Climate Change and Adaptation Measuresin Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation
and Policy Implications
African Technology Policy Studies Network

WORKING PAPER SERIES | No. 62
Dr. Blessing Kaletapwa Farauta
Chukwudumebi Leticia Egbule
Dr. Yusuf Lawan Idrisa
Dr. Victoria, Chinwe Agu

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures inNorthern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy
Implications

Dr. (Mrs.) Blessing
Kaletapwa Farauta
Federal University of Technology
Adamawa State, Nigeria
Chukwudumebi
Leticia Egbule
University of Nigeria
Enugu State, Nigeria

Dr. Yusuf Lawan Idrisa
University of Maiduguri
Borno State, Nigeria

Dr. (Mrs.) Victoria Chinwe
Agu
Federal Ministry of Agriculture andWater Resources
Abuja, Nigeria

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-030-17-7

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Executive Summary

5

List of Acronyms

6

1.

Introduction

7

2.

Literature Review

123.

Methodology

20

4.

Results & Discussions

22

5.

Conclusions & Recommendation

28

References

29

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 3

Acknowledgement
This report was produced as part of the implementation of the ATPS Phase VI
Strategic Plan, 2008-2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the Ministerie van
Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, and the Rockefeller Foundation,
amongst others. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial andtechnical support during the implementation of the program. The Authors
specially thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program Director, Dr. Kevin Urama(ATPS); and the Program Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua (ATPS
Kenya); Dr. George Essegbey (ATPS Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr.
Nicholas Ozor (ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS) for their technicalsupport during the research process.

4 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

Executive Summary
The major aim of this research project was to access the incidence of climatechange and indigenous innovative adaptive measures in northern Nigeria. The
specific objectives of the study were to: examine the level of awareness of climatechange impact in the area; examine the nature of climate change impact; identify
the different practices that exacerbate the impact of climate change in the area;
identify and describe the indigenous adaptation practices used by farmers in thearea; determine the factors affecting the peoples' adoption of various adaptation
strategies in the areas; identify the problems farmers face due to the effects ofclimate change; improve the capacity of young professionals and women in
adapting to climate change; and enhance behavioural changes towards climatechange adaptation measures by the individuals.
Data was drawn from both primary and secondary sources; using both qualitativeand quantitative approaches. Multistage (random) sampling technique was usedin selecting 500 respondents for the study. Simple descriptive statistics wereused for data analysis.
Findings show that respondents were aware and knowledgeable on the issue ofclimate change; and sourced information mainly from mass media. The study
shows that there was an increase in the incidence of climate change in the area astypified by low rainfall, higher temperature and desertification. The study further
revealed that the perceived causes of climate change included: overgrazing of
farmland by livestock, deforestation and bush burning. The findings also notedthat key problems associated with the changing climate were: increase in cost offarm inputs, poor crop yields, and increase in pest and disease incidence andloss of forest resources. The adaptive measures being used by respondents werechanges in planting and harvesting dates, afforestation, use/planting by
wetland/fadama and use of resistant varieties. The major constraints
respondents faced in their bid to adapt to the impact of climate change were: poor
access to information, poor/low extension services and limited adaptation
measures.

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 5

List of Acronyms
CTA
ACP
IPCC
UNFCCC
FAO
GHG
CFC
F&D
GDP
LEISA
CEEPA
DFID
USDA

Technical Centre for Agriculture
African, Caribbean and PacificInternational Panel on Climate Change
United Nations Framework on Climate Change Committee
Food and Agriculture Organization
Green House Gas
Chlorofluorocarbon
Finance and Development
Gross Domestic Product
Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture
Center for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa
UK Department for International Development
United States Department of Agriculture

