Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to
Climate Change in
Mafeteng District, Lesotho
WORKING PAPER SERIES No. 74

ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
ATPS Working Paper No. 74

1

ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
ATPS Working Paper No. 74

2Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies
to Climate Change in Mafeteng District,
LesothoSekaleli T.S.T
Khoele Civil and Plant Hire, Lesotho
Sebusi K
Red Cross Lesotho	
  ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
ATPS Working Paper No. 74

3This paper should be cited as:
African Technology Policy Studies Network, ATPS 2013: Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho [Tsepo Stephen Tiisetso
Sekaleli, Karabo Sebusi], ATPS WORKING PAPER No. 74© 2013Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-030-61-0

ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
ATPS Working Paper No. 74

4Table of Contents
Acknowledgement							

7Abstract 									

81. Introduction								

92. Literature Review							

113. Methodology								

134. Results and Discussion							

155. Conclusion and Recommendations					

19References								

20ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
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5ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
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6Acknowledgement
This report was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy
Studies Network (ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors
including theMinisterie van Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands and the Rockefeller
Foundation. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during
the implementation of the program. The Authors specially thank Prof. Kevin Chika Urama,
the ATPS Executive Director for his visionary leadership as Program Director; Prof. Atieno
Ndede-Amadi, Program Coordinator; Dr. Nicholas Ozor, Senior Research Officer, ATPS;
Mr. Ernest Nti Acheampong, ATPS Research Officer and the ATPS Team for the technicalsupport during the research process.

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Abstract
Over the years, Lesotho has witnessed changes in climatic conditions which are influencing
the level of agricultural production (crop yield and quality) and general livelihoods. This study
was carried out at Kolo and Ts’akholo areas in Mafeteng district of Lesotho to assess
the response of farmers to changing climate and its impact on their livelihoods, and thepotential of the three agricultural systems namely; agroforestry, conservation agriculture
and conventional agriculture as adaptation strategies to climate change. Using a stratified
sampling approach, 120 farmers were selected with 40 each practicing one of the three
agricultural systems. Farmers in Kolo and Ts’akholo reported experiencing drought, sporadic
and heavy rainfall periods, soil erosion, declining yield, pests and disease infestation, andshort growing season and these have led to them developing their own adaptation/coping
strategies to climate change. Some of the adaptation strategies include water harvesting
technologies, conservation tillage, use of keyhole and trench gardens, agroforestry andapplication of traditional medicine to control pests and diseases. However, farmers in the twoareas have an urgent need for support from either the government or local NGO’s in terms ofimproved seeds, inputs subsidies, trainings, information and knowledge sharing. This study
has contributed to knowledge in the field of global environmental change and its relationshipwith agriculture, food security and general livelihoods, especially for the farmer in two casestudy areas as well as for policy makers in Lesotho.

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81. Introduction
Lesotho is considered as one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change. Over theyears, the country has been experiencing prolonged drought and erratic seasonal rainfall
pattern (Chagutah and Mutasa, 2007; Obioha, 2010). This is compounded by increasing soil
erosion, pest infestation and declining soil fertility which have heavily impacted on agricultural
production. The country’s economy which is dependent of rainfed agriculture has witnesseda decline in productivity over the past years. According to the Ministry of Natural Resources(2000), the last twenty years have seen the highest occurrence of droughts than any periodof similar time span in the last 200 years.
In Mafeteng, one of the administrative districts located in the southern part of Lesotho, thedominant agricultural practices are mostly monoculture and conventional tillage. Thesefarming systems, though embedded into community’s cultural norms have not been effectivein addressing agricultural production and household food security. There has been signs ofenvironmental degradation due to impact of climate change over there years (International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2006). Drought and seasonal rainfall
uncertainties coupled with high pest and disease infestation, increasing rates of soil erosion
and consequent soil fertility decline, short growing season due to late rainfall characterize
agricultural production in the district. This has had a negative impact on agricultural production
subsequently reducing household income and subjecting communities in this district to highlevels of poverty and very limited livelihood options (Mosenene, 1999).
According to FAO (2009) climate change adaptation strategies are now a matter of urgency. It
is necessary that climate change adaptation is not separated from other development priorities
but is integrated into development planning, programs and projects (World Bank, 2008).
Responses aimed at adapting to climate change may, however, have negative consequences
for food security, just as measures taken to increase food security may exacerbate climatechange (CCAFS, 2009). It is therefore crucial to adopt effective adaptation strategies that canhelp communities adapt to the impact of climate change. Such adaptation strategies must
be environmentally friendly, sustainable, easy for farmers to adopt and economically viable.
In the Mafeteng district, two agricultural systems namely- conservation agriculture andagroforestry are emerging as important adaptation strategies for climate change (International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2006; UNDP, 2011). As stated byDumanski et al (2006), conservation agriculture applies modern agricultural technologies toimprove production while concurrently protecting and enhancing the land resources on which
production depends. Agroforestry provides many opportunities for value added production
and is also used as living contour hedges for erosion control, to conserve and enhancebiodiversity (Dumanski et al, 2006).

