ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 4 Number 2

October 2013

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Managing Editors:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Yoko Mochizuki, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, France
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Editorial Advisory Board:
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
Dr. Robert J. Farquharson, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Prof. Dr. Keishiro Itagaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Arata Koga, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Editorial Secretariat:
Dr. Aya Ikawa, Mr. Julian Torillo Jr., Ms. Hidemi Sasabe, Ms. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang and
Mr. Sergio Azael May Cuevas

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Contents
Chemical Properties of Soils in Reforested and Bare Areas in Salt Affected Area of Khon Kaen
Province, Thailand
Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang and Machito Mihara

1Comparison of Fertilizer Management to Increase Yield and Quality of Rice
Pumisak Intanon

9

The Influence of Different Types of Fertilizers on Productivity and Quality of Maize in the Area ofKwaew Noi Bamrungdan Dam, Phitsanulok Province, Thailand
Pumisak Intanon

15

Land Use Assessment for Proposing Sustainable Development in El Jicaral, Mixteca Region, Mexico
Sergio Azael May Cuevas and Machito Mihara

21

Gender Partiality in Land Ownership and Water Distribution in Rural Tanzania
Yumiko Tanaka and Eiji Yamaji

27

Changes in Surviving Microorganism in Cow Manure with Adding Lime Nitrogen
Yuta Ishikawa and Machito Mihara

33

Resource-based Alternative Approach on Rice Bug (Leptocorisa oratorius Fabricius) Managementfor Food Security and Bio-safety
Marina A. Labonite

38

Characteristics of an Agricultural Innovation and Incentives for Adoption: Rhizobium in Cambodia
Robert J. Farquharson, Robert J. Martin, Bruce McCorkell,
J. Fiona Scott, El Sotheary, Chan Phaloeun, Heng Sophors,
Srey Sinath, Cheach Monida, Svay Sinarong and Bo Sokun

44

The Concept of Sustainable Development in Indonesian’s Forest Law (Case Study: Tesso Nilo’s
National Park in Pelalawan Regency, Riau Province, Indonesia)
Sri Wahyuni A Kadir

50

The Nitrogen Runoff Characteristics in Agricultural Watersheds after Enforcement of Animal Waste
Regulation
Toshimi Muneoka, Yuri Yamazaki, Sachiyo Wakou,
Motoko Shimura, Kunihiko Yoshino, Osamu Tsuji and
Toshio Tabuchi

56

Socio-Economic Evaluation on How Crop Rotations on Clayey Soils Affect Rice Yield and Farmers’
Income in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam
Tran Ba Linh, Wim Cornelis, Sara Van Elsacker andLe Van Khoa

62

Determinants of Sugarcane Productivity in Pakistan (1981-2011)
Anwar Hussain

69

Food Security and Socio-economic Impacts of Soil Salinization in Northeast Thailand
Aung Naing Oo, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and
Patcharee Saenjan

76

Development without Conformity: Impacts of Large-Scale Economic Development on Indigenous
Community Livelihoods in Northeastern Cambodia
Baromey Neth, Sam Ol Rith and Makoto Yokohari

82

Toward Measuring the Vulnerability of Agricultural Production to Flood: Insight from Sangkae River
Catchment, Battambang Province, Cambodia
Chinda Heng, Sotheavin Doch and Jean-Christophe Diepart

89i

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Comparative Reproductive Behavior of α-Male, β-Male and Subordinate Male Timor Deer (Cervus
timorensis Blainville) Raised under Captivity
Daud Samsudewa, Severino S. Capitan, Cesar C. Sevilla,
Renato S. A. Vega and Pablo P. Ocampo

98

Evaluation of Tide Embankment and Protection Forest Width on Tsunami Disaster Using Tsunami
Simulator
Youki Maeda, Hiromu Okazawa, Yasushi Takeuchi andTomonori Fujikawa

104

Awareness of Conversion from Conventional Farming System to Sustainable Farming System in
Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia
Jun Fujihira and Machito Mihara

109

Effects of Adding Bacillus sp. on Crop Residue Composting and Enhancing Compost Quality
Liexiang Li, Yuta Ishikawa and Machito Mihara

115

Local Livelihoods and the Tourism Value Chain: A Case Study in Siem Reap-Angkor Region,
Cambodia
Nara Mao, Terry Delacy and Helena Grunfeld

120

The Biochemical Substances in Plants on Salt Affected Area in Northeast Thailand, Bamnet Narong
District, Chaiyaphum Province, Thailand
Nararat Poodeetip, Kanlaya Kong-Ngern, Samang
Homchuen and Bupha Toparkngam

127

Effects of Chitosan and Lotus Extracts as Growth Promoter in Dendrobium Orchid
Piyavadee Charoenwattana and Umnoui Petprapai

133

Water Footprint of Energy Crops under the Rain-Fed and Irrigated Cultivation in Eastern Thailand
Sanidda Tiewtoy, Thanutyot Somjai and Chalita Suwan

138

Analysis of Requisite Quality of Cassava and Temperature for Baking Cookies
Sarin Neang, Vitou Orng, Vouchsim Kong, Sarom Men,
Linda Forrester and Borarin Buntong

143

Assessment of the Shelf-life of Cucumber under Three Low Cost Storage Methods
Songhak Phal, Thida Kem, Vouchsim Kong, Borarin
Buntong and Thong Kong

148

Passive Sampling Approach to Identify Contaminants in a Tropical Freshwater River System
Tatiana Komarova, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,
Atcharaporn Somparn, Natsima Tokhun and Barry Noller

154

Changes in Soil Nitrous Oxide and Carbon Dioxide Dynamics after the Application ofDigested Liquid Cattle Manure
Tomonori Fujikawa and Masato Nakamura

160

An Evaluation of Evaluation Systems for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Systems
Tung Nguyen Nhu

167

Assessment of Sustainable Energy Potential of Non-Plantation Biomass Resources in Sameakki
Meanchey District in Kampong Chhnang Province, Cambodia
Vibol San, Dalin Ly and Neang Im Chek

173

Farmer's Awareness and Factors Affecting Farmer's Acceptance to Grow Straw Mushroom in
Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines
Ngo Thi Thanh Truc, Zenaida M. Sumalde,
Florencia G. Palis and Reiner Wassmann

179

Effects of Retting Treatment on Coconut Husk Buffer Strips for Eliminating Nutrient Losses
Julian E. Torillo, Jr. and Machito Mihara

185

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Research article
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Chemical Properties of Soils in Reforested and Bare Areas
in Salt Affected Area of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
JEERANUCH SAKKHAMDUANG
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan /Recearch Center, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 21 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Salt affected soil is a severe environmental problem in northeast of Thailand.
About 16.82 percent of the total land area in the region is accounted for the salt affected
area. In the study area of Phra Yun district, Khon Khaen province, there were manystudies since 1990 and 18 governmental projects of Thailand have been conducted forrehabilitating salt affected soil since 1999. However, attention has been paid to the current
condition of salt accumulation in Phra Yun district, after many studies and projects havebeen implemented. So in this study, soil survey was conducted in four areas, Eucalyptus(Eucalyptus camaldulensis) reforested area and adjacent bare area, Acacia (Acacia
ampliceps) reforested area and adjacent bare area. Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples
were collected for analyzing physical and chemical properties of soils. The differences inchemical properties of soils were analyzed by t-test statistical method. The results showedthat EC1:5 values of soils in reforested and adjacent bare areas were significantly different
at 99%. The sodium and calcium concentration of soils at the same depth in reforested andadjacent bare areas also showed significant different at 95% and 99%. Moreover, there
was a tendency that EC1:5 values, sodium and calcium concentration decreased with soil
depth due to accumulation of salts at the surface layers. Although many studies andprojects have been implemented in Phra Yun district, salt accumulation has been stillsevere, especially in bare areas. In addition, it was clearly observed that reforested areas of
Eucalyptus and Acacia tended to be lower in electrical conductivity, sodium and calcium
concentration than that of adjacent bare areas. Thus, it was concluded that reforestation isan effective approach to rehabilitate salt affected soil.
Keywords salt affected soil, reforested areas, chemical properties of soil

INTRODUCTION
Salt affected soil is a severe environmental problem in northeast of Thailand. Total area of thisregion is 16.928 million hectares while the salt affected land covers 2.848 million hectares or about
16.82%. From the rock salt stratum, called Mahasarakam formation, laid under soil surface at 100
m to 200 m deep, salt components are rising associated with soil water to ground surface. Salt
affected soil is not only an environmental problem but also economic and social problems in rural
areas.
Capillary rise of saline groundwater is one of the main causes of salinization (Kohyama andSubhasaram, 1993). One of the practices to prevent salinization is interrupting capillary rise of
saline groundwater (Mihara et al., 2009) and to control the saline groundwater level (Dissataporn etal., 2002). Among several practices for controlling saline groundwater level, reforestation is also
recommended to lower saline groundwater and mitigate salt accumulation (Yamklee et al., 1995
and Yuwaniyama, 2011).
Khon Kaen province is one of the provinces in northeast of Thailand that faces salt affectedsoil problem. The salt affected area covers around 10.85 percent of total area. Salt affected soil

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

problem is severe in Phra Yun district, Muang district, Ban Fang district and Ban Phai district(Khon Kaen province, 2005; Topark-ngarm, 2006).
Phra Yun district is one of the salt affected areas of Khon Kaen province. Agriculture is themain occupation of villagers in the district, paddy rice and sugarcane are the main agricultural
products. Topography of this area ranges from flat land to rolling hills, elevation varies from 175 to
190 m above sea level. Paddy rice was cultivated in lowland areas while in the hill areas villagers
grown sugarcane, cassava and Eucalyptus trees. Average income of population in Phra Yun district
is 58,673 Baht or around 1,884 USD per year (Phra Yun Community Development Office, 2012).
In the study area, there were many studies about causes, effects and distribution of salt
affected soil since 1991 (JICA, 1991). Besides that, 18 governmental projects of Thailand havebeen conducted for rehabilitating salt affected soil since 1999 (Land Development Department,
1999, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, Land Development Office of Region 5(Khon Kaen), 2000, 2010, 2011a and 2011b).
Main activities of government projects for suppressing and/or ameliorating salt affected soil
problem in the study area included; introducing salt tolerant rice species to farmers, increasing riceproductivity by organic fertilizer and green manure application. Making groundwater drainage
system, promoting salt tolerant tree included Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia ampliceps andhalophyte grass, Sporobolus virginicus in severely salt affected areas as well as planting fast
growing trees in recharge areas to prevent salinization.
Moreover, in 1985, Agricultural Development Research Center (ADRC) has established incooperated with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Thai Government and Khon
Kaen University (JADES, 1997). The aims of the center are: 1) classification of agro-ecologicalzones and land use planning, 2) development of farm management system and 3) development of
low-input technology. One of the activities of ADRC was to suppress salinization and ameliorate
the salt affected areas.
However, attention has been paid to the current condition of salt accumulation in Phra Yun
district, after many studies and several projects have been implemented. Therefore, the objective of
this study is to investigate chemical properties of soils in reforested and bare areas in salt affectedarea of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand.
METHODOLOGY

Acacia area

Bare area

Eucalyptus area

Bare area

Fig. 1 Areas of conducted soil profile survey and collected soil samples
In January 2012, soil profile survey was conducted in 4 areas, Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
camaldulensis) reforested area and adjacent bare area, Acacia (Acacia ampliceps) reforested area

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

and adjacent bare area. According to soil profile in Eucalyptus reforested area, 3 disturbed and 9
undisturbed soil samples were collected while from the adjacent bare area of Eucalyptus, 5
disturbed and 15 undisturbed soil samples were collected. In Acacia reforested area, 2 disturbed
and 6 undisturbed soil samples were collected while from the adjacent bare area of Acacia, 3
disturbed and 9 undisturbed soil samples were collected. Soil samples were analyzed for physicaland chemical properties. The physical properties of soils including soil texture, dry density, specificgravity and soil permeability were analyzed. In addition, soil chemical properties including pH,
electrical conductivity (EC1:5) value, sodium, calcium, total nitrogen and total phosphorus
concentration were analyzed. The differences in chemical properties of soils were analyzed by ttest statistical method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physical properties of soils in reforested and bare areas
The soil textural classes of soils from 4 study sites were sand, sandy loam and loamy sand. Soils
specific gravity ranges between 2.62 to 2.66. Dry density of soils in 4 study sites ranges from 1.54
to 1.80 g/cm3. The highest percentage of loss on ignition was found in topsoil of Acacia reforested
area 3.63% (Tables 1 and 2).

a Eucalyptus reforested area b bare area adjacent to
Eucalyptus

c Acacia reforested aread bare area adjacent to
AcaciaFig. 2 Soil profiles in 4 areas
Table 1 Physical properties of soils in Eucalyptus reforested area and adjacent bare area
Depth fromsoil surface
Horizon(cm)
Soil in Eucalyptus area
0 – 40A1
40 – 45
A2

Soil texture

Specific
gravityDry density(g/cm3)

Ignition loss (%)

Saturated
permeability(x10-3 cm/s)

S
LS

2.62
2.65

1.80
1.79

0.89
0.67

125.90145.1045 – 100
A3
LS
Soil in bare area adjacent to Eucalyptus area
0 – 10
Dress layer 1
L
10 – 25
Dress layer 2S
25 – 34
Dress layer 3
LS
34 – 44A1LS
44 – 100
A2
SL

2.64

1.78

0.47

127.60

2.64
2.64
2.62
2.65
2.66

1.54
1.67
1.56
1.62
1.62

3.59
0.68
1.24
1.2
1.37

0.10
133.700.50
140.10125.40© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Table 2 Physical properties of soils in Acacia reforested area and adjacent bare area
Depth fromsoil surface
Horizon
Soil texture(cm)
Soil in Acacia area
0 – 10A1
S
21 – 80
A2
S
Soil in bare area adjacent to Acacia area
0 – 15A1LS
15 – 22A2LS
22 – 70A3
LSSpecific
gravityDry density(g/cm3)

Ignitionloss (%)

Saturated
permeability(x10-3 cm/s)

2.64
2.65

1.58
1.62

1.04
1.35

134.20
51.20

2.64
2.66
2.63

1.63
1.64
1.63

3.63
1.33
1.02

41.90
122.4095.90

Chemical properties of soils in reforested and bare areas
As shown in Fig 3, the EC1:5 values of soils in 4 areas were significantly different at 99%. The
EC1:5 value in topsoil of Eucalyptus reforested area was the lowest at 0.01985 mS/cm and thehighest value was topsoil of bare area adjacent to Eucalyptus at 20.00 mS/cm.
EC (mS/cm)
0

10

20

30

0
10 A**

a**

b**

B**

20
30

a

Depth (cm)

a

40
50

A**

Eucalyptus area

B**

Bare area adjacent to
Eucalyptus area

60

Acacia area

70
Bare area adjacent to
Acacia area

B**

80

A**

**Significant differnce at 99%

90

Fig. 3 Electrical conductivity values (EC1:5) of soils in 4 areas
The sodium and calcium concentration of soils at same depth in 4 areas showed significant
difference at 95% and 99%. It was observed that sodium concentration was the lowest in topsoil of
Eucalyptus reforested area at 1.84 mg/kg and the highest concentration was topsoil of bare areaadjacent to Eucalyptus at 21,447.86 mg/kg (Fig. 4, left side).
Calcium concentration was the lowest in topsoil of Eucalyptus reforested area at 10.10 mg/kg
and the highest concentration was topsoil of bare area adjacent to Acacia at 1,926.84 mg/kg (Fig 4,
right side). Moreover, there was a tendency that the EC1:5 values, sodium and calcium
concentration decreased with depth due to accumulation of salts at the surface layers.
As shown in Fig. 5 (left side), the total nitrogen concentration of soils in 4 areas was
significantly different at either 95% or 99%. A significant difference at 95% in the total nitrogenconcentration were found in soil of 2nd layer and 3rd layer of Eucalyptus area and adjacent bare area,
while a significant difference at 99% were found in topsoil of Acacia area and bare area adjacent to
Acacia. The highest total nitrogen concentration at 522.89 mg/kg was found in Acacia reforested
area due to high amount of nitrogen in Acacia leaf litter. Low total nitrogen concentration in topsoilof Eucalyptus plantation might be due to allelopathic affect of Eucalyptus trees to soil
macronutrients (Tilashwork, 2009).

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Sodium concentration (mg/kg)
0

0

10000

A**

20000

Calcium concentration (mg/kg)

30000

0

10

20

20
30

1500

2000

B** b**aa aaDepth (cm)

40

1000

A** a**

B**

a* b*

10

30

Depth (cm)

500

0

B**
A**

50

Eucalyptus area

40

B**
A**

Bare area adjacent to
Eucalyptus

50

Acacia

60

60

70

70

Bare area adjacent to
Acacia
B**

B**

80

80

A**

A**

*Significant difference at 95%**Significant difference at 99%

90

90

Fig. 4 Sodium concentration (left) and calcium concentration of soils (right) in 4 areas
The total phosphorus concentration of topsoil of Acacia area was significantly different at
95% from that of adjacent bare area. The total phosphorus concentration found in 4 areas was
relatively low ranging from 0.67 to 6.64 (Fig.5, right side). From the result, the highest value of
total phosphorus was found in the bare area adjacent to Eucalyptus area, the possibility isfrequently burning residues in bare area might be increase total phosphorus in soil (Li et al., 2012).
Total nitrogen concentration (mg/kg)
0

200

400

Total phosphorus concentration (mg/kg)

600

0

0
b**

A

0

a**

A

10

10

20

20

2

a*

4

6

8

b*

Eucalyptus

40

a

30
a
B**

Depth (cm)Depth (cm)

30

A**

50

80

50
60

60
70

Bare areaadjacent to
Eucalyptus
Acacia40

Bare areaadjacent to
Acacia

70
B**

80

A**

**Significant difference at 99%*Significant difference at 95%

90

90

Fig. 5 Total nitrogen concentration (left) and total phosphorus concentration (right) of soils
in 4 areas
Table 3 Changes in salt affected areas in Phra Yun district, Khon Kaen province

Year

1991
2003

Severely affectedarea(salt crust cover
more than 50%)
(ha)
310
441.6

Strongly affectedarea(salt crust cover
10- 50%)
(ha)
1,480
1,404

Moderately
affected area
(salt crust cover1- 10%)
(ha)
3,550
4,250

Source; JICA (1991); REO 10 (2003)© ISERD
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Total salt
affectedarea (ha)% of total
area(17,200
ha)

5,340
6,095

31
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Although 18 development projects of Thai government has been conducting in the study area
since 1991, the results of this chapter revealed that the soil salinity still severe, especially in barearea. Moreover, the salt affected areas are increasing from 31 percent of total district area in 1991
to 35 percent in 2003 (Table 3-3).
Strategy for promoting reforestation in salt affected area
Based on the results of this study, it was supported that reforestation is an efficient way torehabilitate salt affected soil. However, low economic benefit with reforestation became theconstraint for the locals to grow more trees in salt affected area of Khon Kaen province, Thailand(Sakkhamduang et al., 2012).
In 2001, Sakkhamduang et al. report that agro-forestry system in Salt affected area in Khon
Kaen Province had a lower practice than that of in non-salt affected area according to the salt
affected soil condition. Agro-forestry practices on salt affected area can be categorized into five
types; patch forests, trees on paddy bunds, tree plantations associated with animal husbandry, homegardens and trees in vegetable gardens. Moreover, Im-Erb et al. (2004) reported that an agroforestry system being promoted on 2003 in recharge area of Nakhon Ratchasima province was well
accepted by farmers according to their additional income.
Thus, agro-forestry system that combined salt tolerant tree with salt tolerant or halophyte
vegetables or field crops should be introduced to farmers in the study area for increasing theirincome as well as rehabilitating salt affected soil.
20m

20m

0

20m

0

20m

Fig. 6 Cross section and top views of home garden, one of agro-forestry systems existing insalt affected area
CONCLUSION
Many government projects have been implemented in Phra Yun district since 1991. The activity of
those projects included; introducing salt tolerant rice species to farmers, increasing riceproductivity by organic fertilizer and green manure application. Making groundwater drainage
system, promoting salt tolerant tree included Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia amplicep andhalophyte grass, Sporobolus virginicus in severely salt affected areas as well as to planting fast
growing trees in recharge areas for preventing salinization.
Although several projects were implemented, salt accumulation is still severe; especially inbare areas that has EC value of 20 mS/cm. In addition, it was clearly observed that reforested areasof Eucalyptus and Acacia tended to be lower in electrical conductivity, sodium and calcium
concentration than that of adjacent bare areas. Moreover, Thaweethavornsawat (1999) reported thatthe decreasing of forest area in Phra Yun district increases the distribution of salt patches in thearea. Thus, it was concluded that reforestation is an effective approach to rehabilitate salt affectedsoil.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to extend the gratitude to the villagers in the study area for their great
support during the field study as well as to ERECON, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation andConservation, Japan for providing the scholarship of my Ph.D research in TUA, Tokyo Universityof Agriculture, Japan.
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Land Development Office of Region 5 (Khon Kaen). 2000. Project of planting salt tolerant trees forpreventing salinization in Khong, Chi and Mun watershed in Ban Phai and Non Sila district Khon Kaen
province (Phase 1). Land Development Office of Region 5, Khon Kaen, Thailand (in Thai).
Land Development Office of Region 5 (Khon Kaen). 2010. Project of integrated alt affected soil
rehabilitation in Ban Had district, Khon Kaen province. Land Development Office of Region 5, Khon
Kaen, Thailand (in Thai).
Land Development Office of Region 5 (Khon Kaen). 2011a. Project of planting salt tolerant trees forpreventing salinization in Khong, Chi and Mun watershed in Ban Phai and Non Sila district Khon Kaen
province (Phase 2). Land Development Office of Region 5, Khon Kaen, Thailand (in Thai).
Land Development Office of Region 5 (Khon Kaen). 2011b. Project of promoting integrated salt affected soil

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management in sub watershed of Phra Yun district, Khon Kaen province. Land Development Office ofRegion 5, Khon Kaen, Thailand (in Thai).
Li, L., Ishikawa, Y. and Mihara, M. 2012. Effects of burning crops residueson soil quality in Wenshui,
Shanxi of China. International Jurnal of Environmental and Rural Development, 3(1), 30-35.
Mihara M., Shoji K. and Siriwattananon L. 2009. Rehabilitation of salt affected soils with chemical geotextile in Northeast Thailand. Journal of Arid Land Studies, 19(1), 277-282.
Phra Yun Community Development Office. 2012. General information of Phra Yun district.
(Access: http://www3.cdd.go.th/phrayuen/index.html)
Regional Environment Office 10. (2003) Changwat Action Plans for Environmental Quality Management
Project: CAPEQM, Report number 4. Khon Kaen, Thailand (in Thai).
Sakkhamduang, J., Siriwattananon, L. and Mihara, M. 2011. Agro-forestry system in Salt affected area in
Khon Kaen Province, Northeast of Thailand. International Journal of Environmental and Rural
Development, 2 (2), 84-88.
Sakkhamduang, J., Sato, M. and Mihara, M. 2012. Awareness of local people in recharge and discharge areas
towards rehabilitation of salt affected soil by reforestation in northeast of Thailand. The Book of
Abstracts of the 3rd International Conference on Environmental and Rural Development, 68.
Tilashwork, C.A. 2009. The effect of Eucalyptus on crop productivity and soil properties in the Koga
watershed, Western Amhara region, Ethiopia. Graduate School of Cornell University.
Thaweethavornsawat, S. 1999. Deforestation and distribution of salt patches in Northeast Thailand: A casestudy amphoe Phrayun changwat Khon Kaen. Graduate School of Mahidol University, Bangkok,
Thailand (in Thai with English abstract).
Topark-ngarm, B. (2006) Saline soils in northeast Thailand. Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University,
Thailand (in Thai).
Yamklee, P., Dissataporn, C. and Arunin, S. 1995. Changes in groundwater depth and quality resulting from
Eucalyptus reforestation on potential salt source area. Proceedings of the 3 rd Conference of Land
Development Department (in Thai).
Yuvaniyama, A. 2011. Impact of tree plantings on saline groundwater control. Proceeding of the 49 th
Kasetsart University Annual Conference: Natural Resources and Environment (in Thai).

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Research article
erdComparison of Fertilizer Management to Increase Yield
and Quality of RicePUMISAK INTANON*
Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University,
Phitsanulok, Thailand
Email: pumisak_intanon@hotmail.com
Received 12 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The purpose of this research was to improve the productivity and quality of rice.
This research was to compare various types of fertilizers that are suitable for growing rice.
Six experimental models were arranged in RCBD with 3 replications consisting of 18 fieldplots comprising a total of 5 Rai. Each model was designated as: T0 (no fertilizer: Control
group), T1 (pellet compost), T2 (Compost mixed bio-liquid fertilizer), T3 (compost mixed
mineral formula called formula-1), T4 (compost mixed higher mineral formula called
formula-2), and T5 (compost mixed the highest mineral formula called formula-3). Each
type of fertilizer was used at a rate of 50 kilograms per Rai. The rice seed used in thetesting was Phitsanulok #2. The experiment was located at Moo 13, Ban Huaidang,
Prompiram city, Phitsanulok Province, Thailand during April 2012 to September 2012.
The soil data and fertilizers used in an experiment were collected for reference andanalysis. Plant Environmental data, growth data, Yields, yield components and production
costs were also collected. The data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA and DMRT
at a 95% level of confidence. The analysis on the macro- nutrients from the fertilizer was
designated: T5, T4, T3, T2 and T1, respectively. The plant growth data the maximum
outputs are ranked from T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 and T0 models, respectively. According to thestudy results on yield and yield components the maximum outputs are ranked from T3, T5,
T4, T2, T1 and T0 models (1,119.4, 990.3, 949.3, 872.2, 813.2 and 781.0 kilograms perRai, respectively). In case of the T3 model compared with T0 (no fertilizer), it was foundthat the productivity increased 43.3% and the percentage of withered rice decreased 60%.
In the study of total production costs, it was found that the maximum production costs per
Rai was T5, T4, T3, T2, T1 and T0 models with 6,850, 6,800, 6,730, 6,540, 6,380 and
5,880 Baht per Rai, respectively. When compared with the yields, the least-costs riceproduction per 1 kilogram were ranked from T3,T5, T4, T2, T0 and T1 models with 6.01,
6.19, 7.16, 7.49, 7.52 and 7.84 Baht per kilogram, respectively. When selling rice at
11,500 Baht per ton, it was found that the highest profits of the models were as follows: T3,
T5, T4, T2, T0 and T1 with 6,143.1, 4,538.4, 4,116.9, 4,390.3, 3,101.5 and 2,971.8 Baht
per Rai, respectively.
Keywords fertilizer, fertilizer management, rice, quality of rice

INTRODUCTION
The farmers at Moo 13, Ban Huaidang, Prompiram Sub-district, Prompiram District, Phitsanulok
Province, Thailand utilize water from Naresuan dam located in Phitsanulok Province to irrigate
their rice farms twice a year. The majority of farmers use chemical fertilizer and pesticide toincrease the productivity without any basic knowledge on types of fertilizers, proper use or riceproduction costs. This lack of knowledge leads to higher production cost, soil deterioration, andchemicals left on the product that is unsafe to the consumers (Intanon et al., 2011). As a result of
the poor farming methods these farmers have a low income with higher debts.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

OBJECTIVE
Therefore, this research aimed to improve productivity and the quality of rice by promoting thecultivation of high-yield rice using effective economical fertilizers.
METHODOLOGY
1. The Experimental Plan: The six experimental models were arranged in RCBD with 3
replications. There were 18 field plots covering a total of 5 Rai. Each model consists of T0 (nofertilizer: Control group), T1 (pellet compost), T2 (Compost mixed bio-liquid fertilizer), T3(compost mixed mineral formula called formula-1), T4 (compost mixed higher mineral formula
called formula-2), and T5 (compost mixed the highest mineral formula called formula-3). Each
type of fertilizers was used at a rate of 50 kg per Rai 1( Rai = 1,600 M2), the rice seed used for thetesting was Phitsanulok #2. The growing test area was located at Moo 13, Ban Huaidang,
Prompiram Sub-district, Prompiram District, Phitsanulok Province, Thailand, the test period was
between April 2012 to September 2012.
2. Data Collection: data collected consists of following information: 1) weather condition andplant environment at the field plots; 2) analysis of soil before and after the experiment by exploring
the macro-nutrients (N, P, K) ,the secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg, S), the micro-nutrients (B, Fe, Cu,
Zn, Mn), and the analysis of pH and OM; 3) analysis of the fertilizers by investigating the macronutrients (N, P, K), the secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg, S), the micro-nutrients (B, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn),these tests were conducted at the Soil Science Lab, Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources andEnvironment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok; 4) data on the vegetative growth collected every
ten days (e.g. the stem and leaf height, the number of leaves per plant, the number of stem perclump, root-system length and total weight per plant); 5) data on yields and yield components after
harvesting and an investigation on the length of panicle of rice, number of rice seeds per panicle ofrice, number of healthy seeds and withered seeds per panicle of rice, the number of panicle of rice
per square meter, the number of panicle of rice per field plot, the weight of 1,000 seeds, the weightof seeds per field plot, and production per Rai; 6) data on the total production costs. The data were
statistically analyzed using ANOVA and DMRT model at a 95% level of confidence used forcomparison of treatments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The weather condition and plant environment at the field plots during the test period of April to
September 2012 showed that temperature ranged between 23-36oC, the average rainfall was 73.3
millimeters per month. However, the model area was also irrigated with water from the Naresuan
dam. The analysis of soil before the experiment illustrated poor soil conditions, low to moderatelevel organic compounds of soil, acid soil with a low pH, a very low level of phosphorus andpotassium and low acidic water (Japkaew and Intanon, 2010). After the experiment, it was foundout that the acidity of the soils that were fertilized with the three types of compost mixed mineralformula was reduce. This could result from the minerals, calcium or dolomites contained in theformula adjusting the levels of the acid soil pH.
Fertilizer analysis data in Table 1 showed that the analysis of fertilizer nutrients used in theexperiment and the models that contained maximum nutrients (the macro-nutrients, the secondary
nutrients, the micro-nutrients) were T5, T4, T3, T2, and T1with 66.07%, 62.09%, 61.53%, 12.29%,
and 9.66%, respectively.
Vegetative growth data showed that the models having the highest results on vegetative
growth were as follows: T3, T5, T4, T2, T1, and T0, respectively. The height of the stem andleaves was in accordance with nutrient balance of the fertilizers which provided high level ofnitrogen, secondary nutrients, and micro-nutrients. As a result, the compost mixed mineral formula(T3, T5, T4) provided a better growth than other fertilizers (Intanon, 2009). Besides having
nitrogen which is necessary component in cell division in the fertilizers, the secondary nutrients,© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

and the micro-nutrients were also correlated to cell division, the construction of chlorophyll,
photosynthesis in plants, growth of stems and leaves (Table 2).

Table 1 Analysis of fertilizers used in the experiment
pH

OM
%
14.50
12.20

Total
N,P,K
(%)
2.14
7.31

Total
Ca, Mg,
S (%)
2..2
2..4

Total
B, Fe, Cu,
Zn, Mg (%)
0.004221
0.005323

6.8
6.8

8.66
12.29

7.0

5.09

50.90

16.01

0.006268

61.53

7.2

3.23

50.50

11...

0.005687

62.09

7.5

3.13

.1.66

11.61

0.006165

66.07

Treatments
T0 No fertilizer (Control)
T1 Pellet compost
T2 Compost mixed bio-liquid fertilizer
T3 Compost mixed mineral formula,called formula-1
T4 Compost mixed higher mineral formula,called formula-2
T5 Compost mixed the highest mineralformula ,called formula-3

Total
(%)

Table 2 the analysis of vegetative growth
Treatments

stemheight*number ofleaves per
plant
27.8c
29.8c
31.6b

numberstem pertussock
7.6d
7.7d
8.2c

root-system
lengthtotal weight
per plant

T0 No fertilizer (Control)
80.2c
25.0c
4.8d
T1 Pellet compost
86.5b
26.4b
5.5c
T2 Compost mixed bio-liquid Fertilizer
86.5b
26.6b
5.5c
T3 Compost mixed mineral formula,
94.7a
37.3a
9.8a
28.9a
7.0a
called formula-1
T4 Compost mixed higher mineral formula,
88.5b
33.8b
8.8b
27.6a
6.2b
called formula-2
T5 Compost mixed the highest mineral
91.8a
36.2a
9.5a
28.6a
6.8a
formula, called formula-3
F-Test
*
*
*
*
**
% cv
9.5
9.6
6.6
8.7
8.8
* Significant at 95% confident interval in each column of the same period, the different in small letter indicatedsignificant at 95% by DMRT** Significant at 99 % confident interval in each column of the same period, the different in small letter indicatedsignificant at 99 % by DMRTYields and yield component data showed that the yields and yield components related to thelength of panicle, number of rice seeds per panicle of rice, number of healthy seeds and withered
seeds per panicle of rice, the number of panicle of rice per square meter, the number of panicle ofrice per a field plot, the weight of 1,000 seeds, the weight of seeds per a field plot. The highest
results were from methods as follows: T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 and T0 methods. In addition, it was
found that the maximum outputs production per Rai were ranked from T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 and T0
methods (1,119.4, 990.3, 949.3, 872.2, 813.2 and 781.0 kilograms per Rai, respectively). In case of
the T3 model compared with T0 (no fertilizer), it was found that the productivity increased 43.3%
and the percentage of withered rice decreased 60% (Table 3).
As illustrated in Table 3, fertilizers had a continuous and relative influence on the plants andvegetative growth. Plants grew fast and well resulting from the balance of nutrients which consistsof the macro-nutrients, the secondary nutrients, and the micro-nutrients. In the vegetative phase,
there were more green area which could be seen from the higher shoots, more leaves, and moreclump. Therefore, this created more areas for photosynthesis in plants. Nutrients (Nitrogen, Iron,
Copper, Zinc, Sulphur, and Magnesium) were the main factors in synthesis which created organic
compounds (carbohydrate and sugar) in plants. The greater number of nutrients, the more organic
compound was produced (Chuinon and Intanon, 2011). As a result, there was the weight gain interms of the weight of each ear of rice and the weight of 1,000 seeds due to the accumulation of© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

more carbohydrate. It was shown that the yield components improvement resulted in highproductivity. It is clear that compost mixed higher mineral formula provided the maximum outputs
production (T3, T5, and T4, respectively). In contrast, inadequate and unbalanced nutrient use
could significantly result in an increase of withered rice grains per ear (T0 and T1 respectively).
Table 3 Yield and yield components
Treatments

earlength(cm)

number ofseeds perear (seed)number of number of number of number of weight of weight
healthy withered rice
ear per
ear per plot ear (g) of 1,000
seeds perper earsquare meter
field
seeds
ear (seed)(seed)
(ear)
(ear)
(g)

weightof earper plot
field
(kg)

yield
(kg/Rai)T0 No
fertilizer
19.5c
114.1c81.7d
50.6c
191.0d5,920d2.24c
22.4c
13.26e 141.0d(Control)T1 Pellet
22.1c
126.1b88.4d36.2b
219.7c6,226d
2.43b 28.4b
15.12c 411.2ccompostT2 Compost
mixed bio22.2c
126.7b103.0c35.4b222.3c6,590c2.45b 28.6b
17.14b 414.2b
liquid fertilizer
T3 Compost
mixed mineral
26.8a
135.3a146.5a12.6a236.3a7,550a2.93a 35.2 a 22.12a 1,119.4a
formula, called
formula-1
T4 Compost
mixed higher
mineral23.6b130.5a113.1b18.5a229.3b7,264b2.66a
32.1a
19.32b .2..3b
formula, called
formula-2
T. Compost
mixed thehighest mineral 24.8b
132.6a110.0a15.5a232.0a7,332b
2.78a
32.5a
20.38a ..6.3a
formula ,called
formula-3
F-Test
*
**
*
**
**
*
*
**
*
**
%cv
6.5
4.8
0.6
9.6
12.2
9.5
12.7
8.8
9.6
12.2
* Significant at 95 % confident interval in each column of the same period, the different in small letter indicatedsignificant at 95 % by DMRT** Significant at 99 % confident interval in each column of the same period, the different in small letter indicatedsignificant at 99 % by DMRTIn the study of total production costs, it was found out that T5 has the highest production costof 6,850 Bahts follows by T4) 6,800 Bahts, T3) 6,110 Bahts, T2) 6,.20 Bahts, T1) 6,140 Bahts,
Baht per tons, it was found that the highest profits of the successive models were as follows: T3, T5,
T4, T2, T0 and T1 (6,143.1, 4,538.4, 4,116.9, 4,390.3, 3,101.5 and 2,971.8 Baht per Rai,
respectively).
Total production cost was indicated that the production cost of the three types of compost
mixed higher mineral formula were higher, especially T3, however, it yielded the highest
productivity per Rai which reduced the production cost per kilogram .Even though T3 had thehigher production cost, it provided the highest profit (Intanon et al., 2010). While T0, T1, and T2
had the lower production cost, they received less productivity. It is clear that the production cost
per kilogram of T0, T1, and T2 were higher when selling rice at 11.50 Baht per kilogram or at
11,500 Baht per ton and obtained less profit (Table 4).

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Table 4 The total production costs

Description

T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
No fertilizer
Pellet Compost compost mixed Compost mixed Compost mixed(Control)compost mixed
mineralhigher mineral
the highest
bio-liquid formula, called formula, calledmineralfertilizer
formula-1
formula-2
formula ,called
formula-3

1. ploughing and levelling
066
066
066
066
066
066
(2 times x 300 Baht/Rai)
2. seeds (35 kg/Rai x 20 Baht)
700
700
700
700
700
700
3. fertilizer/bag
266
.66
750
446
870
4. plant growth hormones(250 Baht x 1 time) and plant
hormones for ear of rice(300
456
456
456
456
456
456
Baht x 2 times) = 850 Baht
per Rai
5. pesticide (220 Baht x 1 time)
446
446
446
446
446
446
6. insecticide
266
266
266
266
266
266
(200 Baht x 2 times)
7. fuel for water pump andfuel for looking after rice
800
800
800
800
800
800
plants8. harvesting machine rent,
600
600
600
600
600
600
included fuel9. total expense
4,170
4,570
4,730
4,920
4,990
5,040
10. labour cost during the
1,110
1,410
1,410
1,410
1,410
1,410
production period *11. total cost
.,446
0,146
0,.26
0,116
0,466
0,4.6
12. rice yield(kg/Rai)
781.06813.26872.26
1,119.46
949.36990.36
13. cost of productivity
7.52
7.84
7.49
6.01
7.16
6.19
(Baht/kg)
14. income when selling
11,500 Baht/ton or 11.50
4,.41..
.,1.1.4 16,616.1
14,411.1
16,.10..
11,144.2
Baht/kg
15. profit (Baht/kg)
3.98
3.66
4.01
5.49
4.34
5.31
Profit(Baht/Rai)
3,101.5
2,971.8
3,490.3
6,143.1
4,116.9
4,538.4* a labour cost of production six-month-period excluded T0 which had no fertilizer and direct seeding labour cost.

CONCLUSION
According to the research findings, it can be concluded that:
1. The fertilizers that contained the most N, P,K, Ca, Mg, S and micro nutrients were T5, T3, T4,
T2, and T1, respectively.
2. Fertilizers that enhance rice growth to achieve maximum vegetative growths must have abalance of nutrients consisting of a high number of macro-nutrients and secondary nutrients. It canbe little of micro-nutrients and complete with all types of nutrients.
3. Fertilizers or yield models used to maximize outputs were ranked from T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 andT0 (1,119.4, 990.3, 949.3, 872.2, 813.2 and 781.0 kilograms per Rai, respectively). In case of theT3 model compared with no fertilizer, it was found that the productivity increased 43.3% and thepercentage of withered rice decreased 60%.
4. In the study of total production costs, it was found that the maximum production costs per Rai
was T5, T4, T3, T2, T1 and T0 models ( 6,850, 6,800, 6,730, 6,540, 6,380 and 5,880 Baht per Rai,
respectively). When compared with the yields, the least-costs rice production per 1 kilogram wereranked from T3,T5, T4, T2, T0 and T1 models ( 6.01, 6.19, 7.16, 7.49, 7.52 and 7.84 Baht per
kilogram, respectively).

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REFERENCES
Bundit, P. 1999 .Organic rice production in the upper north of Thailand. Proceeding of rice and cereal crops
conference, Bangkok, Thailand.
Chuinon, C. and Intanon, P. 2011 .Development of high quality of bio liquid fertilizer for rice production.
Naresuan University Journal. 19(2), May-August, 8-18. Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Department of Land Development. 1995. Soil improvement for higher yield. Office of land development
region 12, Songkla province, 25-32, (in Thai).
Intanon, P. 2000. Development of bio organic fertilizer from agricultural waste for reduce of cost production.
The project final report. Naresuan University, Pitsanulok, Thailand. Fiscal year budget 2000. 130.
Intanon, P. 2001. Bio organic fertilizer production from banana peel. The project final report. Naresuan
University, Pitsanulok, Thailand. Fiscal year budget 2001. 150.
Intanon, P. 200.. The construction of pilot plant of bio organic fertilizer integrated formula. The project final
report. Naresuan University, Pitsanulok, Thailand. Fiscal year budget 2005. 152.
Intanon, P. 2009. Fertilizer Technology .Department of Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture Natural
Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand, 200.
Intanon, R., Dokmaithong, S., Wantana, C. and Mohprasit, N. 2010. Study on cost comparison of biodiesel
system in local level for promotion of renewable energy. Naresuan University Journal. 18(2), MayAugust, 64-72. Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Intanon, P., Sawamichai, R. and Kluay-Ngern, B. 2011. Development of compound granular organic
fertilizer for lower cost of rice production. Naresuan University Journal. 19(3), September-December,
60-70. Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Japkaew, S. and Intanon, P. 2010. The effects of organic pellet fertilizer, Organic and chemical fertilizer,
chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormones mixed formula to the growth and yield of rice.
Proceeding of the 7th Naresuan research conference. Naresuan University, Pitsanulok, Thailand. 250-255.
Rice Department. 1996. Rice integrated production. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok,
5-10, (in Thai).

