IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-1

Research article
erdComparison of Land and Water Improvement Projects andthe Water Management System between Japan and Nigeria
DAYYABU MUHAMMAD ZAHARADDEEN
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, JapanKATSUYUKI SHIMIZU*
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
Email: shimizu@muses.tottori-u.ac.jp

YUMI YOSHIOKA
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
Received 19 December 2016

Accepted 11 May 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Food security is strongly linked to water security. Irrigation is recognized as a means
to substantially increase agricultural productivity. Consequently, the Food and Agriculture
Organization indicated that 75% of agricultural growth required in Nigeria by 2025 would haveto result from intensification, with the remaining 25% resulting from arable land expansion.
However, the total water demand in Nigeria was estimated to be 5.93 billion cubic meters(BCM)/year in 2010, which is expected to increase to 16.58 BCM/year by 2030. Irrigationwater demands will increase from 30% to 40% under minimal utilization. Accordingly, as
irrigated agriculture is likely to be promoted and expanded, there is a need for appropriate onfarm water management of the available water resources to avoid the potentially alarming
problem of water shortage. Water improvement projects and the management system were
described through a comparative study to investigate the major differences in water
management systems. The aim was to formulate equitable and effective water management
practices that can improve water use and increase food production in Nigeria. In this study,some major differences identified between Japan and Nigeria were the procedure for thedevelopment of water improvement projects; system of operation, management, andmaintenance; and the relationship between water managers and farmers, which were found to
be bottom-up and top-down processes, dependent and independent, and mutual relationship andindividuality, respectively. A realistic solution to improve the Nigerian water management
system has been proposed through an in-depth analysis based on a questionnaire and interview
survey.
Keywords on-farm water management, water user association, water scarcity, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION
Food security is strongly linked to water security. Irrigation is recognized as a means to substantially
increase agricultural productivity. Consequently, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
indicated that 75% of agricultural growth required in Nigeria by 2025 would have to result from
intensification, with the remaining 25% resulting from arable land expansion (FAO, 2005).
This will probably have to be achieved with reduced water use; this is particularly because
agriculture is the major user of water, accounting for approximately 40% of a country’s water
resources. Accordingly, if irrigated agriculture is aggressively promoted and expanded, there is a needfor appropriate water management of available water resources to avoid the potentially alarming
problem of water shortage.
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However, the total water demand in Nigeria was estimated to be 5.93 billion cubic meters(BCM)/year in 2010, which is expected to increase to 16.58 BCM/year by 2030; irrigation water
demands will increase from 30% to 40% under minimal utilization (Sanyu Consultants Inc., 2013).
The irrigation potential estimated in Nigeria varies from 1.5 to 3.2 million ha. The latest estimate
provides a total irrigation potential of approximately 2.1 million ha, of which approximately 1.6
million ha can be realized from surface water resources and 0.5 million ha from groundwater resources.
During the oil boom in the 1970s, an investment program in support of public irrigation was launched.
Public irrigation in the Nigerian context translates to schemes run by River Basin Development
Authorities.
The schemes that were developed have not yet been fully operationalized, or they have been
implemented with inappropriate infrastructure and management processes. By 2004, only
approximately 20% of the area planned for public sector irrigation had been developed and only 32%of the developed area was being irrigated.
The poor utilization of the developed irrigation area in the public irrigation sector in Nigeria canbe attributed to a number of factors. These include 1) the lack of a coherent irrigation subsector
development policy and strategy; 2) insufficient attention to management systems; 3) inadequate
funding (including poor cost recovery); 4) high capital and operating costs; 5) inadequate farm support
services; 6) poor operation, repair, and maintenance of irrigation facilities; 7) a low level of project
ownership acceptance by direct beneficiaries; and 8) uncertain financial and economic viability. These
factors result in inequity and inefficient water management practices, consequently resulting in a
number of these schemes deteriorating considerably; these schemes are now in urgent need of majorrenovation and repair, less than 20 years after their inception (FAO, 2005).
Under the system of Land Improvement Districts (LIDs) in Japan, which are farmers’ autonomous
irrigation associations with total responsibility for irrigation system management, Japanese water
management is one of the successful forms of participatory irrigation management (PIM) (Ishii and
Satoh 2003). Therefore, the introduction of the basic ideas of LIDs to the irrigation management oflarge-scale projects in Asia, Africa, and Central and South America may be effective to improve their
irrigation management (Minami, 2002).
Hence, successful knowledge transfer is important in anticipating future failures or difficulties inland and water improvement projects and the management system in Nigeria. This will assist in
discussing how to adopt improved options for better agricultural production and sustainability. The
objective of the present study is to investigate problems, causes, and solutions associated with thewater improvement projects and the management system in Nigeria through a comparative study
between Japan and Nigeria.
METHODOLOGY
Study Site
The Hadejia Valley Irrigation Project (HVIP) is one of the biggest public irrigation projects in Nigeria,
and it considerably contributes to agricultural food production. This project is located in the Hadejia
Local Government Area of Jigawa State, between the Hadejia River and its tributaries in the northernpart of Nigeria. The average annual precipitation in Hadejia (project location) is 595 mm. The initialarea proposed for development under the HVIP in the late 1970s was 12,500 ha under Phase I (Fig. 1),
which consisted of stages I and II; however, work has not yet started on Stage II. Stage I wasconstructed in different steps; however, this stage remains incomplete. Stage I has a total commandarea of 5,300 ha, divided into 19 sectors (15 constructed, 4 unfinished) with 6,000 farmers cultivating
approximately 90% rice and other crops such as maize and vegetables.