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91.2 Objectives of the study
The purpose of this study was to assess the response of farmers to climate change andits impact on their livelihoods and the potential of the three agricultural systems namely;
agroforestry, conservation agriculture and conventional agriculture in Kolo and Ts’akholo
communities in Mafeteng District as adaptation strategies to climate change.
Specifically, the objectives of the study were to:
1. Assess farmer’s perception and response to climate change impact in Mafeteng District
2. Describe farmer’s adaptation practices, innovations and strategies in dealing with theimpact of climate change in Mafeteng District
3. Assess the potential of three agricultural systems as climate change adaptation strategies
in Mafeteng District

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102. Literature Review
2.1 The concept of climate change
Climate change has moved from being a hypothesis to being a reality. This is substantiated by
the fact that the global average surface temperature of the earth has increased by 0.6±0.20C
since 1900 and it is likely that the rate and duration of the warming are greater than at any
time in the past 1000 years (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), (2001a)).
Climate change has been defined by IPCC (2007) as a change in the state of the climatethat can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or thevariability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or topersistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. The
UNFCCC (1992), on the other hand, defines climate change as a change of climate which
is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere, and which is an addition to natural variability that has been observed overcomparable time periods. Climate, however, is only one factor within the dynamic earthsystem. Changes in the physical and biogeochemical environment, either caused naturally or
influenced by human activities such as deforestation, fossil fuel consumption, urbanization,
land reclamation, agricultural intensification, freshwater extraction, fisheries over-exploitation
and waste production, contribute to global environmental change (GEC), (CCAFS, 2009).
Furthermore, CCAFS report of 2009 concludes that climate change on its own represents animmediate and unprecedented threat to the food security of hundreds of millions of people
who depend on small-scale agriculture for their livelihoods. Food security is achieved when
all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious
food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life, (FAO,
1996). Changing climatic conditions are projected to affect food security from the local to
global level. It is predicted that patterns of rainy season will reduce, and the frequency andintensity of severe weather events such as floods, cyclones and hurricanes will increase.
There will also be prolonged drought in some regions; and water shortages; and changes in
the location and incidence of pest and disease outbreaks, (FAO, 2009).
2.2 Impacts of climate change on farming and livelihoods in Lesotho
Climate change is taking place at a time of increasing demand for food, feed, fiber and fuel,and has the potential to irreversibly damage the natural resource base on which agriculture
depends, (IAASTD, undated). Changes in carbon dioxide concentrations, temperature andrainfall will have an impact on plant cover and land use which, in turn, substantially affectthe behaviour of water when it falls as rain, (Muller, 2007). Due to reduced adaptive capacity
and higher climate vulnerability smallholder and subsistence farmers in developing countries
may not be able to cope with climate change effectively and such conditions pressure tocultivate marginal land or adopt unsustainable cultivation practices is likely and may increase
land degradation, water scarcity and endanger biodiversity. Degraded lands in the southernlowlands of Lesotho are more susceptible to climate change impacts such as increased
temperature and more severe drought, (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2000). Recorded land
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11degradation problems in Lesotho include massive soil erosion that leads to gully formation
and abandonment of land, loss of biodiversity, severe loss of vegetation and low agricultural
production and productivity, (Ministry of Agriculture and Bureau of statistics, 1994). According
to Mekbib et al, (2011) Lesotho is heavily influenced by a variety of competing weather
systems, which leave the country prone to natural disasters, drought and desertification, lossof biological diversity and land degradation. In accordance with article 4 of the UNFCCC,
2000, these conditions indicate Lesotho as a country highly vulnerable to climate change.
UNDP (2007) asserts that climate change threatens food security, livelihoods and economic
prosperity with emphasis on the vulnerable members of the community (including the poor,
HIV/AIDS patients and orphans).
2.3 Farmers Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng, Lesotho
Conservation Agriculture
Application of conservation agriculture promotes the concept of optimizing yields and profits
while ensuring provision of local and global environmental benefits and services. Zero tillage,
along with other soil conservation practices, is the cornerstone of conservation agriculture.
In Mafeteng District, NGOs together with the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security arepromoting conservation agriculture for the purposes of minimizing soil erosion and increasing
crop yield (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2006).
Agroforestry
The term agroforestry is often perceived in the narrow sense of intercropping food plants
and trees. In a broader sense, it signifies any system that includes food, and/or fodder andwood production, (Ahlback, 1995). Agroforestry systems, even if not primarily designed forcarbon sequestration, present a unique opportunity to sequester carbon from the atmosphere(Verchot et al, undated). Carbon sequestration has been defined by the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), (2010) as the process of removing
carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir. In this process atmosphericcarbon dioxide is taken up by trees, grasses, and other plants through photosynthesis andstored as carbon in biomass (trunks, branches, foliage, and roots) and soils, (Center for
Integrated Natural Resources and Agricultural Management and the Commonwealth Project,2007). In essence, agroforestry core concerns include ecological and economic sustainability– resilience of environment and diversity of income. It is a system that blends production(food and income security at household- and community-level) with ecosystem services,(Jama, 2005).
Crop diversification
Crop diversity is large in the district (UNDP, 2010). It is well known amongst farmers that
greater crop diversity and mixed farming (crops and livestock) offer considerable protection
against farming risk, including climate-related risk (FAO, 2011). In order to prevent total
loss of crop production larger farming enterprises with a range of different crop types, oreven cultivars of the same crop with differing drought or pest resistance traits are being
implemented in Mafeteng District (International Federation of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties, 2006).
Keyhole and Trench gardens
Keyhole and trench gardens are fast growing adaptation strategies to climate change in
Mafeteng, (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2006).
The two systems were introduced to Lesotho by Care Lesotho, a local non-governmentalorganization. Keyhole and trench gardens have proven an effective way to grow vegetables
year round in semi-arid climate because they nourish the soil and help it retain moisture.
These gardens reduce the labor required to produce food for the household (Weimer, 2008).
This in turn helps households affected by chronic illnesses and HIV/AIDS, and households
headed by children or the elderly, which often have limited labor capacity. This is a good
example of a low-cost adaptation practice which is also supported by local government andcan be up-scaled to the national level (UNDP, 2010).
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123. Methodology
3.1 The study area
Mafeteng District has been chosen in this study because it is one of the most vulnerable
districts to drought and poverty with 57% of the population living below poverty line and 7%
living in a state of chronic illness (International Federation of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties, 2006). Furthermore, the district also experiences droughts due to erratic rainfall.
Kolo and Ts’akholo areas, in Mafeteng, were selected because they were among the hardest
hit areas by drought, soil erosion, and reduced crop yield and, therefore, food insecurity.