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Research article
erd

The Influence of Different Types of Fertilizers on
Productivity and Quality of Maize in the Area of Kwaew
Noi Bamrungdan Dam, Phitsanulok Province, Thailand
PUMISAK INTANON*
Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok,
Thailand
Email: pumisak_intanon@hotmail.com, pumisakintanon@gmail.com
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The purpose of this research was to improve the productivity and quality of corn.
The test plant was located at Moo 2 Ban Nongping, Tha-Ngarm sub-district, Watbot
District, Phitsanulok province, Thailand; and the test was undertaken throughout June
2011 to September 2011. Six experimental models were arranged in RCBD with three
replications consisting of eighteen field plots. Each model was designated as T0 (nofertilizer: Control group), T1 (pellet organic fertilizer from farm manure), T2 (granularorganic bio-fertilizer), T3 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer), T4 (chemicalfertilizer from the soil analysis programs) and T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer
with hormones mixed formula). Each type of fertilizer was used at a rate of fifty (50)
kilograms per Rai. The corn seed used in the testing was type NK#48. Plant environmental
data, vegetative growth data were collected every ten days. Yields, yield components andproduction costs were also collected. The data were statistically analyzed using ANOVA
and DMRT at a 95% level of confidence. The analysis on the chemical property of thefertilizers indicated the maximum macro-nutrients ranking from Nitrogen, Potassium, andPhosphorus, respectively. The model having the highest macro-nutrients was T4 (chemicalfertilizer from soil analysis programs). The model containing the highest secondary
nutrients was T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormones mixed formula).
The vegetative growth data which was the measure of the stem heights and size, leaf
length and leaf width were designated T4, T5, T3, T2, T1 and T0, respectively. It was
clear that this result was a function of the Nitrogen level contained in the fertilizers.
According to the study results on yield components in terms of the length and a diameterof corn ear, total weight per corn ear, weight of kernels per ear and weight of 100 kernels,
the maximum outputs were ranked from T4, T5, T3, T2, T1 and T0 models. The highest
number of withered kernels and the heaviest corn husk were T0, T1, and T2, respectively.
The models having greatest weight productivity per Rai were T4, T5, T3, T2, T1 and T0
models (1,319 kg, 1,305 kg, 970 kg, 857 kg, 775 kg, and 428 kg respectively). The results
indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between T5 and T4 models in
relation to the weight productivity per Rai. In the study of total production costs, it was
found that the minimum production costs per Rai were T0, T5, T2, T1, T3 and T4 models( 8,288, 8,538, 9,080, 9,238, 9,438, 10,108 Baht per Rai, respectively). When comparedwith the yields, the least cost of corn production per one kilogram were T5 and T4 models
with no statistically significant difference between the two. Therefore, the model thatshould be encouraged and promoted to the farmers for sustainable production was T5
model; this type of fertilizer contained a balance of nutrients, soil amendments andeffective microorganisms. In addition, it provided high productivity with the highest
financial return.
Keywords fertilizer, influence of fertilizers, maize, quality of corn

INTRODUCTION
The farmers at Moo 2 Ban Nongpling, Tha-Ngarm sub-district, Watbot District, Phitsanulok© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

province, Thailand utilize water from Kwaew Noi Bamrungdan dam located in Phitsanulok
Province to irrigate their corn farms. The use of the current chemical fertilizers leads to soil
deterioration, hard and compact soil making it difficult for water and air to penetrate, soil erosion
due to rain, strong acid soil, and higher production cost (Intanon et al., 2011).
OBJECTIVE
Therefore, this demonstrative research project investigated the influence of fertilizers on yield andyield components and corn quality in the area of Kwaew Noi Bamrungdan dam as a learning
resource and solution for the farmers.
METHODOLOGY
1. The experimental plan: Six experimental models were arranged in RCBD with three
replications consisting of eighteen field plots. Each model was designated as T0 (no fertilizer:
Control group), T1 (pellet organic fertilizer from farm manure), T2 (granular organic bio-fertilizer),
T3 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer), T4 (chemical fertilizer from soil analysis programs)
and T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormones mixed formula: An Innovation of
the Faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok
Province, Thailand. The mixture of fertilizers used in the experiment was in Table.1.Each type of
fertilizer was used at a rate of fifty (50) kilograms per Rai. In addition, the corn seeds used in thetesting, three kilogram per Rai was type NK#48. The size of each plant plot was 10X20 meters or
200 square meters. The test was located at Moo 2 Ban Nongpling, Tha-Ngarm sub-district, Watbot
District, Phitsanulok province, Thailand and the test period was from June 2011 to September 2011.
Table 1 The mixture of fertilizers used in the experiment
Types of fertilizers
T1 (pellet organic
fertilizer from farmmanure)T2 (granular organic
bio-fertilizer)
T3 (chemical andgranular organic
fertilizer)
T4 (chemical fertilizer
from the soil
analysis program)
T5 (chemical andgranular organic
fertilizer withhormones mixed
formula)Sources: Intanon (2009)

Ratio per weight of 50 kilograms
Soil mixed
Rice bran
DilutedEM
meal
molasses
(20%)
(10%)
(10%)
Bagasse Rice bran
Mung Bean Diluted
silagemeal
compostmolasses
(30%)
(10%)
(10%)
(10%)

Pig manure powder(60%)
Pig manure
powder(40%)

Granular organic fertilizer from farmmanure (50%)
Urea 46-0-0= 21 kg (39 %)ChemicalFertilizer
15-15-15=10 kg(20%)

Pig
manurepowder
(30%)

Total
-

100%

-

100%

Chemical fertilizer
46-0-0 (50%)

100%

Phosphorus 0-46-0= 18kg (33%)

Potassium 0-0-60= 15kg (28%)

100%

Rock
phosphateanddolomite
1:1 (20%)Extract
herballiquid(10%)

100%

Bio liquid
fertilizer(10%)

Organic
hormones(10%)

2. Data collection: the data collection consisted of information as follows: 1) weather condition at
the field plots; 2) analysis of soil before and after the experiment by exploring N- P- K, pH, OM
and the analysis of pH water; 3) analysis of the Major-nutrients (N, P, K) and the secondary
nutrients (Ca, Mg, S) of fertilizers used in the experiment. These tests were conducted at the Soil
Science Lab, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand; 4) data on the vegetative growthcollected every ten days (e.g. the stem height, stem size, number of stems per square meter, thenumber of leaf per stem, leaf length, and leaf width; 5) data on yields and yield components( e.g.
the length of corn ear , a diameter of corn ear, corn ears per square meter, number of healthy andwithered kernels per corn ear, the total weight per corn ear, the weight of corn husk per corn ear,

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

the weight of corn cob, the weight of kernels per corn ear, weight of 100 kernels and the weightyield per Rai; 6) data on the total production costs. The data were statistically analyzed using
ANOVA and DMRT model at a 95% level of confidence used for comparison of treatments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The weather condition and plant environment at the field plots during the test period of June 2011
to September 2011 showed that temperature ranged between 23-36oC, the norm for this area, therainfall ranged from 190-460 millimeters which was a high density of rainfall (Japkaew and
Intanon, 2010). The analysis of soil chemical property before and after the experiment indicates inTable 2. The soil consists of sandy loam with laterite, it was in poor conditions, with a low pH(acid soil), a low level of organic matter, and a very low level of phosphorus and potassium (Table
2).
Table 2 Soil chemical property before and after the experiment
Treatments
Before the experiment
After the experimentT0 (no fertilizer)
T1( pellet organic fertilizer from farm manure)
T2 (granular organic bio-fertilizer)
T3 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer)
T4 (chemical fertilizer from the soil analysis
programs)
T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer withhormones mixed formula).

pH

OM %

N%

P%

K%

..1

0.66

6.45

6.1.

6.66.4

pH
water
0.1

5.7
5.9
5.9
5.8

0.76
0.86
0.98
0.95

0.45
0.92
0.94
1.34

0.00346.004.
6.00656.00540.00..
6.66.1
6.6614
6.66..

0.1
6.7
6.8
6.7

5.7

0.75

1.67

6.008.

6.66.1

6.5

5.8

0.95

1.72

6.00746.6644

1.6

The analysis of fertilizers nutrients used in the experiment illustrated in Table 3. It was foundthe highest nutrients ranked as follows: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium respectively. The
models that contained maximum macro-nutrients were T4, T5, T3, T2, and T1 (54.00%, 34.00%,
27.83%, 3.41%, and 3.23%, respectively). The models that contained maximum secondary
nutrients were T5, T2, T1, T3 and T4 (7.15%, 4.55%, 2.99%, 2.73%, and 0%, respectively).
T5 model had the maximum secondary nutrients due to the mixture of rock phosphate and dolomite
which contained high secondary nutrients. Some secondary nutrients were in liquid, organic andorganic hormones. Contrary to T5, T4 model was a mixture of chemical fertilizers containing
macro-nutrients, as a result, there was no secondary nutrient in it (Table 3).
Table 3 Analyzing of macro-nutrients and secondary nutrients of fertilizers
applied in the experiments
Treatments
T0 control (no fertilizer)
T1( pellet organic fertilizer)
T2 (granular organic biofertilizer)
T3 (chemical and granularorganic fertilizer)
T4 (chemical fertilizer by soil
analysis programs)
T5 (chemical and granularorganic fertilizer withhormones mixed formula)

pH
6.8

OM
(%)
14.51

N
(%)
1.44

P
(%)
6.61.

K
(%)
6.61.

Total
(%)
3.23

Ca
(%)
6.4.

Mg
(%)
6.14

S
(%)
210.

Total
(%)
2.99

6.8

12.22

1.21

6.61.

6.61.

3.41

0.68

0.65

3.22

4.55

7.0

5.14

41.41

6.61.

0.644

27.83

0.62

0.46

1.65

2.73

7.2

0.0

21.02

14.00. 15.00

54.00

6.6

6.6

6.6

6.6

7.5

3.14

15.14

12.404

0.500

34.00

1..

6.4.

2.46

7.15

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Table 4 Vegetative growths analysis
stemheightTreatments

stem size

numberof leaves
per plant
42d
64c
68b

leaf
lengthleaf
width

numberstem per
m2
7.6d
7.7d
8.2c

T0 (no fertilizer)
158.2d1.156e42d
2.1d
T1( pellet organic fertilizer)
230.4c1.784b64c
3.2c
T2 (granular organic bio-fertilizer)
241.9b
1.856c68b
3.3c
T3 (chemical and granular organic
9.8a
247.6b
1.954b71b
71b
3.5b
fertilizer)
T4 (chemical fertilizer from the soil
8.8b
257.5a1.985b82a
82a
3.8a
analysis programs)
T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer
9.5a
255.6a2.112a80a80a
3.8awith hormones mixed formula).
F-Test
*
*
*
*
*
*
% CV
8.7
8.4
9.5
9.5
0.6
4.2
*Significant at 95% confident interval in each column of the same period, the different in small letter indicatedsignificant at 95% by DMRT

Table 5 Yields and yield components
Treatments
T0 (no fertilizer)
T1( pellet organic
fertilizer)
T2 (granular organic
bio-fertilizer)
T3 (chemical andgranular organic
fertilizer)
T4 (chemicalfertilizer by soil
analysis programs)
T5 (chemical andgranular organic
fertilizer withhormones mixed
formula)length diameter total number numberof corn of corn ear weight of kernel of cornear(cm) per corn per ear per square(cm)ear (g)
meter
14.7d

4.7d

167e

446d

1a

numberofwitheredkernels
per ear61e

weightofkernels
per ear(g)
105eweightof 100kernels(g)weight ofyieldscorn ear (kg/Rai)with kernels
removed

30c

35.3c

428e

17.2c

5.4c

300d

241c

1a

32d

198d

34c

66.9b

775d

19.3b

6.2b

324c

2..c

1a

18c

210c

42b

65.4b

857c

19.3b

6.5b

329b

.24a

1a

8b

229b

47a

64.8b

970b

21.1a

7.2a

338a

.16b

1a

5a

235a

49a

67.3b

1,319a

20.4a

7.1a

343a

.16b

1a

4a

234a

49a

72.6a

1,305aThe vegetative growth analysis showed the T3, T4, and T5 models having the most effective
vegetative growth development as they contained high macro-nutrients from the chemicalfertilizers that dissolve quickly, delivering nutrients to the plants in a form that are quickly
absorbed. However, T1 and T2 models, slow-release organic fertilizers contain less nutrientsresulting in the slowing down the vegetative growth. In the case of T5 model, it promoted
vegetative growth more effectively than the other chemical fertilizers due to the nutrient balance ofthe fertilizer which provided macro-nutrients, secondary nutrients and micro-nutrient (Intanon,
2000). The effectiveness get from the result of by mixed formula components of dolomite and rockphosphate containing high levels of secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg, S) and from the bio liquid
fertilizer and organic hormones components which contained micro-nutrients (Table 4).
The yields and yield components analysis was found that the maximum output production per
Rai was ranked T4, T5, T3, T2, T1, and T0 models. Interestingly, the data showed no statisticaldifference between T4 and T5 with respect to production yields. This resulted from the three typesof nutrients found in abundance in the T4 model responsible for rapid corn growth. In addition, theanalysis of soil chemical elements and the host plants before adding needed nutrients helped topromote corn growth. In case of T5 which also had high yields, there were high amount of macronutrients, secondary nutrients and micro nutrients in the fertilizer. It was clear that these balance
nutrients were required for corn production (Intanon, 2009). When considering soil improvement
and preservation for sustainable yield of crops between models T4 and T5, the T5 model seemed to
be a worthy choice for farmers who grow corn in poor physical soil condition (Table 5).

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

The total production costs analysis was found that the minimum production costs per Rai was
T0, T5, T2, T1, T3, and T4 models (8,288, 8,538, 9,080, 9,238, 9,438, and 10,108 Baht per Rai,
respectively). Compared with the yields, the least-cost rice production per kilogram were ranked
from T5, T4, T3, T2, T1, to T0 models (6.54, 7.66, 9.73, 10.6, 11.92, and 19.36 Baht per kilogram,respectively), as shown in Table 6 (Intanon et al., 2010).
Table 6 The total production costs
Description
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
ploughing and levelling (2 times
600
600
600
600
600
x 300 Baht/Rai)
2. Seeds (1,400 Baht/ bag/5 Rai)
Seeds used 2 bags in total so the
448
448
448
448
448
cost was 280 Baht/Rai. Seeds
used per 1.6 Rai
3. fertilizer/bag, Baht/bag
400
550
650
850
4. plant growth hormones for
supplementary food per Rai for
200
200
200
200
200
speeding up kernel production
when corn silk develops (1 time)
5. pesticide per Rai (2 times)
400
400
400
400
400
6. insecticide as needed per Rai
200
200
200
200
200
(1 time )7. fuel for water pump and looking
800
800
800
800
800
after crops
8. labour costs for harvesting
440
440
440
440
440
9. transportation (Baht/ton)
300
300
300
300
300
total expense (Baht/Rai)
3,600
4,000
3,700
3,950
4,420
10. labour costs during corn
1,300
1,450
1,450
1,450
1,450
production*
total cost (Baht/Rai)
8,288
9,238
9,080
9,438
10,108corn yield (kg/Rai)
428
775
857
970
1,319
cost of corn yield/kg
19.36
11.92
10.60
9.73
7.66
* labour costs during corn production listed as follows:
1. labour costs for ploughing and levelling (2 times X 1 person X 100 Baht/Rai) = 200 B.
2. labour costs for direct seeding (1 time X 1 person X 100 Baht/Rai)= 100 B.
3. labour costs for fertilizer application (2 times X 1 person X 75 Baht/Rai)= 150 B.
4. labour costs for spraying hormones after development of corn silk
(1 time X 1 person X 50 Baht/Rai)= 50 B.
5. labour costs for spraying pesticide (2 times X 1 person X 50 Baht/Rai)= 100 B.
6. labour costs for spraying insecticide (1time X 1 person X 50 Baht/Rai)= 50 B.
7. labour costs for caring the crops (800 Baht/Rai)= 800 B.
(T0 model did not use fertilizer so there was no cost for fertilizer application)
1.

T5
600

448
700
400
800
440
300
3,700
1,450
8,538
1,305
6.54

CONCLUSION
According to the research findings, it can be concluded as follows:
1. The fertilizer contained the most macro-nutrients was T4 model (Nitrogen, Potassium, andPhosphorus, respectively) and T5 model contained the most secondary nutrients (Sulphur, Calcium,
and Magnesium, respectively).
2. From the vegetative growth analysis, the models that had the most effective vegetative growthdevelopment were T4, T5, T3, T2, T1, and T0, respectively. But between T4 and T5 models show
no statistical significance.
3. The data on yields and yield components revealed that the maximum output production per Rai
were ranked T4, T5, T3, T2, T1, and T0 models (1,313, 1,305, 970, 857, 775, and 428
kilogram/Rai). And there was no statistically difference between T4 and T5 in relation for
producing similar amount of yields due to high amount of macro-nutrients, secondary nutrients,and micro- nutrients in the fertilizer and a balance of each nutrient.
4. The minimum total expenses per Rai were T0, T5, T2, T1, T3, and T4 models, respectively;
however, T0 and T1 models had the lowest corn production costs per Rai whereas, T5 and T4© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

models had the lowest corn production costs per kilogram and the best return on investment.
5. T5 model should be promoted for sustainable agriculture as this type of fertilizer maximizes crop
yields with the greatest financial return while providing a balance and complete range of nutrients,
soil amendments and effective microorganisms.
REFERENCES
Chuinon, C. and Intanon, P. 2011 .Development of high quality of bio liquid fertilizerfor rice production.
Naresuan University Journal, 19(2), May-August, 8-18. Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Israngkul Na-ayuthaya, A. 1991. The pest control by herb extract liquid. Bio pesticide article. Department ofAgricultural science Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives, 198-205.
Intanon, P. 2000. Development of bio organic fertilizer from agricultural waste for reduce of cost production.
The project final report. Fiscal year budget 2000. Naresuan University, Pitsanulok, Thailand.
Intanon, P. 200.. The construction of pilot plant of bio organic fertilizer integrated formula. The project final
report. Fiscal year budget 2005. Naresuan University, Pitsanulok, Thailand.
Intanon, P. 2009. Fertilizer technology .Department of Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture Natural
Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand, 200.
Intanon, R., Dokmaithong, S., Wantana, C. and Mohprasit, N. 2010. Study on cost comparison of biodiesel
system in local level for promotion of renewable energy. Naresuan University Journal. 18(2), MayAugust, 64-72. Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Intanon, P., Sawamichai, R. and Kluay-Ngern, B., 2011. Development of compound granular organic
fertilizer for lower cost of rice production. Naresuan University Journal. 19(3), September-December,
60-70. Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Japkaew, S. and Intanon, P. 2010. The effects of organic pellet fertilizer, organic and chemical fertilizer,
chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormones mixed formula to the growth and yield of rice.
Proceeding of the 7th Naresuan research conference. Naresuan University, Pitsanulok, Thailand. 250-255.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Research article
erdLand Use Assessment for Proposing Sustainable
Development in El Jicaral, Mixteca Region, Mexico
SERGIO AZAEL MAY CUEVAS
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 21 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract El Jicaral is an indigenous community of around one thousand inhabitants
located in the Municipality of Coicoyán de las Flores, Mixteca Region, Mexico. Thisregion is characterized for being one of the poorest regions in Mexico, with high levels ofland degradation, deforestation and water shortages. Even though several studies havebeen undertaken to estimate the region’s area affected by soil degradation, the findings
derived from these studies cannot describe accurately the conditions in the community
especially for scale differences, and hence appropriate sustainable farming practices are
difficult to be proposed. For this reason, the objective of this study is to assess the present
land degradation condition in the study area, using a satellite map obtained from Google
Earth and through the overlaying of a mesh, for the identification and classification ofseveral variables, namely vegetation density, slope, steepness and land use, to propose
suitable farming practices for mitigating land degradation. The results showed thatcurrently there is a severe degree of soil degradation in the community, reflected in the
majority of cells of the mesh with very low and low values of vegetation density, and thatmost of them were also in slopes up to 16%. Also, it was observed that most of the studied
area land use was dedicated for agricultural purposes, even in hillside terrains. So, it isnecessary to implement farming systems taking into account this topographic factor, as
well as socioeconomic and environmental ones.
Keywords land use assessment, sustainable development, Mixteca

INTRODUCTION
In the last decades, sustainable development has become a primary objective, as mentioned in the
Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development, adopted at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD) (United Nations, 2002). This created a continuous need for
accurate information on landscape changes. With the present technologies, these changes can beobserved in photographs of as practically in any places in the Earth. This is important fordeveloping environmental management and planning strategies at different scales in terms ofsustaining those resources, which provide important economical goods and services (Hammad andTumeizi, 2012).
Such strategies for environmental management also are intended to mitigate the current
situation of land degradation that could be defined as the processes derived from human activities
which lead to a reduction in either the biological productivity or biodiversity, as well as in thecurrent and/or future capacity to sustain human life (Oldeman, 1998).
In Mexico, several studies have been carried out to estimate the country’s resources situation,
including land degradation (Semarnat, 2008). However, the results obtained cannot be compared
due to differences in methodology and scale. According to the Mexican Secretariat forEnvironmental Protection, Natural Resources and Fisheries (SEMARNAP in Spanish), the twomost recent studies are the Assessment of soil loss due to hydric and eolic erosion in Mexico, scale
1:1,000,000 (Semarnat-UACh, 2003) and Assessment of soil degradation caused by man in Mexico,© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

scale 1:250,000 (Semarnat-CP, 2003). However, these studies cannot describe accurately theconditions in the research site, especially for scale differences, and hence appropriate sustainable
farming practices are difficult to be proposed.
STUDY SITE
For this research, the community of El Jicaral, located in the Mixteca Region was selected. Mixteca
region is compounded by three states: Puebla, Guerrero and Oaxaca. The Oaxacan Mixteca (Fig. 1)
is a region comprising 19,583 km2, 8 districts, 165 municipalities, and 1,419 villages. Of its nearly
500,000 inhabitants, 68% live in rural areas and 35% belongs to one of several indigenous groups,
including the Mixtecas (predominant), the Triqui, the Chochomixtecos, the Amuzgos, and theTacuates. This region is characterized as being one of the poorest regions in Mexico, with highlevels of land degradation, deforestation and water shortages (Martínez and Altieri, 2006).
El Jicaral (Fig. 2) is an indigenous community with around 1,000 inhabitants, whose spoken
language is Mixteco. The main crops are rain-fed corn, chili and beans. Due to the uneven
topography of the region, the upland fields are mostly situated in hillsides, being prone to landdegradation processes.

Fig. 1 Mixteca Region, Mexico

Fig. 2 Land degradation in El Jicaral© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to assess the present land use condition in the study area, using
satellite maps obtained from Google Earth and through the overlaying of a mesh for theidentification and classification of several variables, namely: vegetation density, slope and land use.
In doing so, the objective is to be able to propose suitable farming practices for this community, inthe hope that it could be spread throughout the region.
METHODOLOGY
Through the use of digital maps obtained from Google Earth software, a mesh was constructedabove the community of El Jicaral, which is located in the coordinates 17º 07’34.56” Latitude
North, and 98º11’48.9” Longitude West. Cells dimensions were 50 meters by 50 meters, covering
an area of around 0.5 km2 (Fig. 3).The digital photography used for this research was taken in
November 19th 2010.

Fig. 3 Mesh projected in El Jicaral community
The Haversine formula of spherical trigonometry was used to calculate the distance between
two points in the mesh using coordinates. This formula estimates the shortest distance over theearth’s surface, ignoring any hills, Eq. (1).
( )

(

)

(

)

(

)

(

)

(1)

In Eq. (1)harvesin is the Harvesine function, Eq. (2).

( )

( )

( )

(2)

In Eq. (2)d is the distance between the two points along the sphere; r is the radius of thesphere, ϕ1 and ϕ2 are the latitude of point 1 and point 2 respectively, and λ 1 andλ2 are longitude ofpoint 1 and point 2, respectively.
After the mesh was projected in the study field, the elevation value of every intersection was
obtained. Knowing the distance between intersections, the steepness and slope in every cell was
calculated. Furthermore, with the mesh defined, vegetation density as well as land use values wereassigned to every cell.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Steepness and slope: Steepness (ΔL) is the difference of elevations between two points. In every
cell there are four intersections, so the steepness was calculated choosing the highest value and the© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

lowest value among these four intersection points and then making the subtraction of these twovalues, as shown in Fig. 4. Then with the values of steepness, and already knowing the distance
between the two points chosen (Δd) the value of slope was calculated, as shown in Fig. 5.
16

10

17

25

22

13

4

22

14

17

14

19

22

18

22.70

14.18

24.11

35.46

31.21

18.44

8.00

31.21

19.86

24.11

28.00

26.95

31.21

25.53

13

12

18

24

23

15

8

20

16

21

9

11

17

14

18.44

17.02

25.53

34.04

32.62

21.28

11.35

28.37

22.70

29.79

12.77

22.00

24.11

19.86

10

15

19

17

25

19

15

13

15

21

13

12

14

12

20.00

21.28

26.95

24.11

35.46

26.95

21.28

26.00

21.28

29.79

26.00

17.02

19.86

17.02

11

16

18

18

22

20

18

22

30

34

21

12

11

11

15.60

22.70

25.53

25.53

31.21

28.37

25.53

31.21

42.55

48.23

29.79

17.02

22.00

15.60

14

17

18

17

21

18

18

17

15

19

11

11

11

9

19.86

24.11

25.53

24.11

29.79

25.53

25.53

24.11

21.28

26.95

15.60

15.60

15.60

12.77

16

16

16

15

19

18

18

11

11

22

23

16

10

9

22.70

22.70

22.70

21.28

26.95

25.53

25.53

15.60

22.00

31.21

32.62

22.70

20.00

18.00

18

16

15

14

16

16

18

13

18

14

14

11

16

14

25.53

22.70

21.28

19.86

22.70

22.70

25.53

18.44

25.53

19.86

19.86

22.00

22.70

19.86

18

19

20

19

18

17

14

13

14

10

9

5

13

17

25.53

26.95

28.37

26.95

25.53

24.11

19.86

18.44

19.86

14.18

18.00

10.00

18.44

24.11

18

25

26

25

18

14

12

13

13

12

12

2

10

21

36.00

35.46

36.88

35.46

25.53

19.86

17.02

18.44

18.44

24.00

17.02

4.00

14.18

29.79

12

19

22

23

17

13

9

11

9

7

17

7

5

16

17.02

26.95

31.21

32.62

24.11

18.44

12.77

15.60

12.77

9.93

24.11

9.93

10.00

22.70

12

16

21

22

15

11

8

10

8

8

18

8

3

16

17.02

22.70

29.79

31.21

21.28

15.60

11.35

14.18

11.35

11.35

25.53

11.35

4.26

22.70

13

16

21

21

14

10

9

11

8

9

20

14

9

18

18.44

22.70

29.79

29.79

19.86

14.18

18.00

15.60

16.00

12.77

28.37

19.86

12.77

25.53

16

16

21

21

10

6

7

9

8

10

18

16

12

19

22.70

22.70

29.79

29.79

14.18

8.51

9.93

12.77

16.00

14.18

25.53

22.70

17.02

26.95

17

18

22

22

9

4

8

9

8

10

17

16

14

19

24.11

25.53

31.21

31.21

12.77

5.67

11.35

12.77

11.35

14.18

24.11

22.70

19.86

26.95

1-10

11-20

21-30 31-40 41-50

1-7

8-14

15-21 22-28 29-35

Percentage (%)

MetersFig. 4 Steepness values (m)Fig. 5 Slope values (%)

The average slope value for the mesh was 21.9%. The maximum value was 48.3% and theminimum was 4%.
Vegetation density: Using the mesh projected in the research area, for every cell of 50 meters by
50 meters, a value was assigned, according to the density of vegetation observed. The values werefrom 1 to 5, being 1 the lowest vegetation density value and 5 the highest (Fig. 6).
1

3

2

3

4

1

2

2

3

1

3

2

4

1

2

3

4

5

3

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

3

2

2

4

3

3

2

2

3

2

3

5

4

2

3

3

2

3

3

5

2

2

3

1

2

3

4

3

4

4

2

4

1

1

1

4

2

1

1

2

1

1

3

2

4

5

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

3

1

2

4

5

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

3

2

4

4

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

1

3

2

2

2

5

2

3

2

1

1

2

1

3

1

2

2

3

2

3

4

1

1

1

1

1

3

3

2

1

2

3

1

1

2

2

3

3

3

2

2

1

2

3

4

2

1

3

4

4

3

3

3

1

2

1

1

2

3

2

1

3

3

4

3

3

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

1

1

3

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

1

1

2

1

1

Very low

Low

Moderate

Dense

Very dense

1

2

3

4

5

Fig. 6 Vegetation density in the study site
In the community of El Jicaral it was observed that most of the research area presented very
low and low vegetation density.
Land use: The classification of land use was also carried out in the research area. As in vegetation
density, values for land use were assigned to every cell according to direct observation of thedigital map. The values are as follows: 1 Farmland, 2 Human settlements, 3 Water sources, 4 Forestand 5 Wasted lands (Fig. 7). Most of the area land use corresponds to farming activities, despite thesteepness of the relief.

© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

1

4

1

4

4

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

4

2

4

1

4

4

4

5

5

1

1

1

5

5

4

2

4

4

4

4

1

1

5

5

4

4

4

5

4

1

4

4

1

4

1

1

1

2

2

4

4

5

4

1

1

4

2

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

5

1

1

4

4

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

4

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

4

4

4

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

4

1

4

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

5

1

4

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

5

5

5

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4

2

2

4

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

2

4

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

Farmland Human set
1
2

Water
3

Forest4

Wasted land
5Fig. 7 Land use assessment in the research site
Land degradation: Moreover, overlapping of the Vegetation, density mesh and the Slope mesh
was conducted, for determining the level of land degradation in the study site. According to Feras(2007) slopes greater than 16% are not suitable for field crops. So, taking into account this value, amesh was projected where slopes are bigger than 16%, and where vegetation density was very low
and low, as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Land degradation by slope and vegetation density
Cells in red indicated the areas where a high land degradation process is occurring, where
slopes are bigger than 16%, vegetation density is low and agriculture is being conducted. It meansthat more than 35% of the study site is coming under this phenomenon.
The slope values and vegetation density variables were compared (Table 1).
Table 1 Relation between vegetation density and slope variables
Vegetation
density value
1
2
3
4
5

Number of
cells
58
66
47
19
6

Average slope values
(%)
21.16
21.32
22.52
23.41
26.95

The highest number of cells presented a low vegetation density value, with 66 of the total of
196 cells of the study area, followed by the lowest value of vegetation density, with 58 cells. So, it
could be said that there is a high level of land degradation, reflected in these data.
When comparing vegetation density mesh to land use mesh, it can also be observed that one© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

cause that lowest vegetation density values are predominant because most of the community area isbeing used for conducting farming practices in hillsides.
So, as can be observed in the land degradation mesh, more than third of the research area isunder a high land degradation degree. Even of this fact, still farming practices are conducting, suchas maize, beans and chili cultivation as well as shepherding of goats.
CONCLUSION
Through the present analysis of the research area it can be concluded that the land degradation isserious in El Jicaral community, where the vegetation cover is low and where land use is mainly for
agricultural practices in hillsides. For this reason, a suitable farming system should be proposed, for
mitigating land degradation, taking into account, socioeconomic and environmental factors, such as
topography, climate, production and land-owning systems, public policies and markets.
REFERENCES
Feras, M. 2007. Land suitability classification using different sources of information: Soil maps andpredicted soil attributes in Jordan. Geoderma, 140 (1-2), 73-80.
Hammad, A.A. and Tumeizi, A. 2012. Land degradation: socioeconomic and environmental causes andconsequences in the eastern mediterranean. Land. Degrad. Develop. 23, 216, 223.
Martínez, J. and Altieri, M. 2006. Manejo del agua y restauración productiva en la región indígena Mixteca
de Puebla y Oaxaca. Mexico. Banco Mundial.
Oldeman, L.R. 1998. Guidelines for general assessment of the status of human-induced soil
degradation.Working paper 88/4. International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC),
Netherlands.
Semarnat. 2008. Informe de la Situación del Medio Ambiente en México. Edición 2008. Compendio deEstadísticas Ambientales. México.
Semarnat-CP. 2003. Evaluación de la Degradación del suelo causada por el hombre en la República
Mexicana, escala 1:250 000. Memoria Nacional 2001-2002. México.
Semarnat-UACh. 2003. Evaluación de la pérdida de suelos por erosión hídrica y eólica en la República
Mexicana, escala 1: 1 000 000. Memoria 2001-2002. México.
United Nations. 2002. Gathering a body of global agreements. UN Documents. (http://www.undocuments.net/jburgdec.htm)© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Research article
erd

Gender Partiality in Land Ownership and Water
Distribution in Rural Tanzania
YUMIKO TANAKA*
Institute of Social Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan
Email: Tanaka.Yumiko@jica.go.jp

EIJI YAMAJI
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Received 14 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The social and economic impact of modernisation processes of agriculture isdiverse in rural sub-Sahara Africa.With the introduction of modern agricultural technology,
such as high yield varieties, irrigation infrastructure and water distribution, paddy yield
increased in Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme (LMIS) in the Kilimanjaro region in
Tanzania. The major aim for developing LMIS was to reduce rural poverty throughimproving food security and income from paddy production. It was partially achieved,
however, generated controversial effects of unequal land and water distribution. In
Tanzania, 84% of the female labour force is engaged in agriculture, consisting of about
50% of the total agricultural labour force. However, female farmers have limited access toand control over land and water due to pre-existing social and customary practices, as wellas limited participation in the decision-making processes. Land ownership is a condition
for obtaining a membership in the water association. And water is becoming scarce due toclimate changes, encroachment on the forests and conflicts between upper-stream anddown-stream. The main objective of this paper is to analyse relationships between
women’s land ownership and water distribution through a case study of modern irrigation
project. The research methods used are literature review, semi-structured interviews withmale and female farmers, and statistical data analysis of landholdings. Main results of thestudy are: 1) the number and share of female land ownership increased in the last 25 years,
however, the social and gender partiality about land inheritance and ownership are still
persistent which prohibit female farmers from equal access to irrigation water, 2) changing
regulations and practices of water users associations to be more gender-responsive lead
into more equitable and impartial water distribution.
Keywords gender partiality, land ownership, water distribution, modern irrigatedagriculture, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.

INTRODUCTION
Land has a central value for people in sub-Sahara African countries providing a source of identity,
food security and income, and constitutes an asset of cultural and spiritual significance as well as
increasing market commodity (Benjaminsen and Lund, 2003). As land becomes scarce andacquires economic value, a demand for more individualised and formalised land ownership rights
increases. An evolutional theory of land rights has been debated by researchers on land tenuresystem in Africa leading to the criticisms that it is un-automatic for rural societies to “evolve” frominformal/customary practices, and successfully adopt formal/statutory laws (Platteau, 1996). Rural
women, subsistence farmers and pastoralists are most unlikely to be guaranteed for the security ofland tenure if the formal land titling is provided (Yngstrom, 2002; Odgaard, 2003). The
development agencies argued that the farmers become more productive and efficient provided withthe formal land titles and would increase investment in agriculture production. However, it isunclear under what specific conditions the security increases, especially for female farmers and© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

small landholders.
In Tanzania, the Land Act 1999 guaranteed the gender equality in legally acquiring andowning the land through registration and having the land title. The Village Land Act 1999 provided
for women to be involved in decisions regarding the use and disposal of village land throughequitable representation in the village land councils. The Land Act No.2 of 2002 established Land
Tribunals regulating the assignment of at least 43% of women as tribunals, and Land (Amendment)
Act 2004 allowed women to mortgage their land on the same basis as men.
In reality, however, women tend to lose customary land and water rights along with landcommoditisation processes and modernisation of irrigation systems (Upperman, 2000; Englert,2008). The customary rights of water are closely associated with land rights. Since the efficacy ofland laws has been dismal and women are continuously excluded from accessing and owning theland, the discriminatory decision-making processes and inheritance practices, dominated at thehousehold and community levels, need to be scrutinised (Mascarenhas, 2007). Given that 84% of
the female labour force is engaged in agriculture, consisting of 50% of the total agricultural labour
force, knowing how to secure land and water rights with substantive effects for female farmers
needs to be examined.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this study is to analyse the relationships between women’s land ownershipand water distribution and find a new perspective for changing gender partiality through a casestudy of Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme (LMIS) project in the Kilimanjaro region in Tanzania.
METHODOLOGY
Methodologies adopted in this study include: 1) literature reviews; 2) analysis of 1,845 sampled
farmers based on dispersed lists of landholders between 1987 and 2013 kept by the Lower Moshi
Irrigation Association (LOMIA) and LMIS office, which the author consolidated and analysed; 3)interviews with farmers (8 persons in 2011 and 42 persons in 2012), local government officials,
LMIS office staff and Japanese experts. The first fieldwork was conducted in July 2010, the secondin November 2011 and the third in August-September 2012.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The LMIS is located at a distance of 15 to 20 km in the southeast of Moshi town in the Kilimanjaro
region. It was developed with financial and technical assistance by the Japanese government. The
irrigation facilities were handed over to the Tanzanian government after completion in 1987. The
irrigated area for paddy is about 1,100 ha in total. There are 5 divisions (Upper Mabogini, Lower
Mabogini, Ru ya Kati, Chekereni and Oria), consisting of 45 blocks with about 3000 plots in total(Fig. 1). Each block is about 10ha to 30ha. Average plot size is 0.3ha. The average paddy yield
increased from 1.5-2.0 tons/ha to 6-7 tons/ha as a result of the project.
Based upon the data obtained from the LOMIA lists of landholders, it was found that thefemale farmers consist of 21.1% of total numbers (390 females out of 1,845 landholders), and theyowned 16.8% of the total plots. Therefore, it was found that an overall gender gap exists in landownership. As shown in Fig.2, the frequency distribution of landholdings indicates that average
size of the female-owned plot is more concentrated towards the smaller size than those of malefarmers meaning that female farmers are more clustered at the subsistence levels.
One block each from Upper Mabogini, Lower Mabogini and Chekereni was selected for thisstudy. The selection criteria are: 1) the blocks belong to the up-stream with plenty of irrigationwater, mid-stream with rotationally distributed water and down-stream with acute water shortage;2) the share of female landholding exceeds 20% of the total block of landholders; 3) the share offemale landholding areas exceeds about 20% of the block area; 4) the average size of female
landholding is less than 3,000 m2, meaning that the majority consists of small-holders.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

In all the blocks studied, the number of female landholders increased, as well as their share asshown in Fig. 3. However, data of Lower Mabogini in 1987 was unavailable. Female’s sharereached to almost 50% in Upper Mabogini and 57% in Lower Mabogini in 2013. The female shareof the total landholding areas also increased in all the blocks as shown in Fig.4. It reached up to
51% in Upper Mabogini and 44% in Lower Mabogini. The changes in the average size of the plots
owned by farmer poses a somewhat different trend from the previous figures as shown in Fig.5.
Only in Upper Mabogini the average size of the plots owned by females had increase, whereas in
the other two blocks it decreased between the year 2008 and 2013. In the case of male farmers, it
decreased in all the blocks. The average size of the plots owned by farmers had also decreased
meaning that the segmentation of land has been progressed in all the blocks.

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

square meters (㎡）Male

Fig. 1 Divisions in LMIS andthree blocks studied

80

80

60
40

0

0
Male

80
60
40

20
0
1987

2013
Year

Female

c.
100

40

20

2008

b.

60

20

1987

Fig. 2 Frequency distribution of average
landholding size per farmer in LMIS

Percentage (% )100

Percentage (% )Percentage (% )a.
100FemaleMale

2008
Female

2013

1987
Male

Ｙｅａｒ

2008
FemaleYear

2013

Fig. 3 Share of total landholders by gendera. Upper Magobini (up-stream), b. Lower Mabogini (mid-stream), and c. Chekereni (down-stream)
b.

c.
100

80

80

80

60

40

60
40

20

20

0

0
1987
Male

2008
Female2013
Year

Percentage (%)

100

Percentage (%)

Percentage (%)

a.
100

60
40
20
0

1987
Male

2008
Female

2013
Year

1987
Male

2008
Female2013
Year

Fig. 4 Share of total landholding area by gendera. Upper Magobini (up-stream), b. Lower Mabogini (mid-stream), and c. Chekereni (down-stream)

The changes in female holding plots in Upper Mabogini, Lower Mabogini and Chekereni areshown in Fig. 6, 7, and 8, respectively.
The share of female land owners, the number is increased in all 3 blocks in LMIS as indicatedabove. It reached nearly half in the case of Upper Mabogini and Lower Mabogini, indicating“feminisation of agriculture” is taking place, however, the changes have been rather slow in
Chekereni. More female farmers are engaged in paddy production today, whereas men are breaking© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

away for alternative sources of income. On the other hand, the average size of landholding declined
in all the blocks. This means more numbers of female farmers became landholders but held a muchsmaller size plot, except in Upper Mabogini, where the average size of female landholding slightly
increased.
b.

c.
4500

4000

4000

4000

3500
3000
2500

2000

square meters (㎡）4500square meters (㎡)Square Meters (㎡ ）

a.
4500

3500

3000
2500
2000

1500
1987

Male

2008

Female

Total

2013

3000
2500
2000

1500

1500
1987

Year

3500

Male

2008

Female

Total

2013

1987
Male

Ｙｅａｒ

Female

2008
Total

2013
Year

Fig. 5 Average plot size owned by a farmer
a. Upper Magobini (up-stream), b. Lower Mabogini (mid-stream), and c. Chekereni (down-stream)

1987

2008

2013

Fig. 6 Changes in female owned plots in Upper Mabogini (up-stream) from 1987 to 2013

2008

2013

Fig. 7 Changes in female owned plots in Lower Mabogini (mid-stream) from 2008 to 2013

1987

2008

2013

Fig. 8 Changes in female owned plots in Chekereni (down-stream) from 1987 to 2013
The socio-economic features as well as the difference in views about water rights of Upper
Mabogini, Lower Mabogini and Chekereni are shown in Table 1. If women have more access to
education, information and networking, they are less bound by traditions and attending LOMIA
meetings and speak out about their views as seen in Upper Mabogini and Lower Mabogini. Some
women groups organised themselves into collective farming using rented plots. With their earnings,
they even purchased the plots. They are also active in engaging in non-farm income-generating
activities. On the other hand, women in Chekereni down-stream face extreme difficulties withobtaining water. They pay water fees to LOMIA, but unable to access water. They face difficulties
in physically fighting over water with male farmers and going out at night waiting for their water© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

turn. Thus, they have to pay extra amounts to send some men to secure water at night. They
complained about unfair distribution of water, but if they are widows and do not have sons, their
voices are unheard in the negotiations and meetings. Although, in principle the water rights areattached with landholding rights, the landholding rights do not automatically guaranteed to female
farmers with securing water rights. They get more marginalised when water gets scarce.
Table 1 Main features of three irrigation blocks studied

Geographicalconditions
Water
situation andpaddy
cultivation
Socialfeatures
Landholdings
LOMIA(waterassociation)

Ideas about
water
conflicts anddistribution

Women's
activities andgroupsUpper Mabogini(Up-stream)

Lower Mabogini(Mid-stream)

Chekereni(Down-stream)

Surrounded by a river and spring,
restricted for area expansion.
Due to plenty of water available, they
continued cultivating paddy twice ayear since 1987.

Originally flat upland, so expansion
was easy.
Water is not enough. Paddy
cultivation is rotational, once in
2~3 years. They alternately growmaize.

Arable land became unavailable for
new comers by 1980s.
Due to acute water shortage since2008, they stopped cultivating paddy.
Instead, they grow maize and beansin the plots today.

Early settlers. Little support bygovernment as it is near Moshi town.
Many live in the town and havealternative income sources.
Mostly small farmers, with a few
large holders.
People are not interested in LOMIA.
But recently, leaders taking initiatives
for collective repair works ofinfrastructure.
Most men and women think they
have customary rights and priorities
to use water as they are up-stream,and down-stream should grow maize.
However, renters, labourers andyoung owners think the water
distribution should be rotational, andone woman renter even thinks thatthey should skip one season in Upper
Mabogini.
Most women live in the town. They
have better access to education andinformation, and individually actively
engaged in economic activities.

Multi-ethnic groups migrated into
the area. The tradition is not sostrong, and women inherit andpurchase the land.
Many large holders, as land wascheap and abundant.
LOMIA is relatively wellfunctioning, and farmers, both men
and women, follow the water
distribution calendar.
The block leader and some women
think the water should be usedrotationally. One woman landowner even thinks the water
distribution should start from thedown-stream, Chekereni, since they
are suffering most from water
shortage.

Migration started in early 1970s.
Government provided support. Now
the most impoverished area. Local
governance is weak.
Mostly small holders under collective
farming (Ujamaa).
Due to acute shortage of water,
severe disputes occur within theblocks and between mid- and upstreams. LOMIA is not working.
Most men and women think that the
up-stream does not have priority
rights to water and water should be
used rotationally in all LMIS.
Majority think that water should be
distributed equally. Women andwidows have great disadvantages fornegotiating with watermen andaccessing water, especially at night to
get water turns.
Only churches and mosques organise
small women's groups. Women arebusy working as wage labourers inother places. Not attending village
meetings.

Women groups are active inincome-generating activities andcollective paddy cultivation in
rented plots.

Source: Field interviews undertaken by the author.
“Ujamaa” is collective farming and villagisation policy introduced by government in the 1970s.

