the imbalance in the demand-supply of the products in the locality. Therefore, theauthors also attempted to diversify the usage of cotton products in the region. Due to its nature andproperties, cotton wool is an organic substance and has good water-holding capacity. Therefore,
wasted and/or un-used portions of cotton wool can be used as an organic water-holding material in
sandy soil.
In addition, the Inner Mongolia region is an important coal production base with more than aquarter of the world’s coal reserves located in the province, which produces millions of tons of coal
fly ash as a by-product every year. Coal ash or fly ash, usually refers to ash/residue produced
during combustion of coal, is the largest quantity of industrial waste residues in China (Tang et al.,2013). To find out effective/recycle use(s) of this product is a big issue in that region. The Chinese
government has initiated some steps to recycle it as an alternative raw material for concrete andcement materials (Yi et al., 2012). In this regard, we attempted to use this waste material as a soil
improver, which could facilitate plant growth in the sandy soil. Accordingly, we experimented withcoal ash’s nature as a water-holding material not by applying it to farmland soil in its original form
but in the form of an artificial zeolite (alkali treated coal ash) because the latter has superior
physico-chemical properties than in its original form (Henmi, 1997).
This paper aims for and focuses on the identification of the site-specific problems related tosoil conservation in the Inner Mongolia region as well as the sustainable measures that involve
introducing locally originated water holding materials by using cotton plants/wools and alkalitreated coal ash (waste) based on basic experiments and investigations. In addition, to diversify theuses and the application of cotton and coal ash in the region, other potential uses of the materials
were investigated.
METHODOLOGY
Study Sites
Inner Mongolia is the third largest province (an autonomous region) in China, and it has atemperate continental monsoon climate with a sharp rainfall gradient from 50 mm to 450 mm in thewest and northeast parts, respectively, while the evaporation capacity is above 1200 mm in mostareas of this region. Most of the rainfall occurs in the summer season (May to September). The
region is characterized by a diverse ecosystem, including vast forests and agricultural lands as wellas the world’s largest temperate grasslands and extensive sandy lands and deserts (Bai et al., 2004).
Land degradation/desertification caused by deforestation and over-grazing has been severe. Between
1980 and 2000, Inner Mongolia’s population increased by 26%, from 18.76 × 106 to 23.72 × 106. TheⒸ ISERD

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most affected degraded grassland area in the region is the Xilingol League (a prefecture level
division of Inner Mongolia) where the population increased by 19%, livestock increased 177%, andthe grassland productivity decreased by 30% within the period of 1980 to 2000 (Zhen et al., 2014).
The authors carried out field surveys periodically in different parts of the Inner Mongolia region
from 2000 to 2009. The surveyed sites included grasslands and agricultural lands at five different
administrative areas named Xilinhot County, Erenhot County, Zhenglan Banner (a county level
division of Inner Mongolia), Abag Banner, and Sonid Right Banner of the aforesaid Xilingol
League along with one more site at Wuchuan County in Hohhot City (a prefecture level city). Allof these sites were prominent for desertification. The Xilingol area in particular, located in central
Inner Mongolia, had been a fertile prairie in northern China, but desertification and sand storms
have increased in the past decades. Fig. 1 shows the locations of the surveyed sites at Xilingol
League and Hohhot city, while Table 1 presents the major soil and vegetation types in thegrassland-dominated study sites.

Fig. 1 Study sites at Xilingol League in Inner
Mongolia region, China

Table 1 Major soil and vegetation types in the study sites of Inner Mongolia region
Study site

Soil type

Vegetation type

Dominant species

Xilinhot County

Chestnut

Typical steppe

Stipa species, Cleistogenes species

Erenhot County

Brown

Desert steppe

Stipa species

Zhenglan Banner

Chestnut

Typical steppe

Stipa species

Abag Banner

Chestnut

Typical steppe

Artemisia species, Stipa species

Sonid Right Banner

Brown

Desert steppe

Artemisia species, Stipa species

Wuchuan County

Chestnut

Desert steppe

Stipa species, Artemisia speciesⒸ ISERD

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Materials and Methods
Cotton and coal ash as water-holding materials: A series of indoor and outdoor experiments
were carried out by mixing cotton and alkali-treated coal ash (named artificial zeolite, henceforth
AZ) with soils (sandy and loamy soils). The indoor experiments were carried out inside an artificial
climate chamber (Fig. 2), whereas the outdoor experiments were conducted in farmland (Fig. 3).
Both of these establishments are located within the campus of the College of Bioresource Sciences,
Nihon University, Japan.
For the indoor experiments, seedlings of Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis L.) were used as
test plants and grown in pots filled with river sand that is used for gardening purposes. Pieces of torn
cotton wool were added at three different weight ratios (0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5%), while Na-type
artificial zeolite (Maeda Corporation, Japan) was added to the soil (sand) at the weight ratio of 3%. A
total of 25 pots that included five replications of each item of the controls (non-treated), cotton-mixed(0.1%, 0.3% and 0.5%), and AZ-treated soils, were used to cultivate the test plants. The same doses ofchemical fertilizer (N:P:K=8:8:6) and water were used to facilitate the natural growing of the plants.
The soil moisture was measured by using a W.E.T sensor (DIK-691A; Daiki Rika Kogyo Co., Ltd.)
coupled with a time-domain reflectometer, while the physiology of the shoot-part of each plant (shootlength and number of leaves) was measured periodically throughout the growing period. In addition,
the pF values at each condition of the soil and plant weights (dry weights) were also measured.
On the other hand, for the outdoor experiments, cotton plants (Gossypium hirsutum L.) weregrown in four adjacent plots (each with a dimension of 180cm length×30cm width) with the same soil
texture (Andosol, also known as Kanto loam); however, the treatments of the soil in each plot weredifferent, namely, the control (non-treated), the 0.5% (by weight) cotton-mixed soil, the 3% (byweight) AZ-mixed soil, and the cotton plus AZ-mixed soil. In the outdoor field, Ca-type AZ wasused, and the same amount (g) of 0.5% cotton and AZ (g) was mixed in the dual application plot. To
measure the periodic in-situ soil moisture and the pF, soil-moisture sensors (ECH2O-10; Decagon
Devices, Inc.) attached to a data logger (Em5b; AINEX Co., Ltd.) and tensiometers (Daiki-8331;
Daiki Rika Kogyo Co., Ltd.) were installed at each plot, respectively. The W.E.T sensor (DIK-691A;
Daiki Rika Kogyo Co., Ltd.) was also used to cross check the recorded soil moisture values. Periodic
measurements of the physiology of the plant-shoots (shoot length and number of leaves) as well as
the biomass (dry weight, fresh weight) of the plant bodies were also carried out.
Coal ash as a particle film on plant-leaves: Inside a glass house (Fig. 4), a total of 24 cotton
plants (Gossypium hirsutum L.) were grown in cultivation pots filled with two different textured
soils (12 plants of each soil), namely, sand and Andosol/Kanto loam. A small amount of Ca-type
AZ (Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc., Japan) with the pH value adjusted to 7 was mixed with waterand sprayed over the foliage sections in equal numbers of the 6 young cotton plants (6 replications)from each soil type. The remaining 6 plants from each group (soil type) received no foliar-spray.
After drying-up, the dust-like particle film created partial blockage to the stomata at the upper leaf
surface. The plants were then grown by applying the usual doses of compound fertilizer(N:P:K=8:8:6). The parameters related to the plant growth, such as shoot length, number of leaves,stem-diameter, leaf-temperature, and leaf area as well as the daily transpiration rate were measured
periodically. In addition, at the latter half of the growing stage, a 10-day long dry-down experiment
was carried out on the plants by applying water equal to the 80% of their daily transpiration
amounts. To identify the status between the transpiration and the available water for plant growth,
this watering scheme followed a similar procedure as described by Sinclair and Ludlow (1986).
Finally, the dry weights of the plants were measured.
Other potential uses of cotton and coal ash: Salinity is also an issue in many arid lands and insome areas of our study sites as well. To investigate the potential of coal fly ash and cotton as
salinity mitigators, a number of experiments (Kaneuchi et al., 2008; Roy et al. 2009; Nishimura andRoy, 2010) have been carried out by applying AZ and waste cotton materials to different types of soil
with different protocols. This paper will present an experiment in which a small amount of Ca-type AZⒸ ISERD

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Fig. 2 Experiments inside the artificial
climate chamber

Fig. 3 Experimental plots with cotton-plants
growing in different conditions

Fig. 4 Experiments inside the glass house witha particle film sprayed over cotton plants

Fig. 5 Experiments of artificial zeolite andcotton gauze as salinity mitigators

Table 2 Major physico-chemical properties of artificial zeolites (AZ) and soils used in theexperiments
Type

Particle size

EC
(dSm-1)

pH
(H20)