6 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

1. Introduction
1.1
Background of the Study
Climate change is the greatest challenge facing man's existence on earth in thiscentury. It is a process of global warming, in part attributable to the 'greenhousegases' generated by human activity. The impacts of climate change are being felt
by both developed and developing countries. These impacts are likely to be felt
more by developing countries not necessarily because they are the highest
contributors to climate variations but because they lack economic, social andpolitical infrastructures to respond adequately to the effects of climate change.
Climate change impacts are felt on agricultural production, health, biodiversity,
social and economic conditions and affect people and the environment ingeneral. Climate change is predicted to worsen the incidence of drought anddesertification and millions of people will become refugees as a result.
The 2005 FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment showed that forest andwoodland in sub Saharan Africa presently cover about 530 million ha, compared
to 710 million ha in 1975. This ongoing degradation of natural resources isreducing the resilience of the agro-ecosystems to drought, further undermining
the region's future capacity to cope with climate change (Anuforom, 2009).
According to the World Health Organization (2004) skin eruptions, heat fatigue,heat cramps, heat syncope, heat exhaustion and heat stroke are classical heat
related illnesses which are resultant from climate change variations.
According to Centre for Technical Agriculture (CTA) (2008) climate change has
led to a reduction in livelihood options in many ACP countries. Migration withinrural communities as a response to the impact of climate change on the
productivity of local resources, have left many households without young andable bodied labour. De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus (2008) asserts that climate
Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 7change results to socio-economic impacts in loss of revenue, economic
opportunities and the practice of traditional culture which are expected toincrease the social and cultural pressures on indigenous people. The out
migration of indigenous youths to seek for economic opportunities elsewhere
because of climate change has further limited opportunities in their own
communities; this could lead to erosions of indigenous economies and culture.
No part of Nigeria is safe from climate change. For instance, more than two thirdsof the country is prone to desertification. States, such as Borno, Sokoto, Jigawa,Zamfara, Kebbi, Yobe, Kaduna, Kano Bauchi, Adamawa, Bauchi, Niger andothers are at risk. In the Sahel zone of northern Nigeria, the most pronounced
climate change-related forms of land degradations are wind erosion and related
sand dune formation, drought and desertification. In south-eastern Nigeria, sheet
erosion which is the complete removal of arable land is a major threat toagriculture in the region. Apart from the effects on cropping pattern, climatechange brings with it proliferation of pests and diseases; these can hinderstorage when the need arises because of temperature increases. Diseases tendto spread to area where they were previously unable to thrive. A good example isthe spread of tse tse fly to the drier regions of northern Nigeria from the southern
part. This change also affect the agro-pastoral system as animals have to trek
very long distances in search of green grass (De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus, 2008).
These movements of the animals also contribute to spread of disease causingorganisms and leads to conflict on available resources. The impacts of climatechange is not limited to cropping and agro-pastoralism, it is being felt on fisheries
and aquaculture.
1.2
Problem Statement
Mohammad (2009) reports that desert, which now covers about 35 percent of
Nigeria's land mass, is advancing at an estimated 0.6 km per annum while
deforestation is taking place at 3.5 percent per annum. The desert belt has moved
from Kebbi, Kano, Maiduguri to new Bussa, Kaduna, Jos, Sheleng while
Savannah now interface between desert and forest along Oyo, Osun, Kogi andBenue states. Moreover, the Sudan Sahel region of Nigeria has suffered decreasein rainfall in the range of 3-4 percent per decade since the beginning of thenineteenth century.
The Director-General, Nigerian Meteorological Agency highlights that analyses ofrainfall data (1911 -2000) in three 30 year intervals - 1911-1940; 1941-1970; 19718 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

2000 show that many more places are recording late onset of rains, earlycessation of rain, shortened length of the rainy season and reduced annual
amount of rain especially in the northern part of the country. He also observed
more frequencies of drought, more persistent harmmattan haze and increasing
temperature trends (Mohammad, 2009).
The concern with climate change is heightened given the linkage of the
agricultural sector to poverty. In particular, it is anticipated that adverse impacts
on the agricultural sector will exacerbate the incidence of rural poverty. Impacts
on poverty are likely to be especially severe in Nigeria where the agricultural
sector is an important source of livelihood for a majority of the rural population.
Over 80% of Nigeria's population depends on rain-fed agriculture and fishing as
their primary occupation leading to a high risk of food production system being
adversely affected by the variability in timing and amount of rainfall, frequent
outbreaks of crop pests and diseases and heat stress. Food shortages will
increase and many farmers could lose their sources of livelihood due to climatechangeLow levels of education and poorly developed communication and marketing
infrastructures further complicates the task of developing location-specificresponses that effectively address the impacts of climate change. The lack ofreliable communication channels and delays in forecast dissemination has also
contributed to increased vulnerability of communities in remote areas to climate
related disasters. Poorly developed communication infrastructures are making
complex the task of developing location specific responses that can effectively
address the impacts of climate change. The role of information in moving forward
the climate change agenda and communicating relevant information to the public
is very crucial (CTA, 2008); if there should be appropriate utilization of theabundant knowledge and information on the effects of climate change on
agricultural production systems and human survival. Although Nigeria has madesome efforts to adapt and mitigate climate change risks, the efforts are still
rudimentary especially when compared with the intending catastrophe. There is
therefore need to identify and document the incidence of climate change andindigenous innovative adaptation measures used by rural dwellers, in the drierparts of Northern Nigeria, to cushion the effects of climate change on theirlivelihoods, especially as the area is prone to desertification.

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 9

1.3
Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are to:1) examine the level of awareness of climate change impact in the area;2) examine the nature of climate change impact in northern Nigeria;3) identify the different practices that exacerbate the impact of climate change
in the area;
4) identify and describe the indigenous adaptation practices used by farmers
in the area;
5) identify the problems farmers face due to the effects of climate change;
6) determine the factors affecting the peoples' adoption of various adaptation
strategies in the areas;7) improve the capacity of young professionals and women in adapting toclimate change and8) enhance behavioural changes towards climate change adaptation
measures by the individuals and institutions.
1.4
Significance of Study
The beginning of the mitigation and adaptation to climate change is the baseline
sensitization of the populace. There is an urgent need for advocacy in the area ofclimate change, in order to enlighten the people on the dynamics of climatechange; this cannot be done effectively without any evidence. We therefore needresearch in this area for evidence-based advocacy. It is these facts that this work
wants to provide. It will therefore be very useful for local planning in order todevelop early warning strategies for the people.
With appropriate adaptation practices in place, the vulnerability to climatechange will be minimized. Although the issue of climate change and agriculture is
not a recent development, there has been little or no efforts aimed atdocumenting scientifically what the existing situations in northern Nigerianagrarian communities are as regards the various indigenous innovativetechnologies and adaptation measures embarked upon to combat the negative
effects of climate change. The need for such baseline information, especiallyrelating to designing appropriate strategies for mitigating its effect on agriculture,cannot be overemphasized.
This work therefore, will go a long way to providing vital information on what therural communities are doing to adapt their agricultural production properly in
10 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

order to avoid losses, since their livelihood depend on agriculture. It will also
provide information about the nature and extent of desertification and climatic
variations in the area. Again, due to the complex interactions between climatic,
environmental, economic, political, institutional, social and technologicalprocesses, the findings of this study will be relevant to the agrarian rural poor, theresearchers, NGOs, policy makers, the government and internationalorganizations for information and policy.