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The major water source for the project is the Hadejia River, on which two dams (Tiga andChallawa dams) are situated at the upstream site, and the Hadejia Barrage is situated at the downstream
site, which supplies water to the northern main canal through the feeder canal by gravity.
Although, land consolidation is yet to be done in HVIP unlike the Japanese land which undergoes
a land consolidation to improve performance and productivity of the farmlands (through Land
Improvement act 1949), making it into a regular shape for easy use of machineries and paddy ricecultivation. However, the standard agricultural lot in HVIP is 4 ha while it is 0.3 ha in Japan.
LGA

N

Fig. 1 Layout of Hadejia Valley Irrigation Project (HVIP) phase I (stages I and II)

For the purpose of comparison, the Toyogawa Irrigation Project in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, whichis part of the Toyogawa Water Resource Development Project that was established in 1968, wasselected as the study site. This project is one of the most successful modern water resource
development projects in Japan. The study project covers newly developed irrigation areas of 16,000 ha(paddy: 5,000 ha, upland: 11,000 ha). This command area includes traditional paddy irrigation areas.
The average annual rainfall is approximately 1,700 mm/year (Japan Meteorological Agency, 2016).
However, dry spells in the region sometimes extend to 1 month; therefore, it is impossible for farmers
to realize stable agricultural production without irrigation. The major water source is the Toyo River,and supplemental water originates from the adjacent Tenryu River basin. The Toyogawa Water
Resource Development Project also encompasses the Ure and Ohshima dams in the upstream part of
the Toyo River (Kono et al., 2012).
Data Collection and Analysis
A comparative analysis of land and water management systems between Japan and Nigeria wasconducted through 1) a questionnaire and interview survey, 2) a literature review, and 3) field
investigations in both Japan and Nigeria. A total of 36 farmers, consisting 12 farmers each from the
upstream, mid-stream, and downstream sectors of the HVIP in Nigeria were randomly selected toanswer the questionnaire, which contained 37 open ended and 10 close ended questions both related towater availability, the irrigation system, organization for water management, and the method of
operation and maintenance cost of the scheme. The questionnaire was structured for easy
understanding of water user activities for water management and to determine the opinions of farmers
regarding the equity of water distribution and operation of irrigation facilities. Interviews wereconducted with four project supervisors from Hadejia Jamaare River Basin Development Authority(HJRBDA) staff and the three zonal office staff, and 15 officials of Water User Associations (WUAs)
from all sectors, to obtain detailed information regarding the performance and structure of WUAs,
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the facilities, and PIM in the HVIP (Nigeria). In addition, field visits to the study projects wereconducted to visualize the scheme and to gain access to farmers to obtain information and answers toquestionnaire structured for the study. However, after the analysis on irrigation water allocation, theproject should be operated to achieve the purpose of fair water distribution among the entire
beneficiary farmers. Thus, the WUAs and farmers will manage the irrigation facilities, as a result, thestruggled and complained over inadequate water at the downstream will be resolved and farmers
become more satisfied with the irrigation system.
In Japan, an interview with the head of Japan Water Agency (JWA) office in Kagawa Prefecture
was conducted, where we discussed the operation of water resource systems (reservoirs, diversion
dams, regulating reservoirs, and main canals) and their operation and maintenance arrangement. Thiswas followed by a field visit to observe and understand what had been discussed. However, literature
reviews containing detailed information concerning the Toyogawa Irrigation Project in Japan were also
assessed for the comparison.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Organizations for Water Management
According to the questionnaire and interview discussion, the organization currently responsible forwater management in the HVIP is the HJRBDA, which is a public unit established to manage public
irrigation schemes within state boundaries in Nigeria, and its zonal office, which assists the HJRBDA