Figure 1: Map of Lesotho
3.2 Design of the Study
Since this study attempted to investigate climate change and its impact on farmers’ livelihoods
as well as assessing the potential of three agricultural systems to adapt to climate change,
a combination of quasi (semi) experiment and interview schedule was used to gather data.
3.2 Population and Sample Selection
The target population for this study was all farmers in the two areas of Kolo and Ts’akholo in
Mafeteng District. A representative sample was selected using a stratified sampling wherein
members of a group were grouped into relatively homogeneous groups. The first stratum
comprised of farmers that practice conventional farming, the second included farmers
that practice conservation agriculture while the third stratum was farmers who practiceagroforestry. The total number of farmers who participated in the study is 120. Each area had
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60 farmers and this comprised of 20 farmers for conventional, conservation and agroforestry,
respectively.
3.3 Interviews of Individual Farmers
Face to face interviews were conducted with individual farmers using a structured questionnairewith both open and closed-ended questions. The structured questionnaire was used mainly
to maximize the relevancy and accuracy of the data collected and also to maximize theparticipation and co-operation of target respondents. Questions posted in the questionnaire
were as concise as possible and included issues such as climate change awareness by
the farmers, climate change impacts on farmers’ livelihoods and their adaptation strategies
to climate change. The interviews were conducted to determine the farmers’ perceptions
regarding impact of climate change on agricultural production and the technologies they use
to adapt to climate change.
3.4 Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive
Statistics were used to determine farmers’ perceptions regarding impact of climate change
on agricultural production and the technologies used by farmers to adapt to climate change.

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144. Results and Discussion
4.1 Climate Change AwarenessThe results demonstrated farmers’ awareness of climate change though this is highest in men
than women (figure 1). Fifty percent of the respondents (both men and women) attributed
their awareness to climate change on mass media (especially radio). Twenty-nine percentof the interviewed men claimed that their awareness to climate change is rooted in theirown observation of the impacts of climate change in their agriculture practice. This could be
attributed to that fact that agriculture is a male dominated endeavor in Lesotho, (Ministry ofAgriculture, 1995).

