ジェンダー研究第 26 号

2023 年

投稿論文,QÀXHQFHRI0RWKHUVRQ2FFXSDWLRQDO([SHFWDWLRQVRI)HPDOH
University Students in Japan: A Comparison with the UK.DRUL0L\DPRWR *LUOVLQ-DSDQKDYHH[SHFWDWLRQVRIIXWXUHRFFXSDWLRQVZLWKVLJQL¿FDQWO\ORZHU
socioeconomic status than Japanese boys and girls of other developed countries.
To explore some of the factors associated with this tendency, this paper focuses
RQWKHLQÀXHQFHRIPRWKHUV,WFRPSDUHVIHPDOHXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVLQ-DSDQ
and the UK through interviews, examining issues such as education, occupation,encouragement, and the role model of the mothers. First, results show that there
ZHUHIHZHULQWHUYLHZHHVH[SHFWLQJSUHVWLJLRXVRFFXSDWLRQVLQWKH67(0¿HOGVLQ
-DSDQWKDQLQWKH8.6HFRQGWKHPRWKHUV HGXFDWLRQDQGRFFXSDWLRQVD൵HFWHGWKH
occupational expectations of interviewees in Japan more than in the UK. Third,
more mothers of interviewees in the UK encouraged their daughters to aim forprestigious occupations than in Japan. Finally, mothers in neither country were rolemodels in terms of occupations, which suggests that role models, or a lack thereof,
elsewhere in society motivated or demotivated the interviewees to aspire to certain
occupations.

Keywords
occupational expectations, career, gender, socioeconomic status, Japan

Introduction
1. BackgroundIn recent years, the traditional model ofthe breadwinner husband and housewife
has become unrealistic in Japan due to thestagnant salaries of males, which are no

ORQJHU VX൶FLHQW WR VXVWDLQ D FRPIRUWDEOH
lifestyle. For example, among unmarriedmales, only one out of four earned a salary
above Yen 4 million a year, and fewer than
1% earned over Yen 10 million (Osawa,
2015; Yamada, 2015, 2016; Ueno, 2021).

3K'&DQGLGDWH,QWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\*HQGHU6WXGLHV+XPDQLWLHVDQG6FLHQFHV2FKDQRPL]X8QLYHUVLW\'2,：10.24567/0002003771

89

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Thus, although some single women stillwant to become housewives, most expect
to continue working, even if they leave theworkforce while their children are young,366 
At the same time, Japan is facing declining birth rates, a shrinking labor force,
DQG D VWDJQDQW HFRQRP\ 0RUHRYHU IHmale poverty is also on the rise, due to thechanging family structure—increasing
rates of divorce, unmarried women, andVLQJOH PRWKHUV &DELQHW 2൶FH   7R
address these challenges, the government
KDV DFNQRZOHGJHG WKH QHHG WR PD[LPL]Hthe use of resources to support its aging
society. This entails improving female employment by closing the gender gap in thelabor market, which is among the highest
in the developed world. For example, in
2019–2021, the median gender wage gap
was 22% (compared with 4% in Belgium),
females were 13% of all managers (compared with 46% in Latvia), and the proportion of female doctors was 22% (similarWR $XVWUDOLD LQ WKH V  3RZHU 2(&'D2(&' 
While the government aims to increase
the proportion of women in leadership
positions to 30% by 2030 (Cabinet Of¿FH   WKLV FRXOG EH D FKDOOHQJH DV
the existing pool of women with professional careers is small. In this context,
this paper explores the factors involving
occupational expectations of Japanese
female students. It follows up on quantitative analyses which revealed that Japanese girls’ average socioeconomic statusof their expected future occupations was

90

VLJQL¿FDQWO\ ORZHU WKDQ WKDW RI -DSDQHVH
boys and girls in other developed countries
0L\DPRWR 7KLVUHTXLUHVDWtention because young girls who do not
aspire to have challenging jobs from the
WLPH RI DGROHVFHQFH JHQHUDOO\ KDYH GL൶culties in developing a successful careerODWHURQ 6FKRRQ 3DUVRQV*ROGLQ
et al.0HOOR6FKRRQ 3ROHN
2011; Yokoyama, 2015). Low occupational
expectations are a particular concern inJapan, where changing full-time jobs later
RQLVGL൶FXOW 2VDZD 
2. Objective of the Study
Against this backdrop, this study aims
WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH IDFWRUV WKDW D൵HFW WKH
relatively low occupational expectationsof young Japanese females, focusing on
WKH LQÀXHQFH RI PRWKHUV :KLOH PDQ\other factors shape career development,these topics will be elaborated elsewhere.
The paper also targets university students,
DV WKH XQGHUXWLOL]DWLRQ RI KLJKO\ HGXFDWHG ZRPHQ LV D VLJQL¿FDQW ORVV WR VRFLHW\
0LXUD2VDZD 7KLVLVDSDUticular concern since married women who
are university graduates in Japan tend toreturn to the workforce less than women
ZLWKORZHUHGXFDWLRQ +LUDWD ,QWKLV
context, the paper will compare female
students enrolled in Japanese universities
with those in the United Kingdom (UK)WR DVVHVV ZKHWKHU GL൵HUHQFHV LQ PRWKHUV¶FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RU LQÀXHQFH FRQWULEXWH WR
Japanese females’ lower occupational expectations.
The UK was chosen for comparison

ジェンダー研究since it is also a G7 country but with a relatively high international ranking on genderHTXDOLW\ LH  E\ WKH :RUOG (FRQRPLF
)RUXPZKLOH-DSDQZDVUDQNHG :()
2022). In recent years, the UK’s mediangender wage gap was 14% and the share offemale managers and doctors was 37% and49%, respectively. Furthermore, female
undergraduate enrollment was 127% of
PDOHVZKLOHLWZDVLQ-DSDQ 2(&'E2(&' $VWKH8.LVDOVRRQ
the traditional side of the liberal regime,
DFFRUGLQJ WR (VSLQJ$QGHUVHQ  ¶Vcategory of welfare regimes, there could
be some lessons learned for Japan, which
is between a conservative and liberal reJLPH   7R WKDW HQG  LQWHUYLHZV
were conducted among female university
students in Japan and the UK. While recRJQL]LQJWKDWWKHVPDOOVDPSOHVL]HOLPLWVJHQHUDOL]DWLRQ GLVWLOOLQJ WKHLU YRLFHV DQGtriangulating with existing literature anddata can shed light on the reality womenface in Japan and the UK today.
The next section reviews the literaturethat forms the basis of this paper. I thenpresent the context and the research methods, followed by a discussion on the results
RI WKH LQWHUYLHZV 7KH ¿QDO VHFWLRQ VXPPDUL]HV WKH ¿QGLQJV OLVWV WKH OLPLWDWLRQVRIWKHVWXG\DQGR൵HUVVRPHFRQFOXVLRQVპ/LWHUDWXUH5HYLHZ'H¿QLWLRQIn this study, “occupational expectations” refers to occupations that youths
realistically “expect to” have in the fu-