Na

Exchangeable cation
cmol(+) kg-1
K
Ca

Mg

CEC
cmol(+) kg-1

Sand

0.2～2 mm

0.12

6.9

0.8

0.1

0.5

0.1

6.5

Andosol

0.02～2 mm

0.33

6.2

0.3

2.9

2.6

0.6

18.7

Ca type AZ

5～100 μm

1.60

9.8*

122.0

15.3

151.0

1.9

260.8

Na type AZ

5～100 μm

1.10

11.2

160.0

11.4

111.0

0.2

210.0

Note: * Except the pH adjusted to 7 for fA zeolite during particle film spray(named fA zeolite, Maeda Corporation, Japan) was applied to the top surface of artificially-prepared(by 5% sodium chloride solution) saline soil (Andosol/Kanto loam) filled in 8 Wagner pots (Fig. 5).
The treatments in every two pots were different. Of the 8 pots, two had 5mm thin AZ-layers
applied directly to the top of the soil, while the same amount of AZ was sealed in between the
double-fold cotton gauze pockets in two other pots. Five-fold cotton gauzes were laid over thesurface soil in two pots, and two remaining pots were kept under no-treatment (control) conditions.
The pots with moist saline soil were placed in an artificial glass chamber (relative humidity: 60%,
average temp: 25°C) for 30 days. The soil samples from the upper layers were collected, and theconcentrations of specific ions (Na+ and Ca++) in the soil samples were investigated by using anⒸ ISERD

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Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AA-6800; Shimadzu Corporation, Japan). Also, the electricalconductivity of the soil samples was measured by using an EC meter (B-173; Horiba, Japan).
Table 2 presents the major physico-chemical properties of artificial zeolite (AZ) and farmland
soil (Andosol/Kanto loam) used in the different experiments.
Statistical Analysis
All data were statistically analyzed using MiniTab statistical software. Particularly; mean, standard
deviation, and percentage were determined using descriptive statistics. Mean of treatments werecompared by One-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) at 0.50 significance level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cotton and coal ash as water-holding materials: Fig. 6 and 7 show the variations in the average
physiological growth (shoot length) and the soil moisture content under each condition (treatment)
throughout the growing period carried out for the indoor experiments. As can be observed from thefigures, while the AZ-treated soil had the highest soil moisture content accounting for an average of 35% higher than the other pots, the plant-growths (shoot lengths) were better in the order of 0.5% cottontreated, 0.3% cotton-treated, and AZ-treated soil. Fig. 8 illustrates the pF-soil moisture curve ineach treatment from which it was found that regarding the effective pF range to grow plants (pF=1.8
1418

Soil moisture (%)

Shoot length (cm)

12
10
8
6
4

Control
0.1% Cotton
0.5% Cotton

20AZ
0.3% Cotton

15
12
9
6
3
0

Control
0.1% Cotton
0.5% Cotton

AZ
0.3% Cotton

Date (month/day)

Date (month/day)Fig. 6 Variations in the shoot length (B. chinensis)
at different treatments of soil (indoor)

Fig. 7 Variations in the soil moisture content at
different treatments of soil (indoor)

35

Control
0.1% Cotton
0.5% Cotton

AZ
0.3% Cotton

Soil moisture (%)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

1

2

3

4

Soil pF

Fig. 8 Soil moisture retention curves atdifferent treatments of soil (indoor)

Fig. 9 Plant growth at different treatmentsof soil (indoor)Ⓒ ISERD

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90

500

AZ+Cotton
AZ
CottonControl

450

Yield (g)Shoot length (cm)

120

60

AZ+Cotton
AZ
CottonControl

400

30

350

0

300

Treatment

Observation period

Fig. 10 Variations in the shoot length (G. hirsutum) Fig. 11 Variations in the yields of cotton balls at
at different treatments of soil (outdoor)
different treatments of soil (outdoor)

3

3

AZ+Cotton
AZ
CottonControl

AZ+Cotton
CottonAZControl

2.5

Soil pF

Weight (kg)

3.5

2

2.5
1.5

1

2

Treatment

Date (month/day)Fig. 12 Variations in the dry weights of plants
at different treatments of soil (outdoor)

Fig. 13 Variations in the soil pF values atdifferent treatments of soil (outdoor)

to 3.0), the AZ-treated soil followed by the 0.5% and 0.3% cotton-mixed soils had better soil
moisture capacity. In addition, considering other measured parameters, such as the plant weight
and the number of leaves, the AZ-treated soil and the 0.5% cotton-mixed soil were found to be themost suitable treatments among all of the treatments when using them as water-holding materials forthe soil. Fig. 9 shows the average growing conditions of the plants under each condition.
Fig. 10, 11 and 12 show the average variations in the representative physiological parameters,
including the shoot length, yield (weights of cotton balls), and dry weight of the plant bodies (shootplus root), for cotton plants grown in outdoor plots. From the figures, it can be seen that AZ andcotton wool mixed independently with soil favored the cotton growth/production; however, whenthese materials were mixed together and applied jointly to the soil, the growth/production trailed
behind the control (no-treatment) condition. A similar tendency was also found for other measured
parameters (number of leaves, biomass). The specific problems related to the dual application of
AZ and cotton wool that may be caused by poor function are: slaked finer particles of soil/AZ
blocked pores of the cotton wool, the formation of a type of a soil crust, reduced infiltration andwater movement through the soil, and the hampered growth/yield of the plants. Fig. 13 shows theperiodic variations in the soil pF values with each treatment. While the pF values in all of the plots
ranged from 1.25 to 2.5 (within the range suitable for plant growth; pF =1.8 to 3.0), the cottontreated plot showed the most stable values that ranged from pF= 1.5 to 2.5 followed by the AZⒸ ISERD

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treated plot with pF values that ranged from pF= 1.3 to 3.0 throughout the growing period. On theother hand, unlike the indoor experimental results, the soil moisture content did not show distinct
differences among the treatments in the outdoor experiments.
Coal ash as a particle film: Variations in the transpiration rate of the plants grown with andwithout a particle film in both types of soil (sand and Andosol) are presented in Fig. 14, while Fig.
15 and Fig. 16 present the variation in the shoot lengths and the dry weights of the plant bodies.
From the figures (Fig. 15 and Fig. 16), it can be observed that the plants with a particle film
sprayed over the leaves had slightly higher average growths than the plants with no particle film inboth types of soils. A similar tendency was also found in cases of other physiological parameters(number of leaves, stem-diameter, and leaf area); however, in the case of the daily transpiration rate,
the tendency varied in the soil types both before and after the dry-down period (Fig. 14). To
identify the specific effect of each treatment on the transpiration, the normalized transpiration rates(daily relative transpiration rates normalized against the plant growth) for each treatment wereplotted against the fractions of transpired soil water (the ratio of daily transpired soil water to thewater at field capacity) following the Sinclair and Ludlow (1986) method (Fig. 17). From thedifference/degree of inclination between the two approximate straight regression lines of the same
soil with and without a particle film, the results show that cotton plants with a particle film thatwere grown in sand transpired less water than the plants without a particle film on their leaves.
Uses of cotton and coal ash as potential salinity mitigators: Variations in the average ionconcentrations (Na+ and Ca++) at the top surface soil in the pots with different treatments arepresented in Fig. 18, while the average EC concentrations are presented in Fig. 19. The results showthat the AZ application (direct application and inside cotton gauze packets) reduced the concentrationof Na-ion in the topsoil; however, the Ca-ion concentrations also reduced slightly in comparison withthe control and cotton gauze treatments (Fig. 18). The reason is that the type of artificial zeolite usedin the experiment (Ca type) was not saturated by specific exchangeable ions (Ca++) and was part ofCa-ion thus transmitted from the topsoil to the finer AZ particles. The variation in the average EC
values at the end of the experiment as shown in Fig. 19 also supports the tendency found in the caseof changes in the Na-ion concentration in the topsoil. Therefore, it can be said that AZ has a great
potential to be used as a salinity mitigator; however, depending on the properties of AZ, such as thetype/method of alkali used to process the coal ash, the extent of salinity mitigation will vary.
Moreover, the salinity mitigation capacity can be maximized while using AZ in cotton packets.
CONCLUSION
The experiments carried out in this study focuses on different potential uses of cotton and coal ash
as soil improvers by using them as soil water holding materials, as transpiration reducers by using
them as foliar particle film materials, and as salinity mitigators by using them as salt absorbents inarid land soil (sandy and loamy). The results show that mixing small amounts of these items(artificial zeolite: 3% by weight; cotton wool: 0.5% by weight) with soil (sandy and loamy types)
could facilitate plant growth in arid land soils (sandy and loamy). In addition, if used as a particle
film, pH-adjusted (to 7.0) coal ash (artificial zeolite) can sustain plant growth with lesstranspiration, and this anti-transpiration capacity maximizes in sandy soil in comparison withloamy soil. Moreover, based on the type/processing of the materials, utilizing the higher cationexchange capacity (CEC) of artificial zeolite, specific ions responsible for salinization (Na+, K+,
Ca2+, Mg2+ and Cl-) can be removed from soil (loamy), and this salinity mitigation capacity
maximizes if it is used in packs made of cotton gauze. These experimental findings demonstrate thediversified potential uses of cotton and coal ash in an arid land environment. In other words,
potential and proper uses of two locally tailored items to combat desertification in the Inner
Mongolia region are identified from this study.
The sustainable conservation of natural resources, such as soil and water, of an area incorporates
many bio-physical and socio-cultural interdisciplinary actions regardless of being a developing orⒸ ISERD

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65

Dry-down experimentDry-down experiment

60

90

Shoot length (cm)Daily transpiration (mL)

110

70
50
Andosol with particle film
Andosol without particle film
Sand with particle film
Sand without particle film

30
10

55
50
45
40

Andosol with particle film
Andosol without particle film
Sand with particle film
Sand without particle film

35
30

Date (month/day)

Date (month/day)Fig. 14 Variations in the transpiration rate byplants with and without a particle film