Women can obtain agricultural land but have to go through difficult processes. The ways theyobtain land are mainly by inheritance from father (occasionally mother or family members), byinheritance from husband, by purchasing with own money, and in earlier days during 1960s and1970s by allocation through official institutions such as colonial government, collective farmsystem, etc. The main ethnic groups in LMIS are Chagga and Pare. In Chagga tradition, land is thesource of identity, providing cultural and spiritual values. It has been and still is only the malemembers who inherit their family and clan’s land, as women get married outside of the clan
member. It is shameful for men without land, thus leading into fragmentation of arable land aftergenerations. With the enactment of Marriage Laws (1971 and 2002) along with women’s groups
movement, such practices are gradually changing, however, still persistent in their discourse on
landholdings.
Women’s landholding is mostly relational. The widows can inherit husbands’ land today,
however, mostly before passing them onto their sons. They are unable to sell family and clan’s land,but can sell self-acquired land after marriage. In addition to the cumbersome bureaucratic
procedures and money cost to formalise the land title, they are afraid that such an action may cause
unnecessary suspicion among the sons and family members, and as a result they may lose theusufruct rights. They know that if they keep quiet about the formal rights, they can continuously
use the land. As long as one can count on the good will of village offices and community members
who they know in the village, the security of customary land rights might be guaranteed. However,© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

women are also aware of the constraints and risks of such situations.
LOMIA allows only the land owners to be a member and attend the meetings. The renters andlabourers are usually excluded though the majority are women who are engaged in the major partof cultivation and maintenance of irrigation facilities. Female landholders are called for the
meetings when their labour contributions for irrigation maintenance are required and water fees
need to be collected. Women are more willing to talk about water allocation issues between upstream and down-stream and sharing water resources as shown in Table 1. However, their
participation in LOMIA activities is non-active. There are only 3 women out of 28 central board
members of LOMIA and they are only serving as treasurers.
CONCLUSION
The main findings of this study are: firstly, although the number and shares of agricultural land
owned by females was increased from the past 25 years, it is not automatically considered a gain
for women. In order to secure land rights, LOMIA should provide legal consultations andinformation to women so that they can easily register their names as landholders; secondly LOMIA
should allow both of husbands and wives as well as cultivators participation in decision-making
processes for water distribution. Women and cultivators (renters and labourers) are more open totalk about sharing water between up-and down-streams, which would lead into creating new andmore impartial systems for water distribution; thirdly, the Lower Moshi irrigation office should
prove technical guidance on saving water in up-stream with proper infrastructure maintenance,
which women farmers are already involved and thus their knowledge and views may lead to more
appropriate maintenance means. As some interviewed women commented, if they will get morechances to get involved in meetings and decision-makings, they can speak out and share their ideas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express deep appreciations for those kindly providing valuable support
for undertaking this study: Dr. R. M. Mwaipopo of Dar es Salaam University, Ms. Anne N.
Assenga, Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperative, Mr. R. Makange and Mr. G.
Chonjo of LMIS Office, Mr. M. Tomitaka and Mr. N. Oizumi of TANRICE, and all the people
concerned. A major part of this study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 23510341.
REFERENCES
Benjaminsen, Tor A., and Lund, C. (eds.) 2003. Securing land rights in Africa, Frank Cass, London.
Englert, B. and Daley, E. (eds.) 2008. Women’s land rights and privatization in Eastern Africa. James Currey,
Suffolk, UK.
Mascarenhas, O. 2007. Gender profile of Tanzania: Enhancing gender equity, Tanzania Gender Networking
Programme (TGNP) and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania.
Odgaard, R. 2003. Scrambling for land in Tanzania: process of formalisation and legitimisation of land rights.
In: Securing land rights in Africa, Benjaminsen, Tor, and Lund, C., eds., Frank Cass, London, UK.
Platteau, J.P. 1996. The evolutionary theory of land rights as applied to sub-Saharan Africa: A criticalassessment. Development and Change, 27(1), 29-86.
Upperman, E. 2000. Gender relations in a traditional irrigation scheme in Northern Tanzania. In: Gender,family and work in Tanzania, Creighton, Colin and Omari, C.R. ed., Ashgate, England, 357-379,
Tanzania.
Yngstrom, I. 2002. Women, wives and land rights in Africa: situating gender beyond the household in thedebate over land policy and changing tenure system. Oxford Development Studies, 30-1, 21-40.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Research article
erdChanges in Surviving Microorganism in Cow Manure with
Adding Lime Nitrogen
YUTA ISHIKAWA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 14 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Pathogenic bacteria known as E. coli may survive in cow manure and may efflux
from upland fields where cow manure was applied. So, treating of E.coli throughfermentation process has been focused. It has been considered that air drying method was
effective method for decreasing E.coli. However, this treatment may possibly eliminate
not only pathogenic bacteria but also useful bacteria for decomposition. This study aimed
to investigate the changes in number of E.coli, coliform bacteria and general bacteria
during the fermentation of cow manure with adding lime nitrogen (nitrolime). Samples
used were fresh cow dung, 2 weeks and 12 weeks fermented manure. Lime nitrogen wasadded to all three types of dung samples then were kept in incubator within 14 days.
Sampling, stirring and supplying of physiological saline were conducted. Based on theexperimental results, there was a significant decrease in E.coli and coliform bacteria in
cow manure after adding of lime nitrogen; however there was no decrease in generalbacteria. It was observed that controlling to pH 9.0 in cow manure samples wasappropriate for decreasing E.coli and coli form bacteria during cow manure fermentation
with minimum damage to general bacteria. Therefore, it was concluded that treating of
cow manure by adding lime nitrogen, especially controlling to around pH 9.0, is aneffective strategy for sterilizing pathogenic bacteria such as E.coli and other coliform
bacteria with minimum damage to general bacteria.
Keywords Escherichia coli, general bacteria, lime nitrogen, cow dung, pH

INTRODUCTION
Big amounts of cattle dung has been produced in farms. The point of view of organic agriculture,making manure was considered as proper treatment. However, bulk production of manure may
possibly contain immature fermented manure. In addition, the pathogenic bacteria known as
Escherichia coli (E.coli) or coliform bacteria may survive and remain in immature fermented
manure (Chun-Ming et al., 2005; Indira et al., 1998). Especially, cow dung has an amount of E.coli
than other cattle dung (Nakazawa and Sameshima, 2002). These bacteria may survive in soil (Islam,
M et al., 2005) and may be released from grazed land and upland field applied with immature
fermented manure (Mishra et al., 2007; Yagura et al., 2006; Ishikawa and Mihara., 2010). The
efflux of E.coli causes water pollution or contamination of potable water sources affecting humanhealth (Tamura et al., 2006; Mishina et al., 2007).
So, treatments to sterilize cow dung of E.coli during fermentation process were focused. Sometreatments as air drying treatment (Saito and Mihara, 2010) were carried out. However, air drying
treatment has possible affect to not only E.coli or coliform bacteria but also general bacteria(Ishikawa and Mihara, 2011). On the other hands, it was reported by Minato et al., (2001) that pH
control by lime nitrogen adding treatment, it decreases not only E.coli but also beneficial bacteria.
However, beneficial bacteria which affect fermentation of manure change in fermentation stage. So,
it is necessary to observe the surviving of microorganisms in lime nitrogen adding treatment.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

This study aimed to observe the survival of several microorganisms such as E.coli, coli form
bacteria and general bacteria under lime nitrogen adding treatment.
METHODOLOGY
Cow dung and fermented manure used in this experiment were collected from Fuji Farm, a cattle
farm of Tokyo University of Agriculture located in Shizuoka Prefecture (Fig.1). There were three
types of cow dung collected for this experiment, fresh cow dung, 2 weeks, and 12 weeks fermented
manure with water contents at 76%, 75% and 68% respectively. In addition, cow dung and manurescontained 90%, 89% and 86% of organic matter. The colony forming units (cfu) of E.coli were
20×106 in cow dung, 1×103 in 2 weeks fermented manure. In 12 weeks fermented manure, E.coli
was not observed. Also, the colonies of coli form bacteria was 1×105 cfu/g in cow dung and 0 cfu/g
in 2 and 12 weeks fermented manures. The number of general bacteria was 128×10 6 in cow dung,
236×106 in 2 weeks fermented manure and 93×106 in 12 weeks fermented manure.

Cow dung
Manure fermented for 2 weeks

Manure fermented for 12 weeks

Fig.1 Situation of cow dung and manure
Table 1 Properties of cow dung and fermented manure

Cow dung
ManureManurePeriod offermentation

E.coli(cfu/g)0 days2 weeks
12 weeks

20×106
1×103
0

Coliform
bacteria(cfu/g)1×105
00Generalbacteria(cfu/g)128×106
236×106
93×106

Fig. 2 Situation of incubator© ISERD
34

Water
contents
(%)
76
75
68

Organic
matter
(%)
90
89
86

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

E.col
i

General bacteria

Coliform bacteria

Fig. 3 Colonies of E.coli and coliform bacteria

Fig. 4 Colonies of general bacteria

Both of cow dung and manure at 3 kg were mixed after adding 60 g of lime nitorogen. Then,they were put in incubator at 37 degree temperature for 14 days (Fig. 2). At 4th, 7th, 11th, 14th day,sampling, stirring and supplying of physiological saline were conducted.
The number of E.coli, coliform bacteria and general bacteria in sample were measured
through laboratory experiments. The analysis of E.coli and coliform bacteria was carried out
through counts of colonies on XM-G agar medium as shown in Fig.3. The analysis of generalbacteria was carried out with general agar medium (Fig. 4). In addition, the pH in cow dung andmanure were measured through laboratory experiments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The changes in the number of E.coli in each sample were summarized in Figs. 5-7. In cow dung,
E.coli decreased after lime nitrogen was added then, E.coli was not observed. Based on the resultsof variance analysis, significant difference was observed. In 2 weeks fermented manure, E.coli wasdecreased after lime nitrogen was added as well as cow dung. However, significant difference was
not observed. In 12 weeks fermented manure, E.coli was not observed during experiment.
Changes in coliform bacteria were shown in Figs. 8-10. In cow dung, coliform bacteria weresterilized by lime nitrogen adding treatment as shown in Fig. 8. Moreover, it showed a significant
difference of 99% between before lime nitrogen adding and after. In addition, coliform bacteria
were not detected from 2 weeks and 12 weeks fermented manure. Therefore, it was considered thatthe adding of lime nitrogen is an effective treatment to decrease pathogenic bacteria as E.coli or
coliform bacteria. Figs. 11-13 show changes in general bacteria. In both of samples, it showed atendency that the number of general bacteria was not decreased by adding of lime nitrogen. Basedon results of variance analysis, significant difference was not observed during experiment.
Therefore, it was considered that general bacteria which contain beneficial bacteria are not affectedby lime nitrogen adding treatment.
1500

A**

E.coli (cfu/g)

E.coli (cfu/g)

3.E+066
3×10

2.E+066
2×10

1.E+066
1×10

0.E+00

0

B**
00

B**
1

2

adding lime nitrogen

3

4
4

B**
77 8
Time (day)
5

6

9

10

B**
11 12
11

13

B**
14
14

1000
500
0

Significant difference at **99%

Fig. 5 Changes in E.coli (cow dung)

A

A
00

A
1

2

adding lime nitrogen

3

4
4

A
77 8
Time (day)
5

6

9

10

A
11 12
11

13

A
14
14

Fig. 6 Changes in E.coli(2 weeks fermented manure)

The pH in cow dung and manure are indicated in Fig. 14. In all of samples, pH was increased
to around 9.0. It was reported that E.coli or coli form bacteria can survive from pH 4.4 to 9.0(Nakanishi and Maruyama, 2009). Furthermore, based on a report of Fujita (1993), proper pH for
fermentation of manure is 8 to 10. So, it was considered that pH controlling to around 9.0 is able todecrease E.coli and coliform bacteria without sterilize general bacteria which contain beneficial
bacteria.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Coliform bacteria (cfu/g)

E.coli (cfu/g)

10

8
6
4

ND

2
0

00

1

2

3

4
4

5
6
77 8
Time (day)adding lime nitrogen

9

10

11 12
11

13

2.E+055
2×10

1.E+055
1×10

0

14
14

6
4

ND

2
2

3

4
4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11 12
11

13

14
14

1.E+088AA

10

1.E+04410

1.E+000

10

00

1

2

3

44

77 8
Time (day)adding lime nitrogen

5

6

9

10

11 12
11

13

10

1.E+10
10

10

B**

B**
14
14

13

Significant difference at **99%

1

2

4
4

3

5

6

7

8

9

10

11 12
11

13

14
14

Time (day)

B*

* *
AA

A*, B*

A*, B*

A*

1.E+08810

1.E+066

10

1.E+04410

1.E+02210

1.E+000

10

14
14

00

1

2

3

4
4

5
6
77 8
Time (day)

9

10

11 12
11

13

14
14

Significant difference at *95%

Fig. 12 Changes in general bacteria(2 weeks fermented manure)
12

A**

A**

9

1.E+066

10

1.E+044

10

B**
A*

a**

b**

B**

A**

6
3

1.E+022

100
Cow dung

1.E+000

1000

adding lime nitrogen

B**

A**
A**

B**
11 12
11

ND

0

pH

General bacteria (cfu/g)

10

1.E+088102

Fig. 11 Changes in general bacteria(cow dung)
1.E+1010

9Fig. 10 Changes in coliform bacteria(12 weeks fermented manure)

A

A

6

4

adding lime nitrogen

A

A

5

6

General bacteria (cfu/g)

General bacteria (cfu/g)

10

B**
77 8
Time (day)

4
4

3

8

Fig. 9 Changes in coliform bacteria(2 weeks fermented manure)
1.E+1212

210Time (day)adding lime nitrogen

B**
1Fig. 8 Changes in coliform bacteria(cow dung)
Coliform bacteria (cfu/g)

Coliform bacteria (cfu/g)

8

1

00

adding lime nitrogen

10

00

B**

0.E+00Fig. 7 Changes in E.coli(12 weeks fermented manure)

0

A**

00

1

2

adding lime nitrogen

3

44

77 8
Time (day)
5

6

9

10

11 12
11

13

14
14

Significant difference at **99%

Fig. 13 Changes in general bacteria(12 weeks fermented manure)

Fermented for
2 weeks
BeforeAfter

Fermented for
12 weeks
Significant difference at **99%

Fig. 14 Changes in pH of manure

CONCLUSION
This study aimed to observe the survival of E. coli, coli form bacteria and general bacteria underlime nitrogen adding treatment in cow dung, 2 weeks and 12 weeks fermented manure.
Based on experimental results, E. coli was decreased after lime nitrogen addition treatment.
Moreover, there was a significant difference observed. Also, coli form bacteria were sterilized bylime nitrogen as well as E. coli. On the other hand, lime nitrogen has not affected the number ofgeneral bacteria which contain beneficial bacteria.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

In addition, as the results of pH, there were tendencies that pH was increased to around 9.0
which were proper for decreasing E. coli or coli form bacteria with minimum damage to generalbacteria.
Therefore, it was concluded that the pH control to around 9.0 using alkaline as lime nitrogen isan effective treatment for decreasing pathogenic bacteria in fermentation process.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude to the member of the Lab. of Land and Water Use
Engineering at Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
REFERENCES
Gong, C., Koshida, J., Moriyama, N., Xiaodan Wang, Udou, T., Inoue, K. and Someya, T. 2005. Occurrence
and survival of coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli and salmonella in various manure and compost.
Journal of the science of soil and manure, 76(6), 865-874.
Indira, T.K., Kathryn, B., and Carolyn, J.H. 1998. Analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 survival in ovine orbovine manure and manure slurry. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(9), 3166-3174.
Nakazawa, M. and Sameshima, T. 2002. Relationships between shedding of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia
coli O157：H7 and feeds in cattle. The Journal of the Japanese Association for Infectious Diseases,
76(1), 76-77.
Islam, M., Doyle, P.M., Phatak, C.S., Millner, P. and Jiang, X. 2005. Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7
in soil and on carrots and onions grown in fields treated with contaminated manure composts or
irrigation water. Food Microbiology, 22, 63-70.
Mishra, A., Benham, L.B. and Mostaghimi, S. 2007. Bacterial transport from agricultural lands fertilizedwith animal manure. Water Air Soil Pollut, 189(4), 127-134.
Yagura, H., Tada, N. and Yasutomi, M. 2006. Nitrogen, phosphorus and coliform contamination of outflow
in cattle grazing land. Research bulletin of the Kyoto prefectural livestock technological research center,
3, 71-73.
Ishikawa, Y. and Mihara, M. 2010. Characteristics of E.coli loss under different fertilization of manure.
International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, 1-2, 84-87.
Tamura, H., Sasaki, M., Hatakeyama, T., Kawano, M., Yatsu, J. and Akiyama, K. 2006. Verification ofincident preventions against outbreak incidences of enterohemorrhagic E.coli infectionin Miyagi
prefecture. Annual report of Miyagi prefectural institute of public health and environment, 24, 50-54.
Mishina, M., Takahashi, E., Sasaki, M., Hatakeyama, T., Uemura, H., Yatsu, J. and Saito, N. 2007.
Clarification of infection route in the frequently outbreak regions of enterohemorrhagic E.coli infectiondisease in miyagi prefecture. Annual report of Miyagi prefectural institute of public health andenvironment, 25, 34-37.
Saito, Y. and Mihara, M. 2010. Management of manure taking into account of E.coli loss from farmland.
International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, 1-1, 175-180.
Ishikawa, Y. and Mihara M., 2011. Changes in surviving E.coli, coliform bacteria and general bacteria inmanure with airdrying treatment. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development,
IJERD, 2-1, 88-92.
Minato, K., Tamura, T., and Maeta Y. 2001. Effect of adding nitorolime to composting of cattle manure andthe impact on Esherichia coil. Bulletin of the Hokkaido Animal Research Center, 24, 11-16.
Nakanishi, T. and Maruyama, T. 2009. Foodborne Infections and Food Microbiology. Chuohoki, 283.
Fujita, K. 1993. Technology for composting - Technology of waste using - Gijutudo shuppan, 67.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Research article
erd

Resource-based Alternative Approach on Rice Bug(Leptocorisa oratorius Fabricius) Management for
Food Security and Bio-safety
MARINA A. LABONITE*
Research and Development Center, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Email: mtalabonite@yahoo.com.ph
Received 17 December 2012

Accepted 6 May 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract: In the Philippines, rice bug is a serious menace at reproductive stage of ricecausing qualitative as well as quantitative losses resulting in yield reduction by 14%(PGCPP-BPI-MAF, 1986). Thus, chemical pesticides become an instant management
strategy in rice culture for many decades until even after users realized its adverse effects
on environment and human health. Though effective, various reports are made on pesticide
residues in food, soil, water, air and overall environment causing health problems(Magallona, 1985). These problems are more than lessons from the technology. Hence, theneed to seek for an effective technology that also reduces input costs while assuring supplyof safe and nutritious food for man and all useful organisms, tapping common yet
underutilized pest-repellent plant species. The Hindu (2002) reported that companion
planting with repellent and trap crops is among the safe but sure ways to manage the insect
pests of crops. Repellents are plants with strong natural aroma that can ward-off insect
pests away. This experimental research determined the usefulness of resource-basedalternative approach on rice bug management using four repellent plant species. A twofactorial randomized complete block design was employed with sites and repellent species
as factors. The indigenous repellents tested in three replicates per site were: Bamboo(Bambusa levis L.), Erect Shell (ES) Ginger Plant (Catimbium haenkei L.), Malubago(Hibiscus tiliaceus L.) and Sand Ginger (Kaempferia galanga L.) with one control
treatment as check. The statistical analysis revealed that the repellents tested were all
effective in reducing rice bug population and infestation compared to the control, however,Bamboo and Sand Ginger are the most significantly effective. Findings imply that
resource-based approach using repellents is efficient in reducing rice bug population andinfestation, thus, it is valuable in preventing its yield loss in producing safe food and in
making the rice agro-ecosystem safe for the useful organisms.
Keywords resource-based alternative approach, pest management, food security,
bio-safety, chemical approach in pest management, repellents

INTRODUCTION
Rice grain is an important human food in many parts of the world but the plant is a host of various
insect pests like rice bugs. Heinrich (1985) observed that rice bugs nymphs are more active feeders
than adults but the latter cause more damage as they feed for a longer period of time. Feeding may
contaminate grains with pathogens that cause discoloration or pecky rice of impaired quality andsusceptibility to breakage during milling. To avoid this, farmers resort to pesticide sprays when rice
bugs are in a damaging stage and state.
However, the World Bank (2005) warned that if mismanaged, most pesticides can lead to crop
losses and pose a risk to human health and the environment. This includes the cost incurred due topesticide clean-up, cost related to human health and cost incurred due to increase in pesticide
resistance in insects and disease vectors and destruction of natural enemies of pest species, that
may result in lost value in agricultural produce. Hence, there is a need for an alternative approachthat assures safe and nutritious food for man and all useful organisms.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Mihindo (2002) asserted that humankind has become more conscious on the fragility of theearth in the face of technological development. The conventional farming technology has
precipitated many of our problems as people are left with a depleted and abused environment anddeepening moral apathy. Success in development is more likely to be achieved when traditional
knowledge systems are fused with modern technology.
Among the indigenous, safe but sure ways to manage insect pests of crops is companion
planting with repellent crops (Hindu, 2002). Repellents are plants with chemical properties to ward
off pests away. However, no data are available that show the effectiveness of these species to ricebugs, hence, this study was done.
The experiment aimed to determine the effects of indigenous repellent species on rice bug
population, infestation and yield of rice. Being proven effective, these plant genetic resources shallbe conserved and utilized as an alternative approach on rice bug management for food security andbio-safety.
OBJECTIVE
The main idea of this research was to determine the usefulness of a resource-base alternative
approach using indigenous repellent plant species on rice bug management. Specifically, the study
was aimed for the following objectives:
1. To assess the usefulness of Bambusa levis L., Catimbium haenkei L., Hibiscus tiliaceus L. and
Kaempferia galanga L. in resolving rice bug infestation
2. To identify the repellent species that is significantly effective in minimizing rice bug populationand infestation
3. To evaluate the effect of indigenous repellents on the yield of treated crops and4. To find out the interaction of factors particularly the site and repellent species on the infestationof rice bugs.
METHODOLOGY
Participatory on-farm experimentation was employed with the cooperation of farmers in fourmunicipalities with natural growth of repellent species: Bilar, Pilar, San Miguel and Tubigon in
Bohol, Philippines. A two-factorial randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three
replicates was adopted. Sites and the botanicals are the two factors studied. Four indigenous
repellent species were tested with one control treatment as check with no repellents used. The
repellent Bamboo (Bambusa levis L.) locally named Butong; Erect Shell (ES) Ginger Plant(Catimbium haenkei L.) or Tagbak; Malubago (Hibiscus tiliaceus L.) or Mabago; and Sand Ginger(Kaempferia galanga L.) or Kiso were used.
The rice crop host of the rice bug was grown following recommended cultural management
practices except on pest management. To confine the rice bug/test pest and facilitate data collectionthat measure the effectiveness of the repellents, a mesh net enclosure at 1.5 m high was establishedin all plots in four sites before heading stage of rice started.
Data collection was done weekly in all plots in four sites in four consecutive weeks. The data
gathered were rice bug (nymphs and adults) population, number of infested grains per panicle using
10 randomly selected panicles and the yield of rice in kilograms at 14% moisture content per plot
per block. To determine the significance between the treatments, all data gathered were analyzed
using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The same data were subjected to further test of significanceusing Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) Test.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Usefulness of repellent species in reducing rice bug population
The average population of rice bugs is presented in Fig. 1. It reveals a fluctuating trend. The data
imply that Bamboo was very effective and useful in reducing the rice bug population, followed by
Sand Ginger, ES Ginger Plant and Malubago as the least effective. Though Malubago was lesseffective, data still indicated that it has much lower rice bug count than the Control.

Rice Bug Population

20.00
15.00

1 Week

10.00

2 Weeks

5.00

3 Weeks
4 Weeks

0.00

Repellent Species

Fig. 1 Average rice bug population per repellent species in all sites
The ANOVA on the rice bug population gives a highly significant difference between
repellents, between sites and in its interactions. This means that rice bug population in theexperiment was affected by the significant effects of each repellent used and by the varied
conditions of the study sites.
Table 1 Tukey’s HSD Test on rice bug population as affected by repellent species
RICE BUG POPULATION
1st Week
2nd Week
Repellents
SubsetSubset1
2
1
2
BambooB. levis
5.17
4.08
Sand Ginger
K. galanga
7.58
7.58
5.75
ES Ginger
C. haenkei
8.67
8.67
4.83
Malubago
H.tiliaceus
10.17
10.17
6.75
6.75
Control
14.42
11.33
Significant
0.276
0.083
0.507
0.095
* Means within the same subset are not significant to each other.

3rd Week
Subset
1
2
4.42
4.33
5.66
5.66
4.25
10.00
0.905
0.120

4th Week
Subset
1
2
6.92
6.92
9.33
10.67
18.25
0.168
1.000

Table 2 Tukey’s HSD Test on rice bug population as influenced by site
RICE BUG POPULATION
1st Week
2nd Week
3rd Week
Sites
Subset *Subset *Subset *
1
2
1
2
1
2
Bilar
11.53
11.33
2.80
Pilar
8.47
8.47
5.53
11.39
San Miguel
3.00
4.13
4.60
Tubigon
13.80
5.20
4.13
Sig.
0.096
0.107
0.776
1.000
0.620
1.000
* Means within the same subset are not significant to each other.

1
7.40

4th Week
Subset *
2

3
16.73

11.87
5.67
0.601

1.000

1.000

Table 1 and Table 2 show the Tukey’s HSD Test of significance on the rice bug population.
Table 2 shows a similar weekly trend of significantly lower rice bug population for Bamboo-treatedcrops ranging with only 4.08 to 6.92 bugs over the other repellents and the control which have

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

higher average count ranging 10.00 to 18.25 bugs. The two Ginger species are also showing lower
bug population with 4.33 to 7.58 for Sand Ginger; and 4.83 to 9.33 bugs for ES Ginger Plant
compared to the control. Table 3 illustrates the significant and constant influence of San Miguelsite on the effectiveness of the repellents in reducing rice bug population ranging from 3.00 to
11.87 bugs compared to other sites, though Tubigon and Pilar follow the trend while Bilar’s
influence on the effectiveness of the repellents came only on the last two weeks.
Effective repellents in minimizing rice bug infestation
The rice bug infestation in terms of average number of rice bug-infested grains per site perrepellent is presented in Fig. 2. The data indicate that rice bug infestation was consistently low in
the Bamboo-treated plots and consistently high in the Control plots. This implies that Bamboo is avery effective controlling species for rice bug, and thus, can be used in its management while
producing a safe food and securing the agro-ecosystem for all life forms. The data also disclosedthat in all sites, Bamboo is an effective repellent for rice bug management as it reduced its
infestation better than the other species wherever it was. However, the other three repellent species
gave better protection than the Control.
Table 3 shows that rice bug infestation in repellent-treated crops is significantly different
compared to the Control at 5% level. However, the difference in infestation between sites is highly
significant at 1% level, so do with the interactions of the species and sites. This analysis implies
that the degree of effectiveness of the repellents is not only governed by the inherent quality ofeach species itself but also by the site where the repellents are used. Therefore, the efficiency of thespecies depends on the area where it will be used as also shown in Fig. 2 where B. levis has
significantly reduced bug infestation in Pilar, San Miguel and Tubigon but not in Bilar while K.
galanga gave better protection to rice in Tubigon and San Miguel but not as effective as in othersites, thus, one species will not work efficiently in all areas.

Rice Bug Infestation/
Number of Infested
Grains300
200

Expeiment Site

100

Bilar
Pilar
San Miguel
Tubigon0

Repellent Species

Fig. 2 Average rice bug infestation per repellent species per site
Table 3 The ANOVA on the rice bug infestation per repellent per site
Sources of Variation
Repellent Species
Site
Repellent Species x Site
C. V. = 16.20%* significant at 5% level

F-Value
7.669
12.733761.972

Significance*.003**.000**.000** highly significant at 1% level

The Tukey’s HSD Test on rice bug infestation shows that all repellents had significantly lower
infestation compared to the control. As to site, Rice bug infestation was significantly lesser in San
Miguel and Tubigon than in Pilar and Bilar implying that rice bugs activity is also influenced byrice environments.

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Influence of the repellent species on yield of rice

Yield of Rice, kg

Both nymphs and adult bugs suck the milky white endosperm of rice grains at milking stage. The
removal of milky sap usually results in smaller grains causes yield reduction. Figure 3 shows thatin every site, rice plants treated by each species produced closely similar yield but untreated plants
had lower harvest. Findings impart that the use of repellent species can improve rice yield via theprotection against bugs it provided the crop.

2
1.5

Experiment Site

Bilar

1

Pilar

0.5

San Miguel0

Tubigon
Repellent Species

Fig. 3 The average yield of rice, in kilograms, per repellents species per site
The analysis of variance on yield in Table 4 shows a significant degree of difference in yield
between repellent species but a highly significant variance between sites, and on the interaction
between site and species. This implies that yield was significantly influenced by site factor and by
the repellents themselves. It also indicates that rice yield differed depending on the site and on therepellent species.
Table 4 Analysis of variance on rice yield of test crop
Sources of Variation
Repellent Species
Site
Repellent Species x Site
C. V. = 7.21%

F-Value
4.559
88.9313659.681* significant at 5% level

Significance*.018**.000**.000** highly significant at 1% level

The results of the Tukey’s HSD Test on yield of test crop revealed that among repellent
species, ES Ginger Plant and Malubago are not significantly different to each other and the Control,
but these had significantly lower in yield than those with Bamboo and Sand Ginger.
The test also illustrates a highly significant degree of difference in yield between sites. The
result also imparted that aside from the effects of the repellents used; the site factor somehow
caused a significant difference on the yield of the crop as rice is a site-specific crop.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the data gathered in this experiment, the following conclusions were made:1. Bamboo (Bambusa levis L.), ES Ginger Plant (Catimbium haenkei L.), Malubago (Hibiscus
tiliaceus L.) and Sand Ginger (Kaempferia galanga L.) are useful in resolving rice bug infestation,these can be an alternative approach in rice bug management.
2. All the four repellent species are effective in reducing rice bug population and infestationcompared to the control, however, Bamboo and Sand Ginger are the two most valuable species.
3. The effect of the repellent species on the yield of the treated crops was significantly higher
especially for Bamboo and Sand Ginger but those with ES Ginger Plant, Malubago and the control
had similar lesser harvest.

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4. There was a significant interaction of between the repellents and sites on the infestation of rice
bugs as evidenced by the effect of Bamboo that significantly reduced bug infestation in Pilar, San
Miguel and Tubigon but not in Bilar. It is showing that its repelling performance of Bamboo is not
only the function of the species but also of the site.
5. Since Bamboo and Sand Ginger are significantly effective for rice bug management, these
repellents should be conserved for food security and bio-safety. To promote conservation, it should
be used, protected and domesticated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author highly recognizes the active participation and cooperation of the farmer-partners in thefour experiment sites and the BISU administration for the permission and financial support.
REFERENCES
Heinrichs, E.A., Reissig, W.H., Litsinger, J.A., Moody, K., Fiedler, L., Mew, T.W. and Barrion, A.T., 1986.
Illustrated Guide to Integrated Pest Management in Rice in Tropical Asia. International Rice ResearchInstitute, Laguna, Philippines.
Magallona, E. 1980. Pesticide management. Businessday Corporation, Inc. Makati, Metro, Manila.
Philippine. 17-18.
Mihindo, N. 2002. Organic agriculture in Kenya. Fusion of Science and Traditional Knowledge, Kenya
Institute of Organic Farming. Nairobi, Kenya.
The Hindu, 2002. Herbal pesticides. (http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sci-tech-andagri/a-farmer-develops-a-herbal-pest-repellent-after-suffering-from-chemicalpesticides/article671747.ece)
The Hindu, 2002. Companion planting to manage crop pests.
(http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/seta/2002/08/22/stories/2002082200140300.htm)
PGCPP-BPI-MAF,1986. Malate, Ministry of Agriculture. Manila,Philippine. 62.
World Bank, 2005. Sustainable pest management. Achievements and Challenges. World Bank Publishing
Center.Washington D.C., USA.

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Research article
erdCharacteristics of an Agricultural Innovation andIncentives for Adoption: Rhizobium in Cambodia
ROBERT J. FARQUHARSON*The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
Email: bob.farquharson@unimelb.edu.au

ROBERT J. MARTIN
University of Battambang, Battambang, Cambodia

BRUCE MCCORKELLNSW Department of Primary Industries, Tamworth, Australia

J. FIONA SCOTTNSW Trade and Investment, Tamworth, Australia

EL SOTHEARY
Cambodian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia

CHAN PHALOEUN
Cambodian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia

HENG SOPHORS
Cambodian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SREY SINATH
Cambodian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia

CHEACH MONIDA
Cambodian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SVAY SINARONG
Cambodian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia

BO SOKUN
Cambodian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 17 December 2012

Accepted 6 May 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In this paper we consider whether the processes of farm-level change andadoption of new technologies in Cambodia can be related to the adoptability
characteristics of a technology. The literature posits that technologies can be assessed interms of relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability. Othersocio-economic factors may also be important in the adoption process. We test these
propositions among commercial upland farmers in north-west Cambodia for rhizobium
inoculation of legume seeds to increase crop yields. In promoting this technology theobjective is to increase farm income and help to reduce poverty and improve food security.
We surveyed farmers who have been involved in a project testing and demonstrating
rhizobium inoculation (along with other technologies) and statistically analyzed the results.
We found that, with respect to their rhizobium-adoption intentions, relative advantage(incentive) is the predominant characteristic, with observability also being important.
Other socio-economic characteristics in their adoption, intentions included whether they
grew legumes, the source of first contact, the period since the technology was introduced,
and the size of farm. That the innovation demonstrated high relative advantage was© ISERD
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confirmed by separate economic analysis of the likely return on investment for rhizobium
in these upland farming systems. Using an approach of assessing adoptability
characteristics prior to release provides a basis for developing and screening technologies
for successful adoption, rather than trying to adapt ill-suited (in terms of thesecharacteristics) technologies after the event. Such an approach is likely to be more
efficient for project sponsors to achieve desirable change.
Keywords new technology, adoptability, relative advantage, rhizobium, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
There are many constraints to improved crop production for upland farmers in Cambodia(Farquharson et al., 2006). Overcoming such constraints by development and adoption of newtechnologies or improved farm management techniques can lead to increased farm income toalleviate poverty and improve food security.
Typical economic and social constraints in these upland regions can include small farm sizes
and lack of suitable facilities and machinery (i.e. economies of scale are not available and cost of
production relatively high), availability of technologies or improved management techniques,levels of education and management or technical expertise, availability and cost of credit,
availability of farm inputs of assured quality, marketing and transport options for farm products,
adverse prices of inputs and outputs and options or incentives for adding value on farms (e.g.
through on-farm storage). And poverty itself may be a trap in poor countries (Sachs, 2005) where
natural, built and human capital can be very low.
Because any improvement must be considered in a farming systems context (McConnell and
Dillon 1997), where many constraints may be limiting, it may be difficult for a farmer to observe
the full expression from any particular change. However, the fertility of soil, and thus the nutrient
level available to plants, is an important constraint to crop growth anywhere in the world. In northwest Cambodia many soils have recently been cleared of forest and are still relatively fertile for
agricultural use. However, continued cropping without replacement of soil nutrients is
unsustainable (e.g. for Cambodia see Martin et al., 2012); and long-term soil fertility decline has
been observed in other places (e.g. for Australia see Dalal and Mayer, 1986).
Martin et al. (2012) report activity of farm-level trials, extension activities and farmer
adoption intentions for rhizobium in Cambodian upland regions. In this paper we investigate
rhizobium inoculum of legume seeds as an innovation or technology by considering adoptability
characteristics.
UPLAND CROPPING SYSTEMS IN CAMBODIA
Production of rain fed crops such as maize and soybean has rapidly expanded in north-western
Cambodia after reintegration of the former Khmer Rouge began in 1996 (Anonymous, 2004),
although soybean production has declined since 2005. The area is mountainous and most of thecultivated areas have rich soil of volcanic or limestone origin. However, in the space of 10 years,
crop yields are now declining and soils are being eroded and degraded by excessive cultivation andburning. The main crops grown in the upland areas of Battambang/Pailin, according to area sown,
are maize (red corn), soybean, mungbean, sesame and cassava.
There was a rapid expansion in the area sown to maize in Battambang/Pailin between 2005
and 2009 but since 2009 the area of maize has declined and the area of cassava has correspondingly
increased. The area sown to soybean, mungbean and sesame has also declined. This is indicative ofa trend towards an over-reliance on production of maize and (more recently) cassava with thepotential to lead to soil degradation and fertility decline.
Unlike Cambodian lowland rice producers, who are often at subsistence levels in theiroperations, the upland farmers in the regions studied by Martin et al. (2012) are primarily
commercial as indicated by surveys conducted within the project. This has implications for their© ISERD
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farm objectives and response to innovations. The regions studied were those of Martin et al. (2012).
OPTIONS TO INCREASE CROP YIELD
Options to increase crop yields include better varieties, certified seed, improved agronomic
practices, reduced tillage, better weed and pest control, fertilizer application and legume crop
rotations. Biological nitrogen (N) fixation by crop legumes is a key process in agriculture andinoculation of legume seeds with rhizobia can increase the effectiveness of legume growth and the
N-supplying capacity of the soil (Herridge, 2005).
Pin et al. (2009) demonstrated that rhizobial inoculation can replace N fertilizer for mungbean,
peanut and soybean at a much reduced cost and reduced environmental impact. The results werecomparable to those obtained in other countries. Significant increases in grain yields of mungbean(7%), peanut (15%) and soybean (12%) were obtained by rhizoidal inoculation and the response
was equal to (soybean) or better than (mungbean, peanut) application of 40 kg N/ha. Inoculation
increased the number of nodules per plant by 23% for mungbean, 39% for peanut and 66% forsoybean. Rhizoidal inoculation was included in on‐farm demonstrations of improved technologies
in collaboration with Provincial Department of Agriculture staff as well as non ‐governmentorganizations. Early results indicate that farmers are interested in inoculation but lack ofunderstanding, access to rhizobium and the ability to adopt the technology. The purpose of thisdemonstration was to give farmers ‘hands‐on’ experience and practice in rhizobial inoculation.
ON-FARM RESEARCH AND EXTENSION
On-farm experiments and demonstrations with rhizobium inoculation were carried out at Samlout
district in Battambang Province, north-west Cambodia between 2008 and 2010. In 2010, twelve
on-farm rhizobium inoculation demonstrations of soybean and sixteen demonstrations of
rhizobium inoculation for peanut were held. The objectives were to implement on ‐ farmdemonstrations of rhizobium inoculation of peanut and soybean; to measure the effect of
inoculation on nodulation, growth and seed yield of the crops; and to determine the impact of
inoculation on farmer's cash income through gross margin (GM) and partial budget analysis.
In 2010, rhizobium inoculation increased the average soybean kernel yield by 15% from 2.944
to 3.379 t/ha. Peanut kernel yield was increased by 12% from 3.493 to 3.920 t/ha. Rhizobium
inoculation increased the crop gross margin (GM) for soybean by 4% from US$884 to US$916/ha.
For peanut, the GM increased by 15% from US$1,869 to US$2,148/ha.
From the farmer’s point of view the economically important measure is the return on
investment for funds used in a new technology (CIMMYT, 1988). How does the likely return
compare to the opportunity cost of funds? Economic analyses by Farquharson et al. (2006),
Farquharson et al. (2008)and (Scott, 2008) have shown relatively high returns on investment forrhizobium, depending on the price at which inoculums can be delivered to the farm gate.
ADOPTABILITY OF TECHNOLOGOES AND RESEARCH QUESTION
Rogers (2003) distinguished and gives the effort of studying the characteristics of adopters and theproperties of an innovation influencing the rate of adoption. He developed a classification scheme
describing the perceived attributes of innovations. Five different attributes were proposed byRogers (2003): relative advantage (the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better
than the idea (or practice) it supersedes); compatibility (the degree to which an innovation isperceived as consistent with existing values, past experiences and needs of potential adopters);
complexity (the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand anduse); trialability (the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis);and observability (the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others).

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Pannell et al. (2006) discussed adoption of innovations through a cross-disciplinary lens,
where a dynamic learning process is related to the achievement by the farmer of landholder
personal goals. They considered that innovations are more likely to be adopted if they have a highrelative advantage and are readily trialable. The research question addressed in the Cambodian
study was how rhizobium as an innovation is assessed by potential innovators in terms of Rogers’
five attributes. The hypothesis tested was that adoption intentions were related to these innovation
attributes and other factors and, if so, which innovation attributes were most important.
METHODOLOGY
A survey questionnaire was developed for individual farmer interviews asking about their personal
circumstances (e.g. age, farm size, crops grown, and farming experience), their previous exposure
to rhizobium (i.e. workshops attended, village trials) and whether they would adopt rhizobium.
Their responses to Rogers’ (2003) five attributes, were assessed in categorical forms (i.e.
Yes/No/Undecided). The survey was conducted in four villages of Samlout district in June 2011 byresearchers from the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI). The
survey questions were translated and recorded in Khmer.
A logistic model (e.g. see Askar et al., 2006) was developed to test statistically thedeterminants of adoptability of a technology such as rhizobium. The data were also analyzed with
log-linear models that examined whether the responses of farmers were independent of theirpersonal circumstances and experience of rhizobium. Logistic regression analysis was used toanalyze adoption intentions and the importance of innovation attributes.
RESULTS
The total number of farmers interviewed was 59, out of which 57 were deemed suitable (Table 1).
Of these, 46 indicated that they would and 11 that they would not adopt rhizobium. Results for thesignificance of innovation characteristics are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 1 Farmer interview numbers by villages, June 2011 Samlaut
Village

Kantout

Sre reachBeong Run

Kampong Touk

Total

Interviews

14

16

11

16

57

Table 2 Statistical importance of rhizobium innovation characteristics
Decision to adopt rhizobium by farmers according to
Statistical significance
Relative advantage**
Compatibility
NS
Complexity
NS
Trialability
NS
Observability*
Significance: <0.001 ‘***’, <0.01 ‘**’, <0.05 ‘*’, <0.10 ‘.’, >0.10 ‘Not Significant (NS)’

Relative advantage was highly significant and observability moderately significant, whereas
the other characteristics were not significant (Table 2) in the adoption intention decision. For otherfactors influencing adoption intentions, the source of first contact and whether farmers grewlegumes were highly significant, the period since rhizobium was introduced and size of farm wasmoderately significant, a farm workshop was not very significant.
DISCUSSION
When donors fund integrated farm-level projects there is an opportunity to conduct activities
including agronomic trials; on-farm demonstrations and field days; economic analysis oftechnologies, management changes and farming systems; and social analysis of farmer© ISERD
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characteristics interacting with difficult and dynamic learning and change processes. In this paper
we report on work which considered the characteristics of innovations as perceived by farmers after
they had experienced such project activities where the technology was introduced anddemonstrated. These activities provided a basis for an objective consideration of the adoption
decision.
In terms of innovation characteristics, relative advantage was most important andobservability was also highly significant. With respect to relative advantage Pannell et al. (2006,
p.1415) noted that ‘among those farmers with a focus on profit, the farm-level economics of a
proposed practice will be important’. The ability to observe the new technology perform in realfarm situations is also highly important. Thus relative advantage and observability were found to be
most important to these commercial farmers.
Of the other socio-economic factors influencing adoption the farmers responses indicated thata trusted source of information and (for rhizobium inoculation) whether they grew legumes were
important. The size of farm and period of time to consider the technology were also important, but
not gender or age of these farmers.
Table 3 Statistical importance of other factors
Decision to adopt rhizobium by farmers according to
Statistical significance
Gender of farmer.
Period since rhizobium was introduced*
Source of first contact**
Observing locallyNS
Attended a rhizobium workshopNS
Age of respondentNS
Size of farm*
Presence of off-farm work
NS
Grow legumes**
Attended farm demonstrations
NS
Attended farm workshops.
Years of experience farming in Samlout
NS
Significance: <0.001 ‘***’, <0.01 ‘**’, <0.05 ‘*’, <0.10 ‘.’, >0.10 ‘Not Significant (NS)’If adoptability is important in generating successful farm-level outcomes (and successfulproject outcomes) then a process of assessing the characteristics of technologies or innovations
prior to their promotion to the farming community may be valuable to project funders and sponsors.
The innovation attributes assessed in this paper have been incorporated into a screening process(called the ADOPT tool) for this purpose (see Kuehne et al. (2011). More widespread use of such atool could be advantageous to research funders and sponsors.
CONCLUSIONThe Cambodian upland farmers exposed to the rhizobium inoculation technology for legume seeds
assessed this technology in terms of five important characteristics suggested by the literature forsuccessful innovations. A survey and statistical analysis showed that relative advantage was themost important trait for adoptability. An existing tool (ADOPT) to predict outcomes according tothese traits is available. Perhaps project funders who do not already do so, could consider testingsuch a tool to augment project development processes and improve the probability of projectsuccess.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research reported here was funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research.