% response

80

60

40

20
yes
no

0
male

femaleClimate Change Awareness

Figure 2: Climate change awareness to farmers at Kolo and Ts’akholo
When asked what they think should be done to spread climate change awareness participants
pointed out that both workshops and “pitsos” (public gatherings) can be organized where
information and knowledge sharing can take place between farmers and researchers(through extension services).
4.2 Impacts of Climate Change as Reported by Farmers
Farmers reported that the changing climate conditions have impacted greatly on their crop
production; as such 40% of the farmers noted reduction of crop yields as a result of climatechange. Some farmers (23%) said that they received below normal food produce fromtheir fields as a result of prolonged drought and heavy rainfall. This claim is supported bya vast amount of literature (Obioha, 2010 and Ministry of Natural Resources, 2000). When
researchers went to farmers’ fields at both Kolo and Ts’akholo to observe existing conditions
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15they found both sheet and rill erosion. In this regard, 17% of the responding farmers in the
two areas pointed out that soil erosion removed fertile surface soil resulting in soil fertility
decline and consequently reduced crop yields. Furthermore, the quality of the produced
crops has been on the decline and this is according to approximately 16% of the respondents
at Ts’akholo and Kolo. They attribute the cause of declining crop quality to low soil fertility,
scorching sun on their crops, pests, drought and excessive rainfall.

shortened season

Drought & heavy rain

Reduced yield

Soil erosion

Poor crop quality

Figure 3: Impacts of Climate Change on Kolo and Ts’akholo
A small portion of the interviewees (4%) claim that climate change has resulted in shortened
growing seasons. Through discussions with the farmers the researchers found out thatfamers receive rainfall late into the growing season and experience prolonged drought whichhamper them from starting their cultivation ventures in time and by the time they start thegrowing season is already shortened. Figure 3 gives a summary of views of the interviewed
farmers at Kolo and Ts’akholo in Mafeteng District on the impacts climate change has hadon them.
4.3 Farmers’ Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in Kolo and Ts’akholo, Mafeteng
In order to maintain their livelihoods in the unfavorable climatic conditions, responding
farmers at Kolo and Ts’akholo have come up with a number of adaptation strategies. One ofthe dominant adaptation strategies in the two areas is trench and keyhole gardens (fig 4,5
and 6) which the respondents said they adopted from World Vision Lesotho and Lesotho
Red Cross Society. The two NGO’s conducted ‘’pitsos’’ (community gatherings) where theyshared their knowledge with community members and then conducted trainings for the local
farmers and those who adopted the innovation were generously assisted and provided withessential resources such as shade nets and seeds.

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Figure 4: Keyhole garden	
  Keyhole gardens are easy to construct and advocate for use of locally available materials/
resources which include, among others; wood ash, manure, and aloe. A lot of material are
required for construction of Keyhole gardens but once constructed they are easy to maintain.

Figure 5: Trench garden
Trench gardens are dug into the ground (60 to 70cm deep) in the 1m x 2m space. Then alayer of aloe leaves, branches, cardboard or tin cans are placed at the bottom and the soil
added on top. Dried grass or leaves are then added; lastly, a thin layer of soil is added andthen a thick layer of manure.

Figure 6: Emerging practices and adaptation strategies at Kolo and Ts’akholo
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17Many farmers in the two areas used traditional medicine to control pests and diseases whileothers adjusted their planting time in order to avoid some pests (figure 6). They plant earlyAugust to overcome cut-worm or plant in December when there is adequate rainfall. Farmers
with livestock, especially cattle, use cow-dung instead of inorganic fertilizers when they plantto add fertility to the soil. Being drought prone areas, respondents from the two areas said
they use roof water harvesting technology (figure 6) to collect water and store it in stone
built-tanks next to their houses and this is used for watering crops in the garden as well as
for household use.
4.4 Potential of the three agricultural systems: Agroforestry, Conservation Agriculture
and Conventional Agriculture for Climate Change Adaptation
Participants were asked which agricultural system between agroforestry, conventionaland conservation agriculture performed best in terms of yield. Most of the respondents
acknowledged high yield from conventional agriculture than the other two systems (Table 2)
and this yield is attributed to chemical fertilizer application which has been subsidized by thegovernment. Soil erosion control and natural soil fertility enhancement were claimed to behighest in conservation agriculture and agroforestry systems respectively.
Table 1: Results of Farmer’s Response regarding the Benefits of the three Agriculture
Systems
Agricultural System