8

Fig. 15 Variations in the shoot length of plants
with and without a particle film

1.4

Normalized transpiration rate

Shoot

Dry weight (g)

Root
6

4

2

0

Particle film

No particle(Andosol) film (Andosol)

Particle film

No particle(Sand)

film (Sand)

1

0.6

0.2
1

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

Fig. 17 Variations in the transpired amount of soil
water during the dry-down experiment

3.5

Na ion3

Ca ionEC (dS m -1)

Concentration (cmol(+) kg -1)

Fig. 16 Variations in the dry weights of plants
with and without a particle film

2

0.9

Fraction of transpired soil water

Treatment

2.5-●Particle film (Andosol)-●No particle film (Andosol)-●Particle film (Sand)-●No particle film (Sand)

1.5
1

2.5
2
1.5
1

0.5

0.5
0

0
AZ+Cotton
gauze

AZ

Cotton gauze

Control

AZ+Cotton
gauze

Treatment

Fig. 18 Variations in the average ion-concentration
at surface soil with different treatmentsⒸ ISERD

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AZ

Cotton gauze

Control

Treatment

Fig. 19 Variation in the average EC values atsurface soil with different treatments

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

developed country. From the case studies in the study sites, it is not easy to conclude that ecoenvironmental and natural resource problem(s) are always easier to manage in a specific area
because it depends on the facts and the circumstances of each case. As stated in the methodology
section, we carried out a number of preparatory experiments to set and to determine the mostsuitable ratios among the concerned parameters (e.g., soil, water, cotton, coal ash, and vegetation)in our study area, which was the Inner Mongolia region. Some of the study sites as well as otherpotential resources in this particular region (studies are currently being conducted) are not includedin this paper; however, the results and the analyses discussed in this paper outline that the locallyavailable/waste materials, specifically cotton and coal ash in our study, have a great potential to be
used as soil improvers that facilitate plant growth and thus combat desertification in a site-specificand sustainable way. To achieve the best results, carrying out outdoor experiments in the study
fields and convincing the local people to accept the extension of our technologies would be more
effective from the perspective of field-application. Also, follow-ups and feasibility surveys at theinitial stage (if accepted by the local people) would be necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express thanks to the students of the International Environment
Conservation Lab at the College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Japan, for theirsupport in carrying out the experiments and sample analyses. Thanks are also due to the students ofChina Agricultural University who assisted a great deal during our field visits. Prof. Jiang-sheng
Wei and his colleagues of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University also cooperated in the fieldsurveys. Part of the field investigations to the study sites was covered by grants-in-aid of JSPS
(Japan Society for the Promotion of Science). We are also grateful to the anonymous referees of thejournal for their valuable comments and suggestions.
REFERENCES
Bai, Y.F., Han, X.G., Wu, J.G., Chen, Z.Z. and Li, L.H. 2004. Ecosystem stability and compensatory effects
in the Inner Mongolia grassland. Nature, 431, 181-184.
Cao, S. 2008. Why large-scale afforestation efforts in China have failed to solve the desertification problem.
Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 1826-1831.
Fan, S. and Zhou, L. 2001. Desertification control in China: possible solutions. Ambio, 30 (6), 384-385.
Henmi, T. 1997. Chemical conversion of coal ash into artificial zeolite and its recycling. New Ceramics, 7,
54-62.
Kaneuchi, T., Roy, K., Yamamoto, T. and Inoue, M. 2008. Capture of excessive salt from soil by using
artificial zeolite. Proc. of Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and Rural Engineering (JSIDRE)
conference held in Akita, Japan, 782-783 (in Japanese).
Liu, J. 2014. Forest sustainability in China and implications for a telecoupled world. Asia and the Pacific
Policy Studies, 1, 230-250.
Nishimura, T. and Roy, K. 2010. Applicability of artificial zeolite and cotton as water holding materials to
the farmlands. Environmental Information Science, 39, 132-133 (in Japanese).
Roy, K., Kitani, O. and Wei, Z. 2005. Cotton and coal-ash: their effectiveness while using as locally sourced water
holding materials in arid land soil. Proc. of JSIDRE conference held in Gifu, Japan, 320-321 (in Japanese).
Sinclair, T.R., Ludlow, M.M. 1986. Influence of soil water supply on the plant water balance of four tropicalgrain legumes. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 13, 329-341.
Tang, Z, Ma, S., Ding, J., Wang, Y, Zheng, S. and Zhai, G. 2013. Current status and prospect of fly ash
utilization in China. Proc. of 2013 World of Coal Ash (WOCA) conference held in Lexington, KY, USA,
1-7 (URL: http://www.flyash.info/2013/037-Ding-2013.pdf, access date: August 11, 2014).
Yi, L., Wang, H., Wang, X. and Peng, J. 2012. Research progress of utilizing fly ash as resource of building
material. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 31 (2), 88-91.
Zhen, L., Yan, H., Liu, G. Lui, J., Zhang, H., Du, B., Wu, R., Sun, C. and Wang, C. 2014. Herders’willingness to accept versus the public sector’s willingness to pay for grassland restoration in the
Xilingol League of Inner Mongolia, China. Environmental Research Letters, 9, 1-15.

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Research article
erd

Pesticide Distribution in the Namphong River NE Thailand
Arising from Land Use and Other Practices
TATIANA KOMAROVA*
Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Coopers Plains, Brisbane,
Australia
Email: Tatiana_Komarova@health.qld.gov.au

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

ATCHARAPORN SOMPARN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

NATSIMA TOKHUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

JOCHEN MUELLER
National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox),
The University of Queensland,Coopers Plains, Brisbane,Australia

IVAN KENNEDY
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Australia

BARRY NOLLER
Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation (CMLR), Sustainable Minerals Institute,
The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Received 11 February 2015

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corressponding author)

Abstract Large quantities of pesticides and herbicides are used in the Namphong River
catchment, NE Thailand for protection of crops and agro industrial production. The aim of
this study was to screen pesticides in waters of the Namphong River from in-situ riveraquaculture, surface runoff and agro industrial discharges to identify if pesticide levels posesignificant risk to the aquatic ecosystem. A passive sampling technique was used toestimate the level of pesticides in the river water. Pesticides were accumulated onpolydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) strip passive samplers during 29 days deployment inJanuary-February 2012, and then sent to Australia for analysis of pesticides at the
University of Queensland and Queensland Health Laboratories. The PDMS passive
samplers were deployed at 5 sites in the Namphong River from below the Ubonratana Dam,the tributary downstream of the paper mill and vegetable and paddy fields down to the Chi
River above the junction of Namphong River. Atrazine, ametryn, chlorpyrifos andoxadiazon were found at all sites at elevated levels associated with vegetable and paddy
field areas indicating their extensive application. Terbuthylazine, terbuphos and phosphate
tri-n-butyl were found only in the paper mill discharge. Traces of galaxolide were found at
all sites but only in significant amounts (30 times higher) just below the paper mill.
Comparison of pesticides between the present and an earlier 2005 study of the paddy fieldecosystem 50 km N from Khon Kaen show a shift from organochlorine use to low
persistence pesticides, particularly chlorpyrifos. The results confirm that a range ofpesticides are being used in the Namphong river catchment able to be detected downstream,
though at low levels. These data provide a baseline, showing the need exists for more
systematic and complex assessment of the catchment to develop a tool for pollution control
in the catchment and to identify major sources of contamination and for ongoingenvironmental risk management.
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Keywords pesticides, herbicides, passive sampling, land use practices, environmental risk
management

INTRODUCTION
The Namphong River in the NE part of Thailand is within a sub-catchment of the Mekong River(Fig. 1). The Namphong River flows to the Chi River and via the Mun River to the Mekong River.
Below Ubolratana Dam, there are extensive agro-industry and farming activities along theNamphong River which use irrigation from dam storage and some supplementary groundwatersupply. Pesticides and herbicides from agro-industry activities are identified as potential risks tohuman health and the environment and as significant pollutants (Somparn et al., 2014). Of all
pesticides in use, chlorpyrifos was identified as the highest volume of insecticide importation in
Thailand (Department of Agriculture, 2012). The aquatic ecosystem of the Namphong River is a
critical aspect for the evaluation of the effects of pesticides dispersed in the environment.
Ecotoxicological effects from pesticides on aquatic organisms may be observed via biomonitoringwith both individual organisms and ecosystem function and structure. The Namphong River also
supports extensive cage aquaculture which may be affected by pesticides. In 2010, 209 cages
produced 1536 tonnes of Nile tilapia in Khon Kaen province (Department of Fisheries, 2010).
Key questions are: (i) what are the effects of pesticides in the Namphong River?; and (ii) theirrelationships to other water quality parameters associated with agro-industry and farming activities.
The prevailing tropical wet and dry seasons cause variation in river flow. The addition, ofparticulate and organic matter from soil transferred directly to river water can absorb pesticides.
Potential effects are therefore possible from pesticides added to river water during the annual cyclethat may arise from agricultural, aquaculture and other urban discharges from Khon Kaen city.
OBJECTIVE
This study aims to identify if pesticides and herbicides from multiple agro-based activities
comprising agro-industry and small-scale farming activities along the Namphong River, areenvironmental and health risks, causing any impact to the Namphong River water body at different
sample locations, and compares data from the 2012 dry season with existing data and criteria.
METHODOLOGY
Pesticides and herbicides were accumulated on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) strip passive
samplers during 19 January-23 February 2012 at 5 sites at the Namphong River from below the
Ubonratana Dam, the tributary downstream of the paper mill and vegetable and paddy fields down
to the Chi River above the junction of Namphong River (Fig. 1). Site C is on a small tributary lessthan a few km to the Namphong River from the pulp and paper mill (Fig. 1C). Prior to applicationeach PDMS sampler (strips 2.5 cm x 92 cm and thickness about 400 µm) was cleaned on ahorizontal shaker in fresh redistilled hexane for three consecutive 24 h periods at the pesticide
analytical laboratory followed by drying under high purity nitrogen gas steam, wrapping in acetone
rinsed aluminium foil and stored in the refrigerator until dispatched to Khon Kaen. The PDMS
samplers were placed under water at a depth of 0.50 m and left in place for 29 days. Following
collection, the PDMS samplers were placed in pre-cleaned acetone rinsed aluminium foil envelopes
and kept refrigerated until dispatched with quarantine clearance details from Khon Kaen toAustralia for sample processing and analysis using the routine procedures of Queensland HealthOrganic Chemistry Laboratory. Prior to PDMS extraction in hexane and following instrumental
analysis each of them was cleaned by scrubbing with water, dipping in redistilled hexane for 30
seconds and 0.5M HCL for 20 seconds followed by rinsing with acetone and isopropanol. Water
quality measured using standard techniques described (Komarova et al., 2012, 2013).
Passive samplers using polydimethylsiloxane are low cost and have an improved affinity forⒸ ISERD