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REFERENCES
Anonymous. 2004. Could Cambodia's farmers be rich? Lessons learned from the Northwest former Khmer
Rouge zones. Economic Institute of Cambodia. http://www.eicambodia.org
Askar, P., Usluel, Y.K. et al. 2006. Logistic regression modeling for predicting tasl-related ICT use inteaching. Educational Technology and Society, 9(2), 141-151.
CIMMYT 1988. From agronomic data to farmer recommendations: An economics training manual.
Completely revised edition. Mexico, D.F.
Dalal, R.C. and Mayer, R.J. 1986. Long-term trends in fertility of soils under continuous cultivation andcereal cropping in southern Queensland. V Rate of loss of total nitrogen from the soil profile andchanges in Carbon:Nitrogen ratios. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 37, 493-504.
Farquharson, R., Chea, S. et al. 2006. Contemporary practices, constraints and opportunities for non-rice
crops in Cambodia. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture, 7(2), 1-12.
Farquharson, R., Scott, F. et al. 2008. Upland crop technologies in Cambodia: economic evaluations andsome adoption issues. 52nd Annual Conference of the Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics
Society. Canberra, Australia.
Farquharson, R.J., Chea, S. et al. 2006. Changes in management can improve returns from Cambodian
upland crops. International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference. Gold Coast, Australia.
Herridge, D.F. 2005. Soil and agronomic management for improvement in BNF in food legumes.
International Food Legume Research Conference. New Delhi, India.
Kuehne, G., Llewellyn, R. et al. 2011. ADOPT: the adoption and diffusion outcome prediction tool. The 55th
Annual National Conference of the Australia Agricultural and Resources Economics Society, Melbourne,
Victoria, February 8-11, 2011. http://www.csiro.au/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/SustainableAgriculture-Flagship/ADOPT [accessed 29 October 2012].
Martin, R.J., Belfield, S.C. et al. 2012. Adoption of rhizobium inoculation in Cambodia. 2 nd Asian
Conference on Plant-Microbe Symbiosis and Nitrogen Fixation. Phuket, Thailand.
McConnell, D.J. and Dillon J.L. 1997. Farm management for Asia: a systems approach. FAO Farm Systems
Management Series-13. FAO. Rome, Italy.
Pannell, D., Marshall, G.R. et al. 2006. Understanding and promoting adoption of conservation practices byrural landholders. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 46(11), 1407-1424.
Pin, T., Martin, R. et al. 2009. Rhizobial inoculation versus nitrogen fertiliser for mungbean, peanut andsoybean in rainfed upland areas of Cambodia. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture, 9, 54-61.
Rogers, M.E. 2003. Diffusion of innovations, fourth edition. The Free Press. New York, USA.
Sachs, J. 2005. The end of poverty: economic possibilities for our time. Penguin Books New York, USA.
Scott, F. 2008. Economic evaluation - Workshop on implementation of on-farm demonstrations of improved
practices for upland crops. Enhancing production and marketing of maize and soybean in north-western
Cambodia and production of summer crops in north-eastern Australia. (1-16, February).

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Research article
erd

The Concept of Sustainable Development in Indonesian’s
Forest Law (Case Study: Tesso Nilo’s National Park in
Pelalawan Regency, Riau Province, Indonesia)
Sri Wahyuni A Kadir*
Islamic University of Riau, Pekanbaru, Indonesia
Email: sri_wahyuni6969@ymail.com
Received 9 January 2013

Accepted 6 May 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Tesso Nilo National Park has a forest area approximately 153 000 hectares
located in the 4th district in Riau Province, Indonesia. The park is one of eight blocks ofnatural forests at Pelalawan Regency in Riau Province. With its rich resources, it provides
benefits for the economic development of the people and community. While the mobilityof people from the other side, interests of forestry potential is so high, resulting in theemergence of bad things to the preservation of forests and the environment of the forest
resource itself. In line with rapid population growth and increasing demand for wood,plantations and agricultural land expansion, and excessive timber industry practices
coupled with the level of exploitation of forest resources on a large scale, through large
scale cultivation without any effort adequate conservation and rehabilitation, as well as
policy issues that are less supportive of forest conservation and forest law enforcement
failures increased the level of deforestation or forest loss. The study used survey research
involving observation. Population sampling was done by purposive sampling or selectionof a deliberate consideration of respondents where actors consisting of three different
stakeholder groups on the basis of formal and informal institutions. The group was theGovernment, Society, and other groups that were not incorporated in the two previous
groups. The factors that specifically affected the implementation of Forest law are as
follows: unfinished boundaries, lack of quality and quantity of personnel, existence of
tenure and encroachment, inconsistent land use designation, existence of settlements in theregion, uncontrolled logging or timber theft, fire hazard, overlapping with plantation, weakoversight of the access road around region, and lack of coordination among relevant
agencies. Governments need to improve the coordination system to each relevant agency
to carry out protection and conservation of the Tesso Nillo forest areas as well as
enforcing in the law against any encroachment and violations under the legislation.
Keywords environment, environmental law, forest, forest law

INTRODUCTION
Tesso Nilo forest is surrounded by four conservation areas namely Kerumutan Wildlife Reserve,
Bukit Tigapuluh National Park, Mount Rimbang Baling Wildlife Reserve and Nature Reserve.
Clearing of forests for other uses have been cut off. Connectivity between Tesso Nilo forest andthese conservation areas formed a landscape area of 3 million hectares called Tesso Nilo landscapeof Bukit Tigapuluh. The landscape is associated with biological corridors and buffer zones which
consist of natural forests, production forests, and timber and oil palm plantations, including farming
communities. The mechanism of protection using the landscape approach allows wildlife to move
more freely while providing a large survival support system.
In the last 30 years timber for Indonesia has achieved the highest revenue from the export ofnatural resources. Nevertheless, excessive felling, deforestation and the conversion of remaining
forests continue to plantations. The forest fires in Indonesia are a man-made environmental disaster.
The reasons are firstly found directly in Indonesia but also in the development of global markets,
because the raw materials, must give way to forests of Indonesia for their production (pulp, rubber,palm oil), commercial products worldwide (Sri Wahyuni, 2006).

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Since 1982, Indonesia has a legislation to protect the environment, but their application andmonitoring for various reasons, is flawed. Thus, the environmental legislation can be characterized
as inadequate and confusing, and it seems to lack a certain determinant and transparency in theenforcement of laws. Although the Indonesian government Agenda 21, the Program of Action of
the environmental conference in Rio in 1992, has committed to integrate environmental concerns
into all policies and to pursue a policy of sustainability. It is subject to a high degree of economic
conflicts of interest, Forestry, according to the Forestry Law Number 41 Year 1999, is a systemthat has to do with the management of forests, forest lands, and forest products organized in an
integrated manner. Forest is a unitary form of landscape ecosystems biological resources,
dominated by trees in their natural environment. The two cannot be separated. Forest area is a
specific area or a designated area and assigned by the government to be protected as permanent
forests. State forest is a forest that is on land which is not encumbered land rights. Private forest is
a forest that is on land encumbered land rights. Indigenous forest is a country forest in the territoryof indigenous peoples. Production forests are forests that have the principal function of producing
forest products. Protected forests are forest areas that have basic functions as protection of life
support systems to manage the water system, preventing floods, controlling erosion, preventing sea
water intrusions and maintain soil fertility.
In line with rapid population growth and increasing demand of wood, plantations andagricultural land expansion; excessive timber industry practices coupled with the level of
exploitation of forest resources on a large scale cultivation without any effort of adequate
conservation and rehabilitation; policies that are less supportive of forest conservation and forest
law enforcement failures increased the level of forest loss.
On July 3, 2007 Governor of Riau issued Decree No. Kpts: 271.a/VII/2007 about theformation of response teams and land encroachment and expansion in Tesso Nilo National Parkwith tasks to:1) Make the steps on handling forest encroachment and its implementation in accordance with
their respective authority.
2) Identify the perpetrators of forest encroachment and seek alternatives after exiting from Tesso
Nilo forest.
3) Make efforts in accelerating the process of expansion of Tesso Nilo National Park in the
Department of Forestry
4) Make a plan and implement the Tesso Nilo forest rehabilitation in collaboration with relevant
agencies.
The findings of this study include how is Riau Province government policy towards theconcept of sustainable development of Indonesian’s Forest Law considering the case of Tesso
Nilo’s National Park in the Pelalawan Regency.
OBJECTIVE
Tesso Nilo National Park has a forest area approximately 153 000 hectares located in the 4th districtin Riau Province, Indonesia. The park is one of eight blocks of natural forests at Pelalawan
Regency in Riau Province. With its rich resources, it provides benefits for the economic
development of the people and community. While the mobility of people from the other side,
interests of forestry potential is so high, resulting in the emergence of bad things to the preservationof forests and the environment of the forest resource itself. In line with rapid population growth andincreasing demand for wood, plantations and agricultural land expansion, and excessive timberindustry practices coupled with the level of exploitation of forest resources on a large scale throughlarge scale cultivation without any effort, adequate conservation and rehabilitation, as well as
policy issues that are less supportive of forest conservation and forest law enforcement failuresincreased the level of deforestation or forest loss.

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METHODOLOGY
The study is a survey research descriptive analysis of means. This is an in-depth study on theprotection and conservation of the Tesso Nilo forest area during the previous and the present time.
In accordance with the development of the field, the nature of this study will be flexible to follow
the pattern of thought and the final analysis of results so as to provide an explanation of the past, an
explanation of what now is being held on that are expected to answer the problem. The populationand sample selection is done by purposive sampling where respondents are three groups ofstakeholders: from formal and informal institutions: the Government, the Society, and the othergroup which consists of those that do not belong to the two previous groups.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The current policy includes the Governor of Riau policy as an instrument of law. The resolver isdifficult to implement due to a variety of issues and problems especially in answering some of themain interests which include: protecting the forest, rationalizing utilization of resources, resolving
uses and conflicts and reaching a balance between the interests of society and developing, whileproviding protection to the potential existing resources. In connection with the policy of theGovernor of Riau and implementation according to Law No. 41 year 1999, Article 46 states that:"Forest protection and nature conservation aimed at keeping the forest, so that protection,conservation functions and production functions are achieved in an optimal and sustainable degree".
1. The type of stakeholders classified in terms of institution, tenure or ownership of natural
resources and attitude show two levels: the formal and the informal institutions. From these
two levels of four different stakeholder groups of institution: the Government, Public, Private
or corporate and other groups are those that are not incorporated in the three previous groups.
2. Based on the control and the possession of the land around Tesso Nilo forest, two groups ofstakeholders were identified, namely the main or primary stakeholders and secondary
stakeholders.
3. Based on Stakeholder's Attitude
Stakeholder's groups can also be distinguished by its attitude towards the Tesso Nilo forest
conservation. There were three stakeholder categories namely: Support Groups, Opposition
Groups and the Opportunists.
4. Support Group
Support groups are stakeholders who are committed to the preservation of the Tesso Nilo
forest without any desire of commercial gain of exploiting it. There are 15 institutions that
supported the Tesso Nilo forest which include the Central Government through the Ministry ofForestry, NGOs working in the field of conservation, local government, the Press in Riau,
Institutions of Higher Education, Research and others.
5. Opposition groups
Usually based on economic interests and opportunity. There are nine institutions into
opposition. These opposition groups tend to oppose the Tesso Nilo forest conservation
because the presence of conservation efforts will disrupt their opportunity to exploit the forest
resources for economic benefit.
6. Opportunist groups
Matters concerning the management of forests can be seen from the articles such as following:
Article 4 of Forest Law Number 44 Year 1999 which states that “all the forests within the
territory of the Republic of Indonesia, including natural resources contained therein under thestate's overall prosperity for the people. Forest control by any State referred to in paragraph (1)authorizes the government to: Set up and take care of everything related to the forest, forest,and forest products. Determine the status of certain areas as forest area or forest area as a nonforest area, and regulate and establish legal relations between the people with the forest and
set up legal actions concerning forestry. Forests by the State shall respect the customary law,
as long as it exists and its existence is recognized and does not conflict with national interests”.

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From the above description is concluded that the of Law Number 22 Year 1999 on local
government by Forest Law No. 41 Year 1999 on the harmonization of forest seen in terms of forest
management with the authority that is in the hands of government (central government), but
provisions of article 10 of Law Number 32 Year 2004 regarding Regional Government which
replaced Law Number 22 Year 1999 on the same thing, there is an existence of disharmony in thecase of forest administration. Judging from the article 10 of Law No. 32 Year 2004, that only
covers government affairs, foreign policy, defense, security, justice, monetary and physical, andreligion, thus implied intent that forest management be submitted to the Government, but the Law
Number 41 Year 1999 regarding Forestry and Forest Administration has not changed ,still remains
with the government (central government). This raises a contradiction in terms of forest
administration authority.
Natural resources and environmental accounting includes the calculation of all natural
resources and environment, both used and not used in the production process. Natural resourcesand environmental accounting includes the calculation of stock reserve and natural changes ofassets that have economic value (Sherafy and Lutz, 1989).
In gaining a clear illustration of the economic purpose of natural resources accounting,especially in its relationship to economic policy formulation and development planning, bothmonetary and physical accounting must be conducted. Due to the difficulties in finding a unit ofmeasurement for all sectors and types of natural resources, the compilation of natural resources are
considered important and strategic (Sherafy and Lutz 1989; Pearce et.al. 1989).
Forests are numerous suppliers of renewable raw materials and commodities. Through its
function of protecting watersheds and soils is base-existence of many industries. The tropical
hardwood products that were exported in 1986 by tropical countries represented, only 3% of thewooden total degradation in developing countries. However, most of these exports come from therainforests of a small number of tropical countries, where they constitute a very large share ofwood degradation. This was particularly the case in the eastern tropics (Siegenthaler/Oeshger,1987).
The genesis of the concept of sustainable development is commonly reported to the 1987
Brundtland Report, which contains the well-known definition of “sustainable development” as:development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).
In an era of increasing economic globalization, the traditional environmental and social
challenges seem to have gained a new dimension which must be taken into account. However,pursuant to the Johannesburg Declaration, “the rapid integration of markets, mobility of capital andsignificant increase in investment flows around the world has opened new challenges andopportunities for the pursuant of sustainable development (Massimiliano Montini, 2008).
The complexity of the concept of sustainable development is well known. Due to its
vagueness and often perceived irreconcilable nature of its basic pillars, namely the economic,
environmental and social dimensions, the concepts of sustainable development is still denied therecognition of the status of a “legal principle” by most scholars and by the relevant practice ofStates, although this does not render its role less pivotal in contemporary international as well as
national law (Lowe, 1999).
From this analysis, all the main difficulties related to the recognition of the role of a legal
principle to the concept of sustainable development, such as, first of all, the uncertainty to its legal
content as well as the absence of adequate criteria for its justifiability, are clearly outlined. Startingfrom this analysis, a similar though even more incisive approach was then proposed in a seminal
article by Vaughan Lowe, which stated that the argument that sustainable development is a norm ofcustomary international law, binding on and directing the conduct of States, and which can beapplied by Tribunals, is not sustainable (Lowe, 1999).
Government regulation number 34 year 2002 is on Forest and Forest Management Planning,
Forest Utilization and Forest Use Zone, which is the implementing regulations of Law Number 22
Year 1999 regarding Regional Government (Autonomous Region). Forest governance and forest
management planning, forest use, and use of forest area are a part of forest management.
Furthermore, forest management is a part of forest management with the authority of the Central© ISERD
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Government. This means that the activities of forest governance, forest management planning,
forest use and forest use is the authority of the Central Government. Thus, the licensing
arrangements for the utilization of forest wood in natural forests and plantations is given by the
Minister of Forestry on the recommendation of the Regent / Mayor and the Governor as set out in
PP (Government Regulation) No.34 year 2002. However, this has been adjusted to the legislationin the field of Local Government (Law No. 22 of 1999).
Although Law No. 41 year 1999 as if themselves to the authority of the central government.
However, PP (Government Regulation) Number 34 year 2002 has been adjusted. As a follow-up
submission to the central authority of the local area utilization permit, environmental services
business license, the license of utilizing non-timber forest products, and permit harvesting of timberand non timber has been delivered and given to the area (Regent / Mayor) if that located in within
the district / city. Likewise, if located in the area of Trans regency / city in one province theauthority is granted to the Governor. But if the forest is located in the province to permit crossutilization it's still remaining in the hands of the Minister of Forestry. For the unity and equality
policies in the treatment of contour system of forest ecosystems, the policy for granting permits toutilization of forest products, in PP (Government Regulation) 34 year 2002 is still on hold by thegovernment, in this case the Minister of Forestry. Access to information and public participation
are essential building blocks for sustainable development. This prepares citizens to become
informed decision makers, offering a basis for stimulating creative solutions to environmental,social and developmental problems, and providing a foundation for building consensus on criticalpriorities. Governments and institutions governed by transparency, openness, accountability andcommunity participation are more capable of reconciling the needs of present and future
generations, balancing private and public interests, and harmonizing economic development withsocial and environmental needs. Thus, improved access to information and participation indecision-making will more likely lead to overall sustainable development (Wahyuni, 2011).
CONCLUSION
1. The factors that specifically affect the implementation of Decree No. 271.a/VII/2007 Governorof Riau in the protection and conservation of the Tesso Nilo forest areas as follows:a. Aspects of Management
 Boundaries are not yet complete (how about uncompleted or unfinished delineation ofboundaries?) Lack of quality and quantity of personnel Lack of quality and quantity of facilities and infrastructureb. Aspects of the Area:
 The existence of tenure and encroachment (how about prevalence of encroachment) The land use designation is inconsistent with that of oil palm, rubber and acacia, etc.
 The existence of settlements in the region
 There is still logging / timber theft (how about unresolved logging practices) Prone to fire (vulnerability to fire hazards)
 Overlap with plantationc. Weak oversight of the access road
Lack of coordination among relevant agencies, it is seen from: 1) National Self-Help Program(Prona Self-Help) Budget 1998/1999 by the Office of the National Land Indragiri Hulu in theregion that issued the certificate on behalf of the Tesso Nilo forest, Plantation
2. Government needs to improve the coordination system with each relevant agency that carry out
protection and conservation of the Tesso Nilo forest areas as well as enforcing the law against
any encroachment and violations under the legislation.
3. In anticipation of the issue and application of empirical authority in the field, a recommendation
can be submitted to the Central Government to conduct an evaluation or revision of several laws
and regulation relating to the protection and conservation systems taking legal action in case of© ISERD
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violation and encroachment in Tesso Nilo forest, as well as avoiding overlaps of authority in thefield with the drafting of forest area management, in line with the spirit of autonomy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTMy special thanks to Prof. Dr. Kim Van der Borght, Professor of Law Faculty at Vrije Universiteit
Brussels, Belgium. To Erasmus Mundus, Scholarship for Post Doctoral Research in 2011-2012 at
Law Faculty, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Belgium. To my University, Islamic University of Riau
(Indonesia).
REFERENCES
Lowe, V. 1999. Sustainable development and unsustainable arguments, in International Law and Sustainable
Development: Past Achievement and Future Challenges (eds. Boyle and D. Freestone). Oxford, Oxford
University Press.
Massimiliano, J. 2000. Sustainable development within the climate change regime, in sustainable
development in international and national law (eds. Hans Christian Brugge and Christiana Voigt). Eropa
Law Publishing, Netherlands.
Wahyuni, S. 2006. Dissertation, rechtprobleme der Tropenwaldbewirtschaftung in Indonesien, Bundesverlag,
Germany.
Wahyuni, S. 2012. The Concept of sustainable development in Indonesia’s forest law. Post doctoral thesis,
Vrije Universiteit. Brussel, Belgium.
Wahyuni, S. 2011. Sustainable Development in Indonesian Environmental Law; Lessons from Germany’s
Sustainable Forest Management Practices. International Journal on Environmental and Rural
Development, 2(1), 83-87.
World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford, Oxford
University Press.

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Research article
erd

The Nitrogen Runoff Characteristics in Agricultural
Watersheds after Enforcementof Animal Waste Regulation
I
7
d
e
n
TOSHIMI MUNEOKA*t
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary
Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan

Email: muneoka@obihiro.ac.jp

4.
YURI YAMAZAKI
7
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary
Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
2

SACHIYO WAKOU

wo Fishery, Ibaraki Prefectural Government, Ibaraki,
Department of Agriculture, Forestry &r
Japan

MOTOKO SHIMURAdsNational Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Western Region Agricultural ResearchCenter, Farming Systems and Agro-Environmental Technologies Research Division,
Hiroshima, JapanKUNIHIKO YOSHINO
Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems Division of Policy and Planning Sciences,
University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, JapanOSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanTOSHIO TABUCHI
Former professor of the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 6 May 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In this study, the characteristics of nitrogen in river water at the normal waterlevel were examined for a period after the enforcement of animal waste regulation. The
differences in agricultural land use in the two study sites in Eastern Hokkaido were taken
into consideration. In 35 watersheds in the two areas, the total nitrogen (T-N), nitrate
nitrogen (NO3-N), nitrite nitrogen (NO2-N) and ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N)
concentrations, and the river discharges were investigated. A total of 7 investigations werecarried out during the period from late May to late November 2005. In the Tokachi area
(24 watersheds), the main land uses are upland and dairy farming. In the Nemuro area (11watersheds), the main land use is large-scale dairy farming. Irrespective of the land use in
the watershed, when the proportion of the agricultural land was about 20% or lower, thevalue obtained by adding the standard deviation to the annual mean T-N concentration ofriver water in many investigated watersheds was 1.0 mg/L or lower. When watersheds
whose proportion in the agricultural land was 65% or higher were examined, there weresome whose values obtained by adding the standard deviation to the annual mean T-Nconcentration were close to 10 mg/L. Decreasing trends were not identified in the nitrogenconcentration in river water investigated in the first year after enforcement of animal waste
regulation. From the viewpoint of water quality conservation, it is effective toappropriately adjust the use of chemical fertilizers in the cropland in the watersheds and toencourage dairy farmers to practice appropriate management of livestock manure.
Keywords nitrogen runoff, agricultural land use, animal waste regulation, water quality
conservation© ISERD
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INTRODUCTION
Japan is in the Asian monsoons region. In Eastern Hokkaido, where large-scale farming has been
conducted under harsh climatic conditions, nitrate pollution of the local water system has been
pointed out. The concentration of nitrate nitrogen in river water and the extent of agricultural land
use in an investigated area were reported to have a positive correlation (Tabuchi et al., 1995; Woliet al., 2002; Woli et al., 2004; Muneoka et al., 2012).
Tabuchi et al. (1995) investigated the nitrate nitrogen concentration in river water and theagricultural land use in each area in Eastern Hokkaido in the summer of 1992. Yamazaki et al.
(2013) conducted a long-term observation on the relationship between nitrate nitrogenconcentration in river water and agricultural land use in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas based on
the observation results of Tabuchi et al. (1995). Their observation revealed that in some of thewatersheds where the nitrate nitrogen decreased in the summer of 2004 relative to the summers ofprevious years, the nitrate nitrogen actually increased significantly in 2005, and the increasing
trends continued in successive years. On the contrary, there have been few studies that observed theseasonal fluctuation of the river water quality in agricultural watersheds immediately before andafter the enforcement of animal waste regulation (Kato et al, 2006).
The present study examines the characteristics of nitrogen that flowed into river water at thenormal water level in two areas in Eastern Hokkaido in the first year after the enforcement ofanimal waste regulation. The study focuses on the differences in agricultural land use between the
two areas.
METHODOLOGY
The maps of study sites are shown in Fig.1. The Tokachi area, which has 24 watersheds on the
Tokachi River system and the Shikaribetsu River system (No. 1 to 24), is located in the
Sampling
River name
Point

N

Bridge nameArea
Land use ( %)(km2 ) Agricultural land Forest

Tokachi area

Hokkaido

Nemuro Area

Tokachi Area
Shibetsu River

Tokotan River

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

TokachiOojika632
PenkenaiPennai23
Penkenikorbetsu Penkenikorobetsu
48
Penkenikoro
Minamiiwamatsu
72
TokachiNakajima
1798
Shikaribetsu
Urimaku
217
Sikanosawa
Kikuchi5Kamihoronai
Kamihoronai
3
Shikaribetsu
Momiji256
Minami1sen
Nakashikakann2gou 13
Iketo
Minamisawa
9
Pankebibaushi Kousui
27
Urimaku( no bridge )9Poronai( no bridge )3
Urimaku
Mutsu
49
Penkeutorei
Honnmaki
3
Pankeutorei( no name )5Pankeutorei
Komadome
17
Penkechin
Okuyama26
Ponchin
Kamimaki
13
Penkechin
Isami
63
Pankechin
Sinnei10
PankechinTaneuma
72
Shikaribetu
Kunimi
667

1
0
2
2
21
4
83
88
13
72
95
90
13
90
58
88
93
65
22
75
46
52
72
48

94
98
96
97
70
91
13
12
81
17
2
7
66
7
32
11
6
25
49
18
33
32
15
45

4
7
32
3
22
32
49
81
10
54
73

71
81
57
91
72
64
46
14
60
32
21

Nemuro area

Shikaribesu River
Tokachi River

Nishibetsu River
Agricultural land
ForestOther
River
Sampling point

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

Kanjiushi
KenekaKenekaShibetsu
Shibetsu
Masu
Masu
TokotanNishibetsu
Nishibetsu
Pononnebetsu

Yourouushi
MinoriHakuyou
Nagori
Kamisibetu
Masukawa
Kenebetsu
Houtoku
Kousai
Nishisyunnbetsu
AkashiFig. 1 Outline of the Tokachi and Nemuro areas© ISERD
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11
41
82
54
82
10
28
12
19
149
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

northwestern part of the Tokachi General Sub prefectural Bureau, and it is an area with upland anddairy farming. The Nemuro area, which has 11 watersheds on the Shibetsu River system, theTokotan River system and the Nishibetsu River system (A to K), is located in the western part of
the Nemuro Sub prefectural Bureau, and it is an area mainly of dairy farming. In both of these areas,large-scale farming has been operated, and there have been no considerable changes in agriculturalland use in either area since 1985.
In year 1981 to 2010, the annual mean air temperature and the yearly precipitation were 5.9℃
and 840.7 mm at Komaba in the Tokachi area, and 5.4℃ and 1158.0 mm at Nakashibetsu in thevicinity of the Nemuro area. Both areas have a relatively cold climate with less rainfall.
The investigation of the river water quality was conducted at the normal water level at 35
sampling points. Electric conductivity (EC) and water temperature were measured at sampling
points. Discharge was also measured on the rivers in small watersheds (21 to 24 samples permonth). Analysis for some water quality components were done after the field investigation. The
total nitrogen (T-N), nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N), nitrite nitrogen (NO2-N) and ammonium nitrogen(NH4-N) concentrations were used as indices in this study. The 7 investigations were carried out
during the period from late May to late November 2005.
The GIS software application ArcGIS Desktop (Ver. 10, ESRI) was used for analyzing land
use in the study sites. The data were “rivers”, ”watershed boundaries” and “detailed land use mesh”
from digital national information to determine the proportion of agricultural land in watersheds.
The detailed land use mesh (100 m × 100 m) shows 11 types of land uses; however, we redefined
the mesh into the three items of “agricultural land”, “forest” and “other”. The proportion ofagricultural land was determined for each watershed by overlaying the watershed map created forthe sampling points on the detailed land use mesh.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In Japan, there are two major water quality standards that use nitrogen as indices. “TheEnvironmental Standards Concerning the Protection of Human Health” specifies the highest
acceptable combined concentration of NO3-N and NO2-N as 10 mg/L. Some standards with “TheEnvironmental Standards Concerning the Conservation of the Living Environment” specify thehighest acceptable concentration of T-N as 1.0 mg/L.
For an examination of the characteristics of the seasonal fluctuations in nitrogen concentrationof river water at 35 sampling points in the two investigated areas in 2005, the annual mean nitrogenconcentration and the standard deviation are shown in Fig.2 (a), (b).
The T-N concentration in river water in the two areas was compared using the coefficient ofvariation (standard deviation divided by the mean). The values for the Tokachi area (24 sampling
points) were 12% to 77% and those for the Nemuro area (11 sampling points) were 7% to 27%.
The range of seasonal fluctuation of T-N concentration in river water was smaller in the Nemuroarea than in the Tokachi area.
Among the all sampling points, the number of sampling points where the sum of annual mean
T-N concentration and the standard deviation were 1.0 mg/L or lower was 7 points in the Tokachiarea and 6 points in the Nemuro area. The proportion of agricultural land in the watersheds in theseareas were <1 - 22% in the Tokachi area and 3 - 32% in the Nemuro area. It was found thatirrespective of the land use differences, if the proportion of agricultural land was 20% or lower, thenitrogen concentration in the river water in many watersheds was 1.0 mg/L or lower.
Differences were clearly found in the characteristics of the fluctuations in nitrogen concentration
between the two areas when the value of T-N concentration in the watersheds exceeded about 3.0
mg/L. There were some sampling points in the Tokachi area whose values for T-N concentrationand standard deviation combined were close to the 10 mg/L, specified in “The Environmental
Standards Concerning the Protection of Human Health”. At 5 sampling points (No.11, 14, 16, 18
and 20) among the above 14 points, the coefficient of variation was 30% or greater. These fivewatersheds had features that are in common, such as small areas of 3 - 17 km2 and a highproportion of agricultural land of 65% - 95%. In the Nemuro area, however, only one watershed© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

had the T-N concentration and standard deviation combined that exceeded about 3.0mg/L. For thiswatershed, the coefficient of variation was 13%, which was relatively small, the area was 23 km2,
and the proportion of agricultural land was 81%.
(b) Nemuro area

Sampling point(a) Tokachi area
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

Sampling point1)2)Standard deviation of T-N

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

1)
2)

Standard deviation of T-N

0.0

1.0

NO3-N

2.0
3.0
T-N (mg/L)

NO2-N

NH4-N

4.0

5.0

Org.-N** organic nitrogen

1) Some standards of T-N (≦1.0 mg/L)
2) T-N = 3.0 mg/L line
0.0

2.0

4.0
6.0
T-N (mg/L)

8.0

10.0

Fig. 2 The annual mean nitrogen concentration and the standard deviationof the river water in the watersheds in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
Fig.3 shows the regression lines and the calculated coefficients of correlation, which indicate
the relationship between the NO3-N concentration in river water and the proportion of agriculturalland in the watersheds. The NO3-N was used as the index on this study, because T-N in the riverwater mainly consisted of NO3-N in general.
The relationship between the NO3-N concentration in river water (Y) and the proportion ofagricultural land in the watershed (X) is expressed as Y = a X. The slope “a”, which indicates theimpact factor (IF) value, for the both areas in 2005 were 0.026 - 0.054 in the Tokachi area and0.020 - 0.029 in the Nemuro area. When two watersheds, one from the Tokachi area and the otherfrom Nemuro area, that had similar proportion of agricultural land were compared, the NO3-N
concentration in the river water at the similar investigation period tended to be higher in the
Tokachi area. The IF in the Tokachi area showed particularly high values that exceeded 0.050 from
July to September.
When the coefficient of correlation r for both areas was examined by using the NO3-N
concentration as the index, r for the Tokachi area were 0.67※※ - 0.89※※, and that for the Nemuroarea were 0.94※※ - 0.96※※. These coefficients are all positive and significant at the 1 percent level.
The correlation was constantly higher in the Nemuro area throughout 2005.
As discussed above, comparison between the annual mean nitrogen concentrations in riverwater in the two areas in the first year after the enforcement of animal waste regulation (2005)
showed that the nitrogen concentration was relatively low and stable in the Nemuro area, while it
was high and varied greatly in the Tokachi area.
In the Nemuro area, agricultural land use had been unified into grassland, and the major
loading source of water contamination derives from livestock manure. Therefore, it can be assumed
that the seasonal variation in the nitrogen concentration of the river water was relatively small andhad a high correlation with the proportion of agricultural land in the watershed.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

NO3-N (mg/L)

8.0

NO3-N (mg/L) [ Y = a X ]◎2005.7
Investigated
month

6.0
Y = 0.054 X
r = 0.87 ※※

4.0

2.0
Y = 0.023 X
r = 0.94 ※※
0.0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Tokachi areaa*r

Nemuro area
a*
r

N.B

2005.50.028

0.69 ※※

0.020

0.95 ※※

2005.60.026

0.67 ※※

0.020

0.95 ※※

2005.70.054

0.87 ※※

0.023

0.94 ※※ ◎2005.8

0.051

0.89

※※

0.024

0.95 ※※

2005.90.052

0.84 ※※

0.028

0.96 ※※

2005.100.041

0.73 ※※

0.025

0.95 ※※

2005.110.042

0.76 ※※

0.029

0.96 ※※

Proportion of agricultural land (%)
Tokachi area

Nemuro area

* The impact factor (IF)※※ significance of 1%

Fig. 3 Relationship between the NO3-N of the river water and the proportionof agricultural land in watersheds in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
In the Tokachi area, land use was for dairy farming and the farming of various upland crops.
In addition to livestock manure, the loading source includes chemical fertilizers that were appliedin large quantities to the upland fields. It is assumed that the use of chemical fertilizers contributed
to the higher concentration of nitrogen in river water and that the larger range of seasonal variationin the nitrogen, concentration was attributable to the use of chemical fertilizers during the peakseason of agricultural farming.
CONCLUSION
By focusing on the difference in agricultural land use in the watersheds of two areas in Eastern
Hokkaido, the nitrogen outflow characteristics were examined for river water at the normal waterlevel at 35 sampling points in the two areas. The examinations found that, in the first year after theenforcement of animal waste regulation (2005), the nitrogen concentration in river water in the twoareas showed different behavior depending on the differences in agricultural land use. In the
Tokachi area, the nitrogen concentration in river water tended to be high in many watersheds. In
small watersheds with a high proportion of agricultural land, the nitrogen concentration in riverwater during the summer period (July to September) showed great increases. To conserve the water
environment by decreasing the concentration of nitrogen in river water, it is necessary to control
nitrogen loading during the summer seasons not only by promoting appropriate use of chemicalfertilizers in croplands but also by encouraging individual farmers to practice appropriate
management of livestock manure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for the research assistance provided by the students in Obihiro Universityof Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine.
REFERENCES
Kato, T., Ishijima, T., Kuroda, H., Nakasone, H. and Kiri, H. 2006. Runoff characteristics of nutrients before
and after enforcement of animal waste regulation. J. Jpn. Soc. Water Environ., 29, 687-692 (in Japanesewith English abstract).
Muneoka, T., Okazawa, H., Tsuji, O. and Kimura, M. 2012. The nitrate nitrogen concentration in river waterand the proportion of cropland in the Tokachi River watershed. IJERD, 3-2, 193-199.

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Tabuchi, T., Yoshino, K., Shimura, M., Kuroda, S., Ishikawa, M. and Yamaji, E. 1995. Relation between
land use and nitrate concentration of outflow water from watersheds of agricultural and forest area, Japan.
Trans. of JSIDRE, 178, 129-135 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Woli, K. P., Nagumo, T. and Hatano, R. 2002. Evaluating impact of land use and N budgets on stream water
quality in Hokkaido, Japan. Nutr. Cycle. Agroecosyst, 63, 175-184.
Woli, K.P., Nagumo, T., Kuramochi, K. and Hatano, R. 2004. Evaluating river water quality through land
use analysis and N budgets approaches in livestock farming areas. Sci. Total. Environ, 329, 61-74.
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
Difference of agricultural land use in watersheds and long term fluctuation on the river water quality.
IJERD, 4-1, 152-157.

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Research article
erdSocio-Economic Evaluation on How Crop Rotations on
Clayey Soils Affect Rice Yield and Farmers’ Income in the
Mekong Delta, Vietnam
TRAN BA LINH*
Can Tho University, Vietnam
Email: tblinh@ctu.edu.vn, linh.tranba@ugent.be

WIM CORNELIS
Ghent University, Belgium

SARA VAN ELSACKER
Ghent University, Belgium

LE VAN KHOACan Tho University, Vietnam
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 6 May 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Declining land productivity is a major problem faced by small holder farmers in
the Mekong Delta today. Low soil quality is one of the greatest long-term challenges forfarmers in rice monocultures on alluvial soil. In order to better understand how farmcharacteristics and crop rotations affect crop yield and income, a socio-economic
evaluation among smallholder farmers were conducted in Cai Lay District, Tien Giang
province. During farm household surveys, information on household characteristics, farm
cropping activities, farm production practices and performance, and household income
was collected. Four types of farming practices were observed, one based on traditional rice
monoculture with three rice crops per year (RRR), one based on a crop rotation with tworice and one upland crop (RUR), one based on a crop rotation with one rice and two
upland crops (RUU), and a fourth based on upland crop monocultures (UUU). From theresults of interviews with the farmers, it was found that rotations with RUR or RUU gavehigher rice yields than RRR. The rice yield in the last five years increased when rotations
with upland crops were implemented (RUR and RUU), which was strongly in contrast
with the rice yield decrease over the last five years for rice monoculture systems (RRR).
The benefit-to-cost ratio was the highest for RUR. Interestingly, in RUR and RUU,
farmers apply less fertilizer and pesticide for rice production compared to RRR. The
survey revealed that many farmers had a tendency to apply too much nitrogen as a way tocompensate for the reduced rice growth due to land degradation in RRR. Regarding farm
size in the study area, the average size is about 0.62 ha. The size of small farms is 0.36 ha
and such small farms are found in UUU systems. The largest farms (0.91 ha) were foundin RRR systems. Farms of 0.68 ha and 0.43 ha are found in RUR and RUU systems,
respectively. The average profit of RUR and RUU was 2,490 USD/ha/year and 2,686
USD/ha/year, respectively. Those were higher than the profit of RRR farming (1,094
USD/ha/year), but lower than the profit from UUU systems (3,058 USD/ha/year).
Keywords alluvial soil, crop rotation, rice yield, profit, Mekong Delta

INTRODUCTION
In the Mekong Delta, Vietnam soil groups of recent alluvial sedimentation (Holocene period) occupy
about 1.2 million ha (31% compared to Mekong Delta) (Le Ba Thao, 1997). The soils in this groupare located on both sides of the Mekong River. They have a fine texture (silty clay to clay) and slopes
are <1% slopes (Le Ba Thao, 1986). The Mekong delta has a great agriculture productive potential,© ISERD
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with a distinct dry and wet season. The wet season starts in May and ends in November. The
average rainfall is about 2,000mm concentrated mainly between July and October (Le Sam, 1996).
The fields’ water level is influenced by a semi diurnal tidal regime, hence sufficient water isavailable for irrigation during the dry season. Agricultural production in the Mekong delta is basedon private smallholding. Farming in the delta is strongly rice oriented (Xuan and Matsui, 1998).
They are suitable for rice production and continuous rice cultivation is the dominant cropping
pattern. However, after long-term practicing triple rice cropping, the land use system exposed its
negative effects on soil quality and crop production. Long-term practicing of continuous cultivationis the main cause of degraded physical and chemical soil properties (Acosta, 2004; Achmad et al.,
2003; Cotching et al., 2002). One of the most prominent types of soil degradation is soil
compaction, which mainly originated from rice cultivation with high soil rotation and increased
mechanization under wet conditions (Lima et al., 2009).
The objectives of this study are to better understand how farm characteristics and crop
rotations of rice and upland crops affect crop yield and income, hence on the socio-economic
situation of rice farmers. Our research will be helpful to provide basic information for future
research in order to conserve the natural land resources and support sustainable agricultural
production.
METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in the Cai Lay district, Tien Giang province, the major alluvial region in
the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. It was selected to represent major conditions of long term systems of
three rice crops per year. The study area has a plain landform and an elevation of 2 m above sea
level. The soil had high clay content (58-67%) and has been classified as Fluvisol (Department ofSoil Science, Can Tho University, 2005). The topsoil was slightly acidic with pH of 5.0-6.0.
A farm household survey was undertaken with farmers from four villages (Long Khanh, Cam
Son, Binh Phu, Long Tien). All villages included four types of crop cultivation: 3 rice crops per
year (RRR), 3 upland crops per year (UUU), 1 rice and 2 upland crops per year (RUU), and 2 riceand 1 upland crop per year (RUR). A total of 109 farm households were interviewed using
structured questionnaires. For the cultivation of 3 upland crops per year, 19 farmers wereinterviewed and for the other cultivations, 30 farmers were interviewed. The surveyed farms wererandomly selected. In the interviews, sheets with following information were collected: history ofpeople’s settlement and exploitation, and crop rotation system development; cropping pattern andtypes of cultivation; cultivation techniques and land management like soil preparation for
cultivation, application of fertilizers, irrigation and drainage, limiting factors of plant yield and soil
productivity and rice yield and total cost of cultivation for calculating economic efficiency of thedifferent land use practices. Data on the farm area were collected throughout 2010-2011.
Analyzing the differences between the means was tested using SPSS v17. Significant
differences were determined using the Duncan multiple range test at 5% significance level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Present land use systems and cultivation practices
Interview results showed that upland crops (cucumber, tomato, water melon, maize, hot pepper,
okra, mungbean, vegetables) are normally cultivated on raised beds, with the soil dug to 20-30 cm
depth for making raised beds and furrows. Meanwhile, rice is planted on flat fields after ploughing
and puddling with a small tractor for every rice crop season. Current canal systems which arecarrying the fresh water irrigation and dike systems preventing flood water, farmers are able tocultivate 3 crops a year, i.e. a winter-spring crop (from November to February), a summer-autumn
crop (from March to June) and an autumn-winter crop (from July to October). Inorganic fertilizers
such as Diammonium phosphate (DAP), Urea, Superphosphate, Potassiumclorua, NPK (Nitrogen,
Phosphorous, Potassium) 20-20-15, NPK16-16-8 are broadcasted by hand. Organic manures are© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

not applied. Rotations of rice with upland crops have been practiced for 5 years (since 2006) on
fields that have serious soil compaction problems, which resulted in decreased rice yield eventhough farmers apply higher doses of fertilizer.
After harvest, some farmers dried their rice product first and stored them for a while. Aftersome time, when the household needs cash or when the market prices were high, they sell theirproduct. More than 80% of the farms sell their products directly to buyers after harvest.
The sowing density of rice in RRR is higher in comparison with RUR and RUU. In the winterspring season, about 57% of the surveyed farmers in RRR used 100 to 150kg seeds/ha, and 43%
used 150 to 200 kg/ha, whereas this was 73% and 27% for RUR, and 83% and 17% for RUU,
respectively. In the autumn-winter seasons about 23% of the surveyed farmers in RRR used 100 to
150kg seeds/ha, and 77% used 150 to 200 kg/ha. For RUR, this was 53% and 47%, respectively.
Regarding fertilizer application for rice growing, the optimum fertilizer level for this area is
100 kg N/ha (Vo Thi Guong and Tran Ba Linh, 2008). The results of the survey revealed that
farmers in RRR had a tendency to apply high doses of N as a way to compensate for the reduced
rice growth and rice yield resulting from land degradation. N fertilizer application of 77% of thesurveyed farmers in winter-spring season and 63% in autumn-winter in RRR system was over therecommended dosage, ranging from 101 to 130 kg N/ha/crop season. This is remarkably higher ascompared to RUR and RUU. Although, farmers apply less fertilizer and pesticides in rice-uplandcrops, rotation systems for rice production compared to RRR, the rice yield was higher for RUR
and RUU than for RRR (Figure 2). The heavy inorganic fertilizer and pesticide use in RRR might
further causes water pollution and unbalanced rice field ecology.
Farm size
The average area under cultivation per farmer for the different rotations is shown in Figure 1.
Agricultural production in Cai Lay is based on private smallholding with an average farm size ofless than 1 ha. The average farm size in the study area is about 0.62 ha. The farm size of the RRR
system ranged from 0.45 to 2.50 ha with an average of 0.91 ha. The average size of small farms is
0.36 ha and such small farms are found in UUU systems. Farms of average size of 0.68 ha and 0.43
ha are found in RUR and RUU systems, respectively. The RUU and UUU systems was practiced
on significantly smaller farm as compared to RRR (p<0.05).
Farmers who choose rice monoculture cropping system have a large part of their land undercultivation in contrast with the small scale farmers who seem to adopt a strategy of diversification.
The diversification of the farming system corresponds to a strategy by small scale farmer tostabilize their economic situation and improve their soil. Nevertheless, it is expected that theireconomic situation is threatened because of the tendentious depreciation of rice yield. Farmers who
cultivate mono rice does not like to replace with another crop because of the high investment, themarket price of upland crops is not being stable and the limited storage possibilities of their productif they cannot sell it immediately after harvesting.