第 26 号

2023 年

WXUH,WLVVOLJKWO\GL൵HUHQWIURP³RFFXSDtional aspirations” which concerns occupations that youths “aspire” to have thatcan sometimes include wishful dreams.
0DQ\VWXGLHVLQDQ\FDVHGRQRWPDNHD
clear distinction between the two, whileothers show that they are highly correODWHG 0DULQL *UHHQEHUJHU6DKD1997). Thus, although the term “occupational expectations” is used in this paper,
it is intended to cover occupational choice
more broadly. Furthermore, the expression“high occupational expectation” implies ahigh socioeconomic status of the occupation.
2. Theories and Studies'HYHORSPHQWDOFDUHHUWKHRULHVHODERUDWH
on the environment, such as family, school,
peers, workplace, social structures, mass
media, and economic conditions, as determinants of occupational decisions (NakayDPD  )DUPHU  %DQGXUD et al.,2001). For example, regarding family, the
FODVVLF :LVFRQVLQ 0RGHO E\ 6HZHOO et al.
(1970) showed how fathers’ education and
RFFXSDWLRQVD൵HFWHGWKHVRQV¶RFFXSDWLRQvia his academic aptitude and occupational aspiration, which became the basic
theory for career development.
+RZHYHU WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ
mothers and daughters’ occupational
choices is mixed. For example, Schuette etal.  GLGQRW¿QGDVLJQL¿FDQWFRUUHlation between the mothers’ male/femaledominated occupations and their job status(professional, skilled, and unskilled) withthe girls’ aspirations. Furthermore, Von-

91

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dracek et al.  GLVFRYHUHGGL൵HUHQFHV
between the mothers’ occupational types(technical, sales, education, trade, banks,
administration, and health) and the daughWHUV¶ SUHIHUHQFHV )LQDOO\ 0DULQL DQG*UHHQEHUJHU  VKRZHGWKDWWKHRFFXSDWLRQDOSUHVWLJHRIPRWKHUVKDGDVLJQL¿FDQWO\ VPDOOHU H൵HFW RQ WKH RFFXSDWLRQDO
ambition of girls, compared to that of thefathers’, mainly because two-thirds of themothers were housewives.
In Japan, most research on female labor
issues focuses on contractual categories
or values attributed to working, as opposed to occupations per se. A few studies that involved occupations of mothersand daughters had mixed results. In earlier
UHVHDUFK2JDZDDQG7DQDND  IRXQG
that mothers who were medical doctors
KDGDKLJKHUH൵HFWRQGDXJKWHUVH[SHFWLQJ
to become doctors than fathers being docWRUV2QWKHRWKHUKDQG1DND\DPD  
VWDWHGWKDWLQJHQHUDOLWZDVPRUHGL൶FXOW
for mothers to become occupational role
PRGHOVDVPRVWZHUHKRXVHZLYHV0RUHUHFHQWO\KRZHYHU0RWRKDUX  VKRZHG
that when mothers had professional occupations, a higher proportion of daughters opted for professional occupations.
6SHFL¿FDOO\ 6KLNDQDL   IRXQG WKDW
if mothers were civil servants or teachers,
girls had a higher propensity to choose thesame types of jobs than boys.
In the last two decades, occupational
expectations of females have risen compared to the past and relative to boys in
PDQ\ FRXQWULHV /RRNHU  0DJHH 
6FKRRQ  3DUVRQV  )UDQFLV 

92

6FKRRQ 3ROHN:DWWVet al., 2015).
'DWD IURP 3,6$  RQZDUGV DOVR UHvealed that, in most developed countries,
girls, on average, had higher occupational
H[SHFWDWLRQV WKDQ ER\V 6LNRUD  3RNURSHN0L\DPRWR H[FHSWIRU -DSDQ 0DQ\ RI WKHVH VWXGLHV DWWULEuted this phenomenon to changes in theindustrial and service sectors, as well as
increases in female education, equal job
opportunities, returns to investment in human capital, female labor force participation, role models such as working mothers, divorce rates, single parent families
DQGFKLOGFDUHPHDVXUHV /RRNHU 0DJHH
)UDQFLV%DLUG6FKRRQ3ROHN7KHYHQRQ ,Q-DSDQ
however, hardly any study so far showsthat occupational expectations of females
have become higher than or even close to
those of males.

ჟ&RQWH[W
7R TXDQWLI\ WKH GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKHoccupational expectations of females inJapan and the UK, nationally representative data derived from the Organisation
IRU (FRQRPLF &RRSHUDWLRQ DQG 'HYHORSPHQW¶V 2(&' 3URJUDPPHRI,QWHUQDWLRQDO 6WXGHQW $VVHVVPHQW 3,6$  ZHUH
used. These data record the responses of
15-year-old high school students fromDURXQGFRXQWULHVWRDTXHVWLRQDERXWWKH
occupations they expected when they became 30 years old. These occupations wereconverted into the International StandDUG &ODVVL¿FDWLRQ RI 2FFXSDWLRQV ,6&2 ジェンダー研究codes of the International Labour Organi]DWLRQ ,/2 ZKLFKLQWXUQZHUHDVVLJQHG
,QWHUQDWLRQDO6RFLRHFRQRPLF,QGH[ ,6(, scores. Generally, the higher the educational requirement and income earned for
WKH RFFXSDWLRQ WKH KLJKHU WKH ,6(, VFRUH
HJIRUDVWURQRPHUVDQGIRUVWUHHW
sweepers).
In Japan, 46% of four-year university
VWXGHQWV ZHUH IHPDOHV LQ  0(;7  $QDO\VLV XVLQJ 3,6$ GDWD VKRZHG
that Japan, and Korea to some extent, were
the only developed countries where the avHUDJH,6(,VFRUHVRIKLJKVFKRROJLUOVZKR
planned to go to university were lower
WKDQWKRVHRIER\V-DSDQ¶V,6(,VFRUHZDV
also lower than those of girls in all othercountries, including the UK. To illustrate,
among the top 10 occupations expected bygirls in Japan (n=1,129), the most popular
occupation was an administrative assistant,6(,VFRUH 7KHWKLUGUDQNHGMRERI¿FHVXSHUYLVRULVDOVRDJHQHUDOLVWRFFXSDtion, but with the possibility of becoming
DPDQDJHU ,6(,VFRUH 7KHKLJKSURportions of these two types of occupationsUHÀHFW WKH -DSDQHVH ODERU PDUNHW ZKHUH
employers prefer to hire generalists as opposed to specialists and assign them tovarious jobs in exchange for lifetime employment.
The occupations chosen by Japanese
JLUOV ZLWK DQ ,6(, VFRUH LQ WKH V ZHUH
pharmacist, medical doctor, and secondary education teacher. Results also showedthat 3% of the girls wanted to become a
KRXVHZLIH ZKLFK WKH 2(&' DVVLJQV DQ
,6(,VFRUHRIDVLWLVQRWDQRFFXSDWLRQ

第 26 号

2023 年

according to ILO. The weighted average of
WKH,6(,VFRUHVRIWKHWRSMREVZDVfor Japanese girls and 64 for boys.
For the UK, where 56% of university
VWXGHQWV ZHUH IHPDOHV LQ  'HSDUWPHQWRI(GXFDWLRQ WKHPRVWSRSXODU
occupation among high school girls who
SODQQHG WR JR WR XQLYHUVLW\ LQ WKH 3,6$
data was to become a lawyer, with 12% of
the total sample (n=2,503). Six other ocFXSDWLRQV LQ WKH WRS  ZLWK ,6(, VFRUHVDERYHLQFOXGHGJHQHUDOLVWPHGLFDOSUDFtitioner, psychologist, biologist, designer,veterinarian and dentist. The weighted avHUDJHRIWKH,6(,VFRUHVIRUWKHWRSMREVwas 75, which is higher than British boys(73) and Japanese girls.