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 11

2 Literature Review
2.1

Concepts, Causes and Impacts of Climate Change

2.1.1 Concepts of Climate Change
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 4th Assessment
Report (2007), between 75 and 250 million people in Africa may be exposed toincreased water stress due to climate change by 2020 and this will adversely
affect livelihoods in the region. The area suitable for agriculture, the length ofgrowing seasons and yield potentials, are expected to decrease due to climatechange. Yields from rain-fed agriculture in some countries could be reduced by
up to 50%. Thus, climate change may have particularly serious consequences inthe developing world, where some 800 million people are undernourished.
According to World Bank (2008) 75% of the world's poor live in rural areas indeveloping countries and most depend on agricultural activities for theirlivelihoods.
According to Nenibarini (2007) climate refers to the long time (about 35 years)
average weather conditions of a region including typical weather patterns, thefrequency and intensity of storms, cold spells and hot weather. The climate is the
manifestation of a highly complex system consisting of five interacting
components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), cryosphere (frozen
part of the earth), the land surface, and the biosphere (part of the earth where life
exists) (De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus, 2008).Weather itself is the daily fluctuatingstate of the atmosphere around us, characterized by the temperature, wind,
precipitation (rainfall), clouds and other weather elements. Climate change refers
to a change in climate that is attributable directly or indirectly to human activities;
it affects the atmospheric conditions of the earth thereby leading to global
12 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

warming. Climate change has the potential to affect all natural systems thereby
becoming a threat to human development and survival socially, politically andeconomically.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC:1992)
defines climate change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere
and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable
time periods. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change
attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, andclimate variability attributable to natural causes. Climate change refers to astatistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its
variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer); climatechange may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or due topersistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or inland use.
According to De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus (2008) global warming is the averageincrease of the earth's surface temperature and oceans as compared to previous
centuries. This is a result of the continuous trapping of heat within the earth's
atmosphere due to increased quantity of greenhouse gases. Global warming is
one of the key aspects of climate change. Global warming can lead to the rise in
the sea levels, oceans warm and glaciers melt, thereby threatening agricultural
productivity and human settlements. Other impacts may include; changes inrainfall patterns and increase in soil erosion, storms, floods and drought. The
ultimate result at the end would be a deepening food crisis, as well as worsening
weather, energy decrease and general environmental breakdown throughout theworld.
2.1.2 Causes of Climate Change
According to the summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPPC) 4th Assessment Report (IPCC, 2007), human actions are very likely thecause of global warming; meaning a 90% or greater probability is attributable tohuman action. A comprehensive assessment by the IPCC of the scientificevidence suggests that human activities are contributing to climate change, andthat there has been a discernible human influence on global climate. Climatechanges caused by human activities, most importantly the burning of fossil fuels
Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 13

(coal, oil, and natural gas) and deforestation, are superimposed on, and to someextent masked by, natural climate fluctuations.
Climate change and global warming are caused by the buildup of greenhousegases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons(CFCS) and methane in the atmosphere, as a result of human activities among
them, the burning of fossil fuels, bush burning, use of machines that produce
smoke, cooking etc (http://www.news.dailytrust.com). The planet (earth) issurrounded by an atmosphere containing gases that regulate temperature.
Various activities carried out by man have varying contributions to the changes in
the climate systems. The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas, as well as
deforestation and various agricultural and industrial practices, are altering thecomposition of the atmosphere and contributing to climate change(www.gcrio.org). These human activities have led to increased atmosphericconcentrations of a number of greenhouse gases.
According to De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus (2008) GHGs are chemicalcompounds such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide
found in the atmosphere. These are gases that are able to absorb and radiate
heat. Many greenhouse gases occur naturally such as water vapour, carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), Ozone (O3) and nitrous oxide. Others such ashydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) result exclusively fromhuman industrial processes All of these gases are responsible for thegreenhouse effect, but water vapor and CO2 contribute 90% of the total GHG
emissions. In terms of direct contribution of these greenhouse gases, CO2
contributes 55%, methane 15%, CFCs 7%, CFC (11 and 12) 17%, and N2O 6%(www.undp.org).
Carbon dioxide is produced when coal, oil, and natural gas (fossil fuels) are burnt
to produce energy used for transportation, manufacturing, heating, cooling,
electricity generation, and other applications. Fossil fuel currently accounts for 80
to 85% of carbon dioxide being added to the atmosphere. Clearing land for
logging, ranching, and agriculture, also leads to carbon dioxide emissions. Landuse changes are responsible for 15 to 20% of current carbon dioxide emissions(www.gcrio.org). Methane (natural gas) is the second most important of thegreenhouse gases resulting from human activities(http://www.eoearth.org/article/Causes_of_climate_change). It is produced by
14 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