Area under cultivation (ha)

1.4

a

1.2

b

1
0.8

c
c

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
RRR

RUR

RUU

UUU

Land use systems

Fig. 1 Average area under cultivation per farmer (ha) for the different land use systems© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Rice yield evolution
Based on the interviews with local farmers in the study area, the following information on rice crop
yield was collected (Fig. 2). It was shown that rice yield is different among farmer groups. Farmersof rotation groups RUR or RUU obtained a much higher rice yields than RRR system. The meandifference was statistically significant in all seasons. Rice yields were significantly different(p<0.05) among the systems of RRR (6.3 ton/ha) and RUR (6.9 ton/ha) or RUU (7.0 ton/ha) inwinter-spring and among the systems of RRR (4.2 ton/ha) and RUR (5.1 ton/ha) in autumn-winter.
Besides that, rice yield in the last five years (since 2006) increased when rotations with uplandcrops were implemented (RUR and RUU), with for RUR an increase of 9% for autumn-winter andwith 6% for winter-spring, and for RUU an increase of 8% for winter-spring. This was strongly incontrast with the rice yield decrease over the last five years for rice monoculture systems (RRR),
which showed a decrease of 8%. The yield increase in the rice-upland crop rotations can beassociated with improved soil quality resulting from cycles of drying (upland crops) and wetting(rice cultivation). The rice monocultures recorded the lowest yield because, according to thefarmers, soil fertility was reduced.
7,500

Yield (kg/ha)

7,000

RRR (W-Sp)

6,500

RUR (W-Sp)

6,000

RUU (W-Sp)

5,500
RRR (Su-A)

5,000
RUR (A-W)

4,500

RRR (A-W)

4,000
2006

2007

2008 2009
Year

2010

W – Sp: Winter-Spring; Su – A: Summer-Autumn; A – W: Autumn-Winter.

Fig. 2 Rice yield within recent-past 5 years (kg/ha) for the different land use systems
There was also a large variation in rice yield over seasons was observed. The rice yield wasmuch higher for winter-spring rice than for the summer-autumn or autumn-winter cropping period(Fig. 2). In the winter-spring season, rice showed much higher yield on average of five years (6.5;
6.7 and 6.8 ton/ha for RRR, RUR and RUU, respectively) as compared to summer-autumn (4.6
ton/ha for RRR) and autumn-winter seasons (4.3 and 4.9 ton/ha for RRR and RUR, respectively).
This may be due to the better climatic conditions with planting just after the flood season, higher
solar radiation and adequacy of irrigation water and that is the reason why rice is preferably
cultivated in the winter-spring period. According to the farmers, the weather and insect pests are
the major cause of yield loss in rice production in the summer-autumn and autumn-winter seasons.
Economic evaluation
The total economical balance for each land use system was analyzed based on a 1 ha farm size. The
production costs like those for seeds and materials, fertilizer, labor and pesticide constitute animportant part of the total variable cost of the system. Figure 3 shows the costs for seeds andmaterials, fertilizers, pesticides and labor on the one hand (input) and income on the other (output)
with total profit, the difference between both for the different land use practices. The total cost of
upland crop monoculture (UUU) and rice-upland crop rotation systems (RUR and RUU) weresignificantly higher than those of RRR farms. This is supported by findings of Huynh Dao Nguyen
et al. (2010) in a rice-upland crop survey conducted in Cho Moi district, An Giang province.
For the whole sample, labor cost is the main input contributing about 56% of the total
production cost, followed by fertilizer (26%), pesticide (13%) and seed (6%). Although most
farmers have enough family laborers for rice production, most farmers hired labor for seasonal
activities. On average, the hired labor cost contributed about 40-45% of the total labor cost. On thewhole, the production cost in the wet seasons is higher than that in the dry season. Usually, wet© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

fields are more difficult to work, especially for harvesting. Harvesting of the wet season crop
occurs at a time of heavy rains so that farmers face serious problems for postharvest activities suchas drying, cleaning and hauling. In rice farming, hand weeding, harvesting and post harvest use apredominant portion of the labor input. Tractors reduce the labor requirement for land preparation.
The planting of modern varieties and a high rate of fertilizer application increase the need of laborfor weeding, although farmers apply herbicides to control the weeds. The labor requirement for
harvesting and post harvesting also increases in function of the increased output.
The contribution of seeds and materials to the total cost is low (7%) for RUR and RUU.
Fertilizer application accounts for 21 to 23% of the total cost for RUU and RUR, respectively.
Labor manifests the highest contribution to the total cost (61-62% of total cost). The use of uplandcrops in the rotations creates more labor because of the need for raised beds that have to be dug.
This makes the total cost to increase with increasing use of upland crops in the rotation. In riceupland crops rotation systems, farmers apply less fertilizer and pesticide for rice production so thatthe rotation with one or two upland crop shows the lowest costs for pesticides. The interruption of
the rice cultivation by an upland crop can break off the food-supply for rice specific pests anddecreases the need for pesticides.
7000
6000

USD

5000
4000
RRR

3000

RUR
2000
RUU
1000

UUU

fit
pr
o

e
To
ta
l

t
co
s

in
co
m
To
ta
l

To
ta
l

La
bo
ur

tic
id
e
Pe
s

til
ize
r
Fe
r

Se
e

ds
+

m

at
er
ia
ls

0

Fig. 3 Cost and income for the different land use systems (in USD)
Farmers practicing rice monoculture generally receive a lower farm income per hectare thanthose applying rotated farming systems, per year or and per season. In other words, farmers
growing other crop rotations with rice or monocultures of upland crops can receive a higher income.
The total income is highest for UUU, followed by RUU and RUR, and finally RRR per season andper year. The total income of RUR and RUU was 5,025 USD/ha/year and 5,575 USD/ha/year,
respectively. Those were higher than the net income of RRR (3,424 USD/ha/year), but significantly
lower than the net income from the UUU system (6,338 USD/ha/year). It is believed that rotatedfarming systems not only help farmers to increase their farm income, but also contributes to ruraldevelopment and sustainable agriculture. On the other hand, there were large total profit
differences among the farmer classes. The rotation of farmer's profit was more than two times
higher than that of mono rice farmer's and the profit of upland crop farmers was almost three times
higher than that of mono rice farmer's. Indeed, the total profit of RRR was only 1,094 USD/ha/year,
whereas the UUU farmers gained a very high of 3,058 USD/ha/year, and RUR and RUU farmers amodest 2,490 USD/ha/year and 2,686 USD/ha/year, respectively.
Table 1 shows that the costs-benefit ratio (B/C) in rice-upland crop rotation farming systems
was higher than in traditional mono rice crop patterns. The B/C shows that rice monoculture has
the lowest profit over costs (46 to 51% lower than the other land use systems) and that RUU is themost successful with B/C 100%. Although there was not significance in B/C between RUR and
RUU, they were significantly higher than that of the RRR system.
Compared to rice monocultures, rotations of rice and upland crops give higher values of farm
diversity and economic efficiency. The rice-upland crop systems are therefore more ecologicallysustainable than rice monoculture systems. The rice-upland crop rotation farming systems could be
expanded further in future. However, low market prices sometime for rice and upland crop, lack of
capital investment, low level of technological skills, inadequate knowledge on natural resource© ISERD
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management, and unfavorable marketing system, among others, are major constraints for rotatedrice-upland crops systems in the target area. Moreover, farmers who cultivate upland crops have to
face low prices at the farm gate, since upland crops, especially vegetables are quickly damaged
after harvest. In order to help the farmers, better models of farmer organizations should be
developed. An appropriate and efficient credit scheme and integrated and interdisciplinary research
are urgently suggested to improve and widely develop rotated rice-upland crop systems in this area.
Table 1 Costs-benefit ratio for different land use systems.
Land use system
RRR
RUR
RUU
Winter-Spring
0.86d
1.24b
1.35a
Summer-Autumn
0.09b
0.82a
0.88a
Autumn-Winter
0.45c
0.98a
0.78b
Whole year
0.47b
0.98a
1.00a
Within rows, values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P=0.05

UUU
1.15c
0.90a
0.76b
0.93a

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSRice yield in the Cai Lay district, Tien Giang province in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam alluvial soils
with a clay texture was found to be lower in rice monocultures (RRR), than in rotation systems
with upland crops (RUR or RUU) which both showed similar high rice yield. On the other hand,rice yields were higher in the winter-spring season than the summer-autumn and autumn-wintercropping period. Applying upland crops to paddy fields can positively enhance the biodiversity andincrease farmer's income. The cost benefit ratio was highest for rotations upland crop with ricecultivations. It is also assures a lower application rate of agro-chemical in rotation systems. Total
income was highest in upland crop monocultures (UUU), followed by RUR and RUU, withsignificantly lowest values for RRR. Our study showed that replacing the practice of rice
monocultures with rotations with upland crops is very promising. Farmers who adopt new land use
systems not only generate more goods for the society, but also more income for their family andmore protection of land resources. The expansion of rice rotated with upland crops should be
encouraged to increase income, effective utilization of labor and improve the soil quality. However,for national food security, and to sustain rice production, farmers should be encouraged to cultivate
two times of the rice crops and one upland crop per year. More research should be realized in orderto evaluate the effect of the rotation systems on soil quality and thus to better understand the yield
differences.
REFERENCES
Achmad R., Anderson, S.H., Gantzer, C.J. and Thompson, A.L. 2003. Influence of long-term cropping
systems on soil physical properties related to soil erodibility. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 67, 637-644.
Acosta, V.M., Zobeck, T.M. and Allen, V. 2004. Soil microbial, chemical and physical properties incontinuous cotton and integrated crop-livestock systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 68, 1875-1884.
Cotching, W.E., Cooper, J., Sparrow, L.A., McCorkell, B.E., Rowley, W., Hawkins, K., 2002. Effect ofagricultural management on vertisols in Tasmania. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 40, 1267-1286.
Department of Soil Science, 2005. Map of soil groups in the Mekong Delta. Cantho University, Vietnam.
Huynh Dao Nguyen, Vo Thi Guong, 2010. Present mono rice crop systems of fluvial soil inside dikes at Cho
Moi district - An Giang province. Agriculture Publishing House (in Vietnamese).
Lima, A.C.R., Hoogmoed, W.B., Pauletto, E.A. and Pinto, L.F.S. 2009. Management systems in irrigated riceaffect physical and chemical properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 103, 92-97.
Le Ba Thao, 1986. Geography of the Mekong delta. Universal publishing house. Dong Thap province,
Vietnam (in Vietnamese).
Le Ba Thao, 1997. Vietnam: the country and its geographical regions. The Gioi publishers. Hanoi, Vietnam.
Le Sam, 1996. Irrigational system of the Mekong Delta. Agricultural publishing house. Vietnam.
Võ Thị Gương and Trần Bá Linh, 2008. Sustainable nutrient management in intensive rice cropping in the
Mekong Delta. Selected Research Papers, Agronomy Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development, Vietnam (in Vietnamese).

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Vo Tong Xuan and Shigeo Matsui, 1998. Development of farming systems in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam.
Vietnam Asia Pacific Economic Center. Ho Chi Minh publishing house. Ho Chiminh, Vietnam.

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Research article
erd

Determinants of Sugarcane Productivity in Pakistan(1981-2011)
ANWAR HUSSAIN*
Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE), Islamabad, Pakistan
Email: anwar@pide.org.pk
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The paper evaluates the impact of water availability, fertilizer consumption andcredit disbursement on sugarcane productivity in Pakistan using time series data over theperiod 1981-2011. The data has been taken from Economic Survey of Pakistan,
Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan and National Fertilizer Development Corporation(NFDC). The study estimates log-log model using ordinary least square method. For
checking the stationarity of the time series data, Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test isused. The empirical findings reveal that the yield elasticities of water availability, fertilizer
consumption and credit disbursement are 0.16, 0.14 and 0.04 respectively. It is
recommended that water availability should be ensured by the government at the grassroot level for higher sugarcane productivity. The farmers should be given support inconsumption of fertilizer. Micro Agriculture credit should be given for sugarcane farmers
for purchasing the inputs, technology and high yielding varieties.
Keywords sugarcane, productivity, water availability, agriculture credit

INTRODUCTION
Sugarcane is one of the important cash crops of Pakistan and is the important source of thelivelihood of the poor community in rural areas. It is used for industries like sugar, chipboard, andpaper. Looking over the statistical picture of sugarcane crop, its share in value added of agricultureand GDP are 3.4 percent and 0.7 percent, respectively. In the year 2008-09, the area undersugarcane crop was 1029 thousand hectares which was lower by 17.1% as compared to the year
2007-08. The production of the sugarcane was 50.00 million tons as compared to production of
63.9 million tons in the year 2007-08, showing 21.7% decrease against the year 2007-08. The
deteriorating situation was mainly due to water shortages and shifting of the area for the cultivationof rice crop. The lack of in time payments to the farmers by the sugar mills was also the major
factor (Government of Pakistan, 2009).
Sugarcane production showed significant fluctuations in the past. In 1960-61, the total area
under sugarcane crop was 388 thousands hectares which has been increased to 1029 thousands
hectares in 2006-07. On the other hand, in 1960-61, the total sugarcane production was 11641
thousands tonnes which has been increased to 54742 thousands tonnes in 2006-07. The total credit
disbursement in the agriculture sector in Pakistan was Rs.103.78 million in 1960-61 which has
been increased to Rs. 168830.46 million in 2006-07. The total fertilizer off-take in 1960-61 was
31.40 thousand nutrient tonnes, which has been increased to 3672 thousand nutrient tonnes in
2006-07 (Government of Pakistan, 2007).
The recent statistics reveals that the area under sugarcane crop is 988 thousands hectares in theyear 2010-11 which is higher against the year 2009-10 of 943 thousands hectares. Similarly thesugarcane production also improved in the year 2010-11 against the year 2009-10. The productionof the sugarcane in the year 2009-10 and 2010-11 was 49,373 thousand tones and 55,309 thousand
tonnes respectively. It is also interesting to note that sugarcane yield in kilograms per hectare has
also been increased to 55,981 kilograms per hectare in the year 2010-11 as compared to 52,357 in© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

the year 2009-10. Agriculture production in general and particularly sugarcane production can beincreased through applying appropriate agricultural input policy. The major agriculture inputs
mainly credit disbursement, area under cultivation, water availability and fertilizer which mattermuch.
A very limited researchers conducted studies about the econometric analysis of different
aspects of sugarcane crop. Ulveling and Fletcher (1970) estimated Cobb-Douglas production
function using input elasticities as a quadratic function of a capital intensity index and determined
the rate of returns to scale through incorporating the cost function. Alcantara and Prato (1973)
conducted study in Brazil in which they estimated the returns to scale for sugar mills farms. The
findings revealed that the elasticities for labor, land, fertilizer, pesticides and machinery/equipment
were 0.340, 0.285, 0.351, 0.113 and -0.089 respectively. They recommended for government toincrease the efficiency in sugarcane industry and focusing on expansion of sugarcane farms. Bhatti
and Yanagida (1990) developed a supply response model and empirically estimated standard
regression procedures. The principal factors affecting sugarcane supply response were the official
procurement sugarcane for sugarcane paid at the sugar mill gate, the scale of operation and therelative returns to alternative uses of sugarcane.
Farooq et al. (1999) outlined the possible causes of wide spread cultivation of a nonrecommended, high yielding but low in sucrose contents sugarcane variety i.e. Co-1148. It hascreated different problems for both the farmers and sugar mills. Ali et al. (2000) conducted study
about fertilizer-use efficiency and cane yield under different nitrogen levels and weed management
practices in spring planted sugarcane. He pointed out the average fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) to
be 36.10 in weed-free crops compared with 21.94 in weedy crops, with corresponding yields of
99.87 and 75.94 t/ha. FUE ranged between 150 and 225 kg N/ha. Yadav and Yaduvanshi (2001)
studied that the yield of millable cane from the planted sugarcane was affected by fertilizer N ratherintercropped green manuring or plant arrangement. He observed that whether it is the plant cane or
the ratoon crop, the quality of cane juice is not affected in either case. The organic carbon content
and available N in the soils have been increased by residues from the green manures and N
fertilizer treatments. Chattha et al. (2001) evaluated the effect of different production factors on theyield of 15 sugarcane cultivars in Punjab, India. The factors were mainly planting methods and date,soil amendments, irrigation and plant protection. Results revealed that sugarcane yield improved by
21.96% through trench planting, by 43.75% through effective weed control, by 34.50% through the
integrated use of press mud and fertilizers, by 26% through skip furrow irrigation and by 50% withurea application by drilling. Through proper weed management he also observed 32%
improvement in ratoon crop.
Muhammad, et al. (2001) observed that non-adoption of recommended agricultural
technologies was the responsible factor for the low per hectare yield of crops. The data werecollected from 191 sugarcane growers selected through stratified random sampling technique from
16 villages selected by using multistage sampling method. The data suggested that awareness andadoption of sugarcane production practices were very poor. Lack of awareness of recommendations
appeared to be the major cause of non-adoption. Nixon and Simmonds (2004) investigated theimpact of fallowing and green manuring on soil conditions and the growth of sugarcane in
Swaziland. He observed that yields were improved from 129 tonnes per hectare to 141–144 tonnes
per hectare after fallowing and green manuring. He also assessed positive relation between root
length and air-filled porosity. Hussain et al. (2006) made economic analysis of sugarcane
production in Pakistan using time series data ranging from 1990 to 2002. Their findings revealed
that Pakistan has no comparative advantage in producing sugar at export parity prices although
plays role as import substitution. Gana (2008) evaluated the sustainability of organic fertilizer onsugarcane production in Nigeria. He conducted experiments using plots with and without fertilizer
application. The findings revealed that application of organic and inorganic fertilizers matters insugarcane production.
Fernandez1 and Nuthall (2009) conducted a study in the Central Negros area, Philippines onsources of input use inefficiency through data envelope analysis. They have taken individual farms
in which same type of input-output were used for which the mean relative technical, scale andoverall technical efficiencies were determined and these indices were found as 0.7580, 0.9884 and© ISERD
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0.7298, respectively. The findings further revealed that technical inefficiency was the major sourceof overall inefficiencies as compared to scale effect. It was also found that farmer's age andexperience, access to credit, nitrogen fertilizer application, soil type and farm size were positively
associated with overall technical efficiency. Niamatullah et al (2010) assessed the impact of priceof fertilizer and agriculture credit on sugarcane acreage in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa over the period of
1991-92 to 2007-08. Their findings revealed that price of fertilizer and agriculture credit were theinfluencing factors for sugarcane acreage.
OBJECTIVE
The significance of the sugarcane crop in the economy of Pakistan cannot be ignored.
Unfortunately, there is dearth of studies over the issue under consideration. The present study willbridge this gap and attempts to estimate the impact of water availability, fertilizer consumption andcredit disbursement on sugarcane productivity in Pakistan using time series data over the period
1981-2011.
METHODOLOGY
According to the classical economist, output (Q) is a function of labor (L) and the relationship isexpressed as: Q = f(L)The neoclassical economist added the capital (K) component in this production function,
taking the form: Q = f(L,K)
In non-linear form, the relationship is expressed as:
Q = ALαKβeµ(1)This is the conventional Cobb-Douglas (1928) production function. α and β are the output
elasticities of labor and capital respectively. ‘A’ is the rate of technology and µ is the random term,
satisfying all the usual assumptions. Taking natural logarithm to both sides, the equation becomes:
lnQ = lnA + αlnL + βlnK + µ(2)This model can be estimated by applying the ordinary least square method.
The model not only shows the input output relationship but also gives information about therate of returns to scale.
The concern of this study is to evaluate the impact of major determinants of sugarcane
productivity in Pakistan, so the following model is estimated using the ordinary least square
method:ln(SYt) = bo + b1ln(WAt) + b2 ln(FCt) + b3 ln(CDt) + µt

(3)

Where
SY = Sugarcane yield (Kgs/Hectare) in Pakistan
WA = Water availability1 (million acre feet) in Pakistan
FC = Fertilizer consumption for sugarcane crop (000 N/T) in Pakistan
CD = Credit disbursement2 (Rs. in million) in Pakistan‘t’ is the time period and µ is the random term satisfying all the usual assumptions.
The data on these variables has been taken from Economic Survey of Pakistan, Agricultural
Statistics of Pakistan and National Fertilizer Development Corporation (NFDC).
1

The crop specific water consumption data is also not available; therefore, it has been obtained bymultiplying the water availability for Kharif (season) crop by its corresponding weight. The weights usedwere obtained dividing the area under sugarcane crop by total cropped area.
2
The data on crop wise credit disbursement is not available. This variable is constructed by multiplying thetotal credit disbursement by weights and the weights have been obtained by dividing the area undersugarcane crop by total cropped area.

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For checking the reliability of the regression results, equation-3 has been checked for
econometric properties. Augmented Dickey-Fuller (1981) test has been used for checking thestationarity of the data3. Variables which were non-stationary at level have been made stationary
after taking first difference and second difference. To detect the long-term relationship among theseries, the Cointegrating Regression Durbin Watson (CRDW) test4 of Sargan and Bhargawa (1983)
has been used. Furthermore, to check the stability of the coefficients, the cumulative sum andcumulative sum of square residuals have been plotted. A statistical package Eviews is used forderiving the results.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results given in table 1 showed that the water availability for sugarcane crop has the highest
elasticity (highest contribution towards sugarcane yield) as compared to other determinants. A one
percent increase in the water availability for sugarcane crop increases sugarcane yield by 0.16
percent. The coefficient of WA is statistically significant at 5% and 10% level of significance.
Water availability is the crucial policy variable for policy makers in Pakistan. The worsening
situation of water availability may be a serious threat for sugarcane yields in future. Because, thewater availability has declined from 100 million acre feet in the year 2007-08 to 80 million acre
feet in year 2009-10 (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2010).
Table 1 Regression results of the determinants of sugarcane productivity
Variable
Constantln (WA)ln(FC)ln(CD)
R-squared
F-statistic
Durbin-Watson stat

Coefficient
9.45
0.16
0.14
0.04
0.87
61.62
1.57

Std. Error
t-Statistic
0.13
73.52
0.07
2.290
0.04
3.819
0.01
3.072
Adjusted R-squared
Prob(F-statistic)

Prob.
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.01
0.86
0.00

The yield elasticity of FC and CD are 0.14 and 0.04 respectively. These coefficients are also
statistically significant and show positive impact on sugarcane yield. Fertilizer also place
importance because its consumption reduced from 340.77 thousands, NT in the year 2001-02 to
314.64 thousands NT in the year 2010-11 (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2011). Among the otherfactors, fertilizer supply is important which is continuously affected by ongoing power crisis. The
availability of the compressed natural gas, shortage of electricity, destructive rains in Sindh
Province and increasing prices of fertilizer also supplemented the issue.
Credit disbursement issue if tackled well, can enhance sugarcane productivity. The small
farmers not only are deprived from receiving the loans but also these are not given at the time when
it is required for purchasing farm inputs. Further the total supply of agriculture credit reduced by
6.5% and 6% in the years 2009-10 and 2010-11 respectively (Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2011).
In addition, agriculture research and development (R&D) expenditures 5 can also increasesugarcane productivity through introducing high yielding varieties. In Pakistan, it is 0.59% of thetotal GDP in the year 2008 as compared to 2-3% in developed countries (Pakistan Council for
Science and Technology, 2009). According to World Development Report (2008), developing
countries invest only one-ninth of what industrial countries put into agriculture R&D as a share of
agriculture GDP.

3

The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) has been used to select the optimum ADF lag.
It is used to test the null hypothesis that the value of d is equal to 0.
5
Due to non availability of data, the variable R&D expenditures is not included in the model. Similarly,
having too many complications with using climatic variables, these have not been incorporate in the model.
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The overall test of significance, depicted by the value of F-statistics, favors the model. The fit
is also good shown by the high value of R-square (0.87). The Durbin Watson statistics shows that
there is no serious problem of auto correlation.
The ADF test results shows that ln(SY) and ln(WA) are stationary at level while ln(CD) andln(FC) have been made stationary after taking the first difference (Table 2). This may provide somedoubts to have spurious regression. But the Durbin Watson value 1.57 (Table 1) evidences that thevariables included in the model are cointegrated. Because this value exceeds the critical values
provided by Sargan and Bhargawa6.
Table 2 ADF test results for stationarity (including both intercept and trend)
VariableLn(SY)ln(WA)
Ln(FC)ln(CD)

Test Statistic-4.05[0]-4.04[0]-1.91[0]-1.98[1]I(0)Critical value 5%
-3.50
-3.51
-3.53
-3.50

Test Statistic-6.72[0]-5.69[0]I(1)Critical value 5%
-3.53
-3.50

Results
I(0)
I(0)
I(1)
I(1)

The cumulative sum (CUSUM) and cumulative sum of square (CUSUMSQ) plots show
stability in the coefficients of the model estimated. Both the plots (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2) fall within thecritical bounds of 5 percent representing that the model is stable structurally.
20

10

0

- 10

- 20
86

88

90

92

94

96

98

CU SU M

00

02

04

06

08

10

5% Signif ic a nc e

Fig 1 Plot of cumulative sum of recursive residuals
1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

0.0

-0.4
86

88

90

92

94

96

98

CUSUM of Squares

00

02

04

06

08

10

5% SignificanceFig 2 Plot of cumulative sum of square residuals

6

According to Sargan and Bhargawa (1983), the critical values at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance are
0.511, 0.386 and 0.322 respectively, for testing the null hypothesis that the value of d is equal to 0.

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CONCLUSION
It is concluded that the policy variables, water availability, fertilizer consumption and credit
disbursement have positive and significant impact on sugarcane productivity. It is recommended
that the government should make efforts to increase water availability which is becoming
worsening in Pakistan. This may create problem for food security in general and particularly forsugarcane productivity in future. The policy options for this can be increasing investment in thewater and irrigation system. Agriculture micro credit programs should be improved to assist
sugarcane farmers in purchasing the inputs and high yielding varieties. Agriculture R&D
expenditures must be increased for ensuring higher productivity. It is also worth mentioning thatsugarcane productivity can also be increased through appropriate sugarcane input-output policy,
farm subsidies, technology etc but due to data availability constraint, these have not been includedin the analysis.
REFERENCES
Alcantara, R. and Prato, A.A. 1973. Returns to scale and input elasticities for sugarcane: the case of Sao
Paulo, Brazil. Americ. J. Agric. Econ., 55, 4, 577-583.
Ali, F.G. Iqbal, M.A., Chattha, A.A. and Afghan, S. 2000. Fertilizer-use efficiency and cane yield under
different nitrogen levels and weed management practices in spring planted sugarcane. Pak. Sugar J., 15,
1, 22-26.
Bhatti, M.Y. and Yanagida, J.F. 1990. Factors affecting farmer's sugarcane supply response in Pakistan. Pak.
J. Agric. Social Sci, ¾, ½, 67-72.
Chattha, A.A., Grawal, M.A., Ali, F.G. and Ali, Z. 2001. Exploitation of cane yield potential of sugarcane
varieties. Pak. Sugar J, 16, 6, 51-55.
Cobb, C.W. and Douglas, P.H. 1928. A theory of production. American Econ. Rev., 18, 139-165.
Dickey, D.A. and Fuller, W.A. 1981. Likelihood ratio statistics for autoregressive time series with a unit root.
Econometrica, 49, 1057-1071.
Farooq, U., Bashir, A. and Nadeem, M.A. 1999. Increasing sugar production by reviving sugarcane grower
mill relation: Importance and need of the time. Pak. Sugar J., 14, 3, 7-9.
Fernandez1, M.D.P and Nuthall, P. L. 2009. Technical efficiency in the production of sugar cane in central
negros area, Philippines: an application of data envelopment analysis. J. ISSAAS, 15, 1, 77-90.
Gana, A.K. 2008. Effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers on sugarcane production. Afric. J. Gen. Agric.,
4, 1, 55-59.
Govt. of Pakistan. 2007. Statistical supplement, Economic Survey of Pakistan 2006-07, Econ. Advisory
Wing Finance Div. Islamabad.
Govt. of Pakistan. 2009. Economic Survey of Pakistan 2008-09, Econ. Advisory Wing Finance Div.
Islamabad.
Govt. of Pakistan. 2010. Economic Survey of Pakistan 2009-10, Econ. Advisory Wing Finance Div.
Islamabad.
Govt. of Pakistan. 2011. Economic Survey of Pakistan 2010-11, Econ. Advisory Wing Finance Div.
Islamabad.
Hussain, M.F., Anwar, S. and Hussain, Z. 2006. Economics of sugarcane production in Pakistan: A price risk
analysis. Int. Res. J. Finance and Econ. 4: 1450-2887.
Muhammad, S., Garforth, C. and Malik, N.H. 2001. Factors affecting the adoption of recommended
sugarcane technologies by farmers. Pak. J. Agric. Sci., 38, 1-2, 78-80.
Niamatullah, M., Zaman, K.U. and Khan, M.A. 2010. Influence of average market price of fertilizers andagricultural credits on the acreage response of sugarcane in NWFP. The J. Animal & Plant Sci., 20, 1,
52-55.
Nixon D.J. and Simmonds, L.P. 2004. The impact of fallowing and green manuring on soil conditions andthe growth of sugarcane. Experi. Agric., 1, 127-138.
Pakistan Council for Science and Technology, 2009. Science and technology data book, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Sargan, J.D. and Bhargawa, A. 1983. Testing residuals from least squares regression for being generated by
the Gaussian random walk. Econometrica, 51(1), 153-174.
Ulveling, E., and Fletcher, L.B. 1970. A cobb-douglas production function with variable returns to scale.
Americ. J. Agric. Econ., 5, 2, 322-326. The J. Agric. Sci., 136, 2, 199-205.
World Development Report, 2008: Agriculture for Development. World Bank. Washington D.C., USA.

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Yadav, D.V. and Yaduvanshi, N.P.S. 2001. Integration of green manure intercropping and fertilizer-N foryield and juice quality and better soil conditions in sugarcane grown after mustard and wheat in different
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Research article
erdFood Security and Socio-economic Impacts of Soil
Salinization in Northeast Thailand
AUNG NAING OO
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: ano1972@gmail.com, chulee_b@kku.ac.th

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

PATCHAREE SAENJAN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study aimed to assess the impacts of soil salinity on the crop production
system and to describe the food security and social and economic conditions in the saltaffected areas of Northeast Thailand. Ban Nong Na Woaw, Ban Phon Sim, and Ban Som
Sanuk, all in the Northeast region of Thailand, were purposely selected because they had
different salinity levels and different ecosystems. Random sampling method was used to
select 90 households from the three villages and both quantitative and qualitative data
were collected from January to June 2012 using a questionnaire, semi-structured
interviews, and direct observation. Data were analyzed by means of descriptive methods.
In all studied villages, the production system of rice among the farmers was not muchdifferent. Farmers used organic fertilizers and farmyard manure to alleviate salinity in theirrice field. There were different types of agricultural and non-agricultural activities in thethree studied villages practiced by the farmers in order to improve food security of theirfamilies. The average of rice yields was very low, about 1.5 ton/ha. The main income
source was agricultural work among rural households. Domestic animals raised by mostfarm households in all villages were cattle, buffalo, pigs, chicken and crickets for homeconsumption and sale. In addition to salinity effects, periodic droughts, the heavy relianceon monsoons, lack of financial capital and low inputs uses were the other major constraints
for the farmers in all villages. This finding suggests that farmers need to be advised to use
farmyard manure and green manure in order to reduce salinity. But equally important iscorrect application and the timely use of urea fertilizer, better weeding, timely harvestingand proper threshing and winnowing. Since rice is the main source of livelihood for the
farmers, extension agencies should provide farmers with financial and technical assistancesuch as salt tolerant rice varieties, knowledge and improved technologies.
Keywords salinity, food sufficiency, livelihood

INTRODUCTION
Soil salinity has become a serious problem throughout the world and around 20% of the world's
cultivated land are affected (Sumner, 2000). In Northeast Thailand, approximately 17 % of the landis salt-affected due to salt bearing rocks (Land Development Department, 1991). mainly in Nakhon
Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Roi Et and Mahasarakham provinces (Department of Mineral Resources,
1982). Soil salinity has been accelerated by human activities such as deforestation, irrigation, saltmaking and construction of roads and reservoirs (Mitsuchi et al., 1986). It has been one of the mostimportant issues for local farmers who live in Northeast Thailand. Decreasing soil productivity
caused by salinization has led to social tension, unemployment and reducing incomes of all socialgroups. Large-scale soil salinization affects many families in the area with small land holdings. Soil

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salinization must also be seen as a human problem rather than one concerned solely with thedestruction of ecosystems. While people are the main agents for salinization, they are also its
victims.
Northeast Thailand has about 9.3 million hectares of agricultural land, of which approximately
7.9 million hectares are used for rainfed farming (Office of Agricultural Economic, 1998). Up to
75% of this land is devoted to rice, but the planted area varies considerably from year to year,
mainly because of uneven water availability and salinity affected land (Arunin, 1984; Yuvaniyama
et al., 1996). Besides, the soils in Northeast Thailand are characterized as universally infertile
because of their light texture and low inherent nutrient contents (Jiraporncharoen, 1993). The low
fertility of sandy soils in the region coupled with frequent drought, degradation and salinity has
been accounted for the low yield (Kabaki et al., 2003) and consequently leads to the problem offood insecurity for the farmers.
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient,safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life
(World Food Summit, 1996). The entire livelihood system of Northeast Thailand is farm-based.
Farmers continue to make their living from manual trade and agriculture. Rice, cassava, and corn
are the main crops grown under rainfed conditions by practicing traditional cultivation system, andrice is the staple crop of most farm households in the region. Due to certain constraints, low
productivity has brought poverty leading to the lowest per capita income in this region of thecountry. Their dependency on agriculture and lack of knowledge on management might havecaused problems of salinization which has a severe effect on soil fertility and crop productivity.
Therefore, it requires an investigation in order to get a solution to this problem for a better
livelihood of future generations. Much research work has been done on the management of saltaffected soils in Northeast Thailand. However, insufficient research has been undertaken on an
evaluation of the food security and socio-economic aspects in salt-affected areas of this region. Yet
rice sufficiency is the key to survival in Northeast Thailand as rice forms the greatest portion ofdaily food consumption for subsistence farmers. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impactsof soil salinity on the crop production system and to describe the food security and social andeconomic conditions of the salt-affected areas of Northeast Thailand.
METHODOLOGY
Site selection
This research project was conducted in villages at Khon Kaen, Kalasin and Mahasarakamprovinces in Northeast Thailand. The three selected study villages where farmers grow crops insalt-affected soils were Ban Nong Na Woaw, Khon Kaen Province; Ban Som Sanuk, Mahasarakam
Province; and Ban Phon Sim, Kalasin Province, all in the Northeast region. These study sites were
purposely selected because they have different salinity levels and different ecosystems.
Research design
Qualitative research is best known for the validity of its findings while quantitative research isstrong in reliability, and both have strengths and weaknesses (Babbie, 1999; Dawson, 2002). In thisstudy, the typical design was started out with a qualitative part including documentation and indepth interview. The information from this part helped to develop the tool, a structured
questionnaire, for the quantitative study. The quantitative cross sectional study was employed to
get information about individual cognitive behaviors and household's socio-cultural and economic
characteristics whereas the qualitative approach included in-depth interviews, focus group
discussions, and meetings. It was used to gain the in-depth understanding about the situation,
problems, causes of the problems, and needs. Therefore, both qualitative and quantitative researchmethods were used in this study and emphasis was given to the qualitative method.

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Research tools
Research methods used in this study include a small questionnaire, semi-structured interviews, anddirect observation. The small questionnaire was used in collecting quantitative data. Semistructured interviews were used in collecting qualitative data and separate guidelines for key
informants and household informants were used. This was because holding a well-preparedinterview guide in hands, semi-structured interviews are more likely to cover all sub-topics ofinterest, and thereby reducing the potential risk of missing data. Direct observations were made inorder to validate information given by informants (IFAD, 2002).
Data collection and analysis
For data collection and analysis, the interview and information collection process was used asfollows: (i) key informant interview and group interview in village level (ii) household level indepth interview and (iii) observations. Qualitative data was supported by documents and materials
relating to the topics covered by the study and the quantitative component of the study. Field notes
were converted into detailed notes each day in the field soon after completing all interview sessionsof the day. Missing or contradictory information were noted down and verified the following day.
When the entire data collection process was completed, descriptive methods were used in data
analysis. Quantitative data was analyzed by applying descriptive statistics (mean, percentage, etc)with the help of Microsoft Excel.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The characteristics of the households in the three studied villages in salt-affected areas of Northeast
Thailand are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Characteristics of the study households in the three studied villages in salt-affectedareas of Northeast Thailand
Characteristics

Ban Nong Na
Woaw(High salinity
level)
30

Ban Som Sanuk(Moderatesalinity level)

Ban Phon Sim(Lowsalinity level)

3030Sample household
Average age of respondents
56.9 (39 ; 79)(year)
Education (%)
Primary school
60
Secondary school
40
Average household size (person)
4.0 (2 ; 6)
Landless households (%)
30
Average labors (person)
2.4 (1 ; 5)
Average number of dependents
1.6 (0 ; 5)(person)Average cultivated area
2.4 (0 ; 5.8)
(hectare)Parentheses show minimum and maximum.

56.3 (35 ; 76)

52.2 (27 ; 70)6040
3.9 (2 ; 6)20
2.6 (1 ; 5)5050
4.6 (3 ; 8)26
2.6 (1 ; 5)

1.6 (0 ; 4)

2 (0 ; 4)

2.1 (0 ; 5.6)

1.8 (0 ; 5.3)

Rice production in the studied villages
As a staple food crop, rice has been grown in the three studied villages for generations. Due to thesalinization, limitation of water resources, low soil fertility, high cost of capital investment for land
preparation such as sowing, seedling, equipment, chemical fertilizer, pesticide, transportation andhigh cost of labor, the rice productivity is quite low. This situation has made the farmers face theproblem of food insecurity. The villagers mentioned that the expenses of agricultural inputs haveincreased every year, especially fertilizer and pesticide.