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polar compounds relative to other samplers (Rusina et al., 2007). Comparative studies (Shaw et al.,2010) showed that PDMS samplers accumulated a larger number of compounds with log Kow 2.9
to 6.4 dissolved in water. At log Kow of 4.7 (chlorpyrifos) and 4.27 (trifluralin) the mass captured
was 6 times higher in PDMS compared with other samplers with the same surface area.

Fig. 1 Location of study site in the Mekong River basin NE Thailand (Maps A and B)
and sampling sites along the Namphong River (Map C)[Sites A – Ubolratana Dam; B – fish cage (in-river cage aquaculture for Tilapia production); C – pulp/paper industrial
plant (discharge via small tributary to main river); sugar industrial plant; C2 cucumber culture; C3 corn culture; Dovegetables culture; D vegetable culture and paddy fields; E vegetables culture; and F – vegetables culture, residential
discharge to Chi River just upstream from confluence with Namphong River]

Well developed and validated procedures are used at all steps of PDMS passive sampler
application (Shaw, 2005). The mass of contaminants accumulated in a PDMS sampler are
converted to their concentrations in water (Cw, ng/L) using a sampling rate (Rs in Ld-1) that is
estimated for different pesticides at different environmental conditions in laboratory calibration
study (Huckins et al., 2002) by Eq. 1.
Cw = MPDMS / Rs t

(1)

where MPDMS is the mass of a pesticide found in the PDMS sampler after deployment (ng) and t isthe deployment time in days. Method detection limits are calculated from the lowest mass per
sampler detected on analytical equipment (LCMS, GCMS) and the respective compound sampling
rate (e.g. <50 ng/mL for the extracted volume in the laboratory and 0.001 ng/L for chlorpyrifos in
PDMS samplers for 29 day deployment). These detection limits are an order of magnitude lower
than reported for pesticide concentrations using grab sampling techniques (Shaw, 2005). The
linearity of the relationship between log Kow and sampler to water partition coefficients has been
demonstrated over a wide range of compounds for PDMS (Yates et al., 2007).
Following preparation, extraction of samples and extensive clean-up procedures using size
exclusion chromatography, pesticide and herbicide are analysed by different instrumental analyticalmethods: these are gas chromatography (GC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC),
GC/MS and LC/MS-MS undertaken in the Queensland Health NATA accredited laboratory(according to ISO 17025) and based on USEPA Method EPA 503/6-90-004. All standards (3external standards) and samples are spiked with an internal standard just prior to analysis.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 gives the pesticide and herbicide concentrations that have the highest inputs for effluent at
Site C (Paper Mill) when compared with Table 2. Galaxolide, terbuthylazine, phosphate tri-n-butyl,
tonalid and terbutryn are added in paper mill effluent (Table 1) but only galaxolide remains
detectable at much lower concentration (1:35) showing dilution down to Site F at the Chi River;
tonalid is diluted 1:10 at Site C3 (Fig. 1C) but is then undetectable downstream.
Table 1 Pesticide and herbicide concentrations for 19-23 January 2012 showing Site C (Paper
Mill) effluent with highest input (average of 2 PDMSs per site)
Sampling site

Galaxolidea

Terbuthylazine

A. Ubolratana (ng/L)

0.201<0.001

Terbuphos<0.001

Phosphate
Tri-n-Butyl

Tonalid

Terbutryn<0.001<0.001

0.069

C. Pulp mill (ng/L)
26.8
3.1
1.1
0.18
0.17
0.34
C3. Corn (ng/L)
0.68<0.001<0.001<0.001
0.017<0.001
D. Vegetable/ paddy<0.0010.81<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001
field (ng/L)
F. Vegetable (ng/L)
0.89<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001
Guideline or acute toxicity
Algae, protozoa
LC50 (ng/L)
3.2-100 x 106(WHO, 1991)
Fish LC50 (ng/L)
2340 – 20000
0.8 – 10.0 x
0.16-90 x 106(PAN, 2014)
106
Fish LC50 (ng/L)
0.318 x(PFW Aroma
106
Chemicals, 2007)
Note: a. Not toxic to aquatic species, with low toxicity to terrestrial species [Rat Acute: >5000 mg/kg rat (Spectrum,2009)]

Table 2 gives the pesticide and herbicide concentrations for all sites upstream or lower
downstream; i.e. below Site C2. Ametryn, oxadiazon, chlorpyrifos, prometryn and atrazine are all
found at measureable concentrations at Site A below Ubonratana Dam (Fig. 1C) indicating thatapplication of these pesticides and herbicides has occurred in the upper Namphong River
catchment above Ubonratana dam and contribute to the downstream river load. Fig. 1 shows thatabout 60% of the Namphong River catchment is associated with the two branches above
Ubonratana dam. At Site C3 (Fig. 1C), ametryn, oxadiazon, chlorpyrifos, prometryn and atrazine
all show increased or similar concentrations indicating extensive insect and weed control fromagricultural activities in the upper Namphong catchment. The trend continues at Sites D and F withsignificant (2-7 times) increases in concentrations of ametryn, oxadiazon, chlorpyrifos, prometryn
and atrazine in river water (Table 2) where the observed levels of pesticides and herbicides areassociated with vegetable and paddy field areas indicating their extensive application. At Site D(Fig. 1C) the application of trifluralin is observed, indicating a particular crop application, but wasthen undetectable at Site F (Table 2).
The comparison of measured concentrations of pesticides and herbicides for all sites in Tables
1 and 2 with compiled details of guidelines and LC50 values for fish and other freshwater species
shows that all compounds are well below concentrations that will induce a toxic response. While allcompounds excepting chlorpyrifos are present at exceedingly low concentrations, chlorpyrifos isonly 10-20 times lower than the validated Australian aquatic guideline (Table 2 – note no Thai
guideline available). The application of chlorpyrifos is associated with insect control of vegetableand paddy field areas in line with the highest volume of insecticide importation in Thailand cited
above (Department of Agriculture, 2012). The pesticides and herbicides that were detected at the
sampling sites of the Namphong River in January 2012 are all low persistent compounds andindicate recent applications. Comparison of the observed pesticides and herbicides identified in thisstudy with an earlier 2005 study of paddy fields, horticulture and vegetable farming in theⒸ ISERD

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Namphong River basin sediment, water samples and PDMS samplers (Boonthai-Iwai et al., 2007)
showed that the pesticides and herbicides in use at that time included atrazine, oxadiazon and theorganochlorines dicofol and endosulfan; comparison with Tables 1 and 2 levels shows there was nodetection of organochlorines in 2012 but that chlorpyrifos is used extensively together with a rangeof herbicides. If the application rate of chlorpyrifos increases, the level in Namphong River may
increase and exceed the threshold of toxicity for fish and be a threat to cage aquaculture. Thus there
needs to be a more systematic and complex assessment of chlorpyrifos in the Namphong Riverbasin to develop a tool for its control and environmental risk management.
Table 2 Pesticide and herbicide concentrations for 19-23 January 2012 showing inputs at allsites upstream or below site C downstream (average of 2 PDMSs per site)
Sampling site

AmetrynOxadiazon

Chlorpyrifos

Prometryn

Atrazine

Trifluralin

A. Ubolratana (ng/L)

2.6

0.46

0.061

0.23

0.10

<0.001

C. Pulp mill (ng/L)
C3. Corn (ng/L)
D. Vegetable/ paddy field(ng/L)
F. Vegetable (ng/L)

0.12
1.7

0.75
1.0

<0.001
0.14

0.10
0.29

<0.001<0.001

2.7

6.7

0.24
0.45
0.79

0.30

0.40

0.062

0.28

0.40

0.18

-

13000

4400

-

-

-

2.5 – 10.0 x
106

-

-

95% protection aquatic
freshwater species(ANZECC/ARMCANZ,
2000) (ng/L)
Nile tilapia LC50 (ng/L)(PAN, 2014)
Fish LC50 (ng/L)(EXTOXNET, 2014a,b)