rice cultivation, cattle and sheep ranching, and by decaying material in landfills.
Methane is also emitted during coal mining and oil drilling, and by leaky gas
pipelines. Nitrous oxide is produced by various agricultural and industrial
practices (http://climate.jpl.nasa.gov/causes). Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
have been used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and as solvents. ). Ozone in thelower part of the atmosphere is another important greenhouse gas resulting fromindustrial activities. It is created naturally and also by reactions in the atmosphereinvolving gases resulting from human activities, including nitrogen oxides frommotor vehicles and power plants (www.gcrio.org).
Natural changes in climate result from interactions such as those between theatmosphere and ocean, referred to as internal factors, and from external causes,
such as variations in the sun's energy output which would externally vary theamount of solar radiation received by the earth's surface(www.eoearth.org/articles/causes-of-climate-change) and in the amount ofmaterial injected into the upper atmosphere by explosive volcanic eruptions(www.gcrio.org).
2.1.3 Climate and Agriculture in Nigeria
Our climate is changing both naturally and due to human exploitation. There isalready undeniable evidence that animals, birds and plants are being affected byclimate change in both their distribution and behaviours. Unless greenhouse gas
emissions are severely reduced, climate change could cause a quarter of land
animal, bird life and plants to become extinct(http://www.climateandweather.net/global-warming/effects-on-animal.htm).
Nigeria is predominantly still an agricultural society despite her heavily
dependence on oil industry for its budgetary revenues. Approximately 70 percentof the population engages in agricultural production at a subsistence level.
Agriculture accounted for 41 percent of Nigeria's total gross domestic product(GDP) in 1999. This percentage represented a normal decrease of 24.7% from its
contribution of 65.7% to the GDP in 1957. The decrease may continue because,
as economic development occurs, the relative contribution of the agriculture
sector to the economy usually declines.
However, Nigeria's wide range of climate variations allows it to produce a variety
of food and cash crops. The major food crops include cassava, yam, corn,
cocoyams, cowpeas, beans, sweet potatoes, millet, plantains, bananas, rice,
Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 15

sorghum, and a variety of fruit and vegetable. The leading crops are cocoa, citrus;
cotton groundnuts (pea nuts) palm oil, palm kernel, benniseed, and rubber(Encyclopedia of Nations, 2008). A significant portion of the agricultural sector in
Nigeria involves cattle herding, fishing, poultry, and lumbering, which contributed
more than 2% to GDP in the 1980s. In 1987, it was estimated, there were
12.2million pigs, 700,000 donkeys, 250,000 horses, and 18,000 camels, mostly innorthern Nigeria, and owned mostly by rural dwellers rather than by commercial
farms/companies. There are current estimates that the output of agricultural
produce have fallen due to environmental degradation and water pollution as aresult of changes in climate (Encyclopedia Nations, 2008).
2.1.4 Effect of Climate Change on Crops
According Zhu (2005), climate change has both positive and negative effects on
farming, but there could be a more negative influence in the long run, which maylead to food scarcity if there are no immediate efforts are to confront these
problems. Crop yields are affected by many factors associated with climatechange which includes: temperature, rainfall, extreme weather events, climate
variability and even carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere which ispredicted to cause global warming that will have a significant impact on crop
production (USDA, 2007).
Temperature is an important determinant of the rate at which a plant progresses
through various phonological stages towards maturity. According to International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD, 2009), increase in temperature
increases plant tissues and thus reduces the digestibility and rate of degradationof plant species. However, this temperature generally hastens plant maturity,especially in crop species, shortening the growth stages during which pods,
seed and grain can absorb photosynthetic products. Temperature determines
the potential length of growing and grazing seasons and generally has as strong
effect on timing of developmental processes and on rates of expansion of plantleaves. The effect of this development on plant biomass depends on whether thegrowth habit of plant is determinant (that is, it has a discrete life) cycle which ends
when the grains is mature such as in cereals) or whether it is indeterminate (thatis, it continues to grow and yield throughout the season, such as in grasses androot crops). In fact, temperature reduces the combined production of wheat, cornand barley – cereal grains that form the foundation of much of the world's diet by
40m metric tons per year (Lorraine, 2007).
16 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

In the Sahara region of Africa, high temperatures have led to a reduced length ofgrowing season with detrimental effect on crops (IPCC, 2007), and both meanand extreme temperature that crops experience during the growing season willchange in both temperate and tropical areas. Extreme temperatures areimportant because many crops have critical threshold both above and below
which crops are damaged. Critical stages for high temperature injury includes:
seedling emergence in most crops, silking and tasseling in corn, grain filling in
wheat, and flowering in soya beans and also lead to heat stress for plants,
increasing sterility and lowering overall productivity, increases evaporation fromplants and soils and increasing water requirements while lowering water
availability (Brett, 2009).
In Nigeria, some areas like the Niger Delta regions receive more than normal
rainfall, while some areas in the Northern region receive almost no rainfall as aresult, growing seasons are changing, ecological zones are shifting, and rainfall
is becoming more unpredictable and unreliable both in its timing and its volume(Brett, 2009). The crop water regime may be affected by changes in seasonal
precipitation, within- season pattern of precipitation, and inter annual variation of
precipitation. Too much precipitation can cause disease infestation in crops,
while too little can be detrimental to crop yield leading to decline in agricultural
productivity (IPCC, 2007), especially if dry periods occur during criticaldevelopment stages. For example, moisture stress during the flowering,
pollination, and grain-filling stages is very harmful to maize, soya bean, wheat andsorghum even rice which feeds more than half of the world's population can also
be jeopardized (Lorraine, 2007).
According to Brett (2009) 75 to 250 million Africans are projected to be exposed to
an increase of water stress due to changes in rainfall pattern, and the amount andavailability of water stored in the soil which is a crucial input to crop growth will beaffected by changes to both the precipitation and seasonal annual evaporation
respiration. Agricultural production, including access to food, in many Africancountries and regions is projected to be severely compromised by climate
variability change in precipitation. The area suitable for agriculture, the length ofgrowing seasons and yield potential, particularly along the margins of semi-arid
and arid areas, are expected to decrease. In some countries, yields from rain-fed
agriculture could be reduced by up to 50% by 2020 (Brett, 2009).