in the management of the HVIP. The HJRBDA is the agency responsible for the overall operation andmaintenance of the main irrigation facilities (main and lateral canal and the drainage system including
the Tiga Dam, Challawa Dam, and Hadejia Barrage). The zonal office manages on-farm facilities andalso coordinates with farmers for the collection of water fees. A community of WUAs was formed,
which assist the zonal office in collecting water charges and control certain secondary and tertiary
canals. Although some members of the WUAs assist the zonal office, 60% of farmers interviewed at
the downstream sector complained of inadequate water distribution during the maturity stage of theirrice crop, whereas 90% of farmers at upstream and mid-stream sector were satisfied with the water
distribution, although they were not involved in the management process. This shows that theparticipation of WUAs in partnership with the zonal office is poor, which leads to inequitable
distribution of water among the farmers.
In the Toyogawa Irrigation Project in Japan, five types of organizations are involved in the water
management of the project, which have different functions to ensure equity and fair management: 1)
the JWA, which is a public entity that manages the construction project; 2) Toyogawa LID, which is anautonomous irrigation association of farmers established for the Toyogawa Irrigation Project; 3) local
LIDs, which are established based on the administrative boundaries of cities or towns; 4) Management
Districts, each of which corresponds to a traditional local community; and 5) Management Groups,
which are established by beneficiary farmers of an on-farm irrigation facility (all LIDs are establishedafter agreement by 2/3 of the beneficiary farmers). All these organizations are assigned roles in water
management according to the level of a facility, from main to on-farm level. The JWA manages themain infrastructure of an irrigation facility (reservoirs, diversion dams, and regulating reservoirs) andmain canals and is also responsible for delivering water to lateral canals. The Toyogawa LID manages
lateral canals and diverts water to farm ponds. The Toyogawa LID staff patrol farm ponds daily toassess stored water, and they adjust the allocation of water to lateral canals as required. Local LIDs
assemble requests from Management Districts and request water from the Toyogawa LID according to
the need. Local LIDs, Management Districts, and Management Groups manage farm ponds and onfarm facilities in a group. Management Group leaders in a Management District adjust the water
distribution among themselves (Kozuki, 2000).
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Therefore, in the Toyogawa Irrigation Project, it is evident that farmers are responsible for the
management of their irrigation; most farmers are categorized into different groups (Toyogawa LID,
local LIDs, Management Districts, and Management Groups) and are assigned a certain responsibility
to ensure equity distribution and fair management of the irrigation project. In contrast, in the HVIP,
farmers are not responsible for the management of irrigation, and only certain selected WUAs assist
the zonal office. To solve the problem of inequitable water distribution among farmers, water managers(the HJRBDA and zonal office) should be assigned to manage the construction of the project and thefarmers should be divided into different groups, with each group assigned the responsibility ofmanaging a different level of irrigation facilities. This will assist in resolving the inequitable and unfair
distribution of water among farmers in the HVIP as was achieved in the Toyogawa Irrigation Project.
Water Allocation Planning
The result of the questionnaire and interviews shows that in the HVIP, the zonal office of the HJRBDA
controls water gates from the dam (Hadejia Barrage) to main canals by constant releasing water at a
fixed amount of 10 m3/s (this is now the maximum carrying capacity of the main canal), which is adecreased amount from the actual designed capacity of 15 m3/s. However, water allocation planning iscompletely absent from the zonal office, and only farmers (WUAs) arrange their water planning for
distribution to the secondary and tertiary canals based on their experience, without any investigation on
the water demand of each sector. This causes improper water planning and inequitable water
distribution, resulting in the upstream water users using more water and in dissatisfaction by
downstream water users, as stated by 60% of farmers at the downstream sector during interviews. The
current water supply method in the HVIP is shown in Fig. 2.
Leader ofManagement
Group