რ0HWKRGV
7RIROORZXSRQWKHTXDQWLWDWLYH¿QGLQJV
above, a qualitative study was carried out
to answer the following research questions
among female university students in thetwo countries.
• :KDWLVWKHPDLQGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQ
the occupational expectations of female university students in Japan andthe UK?
• Are the mothers’ characteristics and
WKHLU LQÀXHQFH RQ RFFXSDWLRQDO H[SHFWDWLRQVGL൵HUHQW"
$V D ¿UVW VWHS D SURSRVDO WR LQWHUYLHZ
students (#2021-146) was submitted andapproved by the ethics committee of theauthor’s university. A notice was then sent
to solicit volunteers by snowball sampling
WKURXJKFRQWDFWVDWWKH2(&'XQLYHUVLW\

93,QÀXHQFHRI0RWKHUVRQ2FFXSDWLRQDO([SHFWDWLRQVRI)HPDOH8QLYHUVLW\6WXGHQWVLQ-DSDQ$&RPSDULVRQZLWKWKH8.

teachers of a study group on econometrics,
and other personal connections. Interested female university students studying
in Japan and the UK who were agreeable
WREHLQJLQWHUYLHZHGZHUHDVNHGWR¿OOLQ
an online form. For those who signed up
DQG ZHUH DYDLODEOH IURP 'HFHPEHU 
WR)HEUXDU\HYHU\RQHTXDOL¿HGZDVinterviewed.
The online interviews were conducted
HLWKHULQ-DSDQHVHRU(QJOLVKXVLQJDTXHVtion guide that had been pilot tested andsent in advance. The semi-structured interviews, lasting about an hour and a half,
asked questions about their occupational
expectations, information on their parents,
friends, and schools, as well as their views
on gender-related workplace and childcare
issues. As mentioned above, this paper foFXVHVPDLQO\RQPRWKHUV¶LQÀXHQFHRQRFcupational expectations.
The students signed forms in advance,
granting their permission to conduct theinterviews. After the interviews, the transcripts were sent to them for edits or apSURYDO ([WUDFWLRQV IRU WKLV SDSHU IURPthe Japanese transcripts were translated
LQWR(QJOLVKE\WKHDXWKRU:KLOHDVPDOOKRQRUDULXPZDVR൵HUHGVLQFHWKHVWXGHQWV
had volitionally signed up, the assumption
is that they were generally career-oriented
and had something to say on the topic.
Furthermore, while the procedure to solicit interviewees in Japan and the UK was
the same, because the two countries have
GL൵HUHQWVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHVLWZDVQRWSRVVLble to gather interviewees with very similar conditions. Thus, this research does not

94

claim that the interviewees are analogous
or representative of their respective counWU\+RZHYHUVRPHFRQFUHWHH[DPSOHVUHJDUGLQJ WKH LQÀXHQFH RI PRWKHUV SURYLGH
clearer images behind the quantitative
DQDO\VHVDQGOLWHUDWXUHWKDWSRLQWWRGL൵HUHQFHVLQNH\IDFWRUVD൵HFWLQJWKHRFFXSDtional expectations of females between thetwo countries. In addition, by examining
WKH JHQGHUUHODWHG H൵HFWV RQ WKH RFFXSDtional expectations of those who are evencareer-oriented and/or from competitive
universities, one could surmise the viewsof a typical young woman in the respective
countries.
The analysis for this qualitative research was based on a methodology by
6DWR   ,QWHUYLHZ UHVXOWV ZHUH XVHG
to triangulate with theory, other surveys,
and quantitative data. Information wascoded to enable data reduction, conversion
WRQXPHULFDOIRUPVDQGTXDQWL¿FDWLRQ$
mixture of deductive and inductive approaches was applied against theories on
PRWKHUV¶LQÀXHQFHRQGDXJKWHUV¶RFFXSDtional choices. Cases were assembled tocreate code matrices according to patterns
regarding gender dimensions. Finally, thematrices for Japan and the UK were comSDUHGWRH[DPLQHVLPLODULWLHVRUGL൵HUHQFes to develop the following narrative.

ს5HVXOWVDQG'LVFXVVLRQ
3UR¿OHRIWKH,QWHUYLHZHHV
7DEOH  VKRZV WKH DEEUHYLDWHG SUR¿OHV
of the 27 interviewees in Japan, their majors, university groups, and expected ocFXSDWLRQVZKLFKZHUHPDWFKHGZLWK,6(,ジェンダー研究scores based on the closest ISCO. It also
includes the cities where they were raised,
the parents’ ethnic background, as well the¿QDOHGXFDWLRQDQGWKHODWHVWRFFXSDWLRQVRIWKHLUPRWKHUVPDWFKHGZLWK,6(,VFRUHVIn sum, the interviewees were studying in XQLYHUVLWLHV ORFDWHG IURP +RNNDLGR WR
Kyushu. As a proxy for academic ability,
the types of universities are labeled into
¿YH W\SHV DQG JURXSHG LQ WKUHH DV )RUmer Imperial or competitive private௘ (11),(other) national (seven); and other private
or public (nine), with competitiveness generally descending in that order.
Nineteen interviewees were undergraduates (two of whom were in law school and
one was a medical student), seven were
PDVWHUV¶ VWXGHQWV DQG RQH ZDV D 3K'
student. Their majors ranged widely from
economics, art, history, to molecular biolRJ\DQGWKHLUDJHVZHUHPRVWO\EHWZHHQand 29. While most interviewees had Japanese parents and grew up in Japan, one interviewee was born and raised in Japan but
had Indian parents and another was raisedin the US and had a Japanese mother andan American father.

第 26 号

2023 年

dergraduates (one of whom was a medical
student), four were masters’ students (oneof whom was a law student), and four were
3K'VWXGHQWV0DQ\RIWKHPDMRUVZHUHLQ
the sciences, such as biology or neuroimmunology, and others included educationand political science. Their ages ranged
IURPWR

7DEOHVKRZVWKHSUR¿OHVRIWKHLQWHUviewees in the UK. They were studying
in 12 universities located from ScotlandWR 6RXWKHDVW (QJODQG 7KH W\SHV RI XQLversities were grouped into three: Ancient (seven), Russell Group (11) and other(three), with competitiveness generally descending in that order. Thirteen were un௘ &RPSHWLWLYHSULYDWHLQFOXGHV:DVHGD.HLRDQG6RSKLDFRPPRQO\NQRZQDV³628.(,-28´

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Bachelor

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0DVWHU

Bachelor'RFWRUDWH

Bachelor+LJKVFKRRO

Junior college

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Bachelor+LJKVFKRRO

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Administrative assistant+RXVHZLIH

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Cashier+RXVHZLIH

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3ULPDU\VFKRROWHDFKHUTechnical school ;UD\WHFKQLFLDQ

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father,QGLDQ3DUHQWV

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UK15 3ROLWLFVUK16 3V\FKRORJ\

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ジェンダー研究第 26 号
2023 年

97,QÀXHQFHRI0RWKHUVRQ2FFXSDWLRQDO([SHFWDWLRQVRI)HPDOH8QLYHUVLW\6WXGHQWVLQ-DSDQ$&RPSDULVRQZLWKWKH8.