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 17

However, the concomitant increases of atmospheric carbon dioxide and ozone
have been observed during the past century and are predicted to continue(USDA, 2007). As CO2 levels changes, optimal growth ranges for different
species also change; species alter their competition dynamics and thecomposition of mixed grasslands changes. Proportion of browse in rangelands
will increase in the features as a result of increased CO2 levels (IFAD, 2009).
Carbon dioxide, in addition to being a greenhouse gas, can also directly affectplant life because plants take up CO2 during photosynthesis to produce sugar for
growth.
The magnitude of the CO2 fertilization effect varies tremendously among plant
species and from variety to variety. Moreover, research carried out by the Ministryof Environment of the Federal Government of Nigeria (2003) showed thatsignificant effect of climate change due to increased CO2 would be reflected in
the production of both C3 crops (plant species with three carbon atoms in theirbiochemical sequence of reaction such as; cowpea, wheat, soya bean, rice,
potatoes, cassava and yam) and C4 crops (plant species with four carbon atomin their biochemical sequence of reaction such as: sorghum, sugar cane, millet
and maize). Plant with C3 photosynthetic pathway with exception of corn, canshow productivity increase of 20 to 30% or more when grown at twice current
CO2 level and at optimal conditions with C4 crops (USDA, 2007). Most plantgrowing in enhanced CO2 exhibit increased rates of net photosynthesis, thehigher photosynthesis rates are then manifested in higher leaf area, dry matterproduction and yield for many crops. Even increases in ozone concentrations
reduced dry matter and grain production of all crops but it is likely that stressinduced by exposure to ozone in all crops will be reduced by increased
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (USDA, 2007) and higher CO2 often
improves water-use efficiency (that is the ration between crop biomass
accumulation of yield and the amount of water used in evapo-transpiration), andreduces transpiration (water loss) per unit leaf area by causing partial closure ofleaf stomata (the small openings on the leaf surface).
Additionally, the CO2 fertilization effect cannot compensate for negative effectfrom other environmental stress. For example, multi-year field and greenhousestudies with potato and dry beans conducted at Ithaca, New York showedsignificant yield increase for both potatoes and beans at twice current CO2 levels
when day time maximum temperature were allowed to occasionally reach 95of
18 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

during time of pod formation, there was no yield benefit from higher CO2 (Peetand Wolfe, 2000; Jifon and Wolfe, 2005).
2.1.5 Climate Change Adaptation
Adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change is a key issue for all countries,
especially developing countries, which are often the most vulnerable and least,
equipped to adapt. Adaptation is widely recognized as a vital component of any
policy response to climate change because it helps farmers achieve their food,income and livelihood security objectives in the face of changing climatic andsocioeconomic conditions, including climate variability, extreme weather
conditions such as droughts and floods, and volatile short-term changes in local
and large-scale markets (Kandlinkar & Risbey, 2000). Studies show that without
adaptation, climate change is generally detrimental to the agriculture sector; butwith adaptation, vulnerability can largely be reduced (Easterling et al., 1993;
Rosenzweig and Parry 1994; Reilly and Schimmelpfennig 1999; Smit and
Skinner, 2002). The degree to which an agricultural system is affected by climatechange depends on its adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity is the ability of asystem to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) tomoderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope withthe consequences (IPCC, 2001).
2.1.6 Adaptation Measures to Climate Change
1. Pastoralists adapt to climate extremes by making use of emergency fodder,culling of weak livestock for food, and multi-species composition of herds tosurvive climate extremes. They also try to move from the dry northern areas
to the wetter southern areas during drought season in order to survive andsustain their domestic animals.
2. Women plant crops that are more resistant to droughts and pests, providinga reserve for extended periods of economic hardships. They also select andsave seeds for planting each year. They preserve a variety of seeds that will
ensure resistance to the range of conditions that may arise in any given
growing season.
3. Other indigenous strategies include controlled bush clearing; using tall
grasses for fixing soil surface nutrients which have been washed away byrunoff; erosion-control to reduce the effects of runoff; restoring lands byusing green manure; constructing stone dikes; managing low-lying lands
and protecting river banks (IPCC, 2007).
Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 19

3 Methodology
3.1
Population and sample
Multistage random sampling technique was used to select the respondents forthis study.
> In the first stage, four states were selected for the study, one from each of theecological zones.
> The states were: Adamawa, Borno, Kaduna and Kogi. In the second stage, a
single local government area was randomly selected from each of thesenatorial zone of each state (there are three senatorial zones in each of thestates). This constituted the sampling frame.
> Hence, a total of 12 local government areas were sampled.
> From each of the three LGAs in each state, three communities were randomly
selected.
> The last stage was the selection of 45 farmers from each LGA, giving a total of
540 respondents for the study. The data for the analysis were based on across-sectional farm household survey in the different local government
areas. In all a total of 500 completely filled interview schedules were used in
the analysis.
3.2. Data collection technique
Tools of participatory research namely: semi structured interview schedule, key
informant interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used in datacollection. These instruments contained both open ended and semi structured
questions.
3.3. Measurement of variables
The interview schedule divided into eight sections (A-G). However, only sections
20 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