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In all studied villages, the production system of rice among the farmers is not much different.
However, most farmers use urea fertilizer, but most of them cannot use the recommended dosage,
50kg N/ha, plus compound fertilizer. They use different brands of compound fertilizer withdifferent organic ratio ingredients and various prices depending on the capital accessibility.
There are two varieties of rice grown in the studied villages namely Khao Dawk Mali 105(KDML 105) and Kor Khor (RD 6), which are non-sticky and sticky rice, respectively. KDML 105
is named as Jasmine rice because its natural aromatic scent is similar to that of jasmine flower.
KDML 105 is high quality rice and one of the promising economic crops for Northeast Thailand.
Its demand is very high because of its better eating and cooking quality. RD 6 is grown andconsumed in the Northeast Thailand region, especially in rural areas. In all studied villages, farmers
grow RD 6 rather than KDML 105 because they like RD 6. It was mentioned that RD 6 is forhousehold consumption, whereas KDML 105 is for sale.
Village food security
Despite the fact that Thailand produces more than enough food to meet domestic needs and is amajor food exporter, abundant food supplies do not automatically translate into abundant food forthe poorer groups of Thai society. Based on group interview in each village, there are different
types of agricultural and non-agricultural activities in the three studied villages practiced by thefarmers in order to improve food security of their families. Generally, there are different
agricultural activities such as rice, cassava, corn, eucalyptus, etc. and non-agricultural activities
such as retailer shop, daily labor, salt-making, but not all households get involved in those activities.
It was noted that most of agricultural activities in the three villages are similar.
Socio-cultural conditions
Culture, beliefs and religious activities: All villagers are Buddhists and they strongly believe in
Buddha's teachings. They value the ordination ceremony when their son or grandson becomes a
novice monk. All of the temple donations are based on agricultural income. In a year when theweather conditions are favorable for high productivity of crops, their standard of living is better sothey can use the surplus for donations. All of the families do their social, cultural and religious
activities after harvesting their cultivated crops. At that time, they can use their crop products andalso cash from selling these crops for donations. In the activities, the old persons and village
headman play an important role. Even though the village headman has full authority, he shows
respects to the old, honorable persons and follows the guidelines and suggestions from them. For
the religious activities, monks play very important role in the village. In some social and culturalproblems, monks can give the final decision for the village. Seasonal religious festivals are held
under the guidance of the monks and elder person.
Economic conditions
Crops and livestock: The major crop grown in the three study villages is rainfed rice, but some
farmers grow eucalyptus, cassava and corn. In all villages, no vegetables are grown in their fields,
but they are grown in their home garden for household consumption. In all villages, rainfed rice isgrown during the rainy season but there is no irrigated rice in the dry season. Domestic animals
raised by most farm households in all villages that are cattle, buffalo, pigs, chicken and crickets forhome consumption and sale.
Salt production: In the case of Ban Nong Na Woaw, some villagers make salt from the highly
salt-affected soil. The old villagers reported that salt production had begun in a primitive mannerfor household consumption. In this method, the white crust of salt collected from the soil surface isdissolved into water and filtered. The dissolved salt then is crystallized by boiling. This salt-making
is done in the off-farm season.
Occupation and income: The village economy is based on agriculture in all studied villages. Most

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households in all villages are farm households, and very few households do non-farm work likegovernment officials, public health workers, agricultural input retailer or small shopkeeper. The
major source of income for the farm households in all villages is the cultivation of crops andkeeping domestic animals like cattle and pigs also make a contribution to household income. Apartfrom the expenses on basic needs, household income is also spent on such social occasions as
traditional festivals. They also spend certain amount money on their children’s education, health,transportation, clothing, lightening, kitchenware, house maintenance, donation and personal use. In
most cases, farm work is done using family labor, but hired labor is common during peak seasons
like transplanting and harvesting of the crops.
Table 2 Comparison of soil salinity level, average rice yield and average household’s income
among all studied villages in the year 2011
Salinity level #Average rice yield Household’s income
Source of income(ECe, dS m-1)
(ton/ha)(US$/year)
Ban Nong Na Woaw
High (>4)
1.56
2096
Farm-based, Non-farm
Ban Phon Sim
Moderate (2-4)
1.56
1935
Farm-based
Ban Som Sanuk
Low (<2)
1.62
2258
Farm-based#
Topark-Ngarm (2010) ; ECe (Electrical conductivity of the saturation extract)
Village

According to the group discussion, in all villages, the average of rice yields is very low about
1.56 ton/ha (250 kg/rai) (Table 2), as compared to other parts of the country (average of 2.9 ton/hain the central region and 1.8 ton /ha in the Northeast region) (Office of Agricultural Economic,
1998). This low yield might be due to the salinity, low soil fertility and sandy texture soil. The
main source of household income was farm-based. This study found that the average income ofhouseholds from Ban Phon Sim village was the lowest amount when compared to other villages. In
contrast, the average income of households from Ban Nong Na Woaw was the highest. The average
income of household from Ban Nong Na Woaw was higher even this village has high salinity
levels when compared to Ban Phon Sim village which has moderate salinity level because theiraverage productive land areas are more than other villages. Besides, this village is not too far fromthe township (Ban Phai Township) and hence, farmers can access improved technology fromagricultural service and other agencies and supplement to their income also come from other nonagricultural activity such as salt-making and waged labor.
CONCLUSION
The three studied villages face enormous widespread soil salinity as a consequence of soil andwater resource degradation. Also, rising water tables resulting from deforestation have caused
water-logging problems in many areas. The collected information shows that despite difficulties,
farmers are continuing their efforts for the management of salinity to produce field crops. In order
to alleviate salinity in their rice field, they apply organic fertilizer and farmyard manure such as
cattle manure and chicken waste. However, the average of rice yields is very low about 1.5 ton/ha(250 kg/rai). In addition to salinity effect, periodic droughts, the heavy reliance on monsoons, lackof financial capital, low inputs uses are the major constraints for the farmers in all villages.
There are different types of agricultural and non-agricultural activities in the three studied
villages practiced by the farmers in order to improve food security of their families. Domestic
animals raised by most farm households in all villages are cattle, buffalo, pigs, chicken and crickets
for home consumption and sale.
This finding could suggest that farmers are advised to use farmyard manure and green manure
in order to reduce salinity, correct application of urea fertilizer, the timely use of urea fertilizer,
better weeding, timely harvesting and proper threshing and winnowing. Since rice is the main
source of livelihood system, development extension agencies should provide farmers with financial
and technical assistance to make available salt tolerant rice varieties, knowledge and improved
technologies in order to increase food sufficiency. Every project to be implemented in thesevillages should pay more attention to the most vulnerable landless and small farmer households.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Robert S. McNamara Fellowships Program (RSM) and research
project “Using Soil Biota for Biological Monitoring and Ecological Zoning in the Salt-Affected.
Area in Northeast Thailand”, “Problem Soil Research Group, Integrated Water Resource
Management Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand, and Ground water research
centre, Khon Kaen University, Thailand. Many thanks go to all respondents from Ban Nong Na
Woaw, Ban Som Sanuk and Ban Phon Sim village for providing me with valuable information that
I need for this research project. The authors would like to thank Mr. Peter Martyn, Office ofInternational Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand, for English
editing and suggestions for the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Arunin, S. 1984. Characteristic and management of salt-affected soils in Northeast Thailand. In: Ecology andmanagement of problem soil in Asia. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center of the Asian and PacificRegion, Taiwan, Republic of China. 336-351.
Babbie, E.R. 1999. The basics of social research. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Belmont, California,
USA.
Dawson, C. 2002. Practical research methods: A user-friendly guide to mastering research techniques andprojects. How To Books Ltd., Oxford, United Kingdom.
Department of Mineral Resources. 1982. Geologic map of Thailand. Department of Mineral Resources.
Bangkok. Thailand.
IFAD. 2002. Managing for impact in rural development: A guide for project M&E. Office of Evaluation andStudies (OE), International Fund for Agricultural Development. Rome. Italy.
Jiraporncharoen, S. 1993. The use of chemical and organic fertilizers in crop production in Thailand.
Extension Bulletin No. 370. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, ASPAC, Thailand.
Kabaki, N., Tamura, H., Yoshihashi, T., Miura, K., Tabuchi, R., Fujumori, S., Morita, H., Wungkashart, T.,
Watanatitawas, P., Uraipong, B., Arromratana, U. and Nagara, T. 2003. Development of a sustainable
lowland cropping system in Northeast Thailand. Jircas working report No. 30.
Land Development Department. 1991. Distribution of salt affected soil in the northeast region 1:100,000 map.
Department of Land Development. Bangkok. Thailand.
Mitsuchi, M., Wichaidit, P. and Jeungnijnirund, S. 1986. Outline of soils of the Northeast Plateau. Theircharacteristics and constraints. Technical Paper No.1, 24-35. ADRC, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
Office of Agricultural Economic. 1998. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives. Agricultural statistics
31/1999, Bangkok, Thailand.
Sumner, M.E. 2000. Handbook of soil science. CRC Press, Florida, USA.
Topark-Ngarm, B. 2010. Saline soil. Department of Land Resources and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand, (in Thai).
World Food Summit, 1996. Rome Declaration on World Food Security. World Food Summit, November 1317, 1996. Rome, Italy.
Yuvaniyama, A., Arunin, S. and Takai, Y. 1996. Management of saline soil in the Northeast Thailand. The
Journal of Agricultural Science, 29, 1-10.

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Research article
erd

Development without Conformity: Impacts of Large-Scale
Economic Development on Indigenous Community
Livelihoods in Northeastern Cambodia
BAROMEY NETH*
Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: baromeyneth@yahoo.com, neth.baromey@rupp.edu.kh

SAM OL RITH
Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

MAKOTO YOKOHARIThe University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Received 18 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Large scale economic development (LSED) has undergone rapid policy andsectoral reform in Cambodia. LSED is expected to generate revenues to support economic
growth and development at both macro and micro levels. Yet, it is questionable about
benefits and risks of such natural resource-consumptive and extractive development for
the host areas, especially indigenous people (IP). IP communities in Northeastern (NE)
Cambodia are vulnerable to such development. This region has been put under agricultural
economic land concession, forest concession, and mining concession. The conversion offorestlands and farmlands into commercial cash-crop and agro-industry plantations as well
as logging and mining zones has led IP communities to have limited access to land andnatural resources. This caused to reduced livelihood capabilities (resources, knowledge
and skills, activities, and protective security) and distressed cultural diversity and integrity
and socio-demographic fabric of IP. By using sustainable livelihood approach/framework(SLA/F), this paper aims to investigate IP livelihood problems and identify LSED
opportunities and strategies in Northeastern Cambodia and their impacts on IP livelihoods.
Keywords large scale economic development, SLA/F, indigenous communities,
community capabilities, integrated economic and community development

INTRODUCTION
Growth, conservation, ownership rights, poverty reduction, capacity, equity, empowerment,
participation, collaboration, precautionary approaches and governance considerations areembedded in most conceptualizations of sustainable development (Bryant and White, 1982;
Agyeman et al., 2003; Bouapao, 2005). These considerations have placed importance on ruralcommunity development in order to reduce the imbalance caused by urban-oriented growthmechanism which generates dichotomy between rural and urban areas (Hirsch, 1987). The conceptof rural community development allows (poor or marginalized) rural communities to participate inand benefit from economic growth and development. Their participation allows them to improvetheir economic and social lives and intervene in resource redistribution and consumption for the
betterment of their quality of life and conservation (Chamber, 1983; Hirsch, 1987; Buller & Wright,
1990; Bouapao, 2005).
Successful community development needs to be grounded on the three pillars of sustainable
development, while equitable access to and sustainable utilization of community resources should
not be overlooked (Roberts, 1979; Green and Haines, 2001; Blackstock, 2005; Ashley and Maxwell,2001). Yet, economic imbalance, social inequality and marginalization of the poor usually trigger
over exploitation of resources, although over-consumption of natural resources is central to the© ISERD
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challenge of sustainable community development. Environmental injustice and economic
inequality in rural development cause more poor people suffer from loss of livelihood assets,
opportunities, and traditional knowledge. This happens when developers and planners do not pay
much attention to local social structure/system and immediate needs of communities (Agyeman etal., 2003).
There are many factors that affect community livelihoods (capabilities, assets, and activities)
and community enthusiasm to accept changes in their livelihoods, as well as the dynamic
relationship between these. In response, the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) has been
adapted by an increasing number of researches as a tool for analyzing complex livelihoods ofpeople (Scoones, 1998; DFID, 1999; Ellis, 1998). The SLF is seemingly parallel to the Sustainable
Livelihood Approach (SLA), and is used as a holistic, structural approach to identify influential
factors that are centered on people and important in contributing to community livelihood
diversification and livelihood sustainability supported by existing activities (Neth, 2008). The
Department for International Development (DFID) (1999) and Carney (1998) articulated that thisframework could be used by researchers, planners and developers who deal with a complex humansubject, especially in rural areas, where people live in pressing social and environmental conditions.
This tool helps these stakeholders with a range of perspectives and capacities to participate instructured and coherent study and deliberate over the factors that influence community livelihoods,
their relative significance and the way in which these factors interact.
This paper uses theories and concepts of sustainable livelihood approach / framework(SLA/SLF), communal land management by modernized legal approaches and culture / right ofindigenous community over resource access / use / management to discuss and produce researchfindings from a holistic analysis of literature, policy papers, reports of previous empirical studies,and primary data collected from fieldworks in Dak Dam commune.
OBJECTIVE
This paper aims to: (1) investigate indigenous community livelihoods by stressing their livelihood
shocks, capabilities, and strategies; (2) identity of large scale economic development opportunities
and strategies in Northeastern Cambodia; and (3) determine impacts of large scale economic
development on indigenous community livelihoods.
METHODOLOGYThis study used both primary and secondary data. Documentary review and analysis were carriedout with relevant theories, concepts and empirical facts from previous research findings as well asother sources. As part of a comprehensive, extensive study in NE Cambodia, Dak Dam Communein Mondulkiri (MDK) Province was selected as a case study area due to its unique characteristics
and irreplaceable condition as an overlapped concession area in the IPs communities which lead tocomplex IPs livelihood problems, overlapped mandate and conflict of interest, controversial
government-company-community relations, dynamic land use change, and community responses
based upon IPs collective knowledge and activism. The area has been put under many resourceextractive plans, ranging from commercial logging and community forestry (CFs) since in the late
1990s (McAndrew and Il, 2009), ELCs (economic land concessions) and mining license, since inthe mid 2000s (Guttal, 2006; Neth et al., 2011), and social land concession for communal land
titling, since in the late 2000s (Neth et al., 2011). Primary data were collected from several
methods, such as: (1) household survey in the three villages (Pou Chhorb, Pou Andreng, and PouLes); (2) in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with local authorities, village elders andIPs community leaders; and (3) expert interviews with reps of concerned institutions and academia.
Description of research site
Dak Dam is located in southeastern MDK province and administratively registered as one of the© ISERD
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two communes of O’Reang District. Despite being home to abundant natural wealth, Dak Dam
possesses less cultivated land area than other communes in MDK. Yet, more than 73% of its total
population is engaged in irrigated and non-irrigated rice farming. In addition, crop cultivation, suchas corn, soya bean, mungbean, peanut, cassava, sweet potatoes and sesame also play crucial role in
Dak Dam’s rural production and local livelihood system (Neth et al., 2011). Most of the
agricultural activities in the area are rain-fed and depend largely on local traditional wisdom (ibid.).
The majority of the population belongs to Phnong ethnicity. Their occupations range fromrice and crop cultivators to non-timber forest products (NTFP) collectors (including resin
collection), hunters, and paid workers in nearby plantations (Neth et al., 2011). A few Khmer
households are also found to have settled in Dak Dam, most of who are newcomers from acrossCambodia. These newcomers migrated into Dak Dam in search of agricultural land and business
opportunities with highland indigenous communities who have less experience in business.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Community livelihood problems
Indigenous people living in Dak Dam are seen to be very impoverished, vulnerable and susceptible
to new economic development plans. Because of its large land area, easy access to the provincial
township, fertile agricultural lands, and high mining resource potential, a vast part of Dak Dam’s
territory have been put under LSED plans. The extensive land conversion into agricultural andagro-industrial plantations and mining zones together with the influx of lowlanders, land
speculation, and land encroachment have resulted in limited access to natural resources by theindigenous locals in Dak Dam. Forest resources and by-products have been main sources of theirlivelihoods for generations. Limited or the loss of access to these resources is not only translated
into reduced livelihood capacity or livelihood loss, but it also affects local cultural diversity andintegrity as well as the socio-economic, demographic and cultural fabric of the Phnong ethnicity.
Current environmental problems
The lack of representation within the provincial and national authorities together with language
barriers makes the indigenous Phnong become a disadvantaged group in their own area. The geopolitical conduct of the government and the growing interest of investors are often seen as lack ofclarity and sensitivity to local culture and livelihoods. These leave local communities in Dak Dam
at high risk of further violations, intimidations, livelihood loss, and socio-cultural corrosion. The
designation of the area for macro-economic purposes by disregarding local needs, and theconclusion of concession agreements (between the government and companies) without
consultations with local communities have triggered negative impacts on the locals as well as on
the business environment. For the communities, on the one hand, these actions could be translated
into complete contempt for local wellbeing, culture and livelihoods that depend upon available
lands and resources. On the other hand, the companies have been reported to face constantdisruption to their operations (e.g., the community shows resistance in the forms of publiccondemnation, strike and counteract) which could retard concession processes or even distresscompanie's properties and interests.
Community’s system and right
Current LSED-oriented policies considerably affect local livelihoods and culture. This could set off
declined community’s capabilities (resources, skills, knowledge, activities, and rights), declined
community livelihood strategies, and depletion of natural resources (land, water, and biodiversity).
Especially, it weakens community’s system (i.e., traditional management system) which eventually
results in limited collectivity and community’s customary rights.
At present, community’s system and rights are being influenced by external and internal© ISERD
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factors. Externally, geo-politic development policies of the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC)
have shed light on agro-industrial plantations and mining activities in Dak Dam since in the early
2000s. These investments are conflicting with indigenous communities interests and reducing theextent of legal and legitimate communal land tenure and people’s rights to use natural resources,
especially forest resources. Moreover, the expansion of the investment lands on local ancestral landand sacred forests infringes on community’s rights, and such disrespect of local culture sparks off
constant changes upon local cultural norms and practices. The investment atmosphere in Dak Dam
which is compliant with modern legalities and legitimacies has gradually provoked on-going
conflicts with the customary norms practiced by local IPs. These conflicts are increasing over space
and time, particularly on concessionary lands that overlap indigenous territories.
Nevertheless, several major internal factors are deforming community’s system and limiting
community’s rights. They are: (1) informal rules (social capital); (2) alternation of basic religion
and culture; and (3) poor institution of community which makes it more dependent on external
assistance. Formal and informal social structures and relations formed in Dak Dam have been
important in terms of providing social safety net, trust building, livelihood facilitation, conflict
resolution and management, and reducing transaction costs of conventional economic activities.
However, it is observable that the collective structures of social relations in Dak Dam has beenchanging when the increasing number of IPs want to have individual property rights overtraditional communal lands.
Economic impacts of LSED
Despite stressing negatively, a minority of respondents also perceived agro-industrial and mining
development as opportunities. Their primary attention is devoted to the possibilities for new jobs,
such as mine workers, paid laborers in agricultural plantations, although such jobs often prove to belabor-intensive, low skilled, dangerous, less numerous, and less suitable to IP inhabitants. At
present, because of the geo/socio-cultural conditions (land-based activities) and close proximity to
the working areas, particularly in the adjacent plantations and bauxite mine, this is a good fit
between such jobs and the living environment. Agro-industrial and mining development in Dak
Dam also was remarked to have a possibility to inject capital flow for social development.
The concept of extractive exploitation of mineral resources and the agro-forestry environment
are not perceived as economically attractive options for the majority of the IPs in Dak Dam. Local
key informants and group discussants perceived current economic development in the forms of
economic land concession and mining exploration activities as a negative change agent which canalso lead to economic threats for the entire locality. Those who are mainly dependent on land andnatural resources might be threatened by new geo-politic policies and land law via limited accessand use rights of the IPs over available resources, while those with low income or limited
livelihood alternatives might be pressured by rising costs of living.
The alteration of the IPs’ economic system was perceived as an undesirable impact of current
LSED which could impose burdens on vulnerable and poor community members, whose voices areoften unheard. People were afraid that jobs created by current and future agricultural leases / land
concessions and the mines may trigger greater influx of outsiders into the areas, let alone the lowskilled and unskilled IP inhabitants to have less ability to compete in new labor markets. Moreover,it was perceived that as natural resources extraction and conversion of agricultural lands into large
scale agro-industrial lands continue to grow in capacity-intensity in Dak Dam, there would be lossof or limited capacity of the local economic systems to have proper adaptive economic strategies totackle economic shocks.
Social impacts of LSED
Economic development in Dak Dam which somewhat favors local interests is found to have createda space for reconstructing local social systems. Key local informants hinted this issue in two ways.
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being a previously secluded and closed indigenous community to be a rapidly developing area.
Constant interaction between Dak Dam’s inhabitants and the outsiders, including lowland inmigrants, has contributed positively to new knowledge and technology transfer (especially inagricultural production) into the area. In addition, once the context of Dam Dak becomes widely
open to the public, it brings in various interventions from state and civil society organizations in theforms of infrastructural and social services development and other socio-cultural outreach activities.
Second, local IPs start to realize the substantive value of their traditional community laws andsocial capital which allows them to maintain their solidarity and cultural continuity against the
intrusion of new state-driven development options.
Yet, it was found that community residents are aware of some instances of impacts occurredin Dak Dam. So far, increased contact with outsiders and the coming of unwanted development
have caused various potential risks to the communities, including the risk of community disruptionthat has turned Dak Dam into large-scale industrial development zone. Such development is
extinguishing the sense of community and social system which have often been ignored by inmigrants and external investors. In addition, respondents confessed that community’s social values
are being deteriorated by unfitting new cultures brought in by some newcomers, particularly
workers of the agricultural plantations and mining companies. Some activities, such as sexual
harassment, pre-marriage sexual intercourse between male workers and local female residents,
abduction, and increased divorce rate due to abundance of indigenous wives, have to some extent
demoralized IPs’ socio-cultural value on one hand, while on the other hand they blemish local
cultural norms and practices with regard to sexual interaction patterns.
Cultural impacts of LSED
It was found that the increased contact with mainstream industrialized cultures and gradualintegration into cash economy during economic land concession and mining processes affect Dak
Dam’s indigenous cultures in several ways. First, it undermines cultural norms and practices,
blurring cultural identity in Dak Dam. The invasion of commercial agricultural land and mining
areas over traditional communal land has results in insecure community land tenure and reduction
or discontinuation of traditional lifestyle and livelihood activities. The private intrusion into
traditionally legitimate lands does not only affect local ownership over their agricultural andsettlement land areas, but also cuts off sacred lands covering community spirit forests / sites andreduce locals’ religious practices in Dak Dam.
Second, the isolated indigenous culture in Dak Dam becomes more increasingly vulnerable tocurrent developmental contact through mining and agro-industry businesses and its subsequent
impacts. Currently, there are two distinct cultures – indigenous culture and modern culture – which
are clashing and transforming local traditional cultural systems. Indigenous culture is mainly based
upon traditional community laws shaped by traditional norms and practices for generations, while
modern culture follows modern public policies, laws and regulations of the RGC for developmental
purposes. Modern culture is well-regarded and accepted by the majority of developers and planners
with regard to problem solving approaches for land dispute, conflicts over natural resource accessand use, and other development-driven issues. Therefore, this new cultural system is incessantly
lessening power and status of leaders (community chiefs and village elders) of Dak Dam’s native
culture.
Environmental impacts of LSED
Despite some physical improvements and improved public services, almost all key interviewees
expressed their disappointment with changes of natural landscape and environmental degradation
in Dak Dam. The development-related growth over the last decade has resulted in constantdramatic change of the natural environment and biodiversity systems in the area. It was found that
extensive forestlands have been cleared and converted into large agro-industrial plantations under
agricultural leases or economic land concession policies, and are being disrupted further by current© ISERD
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mining operation plans. The loss of forestlands also leads to the demolishment of natural habitats,wildlife and plant species, as well as substantial forest non-timer forest products in which local
communities depend on. Man-made disasters due to the heavy deforestation and the extraction ofnatural resources, including the soil-terrains, were perceived to have contributed to the existence ofland and soil erosion, seasonal drought and flood, and other climate change related problems.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study offers a view of developmental conflicts that are caused by multiple development
approaches and overlapping zoning systems. Especially, it reveals lives of vulnerable indigenous
communities who are living in such conflicted areas and under multi-dimensional pressures. It isfound to be an affected case from large scale development policies since this commune has been
explored and exploited by a number of companies, as well as being under a variety of LSED
schemes. Dak Dam case presents an intense resource curse situation. IP’s lives have been miserable
despite living amid the rich natural resources. The sources of their livelihoods have been constantly
invaded by external forces for the favor of LSED. The age-old cultural systems and social norms
have also been repeatedly violated beyond tolerance. It's also found that at present the IPcommunities have only hope for survival and maintenance of their traditional wisdom and age-old
culture lie with their security of communal land rights, forestlands, and sacred places/forests. These
insurance mechanisms have also been found to be in jeopardy.
A number of key recommendations need to be taken into serious account by governmental,
non-governmental, and private institutions. These include: (1) improve security mechanisms forcommunal land rights, forestlands, and sacred places / forests; (2) improve capacity building andadvocacy programs; (3) strengthen legal, institutional, and policy supports by higher level ofauthorities; (4) improve free, prior informed consent (FPIC) and environmental impact assessment(EIA) enforcement; and (5) improve land zoning system and land use planning.
REFERENCES
Agyeman, J., Bullard, R.D. and Evans, B. (eds.). 2003. Just sustainabilities: Development in an unequal
world. The MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
Ashley, C., and Maxwell, S. 2001. Rethinking rural development. Development Policy Review, 19 (4), 395425.
Blackstock, K. 2005. A critical Look at community-based tourism. Community Development Journal, 40 (1),39-49.
Bouapao, L., 2005. Rural development in Lao PDR: Managing projects for integrated sustainable livelihoods.
Regional Center for Social Sciences and Sustainable Development, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang
Mai University, Thailand.
Bryant, C. and White, L. G. 1982. Managing development in the third world. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Colorado, USA.
Buller, H. and Wright, S. 1990. Rural development: Problems and practices. Avebury. Aldershot, Brookfield
USA.
Carney, D. 1998. Sustainable livelihoods approaches: Progress and possibilities for change. Department forInternational Development (DFID). Finesse Print. Toronto, Canada.
Chambers, R., 1983. Rural development: Putting the last first. Longman. New York, USA.
DFID, 1999. Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. DFID. London, UK.
Ellis, F. 1998. Household strategies and rural livelihood diversification. Journal of Development Studies,35(1), 1-38.
Green, G.P. and Haines, A. 2001. Asset building and community development. SAGE Publication. California,
USA.
Guttal, S., 2006. Land and natural resource alienation in Cambodia. Focus on the Global South.
(http://focusweb.org/node/1133).
Hirsch, P. 1987. Participation, rural development, and changing production relations in recently settled forest
areas of Thailand. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, School of Oriental and African Studies,
University of London. UK.

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McAndrew, J., and Il, O., 2009. Access to natural resources: Case studies of Cambodian hill tribes. In: Perera,J. (eds). Land and cultural survival: The communal land rights of indigenous peoples in Asia. AsianDevelopment Bank, Philippines, 94-124.
Neth, B., Sour, S., and Va, D. 2011. Report of the baseline survey on “extractive industries and its
contribution to sustainable development. Oxfam America’s East Asia Regional Office’s EI Program,
Cambodia.
Roberts, H., 1979. Models related to community development process: In Community Development:
Learning and Action, p. 45-65. University of Toronto Press. Toronto. USA.
Scoones, I. 1998. Sustainable rural livelihoods: A framework for analysis. IDS Working Paper, No. 72,
Sussex, UK.

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Research article
erd

Toward Measuring the Vulnerability of Agricultural
Production to Flood: Insight from Sangkae River
Catchment, Battambang Province, Cambodia
CHINDA HENG
The Learning Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SOTHEAVIN DOCH*
The Learning Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: sotheavin@learninginstitute.org, sotheavin_doch@yahoo.com

JEAN-CHRISTOPHE DIEPART
The Learning Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The study proposes an indicator-based analysis on the vulnerability ofagricultural production to flood issues in a river catchment area. The study site is the
Sangkae River catchment area located in the Northwestern region of Cambodia and theunit of observation is the commune. Flood hazards are not restricted to the downstream
lowland Tonle Sap plain; the study also considers river overflow and run-off flood eventsoccurring upstream in Sangkae River catchment. We address the concept of vulnerability
in three dimensions (exposure, sensitivity and adaptation capacity) and operationalize it ina multi-level analytical framework.We first identify indicators relevant with each of thethree dimensions of vulnerability. We then combine the standardized and weighted
indicators into composite exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity indexes, which weanalyze statistically and spatially with a geographic information system. We further
integrate the indicators in a hierarchical cluster analysis to establish a typology ofcommune vulnerability across the catchment. The results of the study showed the link
between the vulnerability of agriculture to flood and the different farming systems of ruralcommunities.
Keywords flood management, vulnerability assessment, agricultural production,watershed management, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
Cambodia is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change in Southeast Asia (Yusuf andFransico, 2009). The processes of climate change are complex and diversified but are mainly atplay through the intensification of the water cycle (Huntington, 2006). Climate change increases
the occurrences of extreme weather phenomena, such as heavy rainfall, flood, drought, storms, etc.
(Solomon et al, 2007). The modification of rainfall pattern has affected the water level of MekongRiver and Tonle Sap Lake (MRC, 2010). Due to the river run-off from upper Mekong River, thewater level of the Tonle Sap is projected to increase from 1 meter to 2.3 meters by the year 2030
(Eastham et al., 2008).
However, flood is not a new phenomenon in Cambodia. Many parts of the country haveflooding experiences every year, particularly in the central area of the country where floods areassociated with the reversal of water in the Tonle Sap River and the flooding of the large
Cambodian central plain. People have developed ways to practice agriculture and fishing, which
are well adapted to this unique phenomenon. As Suon rightly put, floods are usually good for ricebased agriculture but their irregularity and unpredictability bring negative impact on agricultural
production and rural livelihood systems (Suon, 2007). Major flood events, such as the one that

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occurred in 2011, had for instance very serious consequences in the Cambodia economy. The lossof agricultural productions and degradation of physical infrastructures were worth over $400
million (CRED, 2011).
Over the last 10 years, Battambang has witnessed a dramatic agricultural colonization of
peripheral forest areas. Forest cover has become the substitute for agro-industrial cash crops very
rapidly, in a process fuelled by important internal immigration movements of people coming fromthe lowland densely populated areas (PMPSWG, 2011). The conversion of the upland evergreen
forest areas into agricultural land is also very likely to affect the hydrological system and toincrease surface and river water run-off (Kirsch, 2010). Future flood patterns are thus very likely to
be modified by the combined effect of climate and land use change. These transformations are very
likely to result in a change in agricultural production and the challenges at stake are important as
agriculture is the main source of livelihood for a very large majority of Cambodian householdliving in the rural and who make up to 80% of the entire population (RGC, 2010a). Flooding may
contribute to increased poverty in rural Cambodia and have serious consequences in terms ofavailability and accessibility to food (NAPA, 2006; Helmers and Jegillos, 2004).
Flood risk management has been considered as key priority for poverty alleviation anddevelopment of Cambodia (RGC, 2010b). Several institutions and committees have been
established from national down to local level to respond to natural disasters (Committee forDisaster Management). In Battambang province, principles and concepts of Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) have been introduced for the management of water resources atthe catchment level (Yem, et al., 2011) and integrated in the provincial spatial plan (PMPSWG,
2011). However, weak cross-sector coordination and the lack of tools to support decision-making
have considerably impeded effective flood management (Eng, 2009). The involvement andparticipation of Battambang Provincial Spatial Planning Team in this research process can beviewed as a first step toward the design of a flood management, decision-making tool for provincial
authorities.

Fig. 1 Sangkae River catchment area
OBJECTIVE
The study aims to achieve two things. First, we aim to understand the vulnerability of agricultural
production in Sangkae River catchment area and second, to provide recommendations to improve
flood management as part of an integrated water resource management system.

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METHODOLOGY
Conceptual framework
The concept of vulnerability of social and environmental systems has a history of several decades.
One of the best known definitions was formulated by the International Strategy for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UN/ISDR), which defines vulnerability as “the condition determined by physical, social,economic and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community
to the impact of hazard” (UN/ISDR, 2004). Originally envisaged in the context of natural disaster
reduction, the concept of vulnerability was further developed with contributions made by climatechange scientists (IPCC, 2001). Adger (2006) stresses that vulnerability is most often
conceptualized as being constituted by components that include exposure to change or external
stresses, sensitivity to change, and the capacity to adapt. Exposure comprises the degree, duration,
and/or extent in which the system is in contact with a hazard, or subject to the change (Kasperson
et al., 2005; Adger, 2006). Sensitivity is the extent to which a human or natural system can absorb
impacts without suffering long-term harm or other significant state change (Adger, 2006). The
system’s coping capacity (Turner et al., 2003), or capacity of response (Gallopin, 2006), is also
called adaptive capacity by the IPCC (2001); Adger (2006) and Smit and Wandel (2006). As notedby Smit and Wandel (2006), some authors apply “coping ability” to shorter-term capacity or theability to just survive, and employ “adaptive capacity” for longer-term or more sustainableadjustment.
Following the IPCC framework, we address the concept of vulnerability of agriculture
production to flood with three lenses: exposure, sensitivity and capacity of responses. While
exposure refers to the occurrence, magnitude, and locations of the flood events; sensitivity
concerns the impacts of the flood events on agricultural land and production in the River catchment.
Capacity of responses deals with both the short-term coping mechanism and long-term adaptive
strategy to respond to the flood impacts (Fig.2).

Vulnerability of Agricultural Production
Land use Change

HydrologicalsystemClimate Change

Exposure

Sensitivity

Flood (Major & Minor) Flood)

Agricultural
Production

Capacity of responses [Coping
mechanism and adaptive
strategy]

Fig. 2 Research conceptual framework
Helmers and Jegillos (2004) reported that there are two types of flood usually occurring in
Cambodia: flash flood and central area flood. Flash floods result from heavy downpours upstream
on the Mekong River and affect the provinces along the Mekong as well as in the southern areas of
the country. The central area floods result from a combination of run-off from the Mekong andheavy rains around the Tonle Sap Lake (Helmers and Jegillos, 2004). We retain the central area
flood as one separate type of flood. However, our study differentiates between river overflow flood(Sangkae river and its tributaries) and surface water run-off flood. The combinations of thesefloods are also considered (Fig. 3). As flood may not solely affect the down-stream part of the
Sangkae River catchment (Tonle Sap flood plain), but also the up-stream part of the catchment; wedecided to investigate flood in the whole Sangkae River catchment.

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According to the Mekong River Commission, flood intensity is classified into three
categories: minor flood, medium flood, and major flood, with frequency of occurrence ofrespectively every one, ten and twenty years (MRC, 2002). Our study focuses on two types offlood: normal flood considered here as a usual annual flood (minor flood according to MRC
classification), and the severe 2011 flood, equivalent in magnitude to a medium flood according to
MRC classification.

Fig. 3 Flood incidence in the Sangkae River catchment
Analytical framework
The assessment framework designed to approach, analyze and understand the vulnerability ofagricultural production to flood in the study area is based on indicators. Each dimension ofvulnerability (exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity) is measured through a number ofindicators along several data sources (Table 1). The values of each indicator are standardized,
weighted by a coefficient determined with local stakeholders and then combined into composite
exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity indexes, which we analyze spatially with a geographic
information system. We compute an overall vulnerability index by using the formula“Vulnerability = [(Exposure +Sensitivity)-Adaptive Capacity]”. We further integrate the indicators
in a hierarchical cluster analysis to establish a typology of commune vulnerability across thecatchment, which we interpret by computing, for each vulnerability type, the mean values of eachindex.
Data collection and tools
Primary data collection on the vulnerability of agricultural production to flood was mainly carriedout through commune workshops organized in each commune in 2012 with a group of 10-15
participants for each commune. These workshops started with a participatory flood mapping
exercise focusing on the exposure and sensitivity dimensions of vulnerability. The mapping offlood areas in normal year (minor flood) and in 2011 rests on the knowledge of local authorities, as
they are the main information providers. Aerial photos retrieved from the Google Earth Pro server(www.googlearth.com) covering the entire communal territory were printed on A0 size paper andwere overlaid with plastic covers. The group of participants was invited to identify the main water
ways and bodies in the commune as well as the agricultural land areas. They were then asked tomap out the agricultural land affected by a usual flood and affected by the 2011 flood and for each

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flood area, to provide information on the type of flood, their duration and their actual impact on the
different agricultural productions. Lastly, a structured questionnaire provided data on theinstitutional capacity of the commune to adapt to flood. This included questions on i) the efficiencyof the flood warning system, ii) the mobilization of self-help groups in case of flood, iii) the
existence and efficiency of external support, iv) the allocation of communal funds for post-disastermanagement, v) the efficiency of the natural disaster management committee, vi) the provision andquality of training programs for farmers and how well these training programs address flood
management and vii) the existence of farmer organizations in the commune.
In addition, secondary datasets were consulted to build a number of other indicators. The GIS
provincial spatial planning database was useful to calculate indicators based on spatial layers: theagricultural land area and road density network (PMPSWG, 2011). The commune databaseprovided useful updated statistical references for other indicators (http://db.ncdd.gov.kh/cdbonline).
Table 1 Survey analytical framework
Indicators

Dimension

Exposure

Sensitivity

Adaptive
capacity

Weight in overallcomposite index

Major (2011) flood area size, expressed as a percentageof the total agricultural area in the commune
Minor flood area size, expressed as a percentage of thetotal agricultural area in the commune
Major (2011) flood area size weighted by the durationof the flood and expressed as a percentage of the total
agricultural area in the commune
Total agricultural land area expressed as a percentage ofthe total commune area size
Percentage of population involved in agriculture in thecommuneMajor (2011) flood area weighted by impact on
production and expressed as a percentage of the total
agricultural area in the commune.
Total cultivated area during flood period expressed as apercentage of total cultivated area in commune.

Data source

0.4
0.4

Commune workshop
conducted in 2012

0.2
0.3
0.1
0.3
0.3

Institutional capacity of commune

0.3

Percentage of population in commune above poverty
line

0.25

Density of road network in commune

0.2

Literacy rate in commune

0.25Interpretation of Land sat
satellite image (2010)
Commune data base(2010 update)Commune workshop
conducted in 2012
Commune data base(2010 update)Commune workshop
conducted in 2012
Commune data base(2010 update)
GIS-based calculation
based on roadinformation (2010)
Commune data base(2010 update)

RESULTS AND DISCUSION
Annually, flood affects 252.83 km2 of agricultural land area in the Sangkae River catchment. The
flooded area in 2011 was 32% larger than the area flooded during a normal flood (Table 2). Amongthe three different types of floods, the Tonle Sap flood is by far the most important in terms ofaffected area size and duration, if compared with river overflow and surface run-off floods.
However, the difference of flooded area size between a minor flood and the 2011 flood is
proportionally much more important for a river overflow and surface run-off flood than for the
Tonle Sap flood (54% against 25% increase).In the event of more frequent extreme flood events
driven by climate change, our preliminary results suggest that flood management strategy in thecatchment should pay greater attention to upper stream areas where floods hit and are likely to
become more important in the future.

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Exposure
There are several factors that determine the level of exposure of the communes; the topography, theorigin of the flood and flood duration. Figure 4 shows that not only communes located in the Tonle
Sap flood plain are exposed to flood. Some communes located in the middle and up-stream also
have high exposure levels where the effects of river overflow are aggravated by surface run-off
flood (Fig. 4). Second, flooding by Tonle Sap has a longer duration than both of the other types offlood (Table 2). This duration factor reinforces the high exposure levels of the down-stream
communes.
Table 2 Flood impacts, duration and occurrence
Flood types
Tonle Sap (central area)
Direct river overflow
River overflow & Surface runoff
Surface run-off
Total

Agriculture flooded
area (km2)
major
minor
flood
flood
249.94
188.45
62.72
46.44
40.62

1.01

16.88
370.16

16.93
252.83

Percentage ofincreasing
flood area size
24.60
54.08

Duration (meanvalues in days)
major
minor
flood
flood
63.6
66.35
15.26
23.89

Occurrence(mode of values)
major
minor
flood
flood
Sep-Oct
Sep-Nov
Aug-Oct
Sep-Oct

8.31

24.75

Jul-Nov

Aug-Sep32

40.25

Aug-Oct

Aug-Oct

32

Sensitivity
The factor being the most determinant in explaining the sensitivity of communes to flood is thepossibility for the commune to diversify its agriculture production. We refer here to both thedevelopment of multi-cropping systems and the development of dry season production. The agroecological environment is of primal importance. The communes with high sensitivity are logicallythe communes in which agriculture land dominates in the land use. Amongst this group, thecommunes with little crop diversification besides the rain-fed rice are particularly sensitive. For thecommunes located at the down-stream of Sangkae River catchment where the agro-ecologicalenvironment allows for crop diversification and the practice of a dry season recession rice to avoid
the flood peak period, the level of sensitivity decrease sharply even for commune which are locatedin the Tonle Sap plain. In the up-stream, the commune implements a multi-cropping systemcovering both dry and rainy seasons and are less sensitive to flood (Fig. 4).
Adaptive capacity
Down-stream communes have higher adaptive capacity (Fig. 4). This is due to the proximity withthe city of Battambang, which greatly improves access to external intervention. The proximity of
the city also offers opportunities of labor diversification away from agriculture, which can beconsidered here as an important adaptation strategy. We also noted that communes with extensive
experience with floods have developed more efficient adaptation mechanisms and strategies. We
also note important differences of adaptive capacity between communes that are located in the upstream area of the catchment. What explains these differences is the relative capacity of thecommune councils to mobilize resources internally and externally to address post-flood
management.
Vulnerability
The interpretation of the multivariate statistical analysis of all indicators allows for theidentification of five main types of vulnerability that we further ranked into five classes from “verylow” to “very high” vulnerability (Table 3 and Fig. 4).
Table 3 indicates that exposure and sensitivity have a preponderant influence on the© ISERD
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vulnerability of agricultural production to flood. The exposure and sensitivity indices are positively
correlated (Tab.3). However, exposure is more decisive in explaining the highest vulnerability level.
However, the measures that need to be addressed to reduce the exposure implies heavy civilengineering works (dikes, riverbanks reinforcement), which are far beyond what the communes andcommunities can actually afford. In the upstream areas, measures to reduce exposure could be theterracing of steep land in a view to reduce water surface run-off.
Notwithstanding, the communes have more options and opportunities to reduce their
sensitivity to flood: diversification of cropping systems, water storage systems and the paralleldevelopment of dry season agriculture are processes that could considerably reduce thevulnerability of agriculture to flood. Table 3 also indicates that the level of commune vulnerability
is also quite influenced by the adaptive capacity. This is a domain where provincial, district, andcommune authorities should prioritize their action. What is particularly needed is the establishmentof an effective institutional platform where communes could formulate their need to improve flood
management (pre/post disaster) and through which support and external assistance should bedelivered. The watershed management committee may play this role.
Table 3 Commune vulnerability index
CommuneOverall exposure
Overall sensitivity
vulnerability*
Index (mean of Z-score)
Index (mean of Z-score)
Very low
Very low [-0.7323808]
Very low [-1.5983150]
Low
Medium [-0.3817195]
Medium [0.4457365]
MediumLow [-0.7077337]
Low [-0.2380573]
High
High [1.1328966]
Very high [0.9314991]
Very highVery high [1.8084319]
High [0.6203428]* Vulnerability classification made with a hierarchical cluster analysis (Ward’s method)

Overall adaptive capacity
index (mean of Z-score)Low [-0.3817778]
High [1.0304744]
Very low [-0.8889612]
Very high [1.0362228]
Medium [-0.2394899]

Fig. 4 Flood exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity and overall vulnerability indexes bycommune in across the Sangkae River catchment area

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CONCLUSION
Our study has presented a methodology to analyze and understand the vulnerability of agricultural
production to flood. A great deal of information collected through the research process wasprovided by local stakeholders who are directly affected by flood. The tools and data collection
methods are easy to grasp and the approach can be easily replicated in the context of other river
basins. The approach is based on the measurement of specific indicators related to three dimensionsof vulnerability, namely exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. It further develops composite
indexes that integrate a large number of factors in a single value. The use of a geographic
information system enables us to comprehend the geography of vulnerability across a river basin
area. Additionally, the indicators can be compared over time so that they are indicative values towatershed authorities for making strategic and operational decisions to improve flood management.
The framework can be refined further in a number of ways. One is by revising the existing
indicators and by identifying new ones. Another could be by incorporating rainfall data so that
better links can be made with climate change. The survey has been realized in partnership with aspatial planning team from Battambang and should be considered as a step towards developing aflood management decision-making tool for provincial authorities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are grateful to the Canadian International Development Research Center (IDRC) for thefinancial support of this study. We address our sincere thanks to the provincial spatial planningteam of Battambang, students of Royal University of Agriculture in Cambodia and to all
respondents for their support and participation. We are also grateful to Valentin Joyeux, student atUniversity of Liège (Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Belgium) for his support during the survey design
and the analysis.
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MRC (Mekong River Commission). 2010. State of basin report. Mekong River Commission. Vientiane, Lao
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programme of action to climate change. Ministry of Environment. Phnom Pehn. Cambodia.
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Technical report. Cambodia.
RGC (Royal Government of Cambodia). 2006. National adaptation programme of action to climate change(NAPA). Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
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Ministry of Planning(ed.). Phnom Penh. Cambodia.
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Suon, S. 2007. Floods are good but their irregularity leads to changing rural livelihoods systems.
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Yusuf, A. and Fransico, H. 2009. Climate change vulnerability mapping for Southeast Asia. Singapore.

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Research article
erdComparative Reproductive Behavior of α-Male, β-Maleand Subordinate Male Timor Deer (Cervus timorensis
Blainville) Raised under Captivity
DAUD SAMSUDEWA*
University of Diponegoro, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia
Email: daudreproduksi@gmail.com

SEVERINO S. CAPITAN
University of The Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines

CESAR C. SEVILLA
University of The Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines

RENATO S. A. VEGA
University of The Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines

PABLO P. OCAMPO
University of The Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Timor deer were used in an experiment to study the comparative behavior of αmale, β-males and subordinate male raised in captivity. Twelve males (4.25 years old) and24 females (3 to 4 years old) were randomly assigned into three separate cages following
the ratio of 4 males: 8 females. Kruskal-Wallis H test of non-parametric analyses weredone for aggressive, libido and mating behaviors. The α-male was the dominant male interms of aggressive, libido and mating behaviors. Subordinate male showed the highest
frequency of wallowing to reduce stress, and running around for expressing libido.
Successful mating was mostly exhibited by α-male, Subordinate2 (S2)-male did not show
actual mating. The establishment of dominance hierarchy resulted to the manifestation ofdifferences reproductive behaviors.
Keywords reproductive behavior, male Timor deer, captivity

INTRODUCTION
The Timor deer (Cervus timorensis Blainville) is a medium-sized cervid with 60 kg mature bodyweight and 1.00-1.10 m shoulder height (Jacoeb and Wiryosuhanto, 1994). It is currently being
reared in farms in many countries including New Zealand, Australia, Indonesia, Mauritius, New
Caledonia, China, Korea and Russia (Semiadi and Nugraha, 2004).
The productivity of deer farming in Indonesia is still low. The study of Daningsih (2005)
showed that annual population growth of deer was only 0.169 at Kelompok Pemangkuan Hutan(KPH) Bunder, 0.25 at Kulon Progo and 0.17 at KPH Jonggol. The low of the annual population
growth suggests that the productivity of deer farming in captivity can be improved if some key
aspects of management such as feeding, mating, aggressive male behavior, maternal care andnervousness tendency are addressed. Asher et al., (1996) claimed that intensive deer farming withpoor management practices, such as low of the feed quality and high social stress, may lead to poor
cervid reproduction health. This is corroborated by Moberg (1991) who stated that behavioral stresshas adverse effects on the reproduction system of both males and females. Reproductive success is
one of the parameters to monitor stress. Animals that suffer from stress often fail to reproduce
successfully.