Benefits of the agriculture system
High
yield

Moisture
preservation

Soil erosion
control

Enhance soil
fertility

Conventional
Agriculture

24*

1

1

0

Conservation
Agriculture

10

6

10

4

Agroforestry

12

1

8

5

*Indicates number of respondents
The concern of some farmers regarding agroforestry farming is that trees take a long timeto grow while conservation agriculture is labor intensive. On the other hand, participating
farmers in Kolo and Tsakholo do not deny the fact that conventional agriculture poses arisk of soil erosion and subsequent soil fertility decline. The problem of soil erosion underconventional agriculture has been noted by a number of authors that include Chakela (1997)
and WFP Lesotho (2006).

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5. Conclusion and Recommendations
Farmers in Kolo and Ts’akholo have experienced yield decline as a result of impacts ofclimate change. Given the growing extent of land degradation, drought and scarcity of rainfall
in Mafeteng district and the low returns from agriculture clearly calls for more productive androbust methods to agriculture. There is immense need for effective and resilient farming
technologies among livelihoods that are agriculture-based as they will ensure the families
are not vulnerable to climate change. Kolo and Ts’akholo areas have more undulatingslopes than flat terrain and this means that conventional methods of agriculture (which tills
the soil completely) promote soil erosion, especially if terraces are not properly constructed
and planting not done along the contour. On the contrary, agroforestry and conservation
agriculture are well suited to all terrains because they promote soil cover and discourage easy
movement of soil particles. These two systems (conservation agriculture and agroforestry)can, therefore, be widely promoted in the district and other regions of Lesotho. In addition, indepth research needs to be done on the integration of conservation agriculture to agroforestry
as adaptation strategy to climate change and then policy formulated out of such a study.
It can be recommended that farmers be given more support from both local NGOs and thegovernment in terms of trainings, information and knowledge sharing, and other fundamental
resources that they need in their farming systems as has been done by Lesotho Red
Cross Society. There is a need to promote systems such as agroforestry and conservation
agriculture that promote ecosystem services. Farmers who practice environmentally friendly
adaptation strategies can be paid or compensated (carbon trading) for their initiative as away of encouraging other farmers to do the same or they can be assisted with high-breed
seeds (tolerant to drought and fast growing) and subsidized agricultural inputs from NGOs
and the government. Media outreach through radio can also be enhanced so that more
farmers can be reached and informed about climate change, its causes, consequences,mitigation and adaptive measures.

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ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
ATPS Working Paper No. 74

233. Methodology
Study Area
The study area of this research is situated in the upper Blue Nile catchment of Ethiopia.
It is located approximately between coordinate 10033’06’’ to 10050’24’’ North latitude and37042’36’’ to 37058’24’’ East longitude. It covers a total estimated area of 58122.94 hectares
and with the total population of about 132069. Topographically, the area lies in the altitudes
range of 878m to 4000m.a.s.l (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Location of the study area (Source: Choke Mountain Initiative project
document, 2010)

As a result of this the area is characterized by three distinct agro-ecological zones- Dega,
Weynadega, and Kola. According to the traditional classification system, which mainly relies
on altitude and temperature for classification, Ethiopia has five climatic zones (Table 1).
The information which is obtained in Weredas’ Agricultural Offices revealed that the rainfall
amount and temperature of the area ranges from 385 -1300mm, and 10- 26oC respectively.
The area gets monomodal type of rain fall (that is Kirmt rain fall regime). The soil types wereidentified based on their colors (red, brown, black and grey); on the average percentage,
about 60 %, 39 %, 36% and 2.5% are brown, red, black and grey soil respectively. The
cultivated land covers a total area of 34161.93 ha of the area. The major annual crops
cultivated in the catchment are barley, Avena species (Ingedo), wheat, beans, peas, potato,maize, and sorghum. The common domestic animals in the area are cattle, sheep, goats,horses, mules, donkeys, and poultry.
Table 1: Traditional climatic zones and their physical characteristics
Zone

Altitude(meters)

Rainfall(mm/year)

Average temperature(Co)

Wurch(upper highland)

3200 plus

900- 2,200>11.5

Dega(highlands)

2,300- 3,200

900- 1,200

17.1/16.0- 11.5

ISBN: 978-9966-030-61-0

ATPS (2013): Farmers’ Response and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Mafeteng District, Lesotho
ATPS Working Paper No. 74

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