B, E and F were used for the purpose of this working paper. Section B determined
rural households' level of climate change awareness. Respondents' were asked
to tick against a response option of “Yes” or “No” to indicate their awareness on
climate change.
Section E elicited indigenous and emerging adaptation measures adopted by thefarmers to mitigate the negative effects of climate change in their communities.
Here, the respondents' were required to tick on the response options of “used” or“not used” to listed adaptation measures provided.
Section F sought information on factors affecting the adoption of climate change
adaptation strategies. Respondents' were required to tick against a response
option of a three point Likert – type scale of “Very Serious” (3); “Serious” (2) and“Not Serious” (1). Factors with mean scores greater or equal to 2.0 were regarded
more serious, while factors lower than 2.0 were regarded as not serious.
3.4. Data analysis
Data analysis was performed using simple descriptive statistics, including
analysis of means, percentages, standard deviation and frequencies. The results
were presented in form of charts, graphs and tables.

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 21

4. Results & Discussion
4.1. Respondents' Knowledge and Awareness of Climate Change
Results shows that about 84% of the respondents were aware of climate change,
and 79% also affirmed that they had knowledge of the changing climate (Figure1.). This knowledge can be deduced from observation. About 81% of
respondents also noted that they had in various times experienced the incidenceof climate change. The respondents (80.2%) noted that they receive information
on climate change. This implies that the respondents were aware andknowledgeable on the issues of climate change. This awareness is a necessary
step in adapting to the changing climate.

84

80.6

80.2

79

Knowledge on
climate change

Awareness on
climate change

Experience on
climate change

Receive information
on climate change

Figure 1: Knowledge and awareness on climate change

22 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

4.2
Sources of Information on Climate Change
The respondents sourced information on climate change majorly from radio
programmes (81.0%), relations/friends/other farmers (61.8%), and television
programmes (53.6%). Other sources include: newspaper (42.0%), groupmeetings (40.2%), extension agent (39.6%), Ministry of Agriculture (33.8%),
Ministry of Environment (32.4%), magazines (30.2%), extension bulletin andhandbills (20.2%), internet (18.0%), posters (13.4%) and video shows (11.8%)(Table 1).
These findings reveal that the mass media especially radio and televisions werethe major avenues through which the respondents sourced information on
climate change from. These findings concur with Isife and Ofuoku (2008), who
documented that radio, has the highest audience and has the strength ofreaching a large population of farmers and other rural dwellers faster than othermeans of communication. They also noted that television provides farmers withthe opportunity of seeing and hearing in the process of learning new ideas. The
implication of this finding is that there is need for extension services to rise up to
the challenge of information dissemination, (especially as regards the issues ofclimate change), as this is the central focus of its services.
Table 1: Percentage distribution on sources of information on
climate change
Sources of information

Yes %Radio programmes
Television pro grammesInternet
Video shows
Magazines
Posters
Newspapers
Group meetings
Extension agent
Relations/friends/other farmers
Agricultural books
Extension bulletin/handbills
Ministry of Agricult ure
Ministry of Environment

81.0
53.6
18.0
11.8
30.2
13.4
42.0
40.2
39.6
61.8
24.2
20.2
33.8
32.4

Source: Field survey, 2010

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 23

4.3. Adaptive Strategies Adopted by Respondents
Table 2a shows the indigenous adaptive measures being used by farmers tocushion the harmful effects of climate change. The measures being used include:changes in planting dates (88.4%), changes in harvesting dates (85.4%), multiple
cropping (cropping of many crops on same piece of land) (81.8%), intensive
manure application (69.2%), intercropping main crops planted with subsidiaries
at low densities (61.8%), expansion of cultivated land area (59.2%), movement todifferent site (56.8%) mixed farming (54.6%) and use of wetland/river valley (e.g.
Fadama) (52.6%).
Table 2a: Percentage distribution of indigenous adaptive
strategies used by farmers
Adaptive strategies

Yes %Mulching

43.2

Use of wetlands/river valleys (e.g. Fadama)

52.6

Contour cropping across slopes

35.8

Planting deeper than the usual planting depth

32.2

Expansion of cultivated land area

59.2

Intensive manure application

69.2

Increased weeding

77.0

Move to a different site

56.8

Changes in the timing of land preparation activities

79.8

Changes in planting dates

88.4

Changes in harvesting dates

85.4

Multiple cropping (planting of many crops in the same piece of land)

81.8

Mixed farming (crop and animal production)

54.6

Relay cropping - planting and harvesting in succession

38.6

Intercropping - main crops planted with subsidiaries at low densities

61.8

Decreasing animal stock

31.8

Change from crop production to animal rearing

17.8

Change from animal production to crop production

21.2

Agro-forestry practice

34.2

Change from production to marketing of agricultural products

20.6

Prayers for God’s intervention

88.2

Source: Field survey, 201024 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