Leader of Management
District (at 10:00 a.m. 2
days before)

Local LID

Branch office of the
Toyogawa LID (at 4:00
p.m. 2 days before)

Apex WUA (control water
diversion to the secondary
and tertiary canals)

Toyogawa LID(water rate)

JWA(at 10:00 a.m. theprevious day)

Farmers (release water totheir field)

JWA: Ono diversion
dam(at 2:00 p.m. theprevious day)(operation)

JWA: Distribution
to lateral canals(at 9:00 a.m.)

Zonal office of the HJRBDA
Constant release of water(control water gates from thedam to the main canal)

Farmers(irrigationarea)

Original operation

Fig. 2 Water supply method in the
Hadejia Valley Irrigation Project(HVIP)

Modified

Fig. 3 The original and modified water
allocation method and distribution process
in Toyokawa irrigation projectIn the Toyogawa Irrigation Project, some in-depth studies have been conducted to determine thewater demand of each sector and a simplified process was established to meet the water demands offarmers following the process depicted in Fig. 3, which reflects the original water distribution method
applied to the project. The water demand was calculated based on the declared daily irrigation area by
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a flow rate, and forwarded to the JWA. Because of the long procedure and resulting complaints by
farmers, the water allocation and distribution system was improved to avoid this complicatedprocedure and the problems it induced. In the new system, the first four steps in the previous system
are disregarded, and the Toyogawa LID branch offices take the first step to request water on behalf of
farmers.
Therefore, water demand studies in each sector (upstream, mid-stream, and downstream) of the
HVIP are important to avoid water conflict among upstream and downstream water users and also to
determine whether the amount of water released is sufficient to irrigate crops or if there is a need toreconstruct or rehabilitate the main canal to meet the capacity of the water requirement identified.
Again, after investigating the water demand, the water managers (the HJRBDA and zonal office staff)
should simplify guidelines and support their procedures by providing proof of logical and technicalinformation and also explain the effect of over-irrigation on crops and agricultural lands such as water
logging and salinization problems to avoid the overconsumption of water by farmers. Likewise, water
allocation plans in the HVIP should be decided in meetings attended by all delegates from different
interest groups (beneficiary farmers, the HJRBDA, zonal office authority, and Chad basin management
office). This will assist in achieving equitable distribution and improved understanding of theimportance of appropriate water allocation planning among farmers which will increase the amount ofwater utilized effectively for irrigation and ensured water availability to all farmers.
System of Operation and Management Cost of Irrigation Facilities
From the result of the interviews and the field visit to the HVIP, farmers and water managers said
government is responsible for the construction, operation, maintenance, and management costs ofirrigation facilities; however, it was found that proper system operation is currently not possible at alllevels of the systems. The main findings are that 1) operation and management (O&M) of the facilities
has long since fallen to a level below what is required; 2) the water fee (0.4 $/ha) collected isinsufficient to maintain the irrigation facilities, even when considering the amount provided by thegovernment to cover the O&M cost of the irrigation facilities; 3) the systems are currently in such atechnically poor condition that rendering proper system operation at most levels is impossible; 4) there
has been a substantial loss of command area; 5) a weakened organization responsible for O&M has notbeen able to rectify the situation; and 6) farmers have developed mistrust in the HJRBDA’s capacity
and capability to perform its maintenance duties for which they are supposed to pay.
All costs for water management in the Toyogawa Irrigation Project are covered by beneficiary
farmers. The Toyogawa LID assists the JWA in the collection of money from farmers. The
membership fees are based on acreage as well as on the land use of paddy or upland fields. The JWA,