2.6

7.2
0.88
Guideline or acute toxicity

-

-

-

60000

3.2 – 8.8 x
106

-

10
-

CONCLUSION
This paper identified that the Namphong River basin can absorb current inputs of pesticides andherbicides that arise from the agro-based activities and is not causing any impact to the water
quality in the Namphong River itself. Measured pesticides and herbicides except chlorpyrifos were
present at exceedingly low concentrations in Namphong river water. However chlorpyrifos is only
10-20 times lower than the Australian aquatic guideline (noting no Thai guideline) for protection of
aquatic species and was identified as the highest volume of insecticide importation in Thailand. If
the application rate of chlorpyrifos is increased, the level in Namphong River may increase andexceed the threshold of toxicity for fish and other species and be a threat to cage aquaculture.
Although there does not appear to be a current contamination problem there is a potential issue
with chlorpyrifos in water which is identified as having higher risk and requiring further data andinformation. Thus there needs to be a more systematic and complex assessment of chlorpyrifos in
the Namphong River basin to develop a tool for its control and environmental risk management.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development
Center in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen University, Thailand. We thank Clinical and Statewide
Services (CASS), Queensland (Australia) for the financial support and staff of Inorganic Chemistry
Division of QHFSS (Australia) for assistance with sample analyses and data interpretation. Aung
Naing Oo, Suraden Chason, and Pantakarn Wanciaen from Khon Kaen University assisted withfield work. Entox is a partnership between Queensland Health and the University of Queensland.
Dharawan Noller prepared the maps.

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REFERENCESANZECC/ARMCANZ. 2000. Australian water quality guidelines for fresh and marine water quality.
Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource
Management Council of Australia and New Zealand.
Boonthai-Iwai, C., Sujiya, H., Somparn, A., Komarova, T., Mueller, M. and Noller, B. 2007. Monitoring
pesticides in the paddy field ecosystem of North-eastern Thailand for environmental and health risks.
Chapter 16 in Rational Environment Management of Agrochemicals Risk Assessment, Monitoring, andRemedial Action. First Edition Eds. Kennedy, I.R., Solomon, K., Gee, S., Crosnan, A. and Wang, S.
ACS Symposium Series 966. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C, pp 259-273, USA.
Department of Agriculture. 2012. Report of volume of insecticide importation in 2012. Ministry ofAgriculture and Cooperative, Thailand.
Department of Fisheries. 2010. Aquaculture production report in Thailand. Khon Kaen in Land Fisheries
Research and Development Center, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
EXTOXNET. 2014a. Ametryn. EXTOXNET, The extension toxicology network. University of California,
Davis, Oregon State University, Michigan State University, Cornell University, New York. Publication
Date: Sep. 1995 (available at http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/24d-captan/ametryn-ext.html
Accessed: 31, Dec. 2014.)
EXTOXNET. 2014b. Prometryn. EXTOXNET, The extension toxicology network. University of California,
Davis, Oregon State University, Michigan State University, Cornell University, New York. Publication
Date: June 1996 (available at http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/prometry.htm. Accessed: 31, Dec. 2014.)
Huckins, J.N., Petty, J.D., Prest, H.F., Clark, R.C., Alvarez, D.A., Orazio, C.E., Lebo, J.A. Cranor, W.L. andJohnson, B.T. 2002. A guide for the use of semi-permeable membrane devices (SPMDS) as sampler ofwaterborne hydrophobic organic contaminants. API Publication 4690 Columbia Environmental ResearchCenter. US Geological Survey. USDI, USA.
Komarova, T., Boonthai Iwai, C., Somparn, A., Tokhun, N. and Noller, B. 2013. Passive sampling approach
to identify contaminants in a tropical freshwater river system. Int. J. Environ. Rural Development., 4 (2),154-159.
Komarova, T., Olszowy, H., Noller, B. and Golding, G. 2012. The diffusive gradients in thin films technique(DGT) for trace metals versus active sampling. Int. J. Environ. Rural Devt., 3 (1), 169-174.
PAN. 2014. Pesticide Action Network website. (http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC34542 , Accessed 31, Dec. 2014).
PFW Aroma Chemicals. 2007. Safety data sheet TONALID® II. Test data PFW Aroma Chemicals B.V. andResearch Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM). PFW Aroma Chemicals B.V. Veemweg 29-31 3771
MT Barneveld The Netherlands.
Rusina, T.P., Smedes, F., Klanova, L., Booij, K. and Holoubek, I. 2007. Polymer selection for passive
sampling: A comparison of critical properties. Chemosphere, 68, 1344-1351.
Shaw, M. 2005. Pesticides on the Great Barrier Reef: Monitoring tools. PhD Thesis. National ResearchCentre for Environmental Toxicology. The University of Queensland, Brisbane. Australia.
Shaw, M., Furnas, M.J., Fabricius, K., Haynes, D., Carter, S., Eaglesham, G. and Mueller, J.F. 2010.
Monitoring pesticides in the Great Barrier Reef Mar. Pollut. Bull. 60 (1), 113-122.
Somparn, A., Boonthai Iwai, C. and Noller, B. 2014. Comparison definition of tropical and temperateconditions with difference of organic matter content and pH on acute toxicity of chlorpyrifos andcadmium to Chironomus javanus, Kieffer in freshwater sediment. International Journal of Research in
Chemistry and Environment, 4, 199-207.
Spectrum. 2009. Material safety data sheet Galaxolide 50% solution in Diethyl Phthalate. Spectrum
Laboratory Products Inc. 14422 S. San Pedro Street Gardenia, CA 90248, USA.
WHO. 1991. Tri-n-butyl phosphate. Environmental Health Criteria 112 World Health Organisation, Geneva.
Yates, K., Davies, I., Webster, L., Pollard, P., Lawton, L. and Moffat, C. 2007. Passive sampling: partition
coefficients for a silicone rubber reference phase. J.Environ. Monit., 9, 1116-1121.

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Research article
erd

Non-uniform Distribution of Soil Salinity Along a Transectof an Irrigation Field in an Arid Region
TAKASHI KUME*
Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
Email: kume@ehime-u.ac.jp

TADAO YAMAMOTO
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, JapanKATSUYUKI SHIMIZU
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, JapanABDISALAM JALALDIN
College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Xinjiang University,Urumqi, China
Received 5 January 2015

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corressponding author)

Abstract We assessed soil salinity at field scale and suggested appropriate water and saltmanagement practices for an arid region. Specifically, we focused on non-uniform salinity
distribution along a transect in a research field. We also examined factors affecting the
distribution of salt, including irrigation, drainage and salt movement. The non-uniform
salinity distribution across the field was probably formed by irrigation management anddistance from main drainage channel, while the effect of soil physical properties andgroundwater was limited. The main drainage channel functioned well during the past
irrigation period when abundant Karez water was available for leaching irrigation, and thiscontributed to the present non-uniform salinity distribution. Currently, farmers use less
irrigation water, which does not promote desalinization. Vertical movement of soluble salts
near the soil surface was dominated by irrigation management. Border irrigation promotes
desalinization but drip irrigation enhances salt accumulation, with salinity increasing after
irrigation because of high evaporation rates in the hyperarid climate. Based on these results,
we explained the following points to local farmers in non-technical language: 1) a drainage
channel is important for desalinization but the current channel is no longer sufficient todischarge salt from the field; 2) drip irrigation is effective for deficit irrigation but itenhances salt accumulation; 3) border irrigation has a positive effect on salt leaching fromsurface layers but the leached salt returns to the surface after irrigation ceases; and 4) there
are high salinity layers below 60 cm soil depth, distributed widely across the fields.
Keywords drainage, hyperarid region, irrigation, non-uniform distribution, soil salinity

INTRODUCTION
It is estimated that saline soil covers 3.1% (397 mega hectares) of the total land area of the earth(FAO, 2005), which is 1.2 times larger than the land area of India. The total area of secondary
saline soil induced by anthropogenic activity such as agriculture is approximately 76.6 Mha(Oldeman et al., 1991), almost twice of the land area of Japan. There are no data to suggest that theamount of saline soil is decreasing; on the contrary, Rengasamy (2008) expects that the prevalenceof saline soil will increase because of climate change and increasing human population.
Salinization is one of the biggest problems affecting agricultural activities, especially in arid
regions. Salinity studies have been conducted since the 1950s. Soil electrical conductivity (EC) has
long been used as an index of salinity in the laboratory (US Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954),
though electromagnetic induction (McNeill, 1980; Rhodes and Corwin, 1981) and satellite remoteⒸ ISERD

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sensing (Metternicht, 2003; Metternicht and Zinck, 2008) are now widely applied to assess theextent and severity of saline areas. Free numerical modeling software (e.g., Šimůnek et al., 2013) isavailable for simulating the movement of water and salt in soil layers.
In irrigated agricultural fields, non-uniform distribution of soil salinity is caused byinappropriate application of water and salt management practices such as irrigation, drainage andsalt leaching (Kume et al., 2004; Nishimura et al., 2012). This leads to loss of irrigation water anddecreasing crop production. Knowledge of the structure of the non-uniform distribution, andavailable technical solutions, is crucial to effective management of water and salt in arid regions.
However, field conditions and irrigation techniques differ from one place to another, and so a sitespecific approach is needed to help farmers to understand their current situation and to suggest
ways of developing saline soil in an appropriate way.
OBJECTIVE
We assessed soil salinity at field scale and suggested appropriate water and salt management
practices for an arid region. Specifically, we focused on non-uniform salinity distribution along atransect in a research field. We also examined factors affecting the distribution of salt, including
irrigation, drainage and salt movement.
METHODOLOGY
Research Field
The research field is situated in Paran Karez village near the city of Torpan, in the Xinjiang Uygur
Autonomous Region of China (Fig. 1). The average temperature at Torpan is 14.0 qC. Maximum
and minimum temperatures are 40 qC and −14.5 qC, respectively. Annual precipitation is 16.6 mm.
Torpan is classified as a hyperarid region.