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Timor deer's develop a linear dominance hierarchy consisting of α-males, β-males andsubordinate males through aggressive behavior. Social stress including those caused by conflicts
related to dominance hierarchy has relatively consistent effects on reproductive behavior. This ismanifested by changes in male sexual behavior (Blanchard et al., 2002).
OBJECTIVES
Therefore, in order to develop better management practices to maximize reproductive capacity ofdeer farms, it is necessary to study reproductive behavior of α-male, β-male and subordinate male
Timor deer raised under captivity.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted at H. Yusuf Wartono Timor deer captive breeding, Gondosari, Gebog,
Kudus, Central Java. The reproductive behavior observation was carried out for 43 days starting
August 1, 2011 until September 12, 2011. Twelve (12) males (51 ± 6 months old; 68.29 ± 8.41kg
body weight and in same antler stages), and twenty-four (24) females (3-4 years old 40-60 kg bodyweight with normal estrus) were used. Other materials include 3 communal cages (23.5 x 21.5 m)
and ethogram table.
Observation for reproductive behavior was done with behavior sampling (Martin and Bateson,1993). The observation was done by manual recording using a record book and an ethogram table.
Time, frequency, interval, duration and sequence of every behavior were recorded. The data was
supported by audiovisual recorder. Data gathering of reproductive behavior was focused on anumber of aspects including libido behavior, aggression and mating behavior.
Kruskal-Wallis H test of non-parametric analysis was done for comparing α, β andsubordinate male Timor deer in terms of libido, aggressive and mating behavior.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Aggressive behavior: Aggressive behavior of male Timor deer was expressed by wallowing,
walking with head up, shouting, rubbing antler, expression of threat, pushing, actual fighting,fleeing and climbing. Aggressive behaviors are commonly expressed when more than one malestart to approach an estrus female, α-males are the ones commonly displaying these behaviors,
especially when β-males or subordinate males are approaching. From the time of actual fighting
and incidence of fleeing, dominance hierarchy was established.
Average values of each aggressive behavior of α, β and subordinate male Timor deer's areshown in Table 1. The result of Kruskal-Wallis H test showed significant differences for all
aggressive behaviors among the different hierarchy of male Timor deer. The α-male as thedominant male had mostly shown dominancy in all of the behavior parameters except in frequency
and interval of wallowing and fleeing. The highest frequency and interval of wallowing were
exhibited by S2-male, which could be an attempt of the animal to reduce stress. S2 male had thehighest frequency and longer interval of wallowing, but shorter duration because he was disturbed
by more dominant males when started. On the other hand, β-male exhibited the highest frequencyof fleeing because of he was the opponent of α-male. The β-male also exhibited the longest intervalof fleeing because in addition to fighting with α-male, in between also fight with S1 or S2-male andexhibited winning.
Indeed, shouting bouts (shouting in between two periods of shouting) were only done by αmales as a sign of dominance. Wallowing is commonly followed by rubbing antler or expression of
threat. In these behavior α-male still shown the most dominant male except for interval of
expression threat. In terms of pushing and actual fighting, α-male also shown dominancy infrequency, duration and interval. Actual fighting was longer time between α and β-male comparewith other male. Climbing as one sign of dominancy, α-male was shown the most frequent maleexhibited this behavior with longest duration and interval. The α-male exhibited climbing everyday© ISERD
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and the males usually disturbing other males when they exhibited this behavior.
Table 1 Average values of each aggressive behavior (43 days observations) of male Timor
deer
Behavior
Wallowing- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Walking with Head Up- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Shouting Bouts- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Rubbing Antler- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Expression of Threat- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Pushing- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Actual Fighting- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Fleeing- Frequency, times- Interval, minutes
Climbing- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes

α-maleβ-maleS1-maleS2-male

χ2

69.56
1.18
43.15

67.50
1,06
26.60

63.97
1,28
30.58

56.26
1,93
134.72183.94*72.02*
114.10*13.70
3.50
173.3611.65
1.42
127.09

5.61
0.63
36.81

0.00
0.00
0.00

374.69*404.36*241.47*

33.49
4.08
151.69

0.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
0.00

39.06
5.26
148.56

16.27
0.60
28.55

4.68
0.15
1.64

0.17
0.01
0.00

374.44*400.83*407.85*5.76
4.22
159.314.66
1.57
170.47

2.33
0.64
35.65

0.29
0.07
0.00

353.30*415.32*250.80*

6.14
3.92
162.154.95
1.61
156.53

2.57
0.68
40.78

0.47
0.11
0.37

348.38*402.98*247.04*229.72
3.55
163.64247.01
1.96
206.17204.091.39
88.69

107.360.68
38.41

261.66*342.14*156.82*

0.00
0.00

1.82
204.08

1.32
71.29

0.69
41.14

341.99*189.89*13.61
3.00
143.27

11.31
1.33
75.06

6.02
0.64
26.41

1.50
0.13
0.00

317.80*365.55*231.32*

Legend: α-male (The most dominant male); β-male (The second dominant male); S1-male (Subordinate 1 male); S2-male(Subordinate 2 male)

Libido behavior: Libido behavior of male Timor deer was expressed by wallowing, roaring,seeking female, crowning, flehmen, spraying of urine, rutting, climbing and running around.
Libido behavior was shown by male as expression of mating desire. In this present study, duration,
frequency and interval of each libido behavior was measured. The most behavior exhibited by male
Timor deer was seeking female (6.55 counts/day) followed by flehmen, spraying urine rutting andclimbing (6.40, 6.32, 4.88 and 4.31 counts/day, respectively). Average values of each libido
behavior of α, β and subordinate male Timor deer's are shown in Table 2.
The result of Kruskal-Wallis H test showed significant differences (P<0.05) for all libido
behavior among the different hierarchy of male Timor deer. The α-male as the dominant male had
mostly shown dominancy in all the libido behavior parameters except running around. The highest
frequency and longest duration and also interval of running around was exhibited by S2-male,which might be an attempt to express libido.
The α-male has shown dominancy for wallowing and spraying urine (most frequent and also
longest duration and interval). Spraying urine and wallowing could be related to release of odors
and attract the estrus female, that activity will be repeated when the estrus female shown nonreceptive behavior prior to mating. Libido behavior of α-males was found to be related with scentmarking (urinary spray and rutting), which was more common compared with other males. Roaring
was commonly done by α-males to display their dominancy. Blanchard et al., (2002) reported that
dominant male sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) display frequent scent marking behavior as partof their libido behavior.The α-male also showed dominancy on crowning behavior, which could be© ISERD
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included as a sign of dominance and an act of attracting female. Flehmen is one of the interesting
libido behaviors of Timor deer's. It is an important sign signaling the start of a mating behavior.
Flehmen is done to facilitate exposure of the vomeronasal gland for a scent or pheromone(Messang-Nallley, 2006). Climbing was also mostly done by α-male. When other males exhibited
this behavior, α-male would disturb them. This is the reason for shorter duration and interval of
climbing in other males.
Table 2 Average values of each libido behavior (43 days observations) of male Timor Deer
Behavior
Wallowing- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Roaring Bouts- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Seeking Female- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Crowning- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Flehmen- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Spraying Urine- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Rutting- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Climbing- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Running Around- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes

α-maleβ- maleS1- maleS2- maleχ2

252.403.24
146.21225.781.40
110.65139.98
0.73
21.58

37.64
0.20
0.00

345.92*359.41*233.78*38.87
4.41
155.73

0.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
0.00

228.82
4.06
151.57

194.01
1.59
154.56102.93
0.79
86.39

17.71
0.11
3.37

335.81*384.72*170.91*61.51
2.81
170.96

16.76
0.43
23.82

6.08
0.16
7.44

0.00
0.00
0.00

366.77*388.85*365.40*8.06
4.13
156.666.38
1.53
149.81

3.02
0.69
72.96

0.21
0.05
3.37

348.34*399.34*184.10*

11.98
4.04
151.2110.14
1.50
143.78

5.07
0.68
64.14

0.96
0.10
0.00

317.07*388.25*
195.76*41.13
4.19
156.90

13.48
0.57
27.13

2.68
0.12
2.74

0.00
0.00
0.00

393.76*404.09*403.62*

11.86
3.33
145.53

5.70
0.63
25.82

2.66
0.29
12.58

0.51
0.06
4.10

294.60*329.22*307.65*

0.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
0.00

45.95
0.41
24.18

129.901.58
145.31331.10*373.43*195.57*

Legend: α-male (The most dominant male); β-male (The second dominant male); S1-male (Subordinate 1 male); S2-male(Subordinate 2 male)Mating behavior: In the present study, mating behavior of male Timor deer was expressed byfollowing, sniffing, kissing, flehmen, kicking, nudging, mounting, erection, intercourse, ejaculation,refractory and bisexual. The highest frequency of mating behavior of male Timor deer was
manifested in following (6.91 counts/day) followed by sniffing and kissing (6.18 and 5.84
counts/day, respectively). Average values of each mating behavior of α, β and subordinate male
Timor deer's for duration, frequency and interval are shown in Table 3.
The result of Kruskal-Wallis H test showed significant differences for all mating behaviors
among the different hierarchy of male Timor deer. The α-male as the dominant male had mostly
shown dominancy in all of the mating behavior parameter except bisexual. Bisexual only observedin the subordinate male. S2-males showed the highest frequency (0.71 counts/day), longest
duration (3.16 seconds) and longest interval (37.41 minutes) of bisexual behavior among the maledeer's. The Subordinate male Timor deer exhibited bisexual behavior when they cannot mate withfemale deer's due to intimidation of α-male. Mating behavior was observed to be more frequent in
α-males than other males. Subordinate males had the lowest frequency of mating behavior. Indeed,S2 males only exhibited following, sniffing, kissing and bisexual behavior (0.08, 0.03, 0.02 and0.71 counts/day). Blanchard et al., (2002) also reported that subordinate males of albino mice

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2(Rattus norvegicus), deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and lesser mouse lemurs (Microcebus
murinus) have the least frequent of the mating behavior.
Table 3 Average values of each mating behavior (43 days observations) of male Timor deer
Behavior
Following- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Sniffing- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Kissing- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Flehmen- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Kicking- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Nudging- Duration, seconds- Frequency, counts- Interval, minutes
Mounting- Duration Inter, seconds- Frequency Inter, counts- Interval Inter, minutes
Erection- Duration, seconds- Frequency, times- Interval, seconds
Intromisian & Ejaculation- Duration, seconds- Frequency, times- Interval, seconds
Refractory- Duration, seconds- Frequency, times- Interval, seconds
Bisexual- Duration, seconds- Frequency, times- Interval, seconds

α-maleβ-maleS1-maleS2-maleχ2

229.685.11
111.57

95.72
1.22
72.80

49.63
0.50
36.43

4.88
0.08
3.23

326.96*351.55*217.04*9.96
4.87
113.75

3.64
0.92
67.01

1.68
0.39
26.78

0.13
0.03
3.23

353.15*281.83*243.24*13.55
4.65
118.15

4.80
0.84
62.10

2.14
0.33
20.92

0.10
0.02
0.00

365.10*372.71*
267.72*

6.82
4.51
116.16

2.00
0.69
39.97

0.90
0.27
16.83

0.00
0.00
0.00

383.80*327.54*298.17*

5.61
4.49
117.68

1.59
0.63
33.74

0.70
0.24
13.40

0.00
0.00
0.00

379.90*281.66*313.31*

17.69
4.47
114.64

4.86
0.55
21.44

2.11
0.21
10.41

0.00
0.00
0.00

382.44*386.38*355.73*20.28
4.20
114.12

5.84
0.43
7.58

1.64
0.09
3.11

0.00
0.00
0.00

331.45*403.67*416.05*37.99
4.20
112.14

7.64
0.24
1.27

2.42
0.09
3.11

0.00
0.00
0.00

422.22*422.33*446.74*4.67
4.20
112.28

0.88
0.22
1.27

0.28
0.08
0.26

0.00
0.00
0.00

393.19*425.15*454.14*212.504.19
112.49

39.41
0.22
1.27

13.11
0.08
0.26

0.00
0.00
0.00

407.73*425.16*454.14*

0.00
0.00
0.00

0.05
0.01
0.00

1.56
0.33
18.44

3.16
0.71
37.41

153.41*156.46*41.09*

Legend: α-male (The most dominant male); β-male (The second dominant male); S1-male (Subordinate 1 male); S2-male(Subordinate 2 male)Mating behavior of Timor deer was observed to occur mostly between 5 am and 8 pm. Timor
deers stopped mating activity when the temperature fell down below 21 0C, which commonlyoccurred after 8 pm. These findings were confirmed by Ismail (2008) in Ranca Upas, Indonesia
who reported the same observation. Timor deer still continue to mate under rain condition but will
look for shelter when temperature dramatically drops. But, in Ranca Upas this condition would
happen when temperature dramatically drops until around 16 0C. It was observed that Timor deer
started to rest from 8 pm. Almost all of them would stay and lay in canopy, only a small number
would ruminate outside of the canopy. Mating behavior of Timor deer is different compared withSambar deer (Rusa unicolor) in India. Savanth et al., (2011) reported that Sambar deer arenocturnal, therefore during day time mounting and intercourse could not be observed more thanonce, but other activities related to breeding like chasing females, sniffing and flehmen wereobserved many times. Territorial behavior, holding the head up high, fighting, spraying urine on its
own body and face were also observed a few times.

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CONCLUSIONS
The most aggressive males were α-males. The common sequence of aggressive behaviors was
expression of threat, followed by pushing, actual fighting and fleeing when one of the males lose
the fight. Libido behavior of male Timor deer was expressed by wallowing, roaring, seeking female,crowning, flehmen spraying of urine, rutting, climbing and running around; α-male was the mostactive in libido behavior. Subordinate male expressed libido through running around. Farmmanagement practices should be given emphasis as an important key for reproductive success. This
may include the provision of mud bath in the cage to support expression of normal behavior.
Further study on the grouping of the males in relation to the number of males in each cage must be
conducted. The possible influence of dominance hierarchy on the subsequent sex ratio of fawns
from captive breeding of Timor deer should also be studied.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by The Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study andResearch in Agriculture (SEARCA) and German Academic Exchange Service (Deutthscher
Akademischer Austausch Dienst e.V./DAAD), with SEARCA-DAAD Scholarship for graduate
study. In addition, thanks to Mr. Yusuf Wartono and Mr. Deka Hendratmanto, the owner of“Cervidae” captivity breeding, Kudus, Central Java, Indonesia for all the facilities used in thisresearch.
REFERENCES
Asher, G.W., Fisher, M.W. and Fennessy, P.F. 1996. Environmental constraints in reproductive performanceof farmed deer. Anim. Rep. Sci., 42, 35-44.
Blanchard, D.C., McKittrick, C.R.. Hardy, M.P. and Blanchard, R.J. 2002. Effects of social stress on
hormones, brain and behavior. I. Mammalian Hormone-Behavior Systems. 735-772. Academic Press,
San Diego.
Daningsih. 2005. The evaluation and development of management systems for russa deer (cervus timorensis
blainville, 1822.) in captivity. (http://digilib. itb.ac.id/gdl.php?mod=browse&op=read&id=jbptitbppgdldaningsih%3C-24685. Access Date : March 1, 2010.)
Ismail, D. 2008. Behaviour of Java Deer. (http://earth4wildlife.blogspot. com/2008/ 08. html. Access Date:
August 7, 2009.)
Jacoeb, T.N. and Wiryosuhanto, S.D. 1994. Prospek budidaya ternak rusa. Kanisius. Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Martin, P. and Bateson, P. 1993. Measuring behaviour. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, USA.
Messang-Nalley, W.M. 2006. Study on biology of reproduction and application of artificial insemination
technology on Timor deer (Cervus timorensis). Doctoral Dissertation. Bogor Agriculture University.
Indonesia.
Moberg, G.P. 1991. How behavioral stress disrupts the endocrine control of reproduction in domestic
animals. J. Dairy Sci., 74, 304-311.
Semiadi, G., Nugraha, R.T.P. 2004. Rearing guidelines of tropical deer. Research Center of Biology. LIPI.
Bogor, Indonesia.
Savanth, V.V., Sassendran, P.C., Anil, K.S., Ramnath, V. Davis, J. and Prasad, A. 2011. Observations on
Sambar Rusa Unicolor (Cetartiodactyla: Cervidae) stags during hard and velvet stages of antler cycle incaptivity. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 3(10), 2128-2135.

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Research article


Evaluation of Tide Embankment and Protection Forest
Width on Tsunami Disaster Using Tsunami Simulator
YOUKI MAEDA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: h1okazaw@nodai.ac.jp

YASUSHI TAKEUCHI
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanTOMONORI FUJIKAWA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 14 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The tsunami that occurred after the Tohoku Earthquake of March 11, 2011,devastated the infrastructure in Tohoku, including roads and water channels. This study
reports the results of a tsunami simulation experiment using an open channel forevaluation of tide embankments and protection forest in controlling the force of tsunami
waves and flow of sand carried by tsunami. Coastal areas in Minami Soma City,
Fukushima Prefecture, that were devastated by the Tohoku Earthquake were assumed as
the experimental location. A 0.3 m-wide, 12 m-long open channel was used for thetsunami experiment. To simulate a tsunami, a removable barrier was set near the upstream
end of the channel to retain water. The barrier was lifted to generate a bore. The scale forthe model was 1/100. A model protection forest and a tide embankment made of acrylic
were placed at the longitudinal midpoint of the channel. To examine the sand control
effect of the tide embankment and protection forest at the time of tsunami, Toyoura silica
sand was laid in the channel bottom upstream of the tide embankment and protection
forest. The sand left behind after the tsunami simulation was measured for dry weight. The
speed of the wave beyond the protection forest tended to decrease with increases in forest
width. The amount of sand carried by the tsunami was found to decrease with increases inforest width. The results, however, are from a simplified model channel experiment. It isnecessary to perform experiments that more closely reproduce the original sites in terms of
topography and vegetation.
Keywords tsunami, protection forest, tide embankment, sand, earthquake

INTRODUCTION
Japan is among the most earthquake-prone countries in the world. The tsunamis that occurred after
the Tohoku Earthquake of March 11, 2011, devastated the infrastructure in Tohoku, including
roads and water channels. A total area of 443 km2 was inundated, and 238 km2 (54 %) of this wasalmost paddy field (The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, 2011). Coastal sand carried by
the tsunamis deposited in the affected paddy fields in wide areas. Considerable time and labor havebeen spent in removing the deposited sand.
Restoration and reconstruction of the infrastructure and agricultural lands are underway in thedisaster-hit areas. At the same time, the value of establishing tide embankments and tidewater
control forests has come under review as a part of efforts to make tsunami-resistant communities.
Two tsunami mitigation effects were suggested by Shuto (1985): 1) the forests prevent objects suchas boats that drift from sea to land from moving into areas with houses and other buildings, and 2)© ISERD
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the forests reduce the speed of tsunami waves by exerting drag, which limits the flooding. However,
the effects of tidewater control forests in mitigating damage have not been fully examined. No
studies have addressed the scale of tidewater control forest required to mitigate damage against
large-scale tsunamis (wave heights of 10 m or greater) caused by mega-earthquakes (magnitudes
around M9.0).
OBJECTIVE
This paper reports the results of tsunami simulation experiments using an open water channel forevaluation of tide embankments and tidewater control forests of several widths in controlling theforce of tsunami waves and the amount of sand carried by the tsunamis. The disaster prevention
measures of Minami Soma City in Fukushima Prefecture (Fig.1), which was devastated by the
Tohoku Earthquake tsunamis, were used as a reference case.

Seismic intensity
the seismic
centerSendaiMinamisoma

Tokyo

Fig. 1 Seismic intensity’s map of the Tohoku Earthquake (March 11, 2011)
Source: Japan Meteorological Agency

METHODOLOGY
A 0.3 m-wide, 12 m-long open channel was used for the tsunami experiment (Fig. 2). To simulate atsunami, a removable barrier was set near the upstream end of the channel to retain water. The
barrier was rapidly lifted to generate a bore. The scale for the model was 1/100. The height of themodel waves was set as 12 cm, based on the 12 m height of the actual waves that reached thecoastal areas (Takahashi et al., 2011). Tidewater control forest and tide embankment models wereplaced at the longitudinal midpoint of the channel. The dimensions and alignment of the model
trees of the tidewater control forest were determined based on the study by Shuto (1985). Acrylic
sticks 2 mm in diameter and 10.5 cm in length were arranged in a staggered pattern. The tideembankment had a trapezoidal cross section, a top width of 12 cm, a bottom width of 16 cm and aheight of 45 cm. To examine the sand control effect of the tide embankment and tidewater control
forest at the time of tsunami, Toyoura silica sand (Japanese standard sand), which was chosen to
reproduce the sea bottom sand at the site, was laid in the channel bottom upstream of the tideembankment and tidewater control forest. The 4.0 kg of sand was laid 30 cm wide, 80 cm long, and
0.9 cm thick. The sand left behind after the tsunami simulation was measured for dry weight.
The experiment conditions are given in Table 1. There were 12 experiment treatments:© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

without a tide control forest (indicated as 0cm) and with a tide control forest of 20 cm, 30 cm, 40
cm, 50 cm or 60 cm in width, in each case with and without a tide embankment. The tsunami
simulation was videotaped, and the speed of the waves after they passed the tidewater control forest
was calculated from the video data.
Step 1← Tide control forest 
↑
↑
Sand
(4 kg)
Tide embankment 

12m

m

0.3

Step 2

Rapidly lifted 

TsunamiFig. 2 Outline of the Tsunami Simulator using experimental open channel(0.3 m-wide, 12 m-long)
Table 1 The experiment conditions using Tsunami Simulator
With a tide embankment
Without a tide embankment

Width of tide control forest
0 cm
10 cm
20 cm
0 cm
10 cm
20 cm

30 cm
30 cm

40 cm
40 cm

50 cm
50 cm

60 cm
60 cm

As the flow velocity of waves changed in a short time in this experiment, it was impossible toapply the Froude’s law of similitude, which is used in normal channel experiments. Referring toKimura et al. (1968) and based on the condition that the density and gravitational acceleration ofwater were the same for the original site and for the model, the following two rules of similitude
were determined (Eqs.(1)- (3)).
1T2 ⎛ L2 ⎞ 2
1=⎜ ⎟ = 1
T1 ⎝ L1 ⎠
n 2

(1)

−1
V2 L2 ⋅T2
1
1
1
=
= 1 =
1 =
−1
V1 L1 ⋅T1
n 2 100 2 10

(2)∴V1 = 10 V2(3)

where L is length (m), n is reduction scale, V is flow velocity (m/s)and T is time (s). The
subscripts 1 and 2 indicate the original and the model, respectively.
After conversion by using Eq.(1) to (3), the speed of tsunami waves measured in the modelexperiments was found to be 1/10 that of the flow velocity observed at the original site.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

2.0

100

1.6

80

Flow velosity* (%Flow velosity of Tsunami (m/s

Fig. 3 shows the relationship between forest width and flow velocity of tsunami waves. It wasclarified that the flow velocities for the case with a 0.2 m-wide forest were reduced to 77% (casewithout a tide embankment) and to 84% (case with a tide embankment) that of the case without atide control forest (forest width 0m). However, the differences in flow velocities were small under
the condition with forest width of 0.3 cm or wider. Therefore, it can be assumed that flow velocities
decreased for the forests with widths of up to 0.2 cm, but did not decrease appreciably at widths
greater than that. For cases with a forest of a given width, it was found that, in the case with a tideembankment, the maximum flow velocity decreased to 80% that of the case without a tideembankment.

1.2
0.8
0.4

60
40
20
0

0.0
0

0

0.2
0.4
0.6
Protection forest width (m)with tide embankment without tide embankment

0.2
0.4
0.6
Protection forest width (m)with tide embankment without tide embankment

Fig. 3 Relationship between flow velocity of tsunami and protection forest width*Ratio of flow velocity (m/s) in the case of 20-60 m forest width on that of 0 m forest width
100
Amount of sand carriedby tsunami* (%)Amount of sand carriedby tsunami (kg)

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

80
60
40
20
0

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Protection forest width (m)with tide embankment

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Protection forest width (m)without tide embankment

with tide embankment

without tide embankment

Fig. 4 Relationship between flow velocity of tsunami and amount of sand carried by tsunami*Ratio of sand (kg) in the case of 20-60 m forest width on that of 0 m forest width

The relationship between forest width and amount of sand carried by tsunami (sediment) isshown in Fig.4. At the forest width of 0m, i.e., without a tidewater control forest, sediment was
1.040 kg in the case with a tide embankment and 1.550 kg in the case without a tide embankment.
It was clarified that even without a tide control forest; sediment reduction to 67% was achieved byusing a tide embankment. For the cases with a forest of a given width, the sediment for the casewith a tide embankment was found to be constantly about 60% that of the case without a tideembankment. Based on the above findings, it is thought installation of tidewater control forests
combined with tide embankments can reduce sediment to about 60% that of tidewater control
forests alone.
When the relationship between forest width and changes in sediment deposition was examined,
it was found that sediment deposition tended to decrease for the forest widths of 0.2 m and 0.3 m,irrespective of the presence of a tide embankment. Sediment in the cases with a forest width of 0.3
m was 56% with the tide embankment and 60% without the tide embankment of those in the cases© ISERD
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without a forest (forest width of 0m). However, the changes in sediment were small in the caseswith forests of 0.3 m or greater in width. The above findings clarified that sediment reduction to
60% is possible by installing a forest of 30 m in width (equivalent to the 0.3 m width in the model)
and that increases in forest width beyond 30 m would not afford greater reductions in sedimentdeposition.
CONCLUSION
These experiments examined the effects of a tidewater control forest and a tide embankment on the
speed of tsunami waves and the amount of sand carried by a tsunami under the assumption of atsunami with the scale of those that occurred after the Tohoku Earthquake in Japan on March 11,
2011. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that the minimum width for a tide control forest
effectively reduces the speed of tsunami waves and the amount of sand carried by a tsunami is 20
to 30 m. It was also clarified that use of a tide embankment in combination with a tidewater control
forest is effective in mitigating the tsunami damage. The results, however, are from a simplified
model channel experiment. It is necessary to perform experiments that closely resemble the originalsites in terms of detailed topography and vegetation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Eastern Japan Support Project from Tokyo University ofAgriculture, Japan. We would like to express our gratitude to Prof. Dr. Shigeyuki MIYABAYASHI(Tokyo University of Agriculture). The authors are also grateful for the research assistanceprovided by the students of the laboratory of Hydro-structure Engineering, Tokyo University ofAgriculture.
REFERENCES
Kimura, H., Kudo, K. and Shibayama, A., 1968. A Model Experiment on the Tsunami Breakwaters at theport Kochi. Report of the Port and Airport Research Institute. 7-2. 3-64. (in Japanese).
Shuto, N., 1985. Effect of salty wind protection forests on protection against tsunami and its limit. Coastal
Engineering Journal. 32. 465-469. (in Japanese).
Takahasi, S., et al. 2011. Urgent survey for 2011 great east japan earthquake and tsunami disaster in ports
and coasts. Technical Note of the Port and Airport Research Institute. 1231. 31-44.
The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan. 2011. (http://gisstar.gsi.go.jp/2011TaiheiyouOki/LandUse/
LandUseArea.pdf (2012.12.13 Perusal))© ISERD108

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Research article
erd

Awareness of Conversion from Conventional Farming
System to Sustainable Farming System in Kampong Cham
Province, Cambodia
I7dExtension Center, Institute of Environment
Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japanen
MACHITO MIHARA* t

JUN FUJIHIRA

Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan /Institute of Environment Rehabilitation
and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
4
Email: hq-erecon@nifty.com .
Received 16 December 20127
2
Accepted
10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)w
Abstract In Cambodia, 71% oflabor force engage in agricultural sector and contribute forocreating 36% of Gross Domestic
Products on 2010. Besides, Cambodia suits forr
agriculture because Mekong RiverandTonle Sap Lake provide fertile soil. In the researchdsite, Samroung commune in Kampong
Cham province, agriculture is the source of incomesfor farmers. Eleven villages are located in this commune and 1,792 families present. Main
crop in the commune is rice. Also, some farmers grow vegetables such as cucumber ormorning glory in this area. In this country, conventional farming system based on agrochemicals application becomes a major farming style in recent years. But the ways how toapply the purchased agricultural inputs of farmers, especially chemical pesticides, are notappropriate from a point of view of rural sustainability. It means popular farming systems
depending on agro-chemicals are not only deteriorating natural environment andecosystem but also affecting health of humans. For preventing these impacts, attention has
been paid to sustainable farming system. But it also has difficulties for applying. For
example, especially in the beginning, it may difficult for farmers to apply its techniques
effectively because techniques of sustainable farming system are new techniques. In
addition, these techniques needs more care, load and time period for getting the maximum
effects compared to applying agro-chemicals. So farmers may be difficult to keep theirmotivation for adapting sustainable farming system. So, this study dealt with theawareness of conversion from conventional farming system to sustainable farming system,
based on the questionnaire and interview survey conducted in Samroung commune of
Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. This study concluded that extension approaches
which are applied in Samroung commune are effective in order to change farmer’sawareness of convert farming system. Addition to this, possibility of reducing the amountof agro-chemicals used was also observed.

Keywords sustainable farming system, conventional farming system, awareness,agro-chemicals, conversion

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture has utmost important role for reducing poverty and improving the capacity for humanresource development in rural area. On 2010, 14 million people live in Cambodia and 71% of labor
force engages in agricultural sector and it contributes creating 36% of Gross Domestic Products. In
this country, mono cropping based on conventional farming system by applying chemical fertilizer
and pesticide become a major style, because commercial agriculture has been advanced in recent
years. But chemical pesticides effect not only positive but also negatively for the environment andhuman directly and indirectly. It is also a problem that farmers do not have enough and appropriate
knowledge about applying agro-chemicals.

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The Royal Government of Cambodia noticed and regarded this abuse of pesticide as a big
problem in the country concerning food security, environment and human health. For example,
most of the pesticides applied to agricultural lands may affect non-target organisms andcontaminate soil and water. In addition, government is concerned that dangerous pesticides such as
extremely toxic and banned pesticides are still in use in Cambodia (Royal Government of
Cambodia, et. al., 2002).
For producing foods and fiber materials on a sustainable basis harmonizing agricultural
production with the natural environment, conversion from conventional farming system tosustainable farming system is considered. In this study, sustainable farming system is defined as asystem that can evolve indefinitely towards greater human utility, greater efficiency of resource use
and a balance with the environment which is favorable to humans and most other species (Harwood,1990).
In order to solving the problems, techniques used for sustainable agriculture based on natural
resource circulation were extended towards local farmers with distributing materials. So theobjective of this study is discussing about effective extension approaches for extending techniques
and possibility of reducing using amount of agro-chemicals.
STUDY SITE
Study site consists of 11 villages which are located in Samroung commune, Phrey Chhor district,Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. 11 villages consist of Bonteay Thmey, Takrit, Kondal Koang,
Tompang Risey, Svayprey, Samroung, Sodey, Thmey, Veal, Smei and Preykhcheay village. This
commune is 83 kilometers from Phnom Penh city (Fig. 1). The commune is consisted of 11 villages
and 8,111 people are living in 2011. Main production is rice mainly for both sale and selfconsumption. On the other hand, farmers who produce vegetables for sales were much less thanthat of rice. In Samroung commune, conventional farming system is mainly applied for productionin order to increasing yield.

Kampong Cham province

Cambodia

Phrey Chhor district

Kampong Cham province

Samroung commune
Phnom Penh
0

0

20km

100km

Fig. 1 Location of Samroung commune in Kampong Cham Province
METHODOLOGY
In this study, effectiveness of extension approaches and possibility of reducing amount of agrochemicals used were studied. Effectiveness of extension approaches was measured by farmer’s
implementation after technical training. For achieving objectives, the study was advanced withactivities included 1) questionnaire surveys, 2) technical trainings, and 3) field investigation.
Questionnaire surveys are divided into baseline survey and 2 kinds of questionnaire surveys which
conducted after technical training. Between July and October 2011, baseline survey for 443 farmers
was conducted in order to understand current fundamental information and thought towards agrochemicals proper use and sustainable agriculture. It consists of questions about personal© ISERD
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information, economic situation, agricultural practice, perception of using agro-chemical andorganic inputs and so on.
Besides, questionnaire survey, about composting and making bio-pesticide were conducted forparticipants at technical trainings (Fig. 2). From April 2011 to March 2012, a total of 29 technicaltrainings were held in order to extend about techniques for sustainable agriculture based on natural
resource circulation such as composting, making bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticide, preventing insects
by using net. The trainings were aim to change farmer’s awareness of convert farming system. The
techniques were explained with pamphlets and demonstration by local facilitators. At end of the
training, questionnaire survey were conducted in order to know the understanding of participants.
Totally 928 people participated in trainings and 95% of them answered questionnaire surveys. The
main questions of the survey were focused on 1) understanding of trainings, 2) current situation ofusing agro-chemicals, and 3) perception on sustainable agriculture based on natural resource
circulation. Further explanations and monitoring were conducted regularly in the process ofextension activities from April 2011 to October 2012.

Fig. 2 Explanation about composting at workshop (left) anddemonstration of making bio-pesticide (right)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Extension approaches at Samroung commune
Effective extension approaches for converting sustainable farming system can be studied bycomparing references, farmer’s technical implementation, result of field investigation andquestionnaire surveys.
Neils Roling, et al. (1994) stated that changing to more sustainable practices is more like aparadigm shift, involving a learning path leading to new perspectives on risk avoidance, newprofessionalism, a greater reliance on one’s own expertise and observation.
For promoting paradigm shift of local farmers and so on, extension seems to be an effective
way because it is activities related to technology transfer, attitude change and others. The
Australasia Pacific Extension Network (1999) stated that extension involves “the use ofcommunication and adult education processes to help people and communities identify potential
improvements to their practices, and then provides them with the skills and resources to effect these
improvements”. According to Neils Roling and Elske van de Fliert (1994), effective extension
seems to be based on checks and balances that match intervention power with farmer's
countervailing power, and mobilize farmer's creativity and participation in technology development
and exchange. They also stated paradigm shift involved seems easier when participatory and group
approaches is applied and when learning is experiential and occurs together with other farmers. A.
W. Black (2000) explained about 4 extension strategies such as 1) linear top-down transfer of© ISERD
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technology, 2) participatory bottom-up approaches (also termed group empowerment), 3) one-toone advice or information exchange, and 4) formal or structured education and training.
Although A. W. Black (2000) also mentioned participatory and group-based approaches toagricultural extension have various advantages when they are well implemented, he also mentionedthat it should not be regarded as the one and only strategy that can or should be used to facilitate
the adoption of sustainable farming system. He also mentions one-to-one exchange of information
and advice, where from farmer to farmer or from professional adviser to farmer, will continue to beimportant. In addition, importance of learning activities that are directly relevant to the farm andthat require relatively short blocks of time – from a few hours to a few days (Johnson et al. 1996).
In Samroung commune, techniques for sustainable agriculture based on natural resource,
circulation were extended by mixing three extension strategies. There are 1) participatory andgroup approaches which is included in participatory bottom-up approaches, 2) training, and 3) oneto-one exchange of information and advice. In technical trainings, 10 to 60 farmers participate inand learn new techniques through explanation and demonstration. There are not only farmers andlocal facilitators but also officer of provincial department of agriculture participate in the training.
For demonstration on technical training of composting, participants visit farmers who already startand apply compost. Visited farmer not only show their compost box but also give answers of thequestions to participants. For technical training of making bio-pesticide, local facilitator asks aparticipant to conduct demonstration with their explanation in front of other participants. Thesedemonstrations make participants to understand clearly than just learnt from pamphlet andexplanation. From result of questionnaire survey after trainings, many participants answered they
could understand the contents well and hope to join in the training again.
In the extension process, there are not only technical trainings but also individual visiting andexplanation was implemented. Few months after technical training, local facilitators visit farmer’shouse individually in order to check technique of implementation. They also provide additional
explanation if visited farmers have questions or local facilitators observe visited farmers has any
problem on their implementation.
Creativity of some farmers is also mobilized by this extension process. For example, some
farmers apply bio-fertilizer into their compost in order to make better quality of compost. For othercase, farmers establish compost box near bio-gas facility in order to use waste of bio-gas asmaterial for compost.
However, not only extension approaches but also participation of farmers is important forcontinuing sustainable farming system. So, it was considered that conversion of farmer's
participation level is needed to be studied in order to understand awareness of farmers properly.
Besides, sustainability of technical implementation also needed to be studied.
Current situation of Samroung commune
Awareness of conversion from conventional farming system to sustainable farming system can beobserved from answers of baseline survey and questionnaire surveys. Local facilitators visit
farmers individually for baseline survey but farmers fulfill answers to questionnaire sheet bythemselves for 2 kinds of questionnaire surveys about composting and making bio-pesticide.
On 2011, nearly half of the farmers answered that insects and diseases are the main problems
on agricultural activities (Table 1). For preventing pest, applying chemical pesticide (72.77%) andpulling up by hand (20.94%) were the major methods.
Table 1 Problems of agriculture
Problems
Insects and diseases
High expense for chemical fertilizer and pesticide
Lack of technique and tools
Degradation of soil
Impact to human health and environment
Source: Questionnaire surveys in 2011, ERECON© ISERD
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Answer
187
73
59
52
27

Percent (%)
46.98
18.34
14.82
13.07
6.79

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All of respondents apply fertilizer and almost all of them apply pesticide such as herbicide(40.22%), insecticide (57.22%) and fungicide (1.75%). 84.94% of farmers expend less than 40
USD for pesticide but 60.48% of farmers expend more than 201 USD annually. It seems that
farmers apply agro-chemicals for preventing insects and disease.

Percentage of answers

50%
40%
30%
20%

Chemical fertilizer

10%

Chemical pesticide0%

Percentage of desire for reducting the amount of agro-chemicals used

Fig. 3 Desired reduction rate of agro-chemical using amount
However, almost all of farmers hope to reduce using amount of chemical fertilizer andpesticide. In addition, almost all of farmers hope to reduce more than 40% of using amount ofchemical fertilizer and pesticide (Fig. 3). For both of fertilizer and pesticide, main reasons fordesiring reduction are health and better quality of products.
Farmers’ perception for converting farming system to sustainable farming system
Through workshops about composting, 97.59% of the farmers desire to continue composting. As
same as conclusion of Tim, et al. (2011), the compost technology was highly accepted by local
farmers. Their main objectives are increasing soil fertility and avoiding negative impact for humanhealth. After technical training, local farmers apply compost on rice and vegetables.
Farmers also show a high interest for making bio-pesticide even 88.18% of the farmers does
not have experience for making it before participating in the training. It is because the farmers
think bio-pesticide has less negative impact to human health and environment (52.70%) (Table 2).
Tim, et al. (2011) also stated that local farmers found bio-pesticide is really good for farmer's
health, food safety and environment. It is applied for rice and vegetables such as tomato andcabbage after technical training.
From point of view of local farmers, they mentioned compost and bio-pesticide has positive
impact on their cultivation. But they also need to share more time for taking care of crops undersustainable farming system.
When the baseline survey was conducted, 76.52% of the farmers did not know whatsustainable agriculture was. But 94.58% of them hope to grow and sell products with low chemical
input because they think sustainable agriculture lead to positive impacts such as soil fertility,
decreasing amount of agro-chemicals.
Table 2 Reasons of interest in bio-pesticide
ReasonLess harm to human and environment
Make soil fertile
Decrease expense for pesticide
Other
Source: Questionnaire surveys in 2011, ERECON

Answer
156
73
61
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Percent (%)
52.70
24.66
20.61
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CONCLUSION
According to the results and discussions done in this study, it can be concluded that extension
approaches which is applied in Samroung commune was effective in order to change farmer’sawareness to convert farming system because local farmers in Samroung Commune has a highpotential to conduct sustainable farming system and start implementation of techniques. In addition,
possibility of reducing the amount of agro-chemicals used was also observed.
Mixing extension strategies seems to work effectively in Samroung commune. As same asreferences, paradigm shift of farmers seems to happen by extend techniques through grouptrainings and demonstration. Not only paradigm shift but also creativity of farmer's is also
mobilized by the extension process.
In current situation, farmers face problems like pests, diseases and soil degradation. For
overcoming these problems, they apply agro-chemicals and lead to negative impacts to humanhealth, soil fertility, finance, etc. Although almost all of the farmer's apply agro-chemicals for theirfarmland when the baseline survey was conducted, possibility of reducing agro-chemical wasobserved as a result of the study. It was also exposed that almost all of the farmer's hope to reduce
more than 40% of agro-chemicals amount use. They are also eager to grow and sell products withlow chemical input at the market. Through technical trainings, farmers became highly interested inapplying and continuing techniques for sustainable agriculture based on natural resource circulationsuch as composting and making bio-pesticide. It is because that they think these techniques have
many advantages such as less harm to human health and improving soil fertility.
By this study, it was showed that the farmers at Samroung commune have motivation andpotential for converting from conventional farming system to sustainable farming system. However,
not only effective extension approaches but also participation of farmers is important forcontinuing sustainable farming system. So, it was considered that the conversion of farmer's
participation level is needed to be studied in order to understand awareness of farmer's properly.
Besides, sustainability of technical implementation also needed to be studied.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors would like to express appreciation to the Institute of Environment Rehabilitation andConservation (ERECON) and related organizations.
REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank. 2011. Key indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2011. (www.adb.org/statistics.)
Athanasios, T. et al. 2012. Sustainable farming systems vs conventional agriculture: A socioeconomic
Approach. In Tech., 249-272.
Bass, S., Dalal-Claton, B. and Pretty, J. 1995. Participation in strategies for sustainable development.
Environment planning group of International Institute for Environment and Development, London.
Black, A.W. 2000. Extension theory and practice a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture,40, 493-502.
ERECON. 2012. Annual report 2011 of program on promoting sustainable agriculture at Kampong Champrovince in Cambodia. Consortium of Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation andTokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
Mihara, M. and Fujimoto, A. 2000. Sustainable farming practices for environmental conservation. Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan, 1-9.
Roling N. and Fliert, E. 1994. Transforming extension for sustainable agriculture: the case of integrated pest
management in rice in Indonesia. The White Horse Press, 3, 96-108, UK.
Royal Government of Cambodia, 2002. Integrated pest management farmer training project Cambodia. Royal
Government of Cambodia. Cambodia. 1-7.
Tim, S., Ngo, B., Siriwattananon, L. and Mihara, M. 2011. Local acceptability on organic farming in
Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development,
2(2), 89-94.

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Research article
erd

Effects of Adding Bacillus sp. on Crop Residue Compostingand Enhancing Compost Quality
LIEXIANG LI
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

YUTA ISHIKAWA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 21 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Local farmers tend to burn crop residues to simplify soil preparation for thefollowing season cultivation. Along with the environmental conservation policies thatwere implemented by the government, local farmers began to consider the adverse effectsof crop residue burning. In this regard, efficient utilization of organic resources throughcomposting of crop residues has been practiced. The objectives of this study were to findout the effects of adding Bacillus sp. on composting of crop residues and to observe theeffects of Bacillus sp. added crop residues on plant growth. The number of Bacillus sp.
colonies existing in crop residue and soil were determined by agar culture medium.
Composting was carried out based on the number of Bacillus Bacterial colonies (cfu):
1.5×1014, 1.5×1016 or 1.5×1018 cfu. Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio and number of Bacillus
Bacteria were measured once a week. To observe the effects of Bacillus sp. added
compost on plant growth, pots were prepared as control pots; crop residue pots; Bacillus sp.
added crop residue pots; and burned crop residue pots. Komatsuna (Brassica rapa) were
cultivated. Based on the experimental results, it was found that compost with higher
number of Bacillus sp. have significant decrease of C/N ratio with time. Also, it was foundthat the mass of the crops in the pots added with Bacillus sp. (average 1.4 g) was larger
than that control pots (0.5 g). Therefore, adding of Bacillus sp. can promote decompositionof crop residues and enhance the quality of compost.
Keywords Bacillus sp. growth, C/N ratio, crop residues compost

INTRODUCTION
Burning of crop residues influenced the degradation of soil ecosystem and its quality (Srimuang etal., 2004). Therefore, treating of crop residues such as composting, for bio-fertilizer on crop isstrongly recommended (Li et al., 2012). Compost, a kind of organic fertilizer made from crop
residues, is an effective material for improving physical and chemical properties of soil. The
important factors to enhance decomposition are moisture, air and microorganisms. (Mihara et al.,2009). At rural areas, manure has become the source of microorganisms for compost. But withincrement in the rural development, family livestock industry has reduced. Therefore, crop residue
compost by manure is difficult to be sustained in the rural areas. Although there were many reportson the effect of adding organic matter on the crop residue composting, few studies have added
Bacillus sp. on decomposition. Therefore this study has been proposed. The objectives of this study
are 1) to find out the effects of adding Bacillus sp. on composting of crop residues and 2) toobserve the effects of Bacillus sp. added crop residues on plant growth.