The cultural background of the interviewees was much more diverse on the
UK side. While nine had two British parents and were raised in the UK, others had
RQHRUWZRSDUHQWVIURP-DSDQ,WDO\+RQJ
.RQJ8NUDLQH3RUWXJDO5RPDQLD+XQgary, Taiwan or a mixture of countries,
and had attended international schools in(XURSH2QHH[FHSWLRQZDVD-DSDQHVHLQterviewee who had Japanese parents andgrew up in Japan. While the ethnic varietyof the interviewees on the UK side makes
cultural interpretations challenging, theGLYHUVLW\UHÀHFWVWKHUHDOLW\RIWKH8.WRday, where 22% of students are foreigners,
although mainly from China, India, Nigeria, and the United States (Universities
UK, 2022).
2. Occupational Choice
On the Japan side, several interviewees chose to become graphic designers,social workers, lawyers, and aid workers.
Only one is expected to be an administraWLYHDVVLVWDQW²WKHWRSFKRLFHLQWKH3,6$
sample—as this type of occupation is increasingly temporary and low paid (Yamada, 2016; Ueno, 2021). Some interviewees¿UVWFKRVHWKHW\SHRIRUJDQL]DWLRQVXFKDV
the public sector, due to its stability or betWHU ZRUNLQJ FRQGLWLRQV DQG WKHQ VSHFL¿FRFFXSDWLRQV VXFK DV D WD[ R൶FHU 2WKHUV FKRVH FHUWL¿HG RFFXSDWLRQV SRSXODU
among women who want a secure income
RUÀH[LEOHZRUNLQJKRXUVVXFKDVDFFRXQWDQW7KHDYHUDJH,6(,VFRUHRIWKHH[SHFWHG
occupations by the interviewees was 69.
The interviewees in the UK were more

98

ambitious than those in Japan. Several
expected to be lab scientists, academics/
researchers, or teachers. Others expected
to be a doctor, barrister, diplomat, and a¿QDQFLDO FRQVXOWDQW 6RPH RFFXSDWLRQVFRLQFLGHGZLWKWKRVHLQWKH3,6$VDPSOH
such as lawyers, medical doctors, teachers
DQGELRORJLVWV7KHDYHUDJH,6(,VFRUHRI
WKHRFFXSDWLRQVZDVZKLFKZDVKLJKHU
than the interviewees in Japan.
7KH PDLQ GL൵HUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKH WZRcountries were in science, technology, enJLQHHULQJDQGPDWKHPDWLFV 67(0 RFFXpations. In Japan, only one interviewee—
J17, a medical student—was pursuing a
FDUHHULQ67(0ZKLFKWHQGVWRKDYHKLJKer wages and prestige. While this could be
due to the sample selection, the dearth of
SDUWLFLSDQWVDVSLULQJIRUFDUHHUVLQ67(0is consistent with general critiques of JaSDQ¶VORZSURSRUWLRQRIIHPDOHVLQ67(0¿HOGV ZKLFK LV SDUWLDOO\ EDVHG RQ JHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHV 6LNRUD  3RNURSHN 
Nagamachi, 2021; Ikkatai et al., 2021;
Adachi, 2022).
([FHSWIRUWKHPHGLFDOVWXGHQWQRQHRI
the other 10 interviewees who liked science or math recalled that they were parWLFXODUO\ HQFRXUDJHG WR SXUVXH D 67(0¿HOG E\ WKHLU SDUHQWV RU VFKRRO RU VHQVHG
that society was promoting females in67(0(YHQ-DIRRGPDQDJHPHQWPDjor, and J4, a microbiology major at themaster’s level, sought and were alreadyR൵HUHGQRQ67(0RFFXSDWLRQVWKDWZRXOGQRWSDUWLFXODUO\XVHVFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJH
In contrast, eight interviewees in the UK
H[SHFWHGWRZRUNLQWKH67(0¿HOG:KLOH

ジェンダー研究not all their parents encouraged them to
ZRUN LQ 67(0 WKH SDUHQWV RI ¿YH LQWHUviewees at some point tried to encouragethem to work in the sciences (see below).
Furthermore, four interviewees said theirschools encouraged females to pursue caUHHUV LQ 67(0 8. D PHGLFDO VWXGHQW
and UK4, an aspiring biologist said:….when I was in school, there wasa whole movement for women in
67(0«,¶OOJRWRWKHKRVSLWDORU,¶OO
go into my lecture halls, it is almost
female dominated. So I knew thatwhen I got into the workplace, thosemovements would have taken suchhold that I wouldn’t necessarily feelpressured by those patriarchal standards of work, work, work, or nothing.
There was a lot of workshops for
ZRPHQLQ67(0EHFDXVHWKHUH¶VDELJGULYHIRUWKDWHVVHQWLDOO\LQ(QJODQG
7KH\DUHWU\LQJWR¿[WKHJHQGHUJDS
I remember going to those, thinking,what on earth is this rubbish, why do
WKH\ QHHG D :RPHQ LQ 67(0 'D\when men are just as important. In
other words, it wasn’t as apparent that
there was a divide to me when I wasyounger. Because I’d always thought
that, yes, I can go into whatever I
wanted to go. By 13, I already knewthat I probably wanted to do science.
In the UK, the share of females among
QHZHQWUDQWVLQWKH67(0¿HOGDWWKHEDFKelor’s level was 31% in 2020, which was

第 26 号

2023 年KLJKHUWKDQWKDWRI-DSDQDWWKHORZHVW DPRQJ GHYHORSHG FRXQWULHV 2(&'2021b). In contrast, Japanese girls are top
performers in math and science in the
3,6$WHVWV)RUH[DPSOHDPRQJWKRVHZKR
SODQQHG WR DWWHQG XQLYHUVLW\ LQ WKH 
sample, Japanese girls were the second
highest in science and math after Germany, whereas the UK was 12th in math and9th in science. This means that, as females
WHQGQRWWRJRLQWRWKH67(0¿HOGGHVSLWHWKHLU FRPSHWHQFH -DSDQ LV XQGHUXWLOL]LQJ
valuable human capital.
The UK government is promoting fePDOHV LQ 67(0 E\ VXSSRUWLQJ YDULRXV
measures such as Women in Science and(QJLQHHULQJ RU 0XPV LQ 6FLHQFH 1HWwork, with an objective of increasing
ZRPHQ¶VZRUNIRUFHLQ67(0IURPLQ
2019 to at least 30% by 2030 (Christakou,
67(0:RPHQ ,Q-DSDQWKH
&DELQHW 2൶FH¶V *HQGHU (TXDOLW\ %XUHDX
initiated a “Riko-chare” initiative in 2005
to encourage female school students to
FKRRVHWKH67(0¿HOG,WDLPVWRLQFUHDVH
the share of, e.g., female university teachHUVLQQDWXUDOVFLHQFHIURPWRDQG
engineering from 5% to 9% by 2025, reVSHFWLYHO\ &DELQHW 2൶FH   ,Q WKHIXWXUH D FRPSDUDWLYH VWXG\ RQ WKH H൵HFtiveness of these programs in the respective countries could be explored.
*LYHQWKHVHSUR¿OHVWKHIROORZLQJVHFWLRQV H[DPLQH WKH PRWKHUV¶ LQÀXHQFH RQ
the interviewees’ occupational expectations, which are broken down according to
WKHFDWHJRUL]DWLRQE\6KLNDQDL  
Background: mother’s education

99

,QÀXHQFHRI0RWKHUVRQ2FFXSDWLRQDO([SHFWDWLRQVRI)HPDOH8QLYHUVLW\6WXGHQWVLQ-DSDQ$&RPSDULVRQZLWKWKH8.