Fig. 1 Location of Torpan in the Xinjiang Uygur
Autonomous Region, ChinaⒸ ISERD

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Fig. 2 Map of investigation area, showing
transect x-x’, soil profile sampling
points (A-D), and reference soil
sampling points (E-H)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2015) 6-1

The village of Paran Karez has been developed using water from Paran Karez over the last
300 years. The term Karez means a horizontal series of vertically dug wells that are then linked byunderground water canals. Unfortunately, Paran Karez dried up in 2010. Farmers irrigated theirfields with Paran Karez groundwater 20 years ago and now they pump up groundwater from wells
for irrigation. The main crops grown are cotton, maize, wheat and cumin. The most common
irrigation methods are basin irrigation and border irrigation; drip irrigation has been introduced insome areas beginning in 2013.
Materials and Methods
We defined a transect, x-x’, in the irrigated field (Fig. 2) to reveal horizontal soil salinity
distribution and took soil samples at 10 meter intervals in June 2013, October 2013, May 2014 andNovember 2014. Soil samples were taken from 0–5 cm and 5–15 cm below the soil surface. Soilelectrical conductivity was measured in a soil-water extract (soil:water = 1:5, EC1:5). To examine
the topography of the transect, we conducted a level survey at 50 meter intervals in May 2014. To
examine the vertical profiles of soil salinity and soil physical properties, we also took soil samples
at four points, A, B, C and D on the transect at six soil depths from each profile wall: 0–5, 5–15,
15–30, 30–60, 60–90 and 90–120 cm below the soil surface. The same sampling and measurement
regime was used at four reference points, E, F, G and H, some distance away from the transect.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil Physical Properties
Soil physical properties affect water and salt movement in soils. Therefore, soil physical properties
were examined to understand non-uniform distributions of soil salinity in irrigated fields. The soil
texture was classified as International Society of Soil Science at the four points along the transect(A to D) was silty loam (SL) as shown in Table 1. The soil was mainly composed of silt and it
contained less than 10% clay. The same silty loam texture was seen at the reference points (E to H).
Soil bulk density showed that the soils were somewhat compacted, and soil permeability was
reduced, ranging from 10−5 to 10−6 cm/s−1. Particle density ranged from 2.64 to 2.76 g/cm−3,
indicating low organic matter content. From these results, we expect that the differences of soil
physical properties were not so large that it did not affect non-uniform distribution of the soil EC.
Table 1 Average values of physical properties of soil from 0-1.2 m soil depth at points A-D
along the transect x-x’
Point

Soil texture

A
B
C
D

SL
SL
SL
SL

Soil bulk density(g/cm3)
1.27
1.31
1.35
1.27

Particle density(g/cm3)
2.64
2.76
2.74
2.76

Soil permeability(cm/s)
1.8×10−5
1.8×10−6
1.8×10−6
3.6×10−6

Effect of Irrigation Methods on Surface Soil Salinity
Irrigation practices affect water and salt movement, especially salt leaching at the soil surface. As
shown in Table 2, the average value of EC1:5 for all data including non-irrigated fields, and EC1:5
excluding non-irrigated fields ranged from 4.8 to 7.6 dS/m and from 2.2 to 3.5 dS/m, respectively.
The highest EC1:5 values were observed in non-irrigated fields 280-300 m away from the main
drainage channel along the transect (Fig. 2), whereas the lowest EC1:5 values were obtained near themain drainage channel. EC1:5 was high in the non-irrigated fields because of the lack of saltleaching without irrigation, and salt accumulation from the vicinity by lateral water flow. It is clearthat irrigation and drainage management affects surface soil salinity.
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Changes in average EC1:5 during the research period (Table 2) can be interpreted in the light ofirrigation management practices and salt movement. First, border irrigation leached surface salt tothe deeper soil layers (June 2013), and the leached salt was returned to the soil surface by
evaporation (October 2013). Second, drip irrigation induced intense capillary rise and promoted
salt movement from deeper layers to the surface (May 2014) (Zhang et al., 2014). Finally, salt
continuously rose to the soil surface by evaporation and showed the highest EC1:5 at the end of theresearch period (November 2014). This shows that border irrigation promotes leaching of salt todeeper soil layers, while drip irrigation enhances salt mobility from deeper soil layers to the surface.
Table 2 Descriptive statistics for EC1:5 at four measurement times
Data used forstatistical analysis

Sampling date(Month/Year)

Irrigation

N=31 (0-300 m)(Including datafrom salt
accumulate fields,
280-300 m fromdrainage channel)

06/2013
10/201305/2014

Border irrigation
Drip irrigation

11/201406/2013
10/201305/2014
11 2014

N=28 (0-270 m)(Irrigated fields
only)

Soil EC1:5 (dS/m)
Max

Min

4.8
5.8
7.6

47.8
59.6
84.5

0.5
0.2
1.5

Standard
deviation
9.3
11.5
15.0

-

6.9

41.2

0.4

9.4

Border irrigation
Drip irrigation
-

2.2
2.7
3.4
3.5

5.4
6.3
8.5
8.9

0.5
0.2
1.5
0.4

1.1
1.6
1.7
1.9

Mean

Relationship Between Soil Salinity and Distance from Main Drainage Channel
The salt distribution before agricultural development of the research field was not known. However,conventional desalinization using techniques such as leaching irrigation has been employed sincethe 1970s, so it is unsurprising that soil salinity increases with increasing distance from the main
drainage channel (Fig. 3). The only exception was seen in May 2014. Regression analysis showed apositive correlation between EC1:5 and distance from main drainage channel (Fig. 3). The highest
coefficient of determination (R2), 0.71, was obtained in October 2013 and the lowest, 0.22, wasseen in May 2014. Similar results were obtained across the irrigated field, from 0 to 270 m from thedrainage channel along the transect x-x’. This relationship was not seen in May 2014 and the R2
value at that time was just 0.02 (data not shown). Conventional desalinization management with
abundant Karez water in the past promoted leaching and salt drainage from soil layers. This isconsistent with the EC1:5 data from May 2014, which showed that drip irrigation temporarily
caused a uniform salinity distribution through intense capillary rise in the irrigated field.
The topographic level survey showed that the elevation became higher with increasing
distance from the main drainage channel (Fig. 3). Non-irrigated salt accumulated fields, whichwere located 280–300 m away from the drainage channel, were higher than the irrigated fields.
This implies that salt accumulated fields have not been received enough leaching water because of
their higher elevation, and that dissolved salt moved from nearby fields. The same results wereseen by Kume et al., (2004) and Nishimura et al., (2012).
Distribution of Salinity Profile
Desalinization practice involves a series of leaching and draining salt from soil layers to thedrainage channel. We assessed the salinity profile in the root zone and below to develop an
effective desalinization strategy. Results showed two types of salinity profile as shown in Fig. 4. At
point A, which was the nearest point to the drainage channel, soil salinity was observed to increase
with depth. In contrast, at points B, C and D, salinity decreased with depth below the soil surface.
Salinity of soil from 0 to 40 cm deep increased with distance from the drainage channel, this trend
was similar to the results shown in Fig. 3.
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Fig. 3 Changes in spatial distribution of EC1:5 along the transect x-x’ at four measurement
times and relative height of the transect
High salinity layers (2.0–2.5 dS/m) were found at around 60 cm soil depth at points A, B andC (and also at E, F, G and H, reference points (data not shown)). This indicates that high salinity
layers below 60 cm soil depth are widely distributed across the fields. Based on our field survey, it
was confirmed that groundwater depth was at least 4.0 m below the soil surface, so the effect ofgroundwater on the salinity profile was negligible during the observation period.

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Fig. 4 EC1:5 of soil vertical profiles at points A to D along the transect and distributionof crops cultivated in June 2013
Structure of Non-Uniform Salinity Distribution of the Field
The non-uniform salinity distribution across the field was probably formed by irrigation
management and distance from main drainage channel, while the effect of soil physical properties
and groundwater was quite limited. The main drainage channel functioned well during the past
irrigation period when abundant Karez water was available for leaching irrigation, and thiscontributed to the present non-uniform salinity distribution. Currently, farmers use less irrigationwater, which does not promote desalinization. Vertical movement of soluble salts near the soil
surface was dominated by irrigation management. Border irrigation promotes desalinization but
drip irrigation enhances salt accumulation, with salinity increasing after irrigation because of highevaporation rates in the hyperarid climate.
CONCLUSION
In this study, we identified the primary factors affecting structure of non-uniform salinity
distribution in terms of irrigation and drainage management. Based on these results, we will explain
the following points to local farmers in non-technical language: 1) a drainage channel is importantfor desalinization but the current channel is no longer sufficient to discharge salt from the field; 2)drip irrigation is effective for deficit irrigation but it enhances salt accumulation; 3) borderirrigation has a positive effect on salt leaching from surface layers but the leached salt returns to thesurface after irrigation ceases; and 4) there are high salinity layers below 60 cm soil depth,
distributed widely across the fields.
Two-dimensional profiles of salt and water distribution and their movement within andbetween soil layers are required to manage agricultural activity in the research area. We plan tosimulate salt and water balance using a numerical model assuming installation of various types ofdrainage channels and adoption of different irrigation managements to develop a practical strategy
for irrigation and drainage management for local farmers to employ in the research field.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 24405039 and 25450363.