Table 2b shows the emerging adaptive measures being used by respondents,
which include planting of early maturing crops (87.2%), use of chemicals e.g.
herbicides and pesticides (79.0%), increased use of fertilizers (78.6%), use ofresistant varieties (78.4%), processing to minimize post harvest losses (61.4%),
and afforestation through tree planting (60.4%).
These findings are in support of strategies put forward by First National
Communication (2003) and Canada-Nigeria Climate Change Capacity
Development Project reports (2004). These reports emphasized the need fordiversification to new plant species and varieties that would have higher
resistance to anticipated temperature increase and reduced rainfall, adopting
zero/minimum tillage and other appropriate technologies to reduce soil erosion
and loss of organic nutrients, but increase soil moisture availability and reduce
weed and pest infestation.
Table 2b: Percentage distribution of emerging adaptive strategies
used by farmers
Adaptive strategies

Yes %Purchase/use of water for irrigation

27.8

Construction of drainage or dam within the farm/household

23.2

A forestations: planting of trees

60.4

Use of resistant varieties

78.4

Processing crops to minimize post - harvest losses

61.4

Increased used of fertilizers, seeds

7 8.6

Cultivation on marginal lands

50.6

Use of chemicals: herbicides, pesticides etc

79.0

Changing of crops formerly grown and replacing with new types

46.0

Total change from farming to other occupations

21.0

Planting of early maturing crops

87.2

Source: Field survey, 2010
Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 25

4.4. Constraints to Climate Change Adaptation
Table 3 shows that the major constraints farmers face in adapting to climatechange, which include lack of financial resources (M=2.61), non-availability ofcredit facilities (M=2.50), high cost of irrigation facilities (M=2.45), absence ofgovernment policy on adaptation (M=2.37), lack of access to weather forecasts(M=2.24), poor access to information source relevant to adaptation (M=2.21),
poor/low extension services (M=2.14), limited access to improved crop varieties(M=2.09), lack of access to improved livestock breeds (M=2.30), non-availabilityof storage facilities (M=2.35), limited presence of adaptation measures(M=2.23), poor response to crises related to climate change by the government
and interest groups (M=2.39), risk of adaptation (M=2.02), high cost of fertilizers
and other inputs (M=2.54), non-availability of farm inputs (M=2.27), nonavailability of processing facilities (M=2.42), inadequate knowledge of how tocope (M=2.12), high cost of farm labour (M=2.18), and non-availability ofstorage facilities (M=2.25).
It is a fact that climate change and measures of adaptation and mitigation are
current global phenomenon which is on news every day. Access to relevant
information, the skills required to apply that information into local practices, theavailability of traditional knowledge and experience, the perception of risk, thesense of social identity and the existence of social networks and institutions thatcan either advise, enable or constrain actions, are just some of the factors thatplay a role in adaptive decision-making processes. This fact notwithstanding,farmers in northern Nigeria are being constrained to adaptation by mere factors
as poor access to information source relevant to adaptation, poor/low extension
services, inadequate knowledge on how to cope, poor response to crises related
to climate change by the government and interest groups etc. Availability andaccessibility to adequate and effective information on climate change andadaptation is one of the basic ways of adapting to the changing climate
scenarios. Information will keep individuals abreast of current happenings andwill also empower them to make the right decisions in case of climate upsurges or
emergencies. This makes it imperative that relevant ministries e.g. Ministries ofAgriculture, Environment, Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs) (which
represents the public extension service in Nigeria) and NGOs etc should rise up
to the challenge and be at the fore front of information dissemination on climatechange and adaptation.
26 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

Table 3: Mean distribution of constraints to climate change
adaptation
Constraint variables *MStandard
Deviation

Poor access to information source relevant to adaptation

2.21*

0.74

Type of land tenure system practiced in my area

1.96

0.81

Ineffectiveness of indigenous strategies

1.97

0.76

Traditional beliefs/practices does not allow me use the adaptive strategies

1.58

0.73

Lack of financial resources

2.61*

0.55

Poor/low extension services

2.14*

0.69

Lack of access to weather forecasts

2.24*

0.71

Limited access to improved crop varieties

2.09*

0.71

Lack of access to improved livestock breeds

2.15*

0.76

High cost of improved crop varieties

2.30*

0.75

Non-availability of storage facilities

2.35*

0.71

Absence of Government policy on adaptation

2.37*

0.68

Non-availability of credit facilities

2.50*

0.63

Limited presence of adaptation measures

2.23*

0.68

Poor response to crises related to climate change by the government and interest groups

2.39*

0.63

Risk of adaptation

2.02*

0.76

High cost of fertilizers and other inputs

2.54*

0.59

High cost of irrigation facilities

2.45*

0.68

Non-availability of farm inputs

2.27*

0.65

Non-availability of processing facilities

2.42*

0.64

Inadequate knowledge of how to cope

2.12*

0.70

Non-availability of farm labour

1.87

0.75

High cost of farm labour

2.18*

0.78

Non-availability of storage facilities

2.25*

0.76

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 27

5 Conclusion & Recommendations
Conclusion and Policy implications
The study reviewed the state of climate change and adaptation measures inNorthern Nigeria, assessing the empirical situation and policy implications. It was
gathered that farmers were aware of the changing climate mainly from radio andtelevision programmes despite the fact that many NGOs and civil organizations
have been at the fore front to the create awareness about climate change
countrywide. These efforts as needful as they have been have not targeted therural/farming populations in northern Nigeria. This goes to show that farmers innorthern Nigeria have been side lined in the design and debate of climate change
programme.
It is evident that farmers had high awareness level on climate change and havebeen adapting to the changing climate from time immemorial as climate change
had long existed before the concept was popularized. This they have done
mainly using indigenous approaches. A challenge that this poses to researchers,
policy makers and NGOs is the quest for more innovative ways or measures ofadaptation to climate change that will boost food security in the country.
Also, evident from the findings are constraints experienced by farmers in
adapting to the changing climate. These constraints are a threat to their main
source of livelihood. There is an urgent need for government and relevant bodies
to bring aids to farmers. These aids should be in the form policy formulation andthe strengthening of research institutions in their bid to discover more innovative
adaptation measures that are adaptable to the environment. This will minimize
the observed constraints farmers in northern Nigeria experience in adapting to
the negative consequences of climate change.
28 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