and occupation;
'LUHFW H൵HFW HQFRXUDJHPHQW E\
the mother; and,QGLUHFW H൵HFW PRWKHU DV D UROH
model.
3. Background: Mother’s Education andOccupation
Among the interviewees’ mothers in Japan, 67% had at least a bachelor’s degree.
In terms of occupation, about 75% had
quit working around childbirth, although
there was no distinct pattern with the occupational prestige of mothers—e.g., anarchitect and a childcare worker stopped
working, while a university teacher and a
restaurant worker continued. Subsequently, after the children became older, mostof these mothers took up some occupations ranging from factory worker, cashier, administrative assistant, to secondDU\ VFKRROWHDFKHU ZKHUHDV ¿YH UHPDLQHG
DV KRXVHZLYHV 7KH DYHUDJH ,6(, VFRUH
of all mothers’ occupations was 47, or 54
H[FOXGLQJKRXVHZLYHV(LJKWPRWKHUVKDG
RFFXSDWLRQVZLWK,6(,VFRUHVDERYH
4XDQWLWDWLYH DQDO\VLV XVLQJ WKH 3,6$
 GDWD UHYHDOHG WKDW DPRQJ JLUOV ZKRplanned to go to university in Japan, theirmath scores, as well as their mothers’ eduFDWLRQDQGRFFXSDWLRQVSRVLWLYHO\D൵HFWHG
WKH,6(,VFRUHVRIWKHLUH[SHFWHGRFFXSDWLRQV 7KLV ZDV DOVR UHÀHFWHG DPRQJ WKHLQWHUYLHZHHVLQ-DSDQDVWKHLUDYHUDJH,6(,scores correlated with the competitiveness
RIWKHXQLYHUVLW\JURXSV²IRUWKRVHDWtending Former Imperial or competitive
private universities, 69 for (other) nation-

100

al universities, and 57 for other public or
private universities. It coincides with thegeneral view in Japan that, to get a goodjob, one should go to good universities.
Furthermore, the mother’s education and
RFFXSDWLRQDO ,6(, VFRUHV DOVR LQFUHDVHG
with the competitiveness of universities.
In fact, all the interviewees attending themost-competitive university group had
mothers with at least a bachelor’s degree.
On the UK side, 76% of the mothers of
the interviewees had at least a bachelor’s
degree, which was higher than the proSRUWLRQ LQ -DSDQ 7KLV UHÀHFWV IHPDOHV¶
generally higher university enrollment in(XURSH+RZHYHUDQGVLPLODUWRWKHLQWHUviewees in Japan, approximately 75% of
the mothers of interviewees in the UK had
intermittent career paths when the children
ZHUH \RXQJ +HUH WKH PRWKHUV ZKR FRQtinued their careers tended to have occupaWLRQVZLWKUHODWLYHO\KLJK,6(,VFRUHVVXFK
as solicitor, statistician, human resource
specialist, or elementary schoolteacher.
Other latest occupations of the mothers
ranged from nursery teacher, tour guide,
FOHDQHU MRXUQDOLVW WR ¿QDQFLDO R൶FHU
,Q DGGLWLRQ WKHUH ZHUH ¿YH KRXVHZLYHV
EXW WKH\ ZHUH IURP -DSDQ 7DLZDQ +RQJ
.RQJ 8NUDLQH DQG +XQJDU\²FXOWXUHVknown to have traditional gender roles. On
DYHUDJHWKH,6(,VFRUHRIWKHPRWKHUVRI
interviewees in the UK was 47, or 53 whencounting only working mothers, very similar to Japan. Similarly, eight mothers had
RFFXSDWLRQVZLWK,6(,VFRUHVDERYH
An analysis using the UK data from 3,6$ VKRZHG WKDW WKHUH ZDV QR VLJ-

ジェンダー研究

QL¿FDQW UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH HGXFDtion and occupations of the mothers with
WKH,6(,VFRUHVRIWKHKLJKVFKRROJLUOV¶H[SHFWHGRFFXSDWLRQV7KLVZDVDOVRUHÀHFWHG
among the interviewees in the UK where
the mothers’ education or occupations nor
the competitiveness of the university types
ZHUHVWURQJO\UHODWHGZLWKWKH,6(,VFRUHV
of the expected occupations. For example,
the mothers of UK 3, who was planning on
becoming a university teacher, and UK7,
an aspiring neuroscientist, were cleaners,
although one with a master’s and the otherwith a high school degree. Furthermore,while UK9 was the only interviewee exSHFWLQJDQRFFXSDWLRQZLWKDQ,6(,VFRUH
below 70 as a documentary maker, hermother was a Latin teacher with one of theKLJKHU,6(,VFRUHVDPRQJWKHPRWKHUV
7KHDERYHFRQ¿UPHGWKDWLQ-DSDQWKH
mothers’ education and occupational presWLJHD൵HFWHGWKHRFFXSDWLRQDOH[SHFWDWLRQV
of interviewees via their academic ability,
PLUURULQJ WKH :LVFRQVLQ 0RGHO EHWZHHQ
fathers and sons. On the other hand, in theUK, several interviewees had high occupational expectations even when the mothers did not necessarily have prestigious
occupations. Although the UK has been
considered as a class society in the past,
there may be measures to reduce inequality. The child poverty rate was 11.3% in
the UK, which was lower than Japan’s at
13.9% in 2015, the latest comparable year2(&'   7KH FDVH LQ WKH 8. VXJgests that it is possible for young womenfrom unprivileged backgrounds to attend
competitive universities and have high oc-

第 26 号

2023 年

cupational expectations. Further research
FRXOGFRPSDUHWKHH൵HFWLYHQHVVRIPHDVXUHV WR SURPRWH IHPDOHV LQ 67(0 DQG¿QDQFH XQLYHUVLW\ HGXFDWLRQ VXFK DV WKH
Tuition Fee Loans in the UK and those by
WKH-DSDQ6WXGHQW6HUYLFHV2UJDQL]DWLRQ'LUHFW (ৼHFW (QFRXUDJHPHQW E\ WKHMother
On parental encouragement, 20 mothHUVZHUHHLWKHUODLVVH]IDLUHRUVXSSRUWLYH
of whatever occupation the interviewees inJapan were expecting. Others had generalsuggestions such as continuing a career or
having a stable income, but not necessarLO\ D VSHFL¿F RFFXSDWLRQ 7KH H[FHSWLRQ
was the mother of J17, a medical student,
who pressured her daughter to become adoctor, and the mother of J19, a would-be
business associate, who suggested to her
to go to a junior college, become an airport
JURXQGVWD൵DQGFDWFKDQLFHPDQ
On the UK side, 14 mothers were also
ODLVVH]IDLUH RU VXSSRUWLYH RI WKH RFFXSDWLRQDO FKRLFHV RI WKH LQWHUYLHZHHV +RZever, six mothers encouraged them topursue prestigious occupations, including
LQ67(0$QGPRVWRIWKHVHPRWKHUVKDG
at least a bachelor’s degree, a prestigious
RFFXSDWLRQ RU ERWK )RU H[DPSOH 8.
an aspiring cancer researcher, said of her
mother, a statistician in an international
RUJDQL]DWLRQZLWKDEDFKHORU¶VGHJUHH
She expects me to have a very high
SRVLWLRQLQDQRUJDQL]DWLRQ,W¶VDQLQcome thing, but also a status thing….
Obviously, they would be really101,QÀXHQFHRI0RWKHUVRQ2FFXSDWLRQDO([SHFWDWLRQVRI)HPDOH8QLYHUVLW\6WXGHQWVLQ-DSDQ$&RPSDULVRQZLWKWKH8.