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REFERENCES
FAO. 2005. Global network on integrated soil management for sustainable use of salt-affected soils. Rome,
Italy: FAO Land and Plant Nutrition Management Service.
Kume, T., Nagano, T., Watanabe, T. and Mitsuno, T. 2004. Analysis of heterogeneous soil salinity
distribution in poor drainage Field. Trans. of JSIDRE, 234, 19-26. (In Japanese with English abstract)
McNeill, J.D. 1980. Electromagnetic terrain conductivity measurement at low induction numbers.
Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, Geonics Limited, Technical Note TN-6.
Metternicht, G.I. 2003. Categorical fuzziness: A comparison between crisp and fuzzy class boundarymodeling for mapping salt-affected soils using Landsat TM data and a classification based on anion
ratios. Ecological Modelling, 168, 371-389.
Metternicht, G.I. and Zinck, A. 2008. Remote sensing of soil salinization: Impact on land management. CRC
Press.
Nishimura, T., Ishiyama, Y., Seki K., Imoto, H.，Mizoguchi, M. and Miyazaki, T. 2012. Salt accumulation
above shallow ground water table at Songnen Plain, Heilongjian, China. IDRE Journal, 279, 35-44. (InJapanese with English abstract)
Oldeman, L.R., van Engelen, V.W.P. and Pulles, J.H.M. 1991. The extent of human-induced soil degradation.
World map of the status of human-induced soil degradation: An explanatory note. Wageningen:
International Soil Reference and Information Center, 27-33.
Rengasamy, P. 2008. Salinity in the landscape: A growing problem in Australia. Geotimes, 53, 34-9.
Rhodes, J.D. and Corwin, D.L. 1981. Determining soil electrical conductivity-depth relations using an
Inductive electromagnetic soil conductivity meter. SSSAJ, 45, 255-260.
Šimůnek, J., Šejna, M., Saito, H., Sakai, M. and M. Th. van Genuchten. 2013. The Hydrus-1D software
package for simulating the movement of water, heat, and multiple solutes in variably saturated media,
Version 4.17, HYDRUS Software Series 3. Department of Environmental Sciences, University ofCalifornia Riverside, Riverside, California, USA.
US Salinity Laboratory Staff. 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA Handbook,
No. 60, Washington, D.C, US Government Printing Office, USA.
Zhi, Z., Hongchang, H., Fuqiang, T., Heping, H., Xinhua, Y. and Ruisen, Z. 2014. Soil salt distribution undermulched drip irrigation in an arid area of northwestern China. Journal of Arid Environments, 104, 23-33.

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Research article
erdGolden Apple Snail as Source of Protein Diets of Fattened
Mud Crab (Scylla serrata Forskal) in Cellular Bamboo
Cages
MARIA DANESA S. RABIA
Bohol Island State University, Calape Campus, Bohol, Phillipines
Email: senillo_danesa@yahoo.com
Received 5 March 2015

Accepted 31 May 2015(*Corressponding author)

Abstract To identify feed alternative in the fattening of mud crab (Scylla serrata Forskal),
three diets were tested using a modified cellular cages. Mixed sex crabs were fed with trash
fish, golden apple snail and combination of trash fish and golden apple snail at 10% bodyweight. Growth, survival, moulting and picked meat yield and quality were evaluated.
Specific growth rate and survival were highest in crabs fed with golden apple snail andcombination. Moulting was significantly affected by diet types. There was no significant
difference in the yield of picked meat and overall acceptability scores. Golden apple snail
could be a potential dietary substitute for trash fish.
Keywords mudcrab fattening, specific growth rate, bamboo cages, feed types

INTRODUCTION
Mud crab (Scylla serrata Forskal) locally known as “alimango” is considered as the biggest, fastest
growing and the most desirable aquaculture mud crab species in the country. For the past decades
aquaculture of mud crab has been intensively studied because of the high market demand of thecommodity and dwindling wild stocks. Hatchery technology was developed and adopted to answer
the problem in seed supply which was considered as the major limitation of mud crab farming in its
early stages (Keenan, 1999). Feeding management in grow out, perceived as the main bottleneck in
the advancement of mud crab aquaculture, has been carefully studied through development of
formulated diets and experimental feeding (Catacutan et al., 2003; Christensen et al., 2004).
Research has demonstrated the high feasibility and profitability of this aquaculture endeavour.
According to Keenan (1999), there are two basic forms of mud crab aquaculture, fattening of
crabs with low flesh content and rearing of juveniles from the wild or hatcheries to market size.
Both of these approaches are usually pond based with or without mangroves. Fattening employs
intensive feeding while the later could be done without supplemental feeding that involves low
stocking in large mangrove silviculture ponds. In particular, mud crab fattening refers to the rearingof empty crabs identified at harvest from the wild or from farm stocks for a brief period of time
until weight is gained and ready to market (FAO, 2011). Empty crab also called as thin crab, water
crab or soft shell crab refers to a crab after moulting having thin and soft carapace with little flesh
for male and little ovary tissue for female. Various structures can be used to fatten mud crab for
relatively short period of time around 15-30 days that include cages, ponds or tanks. Fattening canbe held at fairly high densities provided that water quality is optimum, feeding is regular and therearing environment is free from diseases. Several studies demonstrated that mud crab fattening is a
profitable aquaculture activity (Trino and Rodriguez, 2001).
In the country crab fattening has been widely practiced but varies widely in the different
regions due to limited baseline research studies. Trino and Rodriguez (2001) studied crab fattening
in ponds and found out that it is economically feasible and production could be very high.
Technology verification done by Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) anda few private individuals using bamboo cages with individual cells or compartments that held one
crab per cell resulted to high survival and better weight gain. Nonetheless, the experiments only
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focused on the structures for rearing but not on feeding management which is also a very important
aspect to achieve maximum economic benefit. Fattened crabs are usually fed with a mixed diet oftrash fish and mollusk at a ration ranging from 6-10% body weight (SEAFDEC, 2011). Studies
using cheaper feed alternatives in crab fattening are limited. This study will evaluate the feasibilityof golden apple snail or locally known as “kuhol” as a substitute of the usual diet of mud crab.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the study was to determine the effect of experimental fattening of mud crab
(Scylla serrata Forskal) using different feed types (trash fish, golden apple snail and combinationof trash fish and golden apple snail) on the following indices:a. growth in terms of absolute growth rate, total carapace length and widthb. survival and moulting incidencec. yield and quality of picked meat
METHODOLOGY
Location and Cage Design
The experiment was conducted in BISU Calape-Calunasan Brackishwater Station. A cellular
system cage design adapted from SEAFDEC was used. The modified bamboo cage had adimension 2 m x 0.9 m x 0.3 m and divided into 15 compartments, covered with plastic screen for
feeding and sampling convenience. The cage was firmly fixed by its corners to the substrate using
bamboo stakes to prevent it from being washed away in high weather. The cage was placed in thepond canal with ¾ of its body submerged during the lowest low tide. The set up is ideal for
mudcrab culture as water exchange takes place naturally through tidal fluctuations.
Procurement of Stocks and Stocking
Mixed sex crabs with similar sizes weighing 50-100 g were purchased from local fishermen in
Calape at PhP 100.00 per kilogram. The crabs were weighed (77.78 g) and carapace length (72.47mm) and width (50.87 mm) were measured individually. Crabs were individually held in thecompartment or “cell” in the cage. A total of 15 crabs were stocked for each treatment
corresponding to the different feed types. Stocking was done late in the afternoon.
Rearing
The crabs were reared for 15 days. Water quality parameters such as salinity, temperature and pH
were monitored daily. The cages were cleaned daily by removing excess feeds and waste. Drifted
debris that clings in the cage was removed to prevent damage in the cage and to easily facilitate
water circulation. Six crabs from each treatment were weighed and carapace length and width were
measured every three days as basis for the feed ration.
Diet Preparation and Feeding
The feeds used in the experiment were trash fish, golden apple snail and combination of trash fishand golden snail. Trash fish was bought from the local market, washed with clean water and stored
in freezer. Golden apple snails were collected in the nearby rice fields and were purged by soaking
in clean water for 24 hours. Frozen trash fish was thawed in running water and meat of the golden
apple snail was separated by breaking the shells individually and weighed based on the exact feed
ration. A feeding rate of 10% body weight was employed (SEAFDEC, 2011). Feeding ration wasincreased based on the body weight of the crabs measured every three days. Feeding was done
twice a day, 7 am and 4 pm.
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Sampling and Harvesting
At an interval of 5 days, all mudcrab in each cage were netted, weighted and recorded for analysis
of growth and survival. Measurements were done using a calibrated weighing scale recorded ingrams. After days, survival was assessed by counting remaining stocks in the cage. Final bodyweight, carapace length and width were measured. Survival rate, absolute growth rate, specificgrowth rate and feed conversation ratio were computed.
Picking and Sensory Evaluation
All the harvested crabs were steamed. The meat was then carefully separated from the shell andweighed. After weighing, nine panellists evaluated the sensorial attributes in terms of aroma,
texture and taste using the using the simple 9-point Hedonic Scale (9-extremely like, 8-like very
much, 7-like moderately 6-like slightly, 5-neither like nor dislike, 4-dislike slightly, 3-dislike
moderately, 2-dislike very much, 1-dislike extremely).
Statistical Tools and Analysis
Data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics particularly; mean, standard, andpercentage. Mean of treatments were compared by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 0.50
confidence level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water Quality
The ranges of the water quality parameters (salinity: 25-35 parts per thousand (ppt); temperature:
25-30 oC; pH: 7.5-8.7) recorded during the experiment are within the suitable levels and the culture
period (15 days) is within the duration being practiced for mud crab fattening (Cholik and Hanafi,
1992). Placing the cages in the pond canal was ideal because water was continuously flowing
maintaining optimum water quality conditions. The preliminary experiment conducted inside thepond resulted to poor growth and survival that could be attributed to poor water quality as waterexchange was limited.
Growth, Survival and Moulting Incidence
The mean final weight of the crabs after 15 days of fattening ranged from 90 g to 100 g in alltreatments (Table 1). Crabs fed with a combination of trash fish and golden apple snail had thehighest mean final body weight at 100.20 g with a total weight gain of 21.93 g. Begum et al (2009)
reported relatively lower weight gain at 10-16 g in mud crab with initial weight of 200 g fattened in
ponds for 16 days fed with tilapia. In the experimental fattening of mud crab in ponds using trash
fish by Trino and Rodriguez (2001), weight gain was relatively higher ranging from 150-200 g withinitial weight of stocks at 260-280 g. The lower weight gain observed in the current experiment
could be attributed to the use of small stocks and possibly the thinness of the muscle of the crabs
initially used (Liong, 1993).
Specific growth rate was highest in mud crab fed with golden apple snails and combination oftrash fish and golden apple snails (Fig. 4) at both 1.54% day-1. Specific growth rate of mud crab in
all the treatments were comparable to that of mixed sex mud crab reared in ponds fed with trash
fish for 20 days with specific growth rate of 0.8+ 0.12% day-1 (Trino and Rodriguez, 2001).