References
Anuforom, C. A. (2009). Climate change impacts on different agro-ecologicalzones of West Africa humid zones. Retrieved fromwww.wwamis.org/agm/meetings/wacc.09/S3-Anuforom.pdf
Brett, H. (2009). Food and Agriculture, Features, Climate Change Threat to Food
Security. Available at http://www.people and planet. Net/doc. Php? Id = 3482.
De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus (eds.) (2008). Guide to climate change. Retrieved on
26th June, 2009 from www.tebtebba.org
Easterling, W.E., Crosson, P.R. Roseberg, N. J., Mckenney M.S., Katz, L.A. andLemon, K.M. (1993). Agricultural impact of and response to climate change in the
Missouri – Iowa-Nebraska Region Climate Change 24(1-2): 23-62.
Encyclopedia of Nations, 2008
The Ministry of Environment of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2003) Nigeria'sFirst National communication under the United Nation's Framework Convention
on Climate Change.
IFAD (2009). Livestock and climate change available at http:Iiwww. Ifad.Org/
rikm/events/cops/papers/climate.pdf.
IPCC (2007). Climate change 2007. The fourth assessment report (AR4).
Synthesis report for policy makers http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessmentreport/ar4/syr/ar4-syr-spm.pdf. Accessed 10th August, 2009.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), (2001). Climate Change
2001: Impact, adaptation and vulnerability. (McCarthy J.J. et al (eds).
Contribution of working Group II to the third assessment report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: University press
Cambridge.
Jifon, S. and Wolfe, D.W (2005). Higher temperature-induced sink limitation alters
growth and photosynthesis acclimation response to elevated CO2 in beans, S
Amer Soc Hort Sci 130 (4): 515-520.
Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 29

Kandlinkar, M and Risbey, J, 2000. Agricultural impacts of climate change: If
adaptation is the answer, what is the question? Climatic Change 45, 529–39.
Lorraine, Helier (2007). Climate change: FAO urges changes to ensure foodsecurity. 2000/2009. Decision News Media SAS-All right reserved.
Mohammad R. A. (2009). Nigeria: Stemming the Impact of Climate Change, Daily
Trust, 21st July, 2008
Nenibarini, Z. (2007). Climate change and flooding: fate of riverine communities
in the Niger Delta. Conservation Programme Centre for Environment, Human
Rights and Development (CEHRD), Eleme.
Peet, M.M and Wolfe, D.N (2000). Crop ecosystem responses to climate change–vegetation crops. IN: Reddy KR and HF Aodges (eds) Climate change and crop
productivity. (AB) Publishing. New. York.
Reilly, J., and D. Schimmelpfennig. 1999. Agricultural impact assessment,
vulnerability and the scope for adaptation. Climatic change 43: 745–788.
Rosezwerig, C. and Parry, M. C., (1994). Potential impact of climate change on
world food supply. Nature 307: 133-138.
Smit, B. and Skinner, M. W. (2002). Adaptation options in agriculture to climatechange: A typology. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change? 85114.
Technical Centre for Agriculture-CTA, (2008): Implications of climate change forsustainable agricultural production system. Ouaguaougou, Burkina Faso.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change- UNFCCC (1992).
Retrieved from (www.http://unfccc.int/2860.php).
United State Department of Agriculture (2007). Global Climate Change. Available
at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid = 63478pf = 18cg id = 0
World Bank (2008). World Bank development report: Agriculture fordevelopment. Washington DC.
30 | Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications

World Health Organisation (2004). In de Chavez and Tauli-Corpuz. (eds.) (2008).
Guide to climate change. Retrieved on 26th June, 2009 from www.tebtebba.org
Zhu Bao (2005). Climate change affecting crops (China Daily) Available at
http:Iiwww. Chinadacly. Com. Cn/English/ doc/2004-2005/24/conten
333260.htm.
ONLINE SOURCES
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_change_FAQs
www.koshland-science-museum.org/exhibitgcc/causesofchange01.jsp,
www.undp.org
http://www.news.dailytrust.com
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Causes_of_climate_change
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Causes_of_climate_change
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture
http://environmentalsynergy.wordpress.com/2009/08/14/combating-climatechange-in-nigeria/www.gcrio.org. Retrieved on 2nd January, 2010.
www.wikipedia org. Retrieved on 30th June, 2009.
www.undp.org. Retrieved on 2nd January, 2010.

Climate Change and Adaptation Measures in Northern Nigeria: Empirical Situation and Policy Implications | 31

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.

African Technology
Policy Studies Network
Contact the Executive Director at
The Chancery, 3rd Floor, Valley Rd.
P O Box 10081, 00100-Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: (254 020) 2714092, 2714168,
2714498, 2723800
Fax: (254 020) 2714028
http://www.atpsnet.org

Science, Technology and Innovation
for African Development

ISBN: 978-9966-030-17-7