happy if I was a doctor or lawyer orsomething.
)XUWKHUPRUH8.DQDVSLULQJQHXURVFLentist, said her mother, a solicitor, wanted
her to take up the same occupation.
She has made the suggestion to become a solicitor…. She wanted me tofollow in her footsteps …I think she
would have liked me to have a job
with high prestige, something that she
would be proud to tell her friends…
It wasn’t good enough that I would
just study science; it would have been
good if I was going to be a doctor.
'HVSLWHWKHVHHQFRXUDJHPHQWVRQO\8.
a would-be cancer researcher, and UK12,
an aspiring biochemist, were pursuing occupations that coincided with their mother’s wishes. Nevertheless, the others were
expecting highly prestigious occupations,mostly as scientists.
The commonality between the twocountries was that most mothers wereODLVVH]IDLUH RU VXSSRUWLYH RI WKH RFFXSDWLRQDO FKRLFHV RI WKH LQWHUYLHZHHV +RZever, more mothers of interviewees in the
UK than in Japan pressured their daughters to aim high in their career planning,
LQFOXGLQJWRZRUNLQ67(0¿HOGV:KLOH
many of these interviewees did not necessarily pursue the suggested occupations
per se, they tended to aim for prestigious
ones. For Japan, a forthcoming paper will
discuss the extent to which Gottfredson’s(1996) theory of circumscription and102

compromise applied, which supposes thatmothers avoided encouraging prestigious
occupations due to the lack of women in
WKHVHRFFXSDWLRQVDQGSHUFHLYHGWUDGHR൵V
with family life. In addition, the discussion
ZLOO EH OLQNHG ZLWK *ROGWKRUSH¶V  
Conventional View, whereby women’s social status is regarded as largely dependent
on the husband’s standing.
,QGLUHFW(ৼHFW0RWKHUDVD5ROH0RGHO0RWKHUVFDQEHRFFXSDWLRQDOUROHPRGHOV
or counter-role models to daughters’ occupational expectations. In Japan, at one extreme, three interviewees considered theirmothers’ careers as role models. For example, J7, an aspiring lawyer, was inspired byher mother, a cosmetics company’s chief
H[HFXWLYH R൶FHU %XW VKH ZDV LPSUHVVHG
by her mother’s eloquence and people management skills –requisites for lawyers—rather than her occupation per se.
…when I was distressed over managing a (chorus) club during highschool, my mother, who had becomea manager a few years earlier, was
DEOH WR VXPPDUL]H DQG H[SUHVV ZHOO
how to advance discussions and guide
my juniors.
In addition, J22, a future academic, followed in the footsteps of her mother, a uniYHUVLW\SURIHVVRU+RZHYHUWKHUROHPRGHOwas not only about the occupation but also
her mother’s ability to combine her professional and family life, particularly since
there were so few in academia.

ジェンダー研究(YHQLIWKH\JHWD3K'WKH\DUHQRW
teaching anymore, because for example, they had children and stayed athome. So those who became academics with children would be 20 years
ROGHU WKDQ PH , ¿QDOO\ IRXQG VRPHone, but then there wasn’t anyone
above that, and then I ended up withmy mother. I always wanted to getmarried and have children, so the factthat I took the same path is because I
was conscious of her.
)XUWKHUPRUH¿YHRWKHULQWHUYLHZHHVSUDLVHG
their mothers for working and caring forthe family, regardless of their occupations. In contrast, 10 interviewees stated
that, because they wanted their careers to
be uninterrupted or uncompromised, they
SUHIHUUHGWREHGL൵HUHQWIURPWKHLUPRWKers, regardless of their occupations. For
example, J25, would-be business lawyer,
said of her mother who worked as an administrative assistant:
By watching my mother since childhood, I thought I wanted to continue
working as a full-time worker even
DURXQG FKLOGELUWK 0\ PRWKHU TXLW
working when she had my older
brother….and seeing her often havLQJWURXEOH¿QGLQJMREV,EHFDPHWR
think that, when I have children, I
want to avoid quitting work by using
parental and maternity leave.
6RPHLQWHUYLHZHHVVDZGL൵HUHQWDVSHFWV
of role models or counter-role models in

第 26 号

2023 年

their mothers. For example, J14, who asSLUHGWREHDFHUWL¿HGDFFRXQWDQWWKRXJKWthat her mother was a role model in terms
RIKDYLQJDTXDOL¿HGRFFXSDWLRQEXWQRWVR
much in terms of her intermittent career.
«EHFDXVHVKHKDVDTXDOL¿FDWLRQDV
an architect, it provided security as
she had highly paid contracts and wasable to do inspection work. So frommy mother, I thought it was necessary
WR JHW D FHUWL¿HG RFFXSDWLRQ 2Q WKHother hand, my mother wanted to continue her career, but she often said it
wasn’t possible during her era…. Sofrom that perspective, I think it’s important to continue a career without
quitting.
Among the UK participants, none of theinterviewees were following the exact ocFXSDWLRQDOIRRWVWHSVRIWKHLUPRWKHU+RZever, four interviewees considered theirmother’s uninterrupted careers as rolemodels. For example, UK12, a would-be
biochemist, said of her mother, who was ahuman resource specialist:
0\PRWKHUZDVDUROHPRGHO «EHing a career woman. I’m set to follow
the same path. And I want to be focused on my career and keep growing until I’m older. So I think in thatsense, we both have the same goals.
That’s what I want my future to look
OLNHMXVWLQDGL൵HUHQW¿HOG
UK13, an aspiring barrister, said of her

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mother, who was an airline logistics specialist:

said of her mother, who was a cleaner witha master’s degree:

I would want to be that kind of rolemodel for my children. I really respect
the fact that she is self-employed andshe’s as successful as she is. She completely made her own way and has a
SUHWW\ VXFFHVVIXO FDUHHU ÀH[LEO\ RQ
her own terms with what she enjoys.

, GH¿QLWHO\ OHDUQHG WKH OHVVRQ IURP
her to not give up a career or education or aspirations for a relationship…
6KHZDQWHGWRJHWD3K'$QG,WKLQN
with childcare, she couldn’t really geta job when she was looking after us
most of the time.

)XUWKHUPRUH 8. DQ DVSLULQJ QHXURscientist, expected to follow a high-status
occupation like her mother, who was a solicitor.

Five interviewees thought that their mothers should have made their fathers domore housework, presumably because thatwould have freed up additional time for
their occupations or other activities.
The mixed picture of mothers as rolemodels was similar between Japan andthe UK. On both sides, role models were
mostly not about occupations per se, asvery few interviewees expected to takeup their mother’s professions, including
LQWKH67(0¿HOG7KLV¿QGLQJFRLQFLGHV
with a study that mapped 5.6 million parent–child pairs, concluding that children
WHQGWRFKRRVHRFFXSDWLRQVWKDWDUHGL൵HUent from that of their parents (Adamic &)LOL] 
For both countries, while a few considered their mothers as role models incontinuing their successful careers or inbalancing work and family, a larger shareof interviewees preferred not to disrupt
or compromise their careers like them.
Therefore, in terms of their expected occupations, it is possible that the presenceor lack of role models elsewhere in society
could have had a motivating or demotivat-

I’ve always been driven as a highachiever for several reasons, but oneof them was just to try and make her
proud of me….
Otherwise, seven interviewees praised
their mothers for returning to their careers
or balancing work and family, all regardless of their occupations. At the same time,
11 interviewees thought that the mothers
could have done other things, such as continuing their career or furthering theireducation. For example, UK19, an aspiring elementary schoolteacher, said of her
mother, who was a housewife:
What I would change is, I think,it’s also important to sometimes put\RXUVHOI ¿UVW DQG \RXU JRDOV LQ OLIH
and career goals.
UK3, a would-be university teacher, also104

ジェンダー研究

LQJH൵HFWZKLFKLVDWRSLFIRUIXUWKHUUHsearch.