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Table 1 Mean initial and final body weight, weight gain and carapace width and length ofcrabs after 15 days of fattening using different feed types
Treatment

Initial wt (g)Final wt (g)Wt gain (g)Carapace
width (mm)Carapace length(mm)

Trash fish
Golden apple
snail
Trash
fish+Golden
apple snail

77.73

90.71

12.98

50.93

72.29

77.33

97.53

20.20

51.07

70.87

78.27

100.20

21.93

52.07

74.53

Survival was highest in crabs fed with golden apple snail and combination of trash fish andgolden apple snail at 100% (Table 2). The result was relatively higher compared to that of Begum
et al. (2009) wherein survival rate of crabs reared in cages was only 93.75%. High survival was
attributed to the use of cellular cage system. Crabs were held individually to prevent cannibalism
and as well as to provide optimal environment for growth.
Another primary use of the cellular cage is the production of soft-shell crabs or newly moulted
crabs (FAO, 2011). In this kind of system, small mud crabs are reared in isolation a few weeks
until they moult. Soft-shell crabs command higher price and farmers have focused on soft-shell
production to maximize profit. In the present study, moulting incidence was observed as an effectof the dietary treatment. It was found out that moulting was significantly affected by diet types;
20% of the crabs fed with golden apple snail and combination of trash fish and golden apple snail
moulted during the experiment while none of the crabs moulted in the group fed only with trashfish. The use of golden apple snail could have accelerated moulting incidence. High calcium
content of the diet (from the shells of the golden apple snail) could possibly induced moulting ofstocks but this needs to be further investigated.
Table 2 Survival, occurrence of moulting and production of mud crab using different feed
types
Treatment
Trash fish
Golden apple snail
Trash fish+Golden apple snail

Survival (%)
93
100
100

Moulting (%)
0
20
20

Economic Analysis
As to stocking density, the present study following the stocking density suggested by SEAFDEC(SEAFDEC, 2011) and still yielded a comparable survival rate of >90%. Tables 3 and 4 provides
an overview on the economic analysis of different fed types for mudrab in cellular cages. Mudcrab
fed with golden apple snail constitute the high return of investment compared to the othertreatments as indicated that low expenses incurred during the conduct of the study because feeds
are readily available.
Meat Yield and Quality
There was no significant difference in the yield of picked meat (Table 5) and overall acceptability
scores in terms of taste, texture, aroma and color among the three treatments (Table 5). The meanscore among the three treatments was 8 which is equivalent to like very much in the Hedonic Scale.
The results suggested that sensory attributes of mud crab fed with golden apple snail werecomparable to that of mud crab fed with trash fish.

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Table 3 Return-on-investment of the 3 units 2 m x 0.9 m x 0.3 m cellular cages at different fed
types
ROI
Parameters
Total
harvest(-ind)
AWG
Total
biomassGrossincomeLess: Total
expenses
Net income
ROI

Unit

T1

T2

Input
T3

pcs

15

15

15

g

12.98

20.20

21.93

kg

0.195

0.303

0.329

T1

40.00

T2

70.00

T3

T1

T2

Income
T3

48.75

75.75

82.75

8.75
21.88%

5.75
8.21%

7.75
10.33%

75.00*the Php 250.00-300.00 per kg was based on the actual market price of mudcrab at Calape Public Market

Table 4 Weight of the picked meat and carapace and the corresponding yield
Trash FishGolden Apple SnailTrash Fish+Golden Apple
Snail

Picked Meat (g)
31.51
41.22

Carapace Weight (g)
9.46
8.85

Total (g)
40.97
50.07

% Yield
76.97
82.07

37.74

7.10

44.83

84.09

Table 5 Sensory evaluation scores of the panellist in terms of overall acceptability
Panelists
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Mean

Trash fish
8
8
8
8
8
8
7
8
7
8

Golden apple snail Trash fish+Golden apple snail
9
7
9
7
9
7
8
8
8
8
7
8
8
9
7
9
9
8
8
8

CONCLUSION
The growth, survival and picked meat yield and quality of mud crab fed with golden apple snails
were comparable to that of mud crab fed with trash fish. The results indicate that golden apple snail
collected from nearby rice fields could be a potential dietary substitute for trash fish in mud crab
fattening.
RECOMMENDATIONThe same experiment could be conducted using bigger stocks weighing 200 g. It is interesting toevaluate if there is a significant difference between the growth of male and female individuals.
Other fattening duration could be tried using the same dietary treatments. Changes in the proximate
composition of the mud crab before and after fattening is also very essential to determine theeffects on the nutritional state of the organism.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to express our sincerest gratitude to the 4th year BS Fisheries students Jeffrey
Infiesto, Francis Josol, Rinalyn Bulala, Maricris Remojo and Jomel Baobao for the assistance in the
conduct of the experiment.
REFERENCES
Begum, M., Shah, M.M.R., Mamun, A. and Alam, M.J. 2009. Comparative study of mud crab Scylla serrata
fattening practices between two different systems in Bangladesh. J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ., 7(1), 151156.
Catacutan, M.R., Eusebio, P.S. and Shin-ichi, T. 2003. Apparent digestibility of selected feedstuffs by mud
crab Scylla serrata. Aquaculture, 216, 253-261.
Christensen, S.M., Macintosh, D.J. and Phuong, N.T. 2004. Pond preparation of mud crabs Scyllaparamamosain (Estampador) and S. olivacea (Herbst) in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, using two
different supplementary diets. Aquaculture Research, 35, 1013-1024.
Cholik, F. and Hanafi, A. 1992. A review of the status of the mud crab (Scylla serrata) fishery and culture inIndonesia. BOBP/REP, 51, 13.
FAO. 2011. Mud crab aquaculture: a practical manual. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No.
567. Rome, p.50-51.
Keenan, C.P. 1999. Aquaculture of mud crab, genus Scylla - past, present and future. In: Keenan, C.P.,
Blackshaw, A. Mud Crab Aquaculture and Biology. Australia. ACIAR Proceedings, p. 9-13.
Liong, P.C. 1993. The culture and fattening of mud crabs. Infofish Int. 3:46.
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC). 2011. Crab fattening in cages and pen cultureof crabs in mangroves. 2011 August 11. (website; www.seafdec.org.)
Trino, A.T. and Rodriquez, E.M. 2001. Mud crab fattening in ponds. ASJ, 14, 211.

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erdInternational Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
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In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, where is located in
the Research Center at Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) by writing or byother appropriate means.
Also every presenter who attends the International Conference on Environmental and Rural
Development (ICERD) is registered as an Individual Member of ISERD.
Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability, Japan

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

Deputy Presidents
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Executive Secretary / Editor-in-Chief of IJERD
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture / Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation
and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Southeast
Asia Office / Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Mom Seng, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, African Program on Field Oriented Leaders in Environ. Sectors, Ghana
Dr. Sri Wahyuni, Islamic University of Riau, Indonesia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
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All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the International Conference on
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