Toyogawa LID, local LIDs, Management Districts, and Management Groups form a hierarchicalsystem corresponding to facility levels and operate in an environment of functional role sharing in the
Toyogawa Irrigation Project. In this environment, a directly interested organization is not allowed tooperate independently, and instead, a higher level of organization is assigned responsibility. In this way,
it is easy to distribute water in a fair and neutral way following the decisions made. It is difficult forfarmers or farmers’ organizations to operate modern, large-scale, complicated irrigation facilities as
specialized knowledge and skills are required. Therefore, role sharing in the facility operation of alarge-scale irrigation project is inevitable. In addition, a bulletin is periodically distributed by the JWA
to every member farmer, thereby supporting the understanding of the state and functions of facilities
and the processes of water management by every farmer, which includes the decisions, operation,
monitoring, and feedback (Satoh, 2003).
Therefore, for the sustainability and proper performance of the operation and management of the
HVIP, the water fee to be collected from farmers should be adjusted and added to the budget provided
by the government for the operational and management costs of the project to enable the budget to
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supervision of a higher organization (HJRBDA). In addition, the government should disseminate
information regarding how the fee collected was used for the operational, management, andmaintenance costs of the facilities and also the status of irrigation facilities to local farmers. This willencourage farmers to contribute to management and operational costs. All related organizations should
be assigned specific roles within operation and management at different levels of the facilities. By thispractice, costs will be reduced and a physical transparency system of the operation and management offacilities will be implemented that will encourage beneficiaries to contribute to the operational andmanagement costs for achieving the sustainability of the project.
CONCLUSION
The main points analyzed for the HVIP to develop an appropriate system to achieve water
improvement and management practices include the following;1) Involvement of farmers in management organization in such a way that farmers are categorized
into different groups (e.g., HVIP WUAs, local WUAs, Management Districts, and Management
Groups) and assigned a certain responsibility to ensure equitable distribution and fair management of
the irrigation project.
2) Water demand studies for water allocation are important in the HVIP to determine the demandin each sector to avoid water conflicts among water users in the upstream and downstream sectors. The
water demands should be decided in meetings attended by all delegates from different interest groups.
3) The water fee to be collected from farmers should be adjusted and added to the budget provided
by the government for the operational and management costs of the project to enable the budget tocover the operation, management, and maintenance costs of the irrigation facilities, under thesupervision of a higher organization (HJRBDA).
Therefore, the adoption and implementation of the identified processes of land and water
improvement projects and the management system in the HVIP will play an important role inenhancing the equitable distribution of irrigation water. Similarly, this will enable a system of physicaltransparency of operation and management of irrigation facilities for better water use in Nigeria.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was conducted under the project titled “Development of crop husbandry technology inmarginal rain fed environment using dryland plant resources” by Tottori University.
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Kono, S., Ounvichit, T., Ishii, A. and Satoh, M. 2012. Participatory system for water management in the
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Satoh, M. 2003. Principles for participatory irrigation management by organized farmers. Keynote Speech at the
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