ტ6XPPDU\DQG&RQFOXVLRQThis study compared female university
students in Japan and the UK using interviews to understand the factors contributing to young Japanese females’ relatively
low occupational expectations. The analyVLVFRQ¿UPHGWKDWPRVWLQWHUYLHZHHVLQ-Dpan tended not to expect occupations withhigh socioeconomic status, especially in
WKH67(0¿HOGFRPSDUHGWRWKH8.7R
explain some of the factors, this paper foFXVHGRQWKHLQÀXHQFHRIPRWKHUV
Findings indicated that, while mothersof interviewees in the UK were somewhat more educated, Japanese university
students’ occupational prestige or career
WUDMHFWRU\ ZHUH QRW KXJHO\ GL൵HUHQW ZLWKPRWKHUVLQ-DSDQ+RZHYHUPRWKHUV¶HGXFDWLRQ DQG RFFXSDWLRQDO SUHVWLJH D൵HFWHG
the daughters’ occupational expectations
more in Japan. The UK case seem to indicate that there may be other societal
mechanisms to promote females to attend
universities and aim for challenging jobs,
LQFOXGLQJLQWKH67(0¿HOG)XUWKHUPRUH
in both countries, mothers’ encouragement
was generally not decisive in the choice of
RFFXSDWLRQV E\ WKH GDXJKWHUV +RZHYHU
pressure to aim high by some mothers of
the interviewees in the UK could havelifted the bar for the daughters to selectamong more prestigious occupations.
0RWKHUV¶UHWLFHQFHWRHQFRXUDJHGDXJKWHUV
WR DLP KLJK LQ -DSDQ VKRXOG EH DQDO\]HG

第 26 号

2023 年

and addressed. Finally, as most mothers
were generally not role models in terms of
their occupations per se in either country,
it suggests that their presence elsewhere in
VRFLHW\ FRXOG EH PDNLQJ D GL൵HUHQFH EHtween Japan and the UK.
This paper has several limitations. First,
the interviewees were not necessarily representative of female university students
in Japan or the UK, as they volunteered toparticipate in the study and convey theirideas about their future careers; thus, they
were relatively career-oriented. Second,
while the universities of the interviewees
were diverse geographically, as many werecompetitive and/or located in relatively
large cities, interviewees were presumably
more progressive on gender issues than
average female university students in bothFRXQWULHV 7KLUG GL൵HUHQFHV LQ WKH ODERU
market where employers in Japan tend tohire generalists instead of specialists in
the UK make occupational comparisonschallenging. Fourth, the ethnic diversity of
the interviewees, particularly in the UK,
including those who had one or two Japanese parents, made cultural attributions
complex.
'HVSLWH WKHVH VKRUWFRPLQJV WKLV SDSHUQHYHUWKHOHVVH[DPLQHGWKHGL൵HUHQFHVDQG
VLPLODULWLHV UHJDUGLQJ PRWKHUV¶ LQÀXHQFH
on occupational expectations of females inJapan and the UK, identifying other possible factors that might explain why they are
KLJKHULQWKH8.2QHFDQQRWHPSKDVL]H
enough that women must be more economically active, which requires young
females to have occupational expectations

105

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commensurate with their education andcompetencies long before entering the la-bor market.

%LEOLRJUDSK\$GDPLF/DGDDQG,VPDLO2)LOL]³'R-REV5XQLQ)DPLOLHV"´0HWD5HVHDUFKKWWSVUHVHDUFKIDFHbook.com/blog/2016/03/do-jobs-run-in-families/.
%DLUG&KDUGLH/³7KH,PSRUWDQFHRI&RPPXQLW\&RQWH[WIRU<RXQJ:RPHQ¶V2FFXSDWLRQDO$VSLUDtions.” 6H[5ROHV  SS%DQGXUD$OEHUW&ODXGLR%DUEDUDQHOOL*LDQ9LWWRULR&DSUDUDDQG&RQFHWWD3DVWRU(OOL³6HOIဨ(൶FDF\Beliefs as Shapers of Children’s Aspirations and Career Trajectories.” &KLOG'HYHORSPHQW 72(1): pp.

&KULVWDNRX'LPLWUD,QWURGXFLQJ:,6(/RQGRQ*RYHUQPHQW6FLHQFH (QJLQHHULQJ
'HSDUWPHQWRI(GXFDWLRQ³$FDGHPLF<HDU:LGHQLQJ3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQ+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ´(VSLQJ$QGHUVHQ *¡VWD  ³+\EULG 2U 8QLTXH" 7KH -DSDQHVH :HOIDUH 6WDWH EHWZHHQ (XURSH DQGAmerica.” Journal of European Social Policy  SS(VSLQJ$QGHUVHQ*RVWD*6RFLDO)RXQGDWLRQRI3RVWLQGXVWULDO(FRQRPLHV Oxford: Oxford UniverVLW\3UHVV)DUPHU+HOHQ6³:RPHQ¶V0RWLYDWLRQ5HODWHGWR0DVWHU\&DUHHU6DOLHQFHDQG&DUHHU$VSLUDWLRQ$0XOWLYDULDWH0RGHO)RFXVLQJRQWKH(൵HFWVRI6H[5ROH6RFLDOL]DWLRQ´Journal of Career AssessPHQW  SS
Francis, Becky, 2002, “Is the Future Really Female? the Impact and Implications of Gender for 14-16 YearOlds’ Career Choices.” -RXUQDORI(GXFDWLRQDQG:RUN  SS
*ROGLQ&ODXGLD/DZUHQFH).DW]DQG,O\DQD.X]LHPNR³7KH+RPHFRPLQJRI$PHULFDQ&ROOHJH
Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap.” -RXUQDORI(FRQRPLF3HUVSHFWLYHV. 20 (4): pp.
133-156.
*ROGWKRUSH -RKQ +  ³:RPHQ DQG &ODVV $QDO\VLV ,Q 'HIHQFH RI WKH &RQYHQWLRQDO 9LHZ´ Sociology.  SS
Gottfredson, Linda S, 1996, “Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise.” Career Choice
DQG'HYHORSPHQW. pp. 179-232.
/RRNHU ( 'LDQQH DQG 3DPHOD $ 0DJHH  ³*HQGHU DQG :RUN 7KH 2FFXSDWLRQDO ([SHFWDWLRQV RI
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([SHFWDWLRQV´6RFLRORJ\RI:RUNDQG2FFXSDWLRQV  SS
0HOOR=HQD5³*HQGHU9DULDWLRQLQ'HYHORSPHQWDO7UDMHFWRULHVRI(GXFDWLRQDODQG2FFXSDWLRQDO([SHFWDWLRQVDQG$WWDLQPHQWIURP$GROHVFHQFHWR$GXOWKRRG´'HYHORSPHQWDO3V\FKRORJ\ 44(4):SS
0L\DPRWR´¶*LUOVEH$PELWLRXV¶:K\-DSDQHVH*LUOVKDYH/RZHU2FFXSDWLRQDO([SHFWDWLRQVWKDQBoys.” 生活社会科学研究  SS2UJDQLVDWLRQIRU(FRQRPLF&RRSHUDWLRQDQG'HYHORSPHQWD Health at a Glance 20213DULV2(&'
2(&'E, Education at a Glance 20223DULV2(&'
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ジェンダー研究第 26 号

2023 年

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in Occupations.” -RXUQDORI,QGXVWULDO5HODWLRQV 17(3): pp. 225-239.
6DKD/DZUHQFH-³$VSLUDWLRQVDQG([SHFWDWLRQVRI6WXGHQWV´,QWHUQDWLRQDO(QF\FORSHGLDRIWKH6Rciology of Education. pp. 512-517.
6FKRRQ,QJULGDQG6DPDQWKD3DUVRQV³7HHQDJH$VSLUDWLRQVIRU)XWXUH&DUHHUVDQG2FFXSDWLRQDO
Outcomes.” Journal of Vocational Behavior.  SS
6FKRRQ,QJULGDQG(O]ELHWD3ROHN³7HHQDJH&DUHHU$VSLUDWLRQVDQG$GXOW&DUHHU$WWDLQPHQW7KH
Role of Gender, Social Background and General Cognitive Ability.” ,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI%HKDYLRUDO'HYHORSPHQW 35(3): pp. 210-217.
6FKXHWWH&KULVWLQH70LFKDHO.3RQWRQDQG0DUJDUHW/&KDUOWRQ³0LGGOH6FKRRO&KLOGUHQ¶V&Dreer Aspirations: Relationship to Adult Occupations and Gender.” 7KH&DUHHU'HYHORSPHQW4XDUterly. 60(1): pp. 36-46.
6HZHOO :LOOLDP + $UFKLEDOG 2 +DOOHU DQG *HRUJH : 2KOHQGRUI  ³7KH (GXFDWLRQDO DQG (DUO\2FFXSDWLRQDO 6WDWXV $WWDLQPHQW 3URFHVV 5HSOLFDWLRQ DQG 5HYLVLRQ´ $PHULFDQ 6RFLRORJLFDO 5HYLHZ 35(6): pp. 1014-1027.
6LNRUD-RDQQDDQG$UWXU3RNURSHN³*HQGHUHG&DUHHU([SHFWDWLRQVRI6WXGHQWV3HUVSHFWLYHVIURP
3,6$2(&'(GXFDWLRQ:RUNLQJ3DSHUVQR´OECD Publishing.
67(0:RPHQ³:RPHQLQ67(06WDWLVWLFV´KWWSVZZZVWHPZRPHQFRPZRPHQLQVWHPSHUFHQWDJHVRIZRPHQLQVWHPVWDWLVWLFV $FFHVVHG'HFHPEHU 
7KHYHQRQ2OLYLHU³'Rµ,QVWLWXWLRQDO&RPSOHPHQWDULWLHV¶)RVWHU)HPDOH/DERXU)RUFH3DUWLFLSDWLRQ"
1.” -RXUQDORI,QVWLWXWLRQDO(FRQRPLFV 12(2): pp. 471-497.
Universities UK, 2022, “International Facts and Figures 2022.”, https://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/uniYHUVLWLHVXNLQWHUQDWLRQDOLQVLJKWVDQGSXEOLFDWLRQVXXNLSXEOLFDWLRQVLQWHUQDWLRQDOIDFWVDQG¿Jures-2022. (Accessed January 4, 2023).
9RQGUDFHN)UHG:5DLQHU.6LOEHUHLVHQ0DWWKLDV5HLW]OHDQG0DUJLW:LHVQHU³9RFDWLRQDO3UHIHUHQFHV RI (DUO\ $GROHVFHQWV 7KHLU 'HYHORSPHQW LQ 6RFLDO &RQWH[W´ -RXUQDO RI $GROHVFHQW 5Hsearch.  SS
:DWWV/RJDQ/0DUN&)UDPH5LFKDUG*0R൵HWW-XGLWK/9DQ+HLQDQG0LFKDHO+HLQ³7KH
5HODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ*HQGHU3HUFHLYHG&DUHHU%DUULHUVDQG2FFXSDWLRQDO$VSLUDWLRQV´Journal ofApplied Social Psychology. 45(1): pp. 10-22.
:RUOG(FRQRPLF)RUXP*OREDO*HQGHU*DS5HSRUW&RORJQ\*HQHYD:RUOG(FRQRPLF)RUXP
安達智子, 2022, 「若者のキャリア形成とジェンダー ― 社会正義からの再考―」『キャリア教育研究 』40 (2):pp. 39-44.
平田周一, 2011, 「女性のライフコースと就業」石田浩 近藤博之 中尾啓子編 『現代の階層社会２』東京大学
出版会.
一方井祐子, 井上敦, 南崎梓, 加納圭, 横山広美, 2021, 「67(0分野に必要とされる能力のジェンダーイメージ
日本とイギリスの比較研究」『科学技術社会論研究』 19: pp. 79-95.
国立社会保障・人口問題研究所, 2017, 「2015年社会保障・人口問題基本調査」
三浦まり, 2015, 「新自由主義的母性―【女性の活躍】政策の矛盾」『 ジェンダー研究』SS
宮本香織, 2020, 「高校生の職業アスピレーションの男女差 ─3,6$を用いた国際比較─」『人間文化創成科
学論叢 』22: pp. 225-234.
元治恵子, 2004, 「女子高校生の職業アスピレーションの構造 ̶ 専門職と女性職」『応用社会学研究 』46: pp.
67-76.

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文部科学省, 2022, 「令和4年度学校基本調査（確定値）について公表します」
内閣府男女共同参画局, 2020, 「第5次男女共同参画基本計画」— , 2022, 「男女共同参画白書 令和4年版」
長町理恵子, 2021,「教育投資と大学進学の収益率」永瀬伸子, 寺村絵里子編『少子化と女性のライフコース』
Vol. 19, vi, 221p: 原書房.
中山慶子  「女性の職業アスピレーション― その背景, 構成要素, ライフコースとの関連」『教育社会学
研究 』SS
小川一夫, 田中宏二  「親の職業が娘の職業選択に及ぼす影響に関する研究」『教育心理学研究』  SS
大沢真知子, 2015, 『女性はなぜ活躍できないのか』 東洋経済新報社
佐藤郁哉『質的データ分析法 ̶ 原理・方法・実践』 新曜社.
鹿内啓子, 2007, 「大学生の職業選択に対する職業意識と親の影響との関連性」『北星学園大学文学部北星論集 』44 (2): pp. 1-11.
高橋桂子, 仲神八重子, 2007, 「女性の継続就業意欲に影響を与える要因」『新潟大学教育人間科学部紀要― 人文社会科学編 』  SS
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山田昌弘, 2015, 『女性活躍後進国ニッポン』 岩波ブックレット.
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（掲載決定日：2023 年 5 月  日）108

ジェンダー研究第 26 号

2023 年

要旨

日本の女子大生の職業アスピレーションに対する母親の影響―英国との比較宮本香織

日本の女子は、男子や他の先進国の女子と比べて、将来期待する職業の社会経済的地位が顕著に低い。その要因を追究するために、本研究はその要因として、母親の影響に焦点を当てる。具体的には、日本と英国の女子大生  人をインタビューし、母親の学歴、職業、奨励、ロールモデルなどについて比較する。結果は、まず、日本では英国に比べて、社会経済的地位の高い 67(0 系の職業を期待する女子が少なかった。第二に、母親の学歴と職業は、
英国の女子よりも、日本の女子に対して影響が強かった。第三に、その一方で、英国の女子の母親の方が、日本の母親よりも、地位の高い職業を奨励していた。最後に、どちらの国でも、母親は職業的にはロールモデルとはなっていなかったため、各々の職業を目指す意欲を左右させるロールモデルは、他に社会に存在している、あるいは欠けている可能性を示唆し
ている。
キーワード
職業アスピレーション、キャリア、女子大生、社会経済的地位、英国

お茶の水女子大学

人間文化創成科学研究科ジェンダー学際専攻

博士後期課程109