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METHODOLOGYTo extract from corn residue, Bacillus Bacterial was cultured for 3 days in the incubator. This is
the Bacillus sp. in liquid used for the experiment. The number of Bacillus sp. colonies existing wasdetermined by agar culture medium. The concentration of Bacillus sp. liquid was 6×1015 cfu/ml(colony-forming units per milliliter). Dilution of the Bacillus sp. liquid was made in different
concentrations of 6×1011 cfu/ml, 6×1013 cfu/ml, 6×1015 cfu/ml with crop residue compost (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Bacillus sp. liquid made by corn residue
The different concentrations of Bacillus sp. at 250 ml was added to the finely cut dry corn
residues at 50 g in a tray (L186 mm, W147 mm, and H47 mm). The different concentrations
sprinkled were control tray (no cfu added), 1.5×1014 cfu added tray (same cfu of 50 g residues),
1.5×1016 cfu added tray (100 times more than cfu of 50 g residues) and 1.5×1018 cfu added tray
(10000 times more than cfu of 50 g residues) at tray (Table 1). Period of composting was from
August 3rd to August 31st, temperature of the experiment was about 25 degrees Celsius to 37
degrees Celsius in Tokyo (Japan). 50 ml of water was sprinkled once every 3 days, and samples
were stirred after that (Fig. 2). The experiment data was collected once a week. Samples ofdifferent concentrations were subjected to carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio analysis, to understandthe effects of adding Bacillus sp. on crop residue composting processes. Following that, the numberof Bacillus Bacteria was measured after water was sprinkled.
Table 1 Number of Bacillus Bacterial cfu at corn residues and Bacillus sp. liquidCorn residues
3 ×1012 cfu/g
1.5×1014 cfu/50g

Bacillus sp. liquid I
6 ×1011 cfu/ml
1.5×1014 cfu/250ml

Bacillus sp. liquid II
6 ×1013 cfu/ml
1.5×1016 cfu/250ml

Bacillus sp. liquid III
6 ×1015 cfu/ml
1.5×1018 cfu/250ml

Fig. 2 Crop residue compost in laboratory of Japan
Meanwhile, in the growth experiment; 20 pots were prepared (unit area is 1/10000 a, and aheight of 150 mm), and was divided into four experimental pots. In control pots, 900 g of soil was
put into 5 pots. In residue added pots, 900 g of soil and 12.2 g dry corn residue was put into 5 pots.
In Bacillus sp. added pots, 900 g of soil, 12.2 g dry corn residue and 61 ml Bacillus sp. liquid(6×1015 cfu/ml) was put into 5 pots. In ash of residues added pots, 900 g of soil and ash of 12.2 g
dry corn residue was put into 5 pots. Kamatsuna (Brassica rapa) were cultivated (Fig. 3). The© ISERD
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growing period was from August 10th 2012 to September 7th 2012, temperature during theexperiment was about 25 degrees Celsius to 37 degrees Celsius in Tokyo (Japan); 100 ml of water
was sprinkled once every 3 days; and length of growth was obtained after the water was sprinkled.
And at the final experiment, weight of growth was measured in laboratory.

Fig. 3 Crop growth in laboratory
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the crop residue composting of sprinkled Bacillus sp. experiment with 1.5×1018 cfu added tray
crop residue, it presented decomposition closer to compost maturity over the others concentrationsof Bacillus sp. liquid added tray. The carbon-to-nitrogen data showed that 1.5×1018 cfu added tray
has a tendency to decrease throughout all of the experiment; meanwhile the other tray showed
increment at 3 weeks times followed with continuous decrease pattern (Fig. 4). Initially, rise in the
carbon-to-nitrogen ratio were observed due to the growth of the added microorganisms and theirconsumption of nitrogen. After that, in order to decompose organic matter, microorganisms absorb
from raw material. Once the decomposition process started the microorganisms populations
continually increase to the maximum population level. Having reached maximum population, theC/N ratio decreases to the conversion with the normal composting line where there is no moredecomposition (Nishio, 2009) is possible.

control (no cfu added), 1.5 ×1014 cfu added (same cfu of 50 g corn residues added), 1.5 ×10 16 cfu added (100 times morethan cfu of 50 g corn residues added), 1.5 ×1018 cfu added (10,000 times more than cfu of 50 g corn residues added)

Fig. 4 Changes in carbon-to-nitrogen with difference concentration of Bacillus sp. added
In finished crop residue compost, the number of Bacillus Bacterial colonies returned to thesame number of that preceding the addition of Bacillus sp (Fig. 5). Therefore, the added Bacillus sp.
was used as a nutrient during the composting experiment.
Besides that, in this experiment, the effect of Bacillus sp. added into crops can be observed bycomparing the height of crop growth. It was found that crops grown in pots added with Bacillus sp.
have grown 2.8 times higher (1.4 cm) than that of control pots (0.5 cm). A significant difference at© ISERD
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99% was also observed. Although the crop grown in pots added with Bacillus sp. is higher thanresidue pots and ash of residue pots, there is no significant difference observed by the method ofdispersion ratio (Fig. 6). The experiment result shows the crop grown with residue grows muchbetter than the crop grows without residues because the residue is rich in nutrients (Zhong et. al2003).

control (no cfu added), 1.5 ×1014 cfu added (same cfu of 50 g corn residues added), 1.5 ×10 16 cfu added (100 times morethan cfu of 50 g corn residues added), 1.5 ×1018 cfu added (10,000 times more than cfu of 50 g corn residues added)

Fig. 5 Change in quantity of Bacillus sp. before and after the experimentcontrol (only put soil in pots), residue (put residues and soil in pots), bacillus sp. and residue (put bacillus sp., residues
and soil in pots), ash of residue( put ash and soil in pots)

Fig. 6 Height of crop in growth experiment
The effect of Bacillus sp. added compost into crops can be observed by comparing the weightof crop growth. It was found out that crop grown in Bacillus sp. added into pots have 2.5 times
higher (1.5 g) than control sample (0.6 g). Furthermore, the crop grown in Bacillus sp. was 1.9
times heavier than crop grown in ash of residue in Fig.7. A confidence interval at 99% was also
observed. Moreover, the order of experiment results which is more environmental friendly way togrow the crop is: adding Bacillus sp. > adding residue > adding ash of residue > control. Therefore,
based on the result of the experiment, mixing Bacillus sp. liquid with mulching crop residues is thebest way to improve crop growth compared to burning crop residues in the farmland.

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control (only put soil in pots), residue (put residues and soil in pots), bacillus sp. and residue(put bacillus sp., residues and soil in pots), ash of residue( put ash and soil in pots)

Fig. 7 Weight of crop in growth experiment
CONCLUSION
Crop residue composting of sprinkled Bacillus sp. experiment found that in the 1.5×1018 cfu added
tray crop residue decomposition was closer to compost maturity than the others concentration of
Bacillus sp. liquid added tray. Within the experiment, the added Bacillus sp. pots showed better
length and weight of crop growth compared to other pots. Therefore, adding Bacillus sp. to crop
residue compost is recommended. Plus, adding Bacillus sp. has positive influence to crop growth.
This experiment was carried out during summer season in Tokyo (Japan). Temperature has asignificant impact with crop residue composting. Therefore, location and temperature are two
important factors to be taken into consideration in this study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the support made by members of Lab. of Land and Water Use
Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
REFERENCES
Srimuang, R., Mihara, M. and Komamura, M. 2004. Burning effects on soil and water environment in Lower
watersheds of Nan River, Thailand. Journal of Arid Land Studies, 14 (S), 21-24.
Shi, L., Zhao, Y. and Chai, L. 2005. Comprehensive utilization techniques progress of crop straws in China.
China Biogas, 23 (2), 11-14.
Song, J. 1995. The investigation and research on the straw resources in Zhejiang province. Soil andFertilizers, 2, 23-26.
Li L., Ishikawa Y. and Mihara M. 2012. Effects of burning crop residues on soil quality in Wenshui, Shanxi
of China. International Journal of Environmental and Rual Development, 3 (1), 30-36.
Mihara M. and Fujimoto A. 2009. Sustainable farming practices for environmental conservation. Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan. 10-14.
Nishio M. 2007. Fundamental knowledge of organic fertilizer and compost. Rural Culture Association, 18-37.
Zhong, H., Yue, Y. and Fan, J. 2003. Characteristics of crop straw resources in China and its utilization.
Resources Science, 25 (4), 62-67.

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Research article
erd

Local Livelihoods and the Tourism Value Chain:
A Case Study in Siem Reap-Angkor Region, Cambodia
NARA MAO*
Centre for Tourism and Services Research, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
Email: naramao@yahoo.com, nara.mao@live.vu.edu.au

TERRY DELACY
Centre for Tourism and Services Research, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia

HELENA GRUNFELD
Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Tourism, which has grown significantly in the Siem Reap-Angkor region, has
had significant impacts on the livelihoods of local residents. This paper presents an
overview of the Tourism Value Chain (TVC) in the region and examines the involvementof local residents in local TVC components. A qualitative approach, incorporating
observations and semi-structured interviews with 25 local residents, was applied in thisstudy. Secondary data were collected from the Siem Reap provincial tourism department
and the Cambodian Ministry of Tourism. The results revealed that, although tourism has
provided jobs and business opportunities to locals, their earnings have been consistently
low. It is difficult for the poor to access tourism jobs and start tourism related businesses
because of lack of financial resources, lack of small business knowledge, inability to use
foreign languages and low education levels. Lack of knowledge to diversify products, of
information about market needs and of capital to purchase production tools, machineryand raw materials are the main constraints facing local artisans to improve theirlivelihoods. Poor soil fertility, small agricultural landholdings, low agricultural
technological know-how, poor extension services, inability to compete with imported
products and limited connections between the tourism sector and local peasants also
prevent the poor farmers from gaining economic benefits from tourism.
Keywords livelihoods, constraints, tourism value chain, agriculture.

INTRODUCTION
Tourism is considered by many to be an effective tool to accelerate economic growth, to preserve
natural resources and local cultures and assist in alleviating poverty in least developed countries.
Cambodia has become one of the fastest-growing tourism destinations in South-East Asia, owing to
its rich diversity of culture, historical sites, recreational activities and natural attractions. In 2011,2.88 million international tourists visited Cambodia, an increase of 15.9% compared to 2010
(Cambodian Ministry of Tourism 2012). Tourism has contributed significantly to the goals of
promoting national economic growth. The macroeconomic benefits of tourism include employment,
GDP growth, foreign exchange earnings and investment. The Royal Government of Cambodia has
adopted tourism as a strategy for poverty reduction on the basis that it is one of the Cambodia's
main opportunities for rebuilding its economy. The number of tourists has increased dramaticallysince 1994 and the Cambodian Ministry of Tourism has recently adopted a more conscious policyof promoting sustainable and equitable tourism as a means to national poverty reduction (CMT,2012). The government expects the number of international tourists to increase, contributing totourism-related revenues and providing more jobs for the Cambodian people (CMT, 2012).
However, in spite of the potential for tourism to benefit local people, there is much economic
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Development Program (Beresford et al., 2004). It has also been suggested that tourism
development in Siem Reap has failed to develop local economic linkages (Beresford et al., 2004).
A World Bank study (2006, p.2) acknowledges that "tourism, driven primarily by Angkor, has beena major contributor to economic growth in Cambodia over the last decade.” However, this study
also notes that “…the impact of tourism on poverty has yet to reach its potential." As a result, theSiem Reap Province, despite being a major tourist destination, is still one of the poorest provincesin the country (Beresford et al., 2004; World Bank, 2006; Cambodian Ministry of Planning, 2010;
Siem Reap Provincial Department of Planning, 2012).
Furthermore, tourism has produced both positive and negative effects on local residents. It has
resulted in dramatic changes to their livelihoods. As more tourists arrive, increasingly local
residents have begun selling off their land and giving up their farms in exchange for off-farm jobs
in tourism. Although there are some indications of linkages between tourism and poor people, few
in-depth studies have been conducted to examine the complexity of these interrelationships(Gössling, 2004). One reason for this could be that while a livelihood perspective focuses on poor
households, tourism research tends to place more emphasis on broader economic andenvironmental impacts. Drawing on Cattarinich’s (2001) suggestion that micro-level analysis of
tourism impacts and related interactions with the livelihood of local residents should complement
the focus on macro-level impacts, this paper presents an overview of the tourism value chain(TVC) in the Siem Reap-Angkor region and examines the involvement of local people in each
TVC component. A TVC is “the full range of activities that are required to bring a tourist to a
destination and provide all the necessary services such as accommodation, catering, retail,excursions, etc.” (Mitchell, 2009, p.1).
RESEARCH METHOD
The research conducted for this paper forms part of a wider study on the role of tourism for poverty
reduction. The main study includes face-to-face interviews and surveys with a range of tourism
operators, tourism employees, local residents, other tourism stakeholders and international tourists
as well as observations. Data for this paper were derived from interviews with 20 local residents,
directly involved the TVC and five other key informants. Non-probability sampling was employed
to select research participants. While the key informants were selected by using purposive sampling,
those involved in tourism and related tourism businesses were drawn through convenience/accidental sampling. Although this technique is “the least desirable” as it is “neither purposefulnor strategic” (Patton, 2002, p.242), it is often used because “it enables quick collection of data
without the expense of a more systematic selection process” (Jennings 2010, p.139). This samplingtechnique is appropriate for this study because there is no sampling frame (list of local residents
involved in the TVC). The study used both primary and secondary data.
RESULTS
Although the TVC starts from booking the tour, this study, which investigates the contribution of
tourism to local livelihoods, is concerned with the actual trip to Cambodia only if this is packaged
with local services, thereby affecting the ability of small operators to provide services. Therefore,
only six employment components of the TVC are explored in this paper: local transportation,accommodation, food and beverages, handicraft and souvenir production, tourism sites and leisureactivities.
Transportation
Transportation is a popular means of earning a living for local people. A taxi association,
consisting of 94 motorbike taxi members and 231 car and van members (but excluding Tuk Tuks,
as these were not in use in Siem Reap when the association was created) has a license to operatetransport services from the airport to the city. Car taxi and van drivers earn USD 7-10 for© ISERD
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transporting customers from the airport to hotels and USD 30-35 for a whole day trip to the Angkor
complex. In addition to the association membership fee (USD 9/month/car taxi driver and USD
3.75/month/motorbike taxi driver), the members have to contribute to the fee the airport ownercharges the association (USD 3,500/month during the tourist high season and USD 3,148/month
during the low season). There are also individual independent operators, not members of thisassociation.
Motorbike taxis, which transport only one passenger, operate mainly in the city of Siem Reap
and in some rural villages. Operators earn between USD 7-8 per day and most of their clients are
locals and domestic tourists. They can earn USD 2 for transporting a tourist from the airport to a
hotel and USD10 for a whole day trip to the Angkor complex. Although this type of transport isone of the main income sources of the poor (most operators are low income earners), inadequate
foreign language capacity is a key constraint preventing them from accessing foreign visitors.
Tuk Tuks can carry four passengers and are popular among tourists. The number of Tuk Tuks
has also increased significantly with the increase in tourism. Mainly operated by locals andimmigrants from other provinces, poor families cannot afford to buy them. A brand new Tuk Tuk
costs approximately USD 1,700 and a second hand one USD 1,000 - 1,300. A Tuk Tuk driver canearn USD 1 for a short trip in the downtown, USD 3-4 from Siem Reap airport to a
hotel/guesthouse and USD10-15 for a whole day trip in the Angkor complex. However, if a trip ismanaged by a tour operator, a driver gets only USD 8-10 and it takes a few weeks to get paid. Inorder to get more clients, a driver must have good relationships with guesthouse owners, hotel staff
and tour operators and also have a minimum level of foreign language skills to communicate with
tourists. Another constraint excluding some poor local people from this livelihood source is thatthey live too far away from popular tourist places, particularly in the context of the road conditions(unpaved with many potholes). Some drivers have to work without pay, relying on receiving tips.
Although most drivers are from poor backgrounds, not many poor local residents living in the
periphery of the Angkor complex can access this potential job opportunity.
A former Tuk Tuk operator who became a motorbike taxi driver revealed that he sometimes
had to drive the vehicle to the city, waiting unsuccessfully for customers for a whole day, wastingtime as well as money for gasoline. For this reason he had to change his job.
A car taxi driver hired by a tour operator earns only USD 18-20 for a daytrip in the Angkor
complex. A former car taxi driver who ran this business for more than 10 years revealed that some
operators gave up this type of business because what they earned could not cover the price ofgasoline, vehicle maintenance, and depreciation.
The bus stations are located four kilometers from downtown. Although motor taxi and Tuk
Tuk operators could benefit from these stations, some hotels and bus companies provide free vanservices, excluding small operators from this opportunity.
Accommodation
In response to the rapid growth of tourism development, the number of hotels, guesthouses andapartments has increased significantly. According to the Siem Reap tourism department, there were
138 hotels (10,407 rooms), 230 guesthouses (3,207 rooms) and 8 apartment buildings (197 units) in2012. This sector employs approximately 10,000 people, of which 8,372 (2,812 females) work inhotels and apartments and 1,184 (724 females) in guesthouses.
While most hotels are owned by outsiders, most guesthouses are owned by local people whohave financial capital to invest. Most guesthouses are operated by owners who need only a few
staff, mainly cleaners. Moreover, even though working in hotels is better-paid compared toguesthouses, most jobs require young people who have completed high school or university, that is,with a sufficient educational level and language ability to be able to communicate with customers.
The salary of a hotel section manager is about USD 200-300 per month; that of a hotel receptionist
USD 100-200; a guard USD 50-80; and gardeners and cleaners USD 40-60. Based on interviews
with village chiefs, only a few poor households have members working in hotels.
However, the increased demand for tourist accommodation and other tourist venues has
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people, especially poor villagers within the 15-40 age group. Although construction work is very
hard labor, an unskilled worker earns on average only USD 7/day (men) and USD 5/day (women).
Food and beverages
This sector has grown significantly in response to the increasing number of tourists. There are twocategories in this value chain unit: restaurants and roadside vendors. According to the Siem Reap
tourism department, the number of registered licensed restaurants has increased from 17 in 1999 to
155 (2,926 tables and 9,160 seats) in 2012. This sector offered jobs to 2,290 (1,378 females) in2012. The average monthly wage in this sector is approximately USD 50. The wages of restaurant
managers range from USD 200-400. Most large restaurants are operated by foreign investors, andmost restaurants in the Old Market are owned and operated by individual foreigners. Only a few
locals own and operate restaurants that attract foreign tourists, whereas most locally owned
restaurants are frequented by Cambodians.
There are also many self-employed roadside vendors who sell a diverse range of food,including traditional Cambodian foods, from bicycles, carts, stalls or tents. Some of the fruits theysell are imported from neighboring countries. The average daily earnings of vendors areapproximately USD 5. Some roadside vendors employ people from poor backgrounds forapproximately USD 2 per day.
Although local peasants are able to supply small quantities of products to this sector, mostvegetables and meat consumed in hotels are imported. Similar to several other tourism destinations
in developing countries, the constraints preventing local peasants from supplying agricultural
products into this value chain are: small land holdings, poor soil fertility, low agricultural
technological know-how, poor extension services, lack of market information, pests and diseases,lack of financial capital and high costs of inputs mainly fertilizers and pesticides. Inability tocompete with imported products, price fluctuations and inadequate connections between the
tourism sector and local peasants prevent the poor peasants from gaining economic benefits fromtourism.
The Cambodian prime minister recognizes that there is economic leakage in the tourism
industry, due to insufficient supply of local agriculture products to hotels and restaurants. Insteadlarge quantities of agricultural goods from neighboring countries are imported to meet the demand
from tourists. He claims that USD 400 million of the USD 2 billion Cambodian tourism income in2012 has flowed out of Cambodia, to pay for agricultural imports (Raksmei Kampuchea Daily
Newspaper 12/12/2012).
Handicraft and souvenirs
In Siem Reap, there are many workshops which produce handicraft products for souvenir shops,
market stalls, hotels and restaurants. They are operated by NGOs, foreign and locally owned
private companies. The monthly salaries of staff in managerial positions range from USD 200-500.
The average monthly wage of an experienced sculptor is approximately USD 150, with a lessexperienced sculptor earning about USD 60. There are also many handicraft and souvenir outlets(shops or stalls) managed by locals in the downtown, especially in the main markets: the Old
Market, Central Market, and a few night markets. Most stalls are managed by family members,
while some shops offer jobs for those who are from poor backgrounds, enabling them to earnmonthly wages ranging from USD 30-50. According to the Siem Reap tourism department, there
are approximately 6,400 people involved in the handicraft and souvenir value chain.
Handicraft and souvenir production has also become one of the main livelihoods and the mainincome source of some villagers living in proximity of the Angkor complex. Self-employment inthis value chain unit has developed quickly in villages where handicraft production is a traditional
livelihood. Some villagers have their own workshops at home, producing souvenirs made fromvarious materials, including stone, wood, bamboo, palm leaves and trees, rattan, leather, copper,and silk.

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Many villagers, from young to old, poor to better-off, of both genders, are involved in thisvalue chain unit. While men typically make the products, it is the women and children who sellthem. There are some roadside shops run by local residents in front of main ancient temples andalong the roads to other tourist sites. Small souvenir/handicraft stands have sprung up at temple
entrances and inside temple grounds. Several village children are involved in selling these, mainly
after school hours. This kind of selling activity annoys many tourists, but souvenir vendors
revealed that they have no alternatives.
Although this value chain unit has economic potential for local residents, especially those who
are from poor backgrounds, only a small percentage of the handicraft and souvenir goods sold there
are made in Siem Reap and in other provinces (Posat, Battambang, Kompong Tom) of Cambodia.
About 80 % of goods are imported from other countries, mainly China, Thailand and Vietnam. Thiseconomic leakage phenomenon limits the extent to which locals can obtain economic benefits fromthis sector. As a result, this potential pro poor tourism opportunity is lost. Besides inability tocompete with imported products, lack of financial capital, knowledge to diversify products,
information about market needs, production tools and machinery, raw materials and transportation
vehicles to bring product to market are the main constraints limiting the capacity of local artisans toimprove their livelihoods.
Tourism assets
Natural and cultural tourism assets are managed by public institutions such as APSARA (Authorité
Pour la Protection du Sites et l’Aménagement de la Région d’Angkor), Ministry of Culture andFine Arts, Heritage Police and private companies. Private companies receive licenses from theRoyal Government of Cambodia to collect entrance fees from visitors to the Angkor complex.
Information on the total number of workers and employees working in the tourism asset TVC unit
is not available. The monthly wages of temple, environmental and conservation guards range from
USD 20-50, indicating that they are from poor backgrounds. They tend to reside in villages aroundtemples. The monthly salaries of those employed in administrative and managerial positions range
from USD 100- 200.
The Royal Government of Cambodia has a policy of giving priority to local residents for jobs
as guards and cleaners of heritage and temple sites and as park rangers. One temple guard
respondent revealed that between five to fifteen local residents from each village in the peripheryof the temple complex are given these jobs and that the salary is USD 25-50/month. He explained
that, although this is less than other jobs, the working conditions are easier than other types of
employment and these workers still have time and energy to help family members with other work,
such as handicraft production, souvenir-selling, and farm work.
Leisure activities
In response to tourism growth, the number of leisure activity operators has increased significantly.
According to Siem Reap tourism department, the number of travel agencies and tour operators has
increased from 12 in 1994 to 149 in 2012. The number of registered licensed tour guides has
increased from 95 in 1994 to 3,572 in 2012. The number of registered licensed massage businesses,
Karaoke bars and discotheques in Siem Reap Province is 47, 18, and 6 respectively.
This value chain sector employs approximately 3,000 people, excluding self-employed tourist
guides, of which 796 (611 females) work in Karaoke bars and discotheques, 494 (432 females) inmassage parlors, 577 (231 females) in tour companies and tour agents, 370 in resorts and 450 ingolf clubs.
Tour companies and local tour agents pay higher wages than other tourist-related
establishments. However, these are accessible only to those few with better education (especiallywith foreign language skills) and personal connections. Similar to hotel work, these companies
employ only young, attractive people, who have good foreign-language communication skills,
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USD 250-450/month.
Tourist guide is a popular profession because of high incomes, compared to other tourism
related trades and professions. An individual guide can earn from USD 20-40/day, depending on
foreign language ability, with a premium for languages other than English. In recent years, Spanish,
German and Russian speaking guides have earned more than other guides because only a few cancommunicate in these languages. The increasing number of Vietnamese, Chinese, and Korean
tourists in the last two years has increased the requirement for more guides knowledgeable in theselanguages. For this reason, being a tour guide is the most popular job. Tour guides can also get
extra income, such as tips from generous tourists and commission from restaurants, handicraft andsouvenir shops. In addition to foreign language skills, tourist guides also require high school
certificate. While inadequate education is a main constraint preventing those from poor
backgrounds to access these jobs, another constraint, according to some respondents, is therequirement to pay an “unofficial” fee for a tourist guide license.
However, similar to other units in the local tourism value chain, the monthly average wages of
employees who work in Karaoke bars, massage parlors, discotheques, and golf clubs are about
USD 50. While some are from the villages in this area, the majority of them are from otherprovinces, from poor family backgrounds.
CONCLUSION
Tourism influences livelihoods in the Siem Reap area in several ways and there are complex
interconnections between the poor residents of this region and actors in the various tourism subsectors. Consistent with prior studies in other areas, the poor residents in this area face considerable
barriers to exploit opportunities presented by tourism. Although the number of tourists has
increased significantly recently, the positive impact of tourism on local livelihoods has not been as
significant. Poor families have received only a small portion of the revenue generated by tourism
and more measures should be taken to integrate them into the TVC in ways that can improve theirlivelihoods.
By pointing out the constraints limiting the extent to which poor residents of Siem Reap canbenefit from tourism, this finding can serve to help identify a set of possibilities that could remove
or at least reduce those barriers, thereby contributing to reshaping tourism research towards paying
more attention to improving livelihoods at the micro-level.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Prof. David Chandler and Prof. Peter Sheehan for their supervision andcontribution to this study and the Australian Government, which provided funds to conduct this study.
REFERENCES
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in Cambodia. United Nations Development Programme, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Cambodian Ministry of Planning. 2010. Poverty and Cambodia’s millennium development goals. Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
Cambodian Ministry of Tourism .2012. Cambodian national tourism development strategic plan 2012-2020,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Cattarinich, X. 2001. Pro-poor tourism initiatives in developing countries: analysis of secondary case studies.
(Retrieved 10 April, 2011, from http://www.dfid.gov.uk/R4D/PDF/Outputs/Mis_SPC/R7557-PPT8.pdf)
Chenoweth, J. 2009. Is tourism with a low impact on climate possible? Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism
Themes, 1(3), 274-287.
Gössling, S., Berger, R., Heck, N., Morelle, M. and Schumacher, K. 2004. Tourism and street children in
Antananarivo, Madagascar. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5(2), 131-149.
Jennings, G. 2010. Tourism research. John Wiley & Sons. Milton, Queensland, Australia.

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Mitchell, J. 2009. Value chain analysis and poverty reduction at scale. (retrieved 10 April, 2011, fromhttp://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2675.pdf)
Patton, M.Q. 2002. Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Sage Publications,Thousand Oaks,
California, USA.
Shen, F. 2009. Tourism and the sustainable livelihoods approach: Application within the chinese context.
Ph.D thesis, Lincoln University.
Siem Reap Provincial Department of Planning. 2012. Province profile year 2012 for local development
management, Cambodia.
World Bank. 2006. Cambodia Poverty Assessment: Halving Poverty by 2015? Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
(viewed on 10 March 2007, http://www.worldbank.org)© ISERD
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Research article
erd

The Biochemical Substances in Plants on Salt Affected
Area in Northeast Thailand, Bamnet Narong District,
Chaiyaphum Province, Thailand
NARARAT POODEETIP
Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

KANLAYA KONG-NGERN*
Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: kkanla@kku.ac.th

SAMANG HOMCHUEN
Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

BUPHA TOPARKNGAM
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study was aimed to examine biochemical substances and their relationships
in plants growing on salt affected area. The study took place in a very high salinity in
Bamnetnarong District, Chaiyaphum Province between the rainy season (August 2011)
and the dry season (April 2012). Two groups of plants were analyzed; halophytes and salt
tolerant species. The halophytes consisted of Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus mekongensis,
and Pluchea indica whereas the salt tolerance plant is Combretum quadrangulare. The
results of the biochemical substances analyzes and showed that in the dry season all theplants produced more the contents of proline, hydrogen peroxide, peroxidase activity andmalondiadehyde, and the percentage of electrolyte leakage than in the rainy season.
Additionally, in both two seasons, the plants in the halophyte group produced substancesless than in the salt tolerance plant. The best self-adjustment mechanism was discovered in
A. sarmentosa, which produced a small and stable quantity of substances even though theelectrical conductivity rose up.
Keywords important substances, halophytes, salt-tolerant species, salt affected area

INTRODUCTION
Salt stress leads to a series of morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecule changes thatadversely affect plant growth and productivity. In glycophytes, plant growth and development are
generally limited by salinity. The most of the word’s crop species are glycophytes, and they do not
grow under high soil salinity (Abbaspour, 2012). Salt tolerance is complex genetically andphysiologically. Tolerance often shows the characteristics of a multigenic trait, with quantitative
trait loci (QTLs) associated with tolerance identified in barley, citrus, rice, and tomato and with ion
trans-port under saline conditions in barley, citrus and rice (Flowers, 2004).
When plants are subjected to salt stresses, active oxygen species (AOS) are generated in
response to stress condition. AOS include superoxide (O2-), hydroxyl radicals (OH-), hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) and singlet oxygen (1O2) are metabolic by products of plant cell (Abbaspour,2012). It is already known that these cytotoxic active oxygen species, which are also generated
during metabolic processes in the mitochondria and peroxisomes (Khan and Panda, 2008).
Under stresses, plants possess several antioxidant enzyme systems to protect their cell form
the negative effects of AOS, such as peroxidase (POX), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase(SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), and ascorbate peroxidase (Sevengor et al., 2011). Peroxidases© ISERD
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catalyze the subsequent breakdown of H2O2 water and oxygen Catalase is involved in scavenging
H2O2 generated during the photorespiration and β-oxidative of fatty acids. Super oxide dismutase
can convert O2- to H2O2 and then H2O2 is removed by ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione
reductase in the ascorbate-glutathione cycle. (Lu et al., 2006). Moreover, plants accumulatecompatible osmolytes such as proline, glycine betaine and sugar alcohols, when they are exposed todrought or salinity stress (Yoshiba et al., 1997). Verdoy et al. (2006) considered in higher plant,
proline is synthesized form both glutamic acid and ornithine. Nanjo et al. (1999) reported to manyorganisms, including higher plants, accumulate free proline in response to osmotic stress.
Salt tolerance is a complex phenomenon, but the specific mechanisms of salt tolerance in eachplants species, can grow in high soil salinity in Northeast Thailand is poorly defined. The
detrimental effects of high saline soil salinity on biochemical substances such as the contents ofproline, hydrogen peroxide, peroxidase activity and malondiadehyde, and the percentage ofelectrolyte leakage in both season (rainy and dry season) and their relationship in each plant grown
were determined.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
The study took place in Bamnetnarong District, Chaiyaphum Province between the rainy season(August 2011) and the dry season (April 2012).

Fig. 1 The study area in Bamnetnarong District, Chaiyaphum Province between
the rainy season (August 2011) and the dry season (April 2012)
Plant and soil samples
Plants and soil samples were collected by stratified sampling method between the dry season (April2012) and the rainy season (August 2011). Two groups of dominate plants in the site study such as
the 4 halophytic plants (namely, Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus mekongensis, Pluchea indica) andthe salt tolerance plant (namely, Combretum quadrangulare) were selected.
Soil was sampled form root zone of each plant at width of 20 cm and at the depth of 15 cm
Electrical conductivity (EC) and soil pH were determined in 1:5 (soil to water solution) by using a
conductivity meter and a pH meter, respectively.
Electrolyte leakage (EL) was determined according to the method of Dionisio-Sese and Tobita(1998). The 0.1 g of fresh leaf samples was cut into 5 mm length and placed in test tubes
containing 10 ml of redistilled water. The tubes were incubated in a water bath at 32 °C for 2 h andthe initial electrical conductivity of the medium (EC1). The samples were autoclaved at 121 °C for
20 min to release all the electrolytes and the final electrical conductivity (EC 2) measured. The
percentage of EL was calculated by using the formula: EL (%) = (EC1/EC2) x100
Malondialdehyde (MDA) content was measured according to the method of Stewart andBewley (1980). The 0.1 g of fresh leaf samples was homogenized under ice-cold (liquid nitrogen)was extracted with 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) and centrifuged at 12,000 rpm at 4 °C for 30
min. As much as 1 ml of supernatant was then vortexed with 1 ml of 0.5% (w/v) thiobarbituric acid

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solution containing 20% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid. The mixture was heated at 95°C for 25 min.
The sample was cooled on ice for 10 min and centrifugated at 10,000 x g for 10 min. After
subtracting the non-specific absorbance at 532 and 600 nm, the MDA content was determined by
its extinction coefficient of 155 mM-1cm-1 and the concentration was express as mM g-1 FW.
Proline content was determined according to the procedures of Bates et al. (1973). Leaf
sample 0.1 g was homogenized in 5 ml of 3% (w/v) sulfosalicylic acid and the homogrnate wasfiltrated through Whatman No.2. One ml of the filtrate was pipette laced in a 10 ml test tube andreacted with 1 ml of acid ninhydrin mixture and placed in a water bath at 100 °C for 1 h. The
reaction was stopped on ice bath. The mixture was extracted with 2 ml. of toluene and stirred for 15
sec. The toluene phase containing the chromophores was aspired, warmed to room temperature,and the absorbance was read at 520 nm. The proline content was determined using from a standard
curve and expressed as ug g-1FW.
Hydrogen peroxide content in the leaves was determined according to the methods of Sergiev
et al. (1997). Leaf tissues (0.5 g) were homogenized with 5 ml of 0.1% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid
(TCA) on an ice bath. The homogenate was centrifuged at 12,000 x g for 15 min and 0.5 ml of thesupernatant was transferred to a 15 ml test tube. The supernatant was added with 0.5 ml of 10 mM
potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), 1 ml of 1 M KI. The absorbance of supernatant was measured
at 390 nm. The content of H2O2 was determined using a standard curve and the concentration was
expressed as mole g-1 FW.
Peroxidase enzyme activity was determined using the guaiacol oxidation method (Chance andMaehly, 1955) in a 3 ml reaction mixture containing 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.4), 8 mM
guaiacol, 100-200 l crude extract and 2.75 mM H2O2. The increase in absorbance was recorded at
470 nm within 30s (linear phase) after H2O2 was added. One unit of peroxidase activity was
expressed as A470 min-1 mg protein-1
The protein was extracted by the method of Bradford (1976) using the Bio-Rad assay kit (BioRad Laboratories, USA) with bovine serum albumin (BSA) as standard.
A

B

C

D

Fig. 2 Leaf of dominant plants in Bamnetnarong District, Chaiyaphum Province
Azima sarmentosa (A) Maytenus mekongensis (B), Pluchea indica (C), Combretum quadrangulare (D)RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Electrical conductivity and pH of soil
The EC in the rainy season and the dry season in the halophytes were ranged from 1-22 and 36-147
dS/m respectively, while in salt tolerance plant was ranged from 0.4-3.0 and 28-76 dS/m (Fig.1 AC). During the rainy season the electrical conductivity was lower than in the dry season. In therainy season, the rain will wash off salt of the surface. Soil pH in the rainy season and the dry
season in the halophytes were ranged from 5.35-8.38 and 4.56-8.11, respectively, while in salt
tolerance plant was ranged from 6.00-7.61 and 5.96-6.82 (data not shown).
Effect of soil salinity on electrolyte leakage
The effect of soil salinity on membrane integrity was monitor means of EL test in fresh samples.
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the halophytes in the rainy season and in the dry season was in the range of 11-36% and 24-55%,
respectively, whereas EL of salt tolerance plant (C. quadrangulare) was in the range of 15-24%
and 21-45%, respectively (Fig. 3A-C). In both season, EL increased with increasing soil salinity
level. Similar changes in the level of lipid peroxidation and electrolyte leakage in response to NaCl
stress have been reported by several authors. Dhindsa et al. (1981) reported that there are similarchanges in the level of lipid peroxidation and in electrolyte leakage in tobacco leaves. Lutts et al.
(1996) also found a significant positive correlation between MDA and EL.
Rainy season
Dry season

Fig. 3 The effect of soil salinity on electrolyte leakage in leaves of 4 plants
Azima sarmentosa (A), Maytenus mekongensis (B), Pluchea indica (C), Combretum quadrangulare (D),Vertical bars represent mean + S.E. (n = 5)

Effect of soil salinity on lipid peroxidation
A product of lipid peroxidation in the leaves of 4 plants was assessed as the content of MDA. In therainy season, the content of MDA in the halophytes ranging from 0.3-4 mM/gFWx10-3 and in thesalt tolerance group produced MDA ranging from 1-5 mM/gFWx10-3 is more than in the halophyte
group. The dry season in the salt tolerance group produced MDA more than in the halophyte group.
In the dry season salt tolerance group produced MDA more than the rainy season. Due to the higher
electrical conductivity of the soil affect the oxidation increases as shown in Fig. 4.
These result is support by previous reports such as by Khan and Panda (2006) studied theeffect of NaCl stress (50, 100 and 150 mmol l-1). They found that the salt-tolerant Lunishreeshowed higher MDA than the salt-sensitive Begunbitchi. Indicating a higher rate of MDA in
Begunbitchi due to salt stress MDA with the increase in salt stress.

Fig. 4 The effect of soil salinity on malondialdehyde content (mM gFWx10-3) in leaves of
4 plants
Azima sarmentosa (A), Maytenus mekongensis (B), Pluchea indica (C), Combretum quadrangulare (D),Vertical bars represent mean + S.E. (n = 5)

Effect of soil salinity on proline
Proline is an osmoprotectant that has been show to accumulate in plants in response to salt stress.
Earlier studies form this showed that there is accumulation of proline in 4 plant species. In
concurrence with this (Fig. 5), our results show that in the rainy season, proline content in the
halophyte group and in the salt tolerance group were similar ranging from 1-15 µg g-1 FW.
Whereas, in the dry season, the salt tolerance plant accumulate proline more than in the halophyte
group. The results are in accordance to other findings such as by Lin and Kao (1996) studied theeffect of NaCl stress (0, 50 and 150 mM) on root rice accumulation of proline when theconcentration of the solution increases.

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Fig. 5 The effect of soil salinity on proline content (µg/gFW) in leaves of 4 plants
Azima sarmentosa (A), Maytenus mekongensis (B), Pluchea indica (C), Combretum quadrangulare (D),Vertical bars represent mean + S.E. (n = 5)

Effect of soil salinity on peroxidase enzyme activity
The present results on increase in the peroxidase enzyme activity are shown in Fig. 6. Peroxidase
enzyme activity in the rainy season plants in the halophyte group with peroxidase enzyme activity
ranged from 0.1-1470 min mg g-1 protein. Plants in the salt tolerance group ranged from 0.1-4
470 min mg g-1 protein. In dry season plants in the halophyte group with peroxidase enzyme
activity ranged from 0.1-4 470 min mg g-1 protein and salt tolerance plants ranged from 0.1-4
470 min mg g-1 protein. When plants are under stress to reduce stress by creating antioxidants,
antioxidant enzymes to prevent damage from ROS to the plant cell such as catalase, glutathione
reductase, superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase when compared with the controlledplant.

Fig. 6 The effect of soil salinity on peroxidase enzyme activity (Δ470min mg-1protein) in leavesof 4 plants
Azima sarmentosa (A), Maytenus mekongensis (B), Pluchea indica (C), Combretum quadrangulare (D), Verticalbars represent mean + S.E. (n = 5)

Effect of soil salinity on hydrogen peroxideFig. 7 The effect of soil salinity on hydrogen peroxide content (µmol g-1FW) in leavesof 4 plants
Azima sarmentosa (A), Maytenus mekongensis (B), Pluchea indica (C), Combretum quadrangulare (D), Verticalbars represent mean + S.E. (n = 5)

Many authors has been reported that reactive oxygen species, including superoxide and hydrogen
peroxide, are elevated with increased salinity, due to the imbalance in the production anddestruction of reactive oxygen species (Uchida et al., 2002; Vaidyanathan et al., 2003) Fig. 7 showthat the hydrogen peroxide level was increased with increasing salinity in this similar in 4 plant
species. This result of hydrogen peroxide in the dry season than in the rainy season and halophytes© ISERD
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group increased hydrogen peroxide than the salt tolerant species of soil salinity was increased. This
result supported the previous report of Vaidyanathan et al. (2003), who studied the effect of NaCl
stress (100-300 mM) on two rice cultivars differing in salt tolerance. They found that the salttolerant Pokkali showed higher activity of catalase and lower levels of H2O2 than the salt-sensitive
Pusa Basmati 1.
CONCLUSION
In summary, with increasing soil salinity, all plants showed a remarkable increase in the percentage
of EL, the contents of proline, MDA, hydrogen peroxide, and peroxidase enzyme activity. The
ability of salt tolerance in each plant depend on it's ability to produce biochemical substances, helps
that it can be grow and survive in different soil salinity level. The results showed that A.
sarmentosa is the best one that can be grown on high soil salinity upto 147 dS/m, while the otherplants can grow in soil salinity not over than 102 dS/m. One of the characteristics of thick andglossy leaves of A. sarmentosa can be reduce water loss and maintain water status. In the future A.
sarmentosa may be used to improve saline soil structure and used as a renewable energy such as
wood for firewood.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the research group of Soil Problem in Northeast Thailand, and theresearch group of Integrated Studies on Ecology and Classification of Saline Soils for Sustainable
Agriculture and Environment, Thailand.
REFERENCES
Abbaspour, H. 2012. Effect of salt stress on lipid peroxidation, antioxidative enzymes, and proline
accumulation in pistachio plants. Academic Journals, 6 (3), 526-529.
Bradford, M.M. 1976. A rapid and sensitive method for the quatification of microgram quatities of protein
utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry, 72, 248-254.
Dhindsa, R.S., Plumb-Dhindsa, P. and Thorpe, T.A. 1981. Leaf senescence: correlated with increased levelsof membrane permeability and lipid peroxidation, and decreased levels of superoxide dismutase andcatalase. Journal of Experimental Botany, 32, 93-101.
Flower, T.J. 2004. Improving crop salt tolerance. Experimental Botany, 55, 307-319.
Ishizuka, K. 1987. Thai forestry and forest soil research. Royal Forest Department, Thailand.
Khan, M.H. and Panda, S.K. 2008. Alteration in root lipid peroxidation and antioxidative responses in two
rice cultivars under NaCl-salinity stress. Acta physiol plant, 30, 81-89.
Lin, C.C. and Kao, C.H. 1996. Proline accumulation is associated with inhibition of rice seeding root growthcaused by NaCl. Plant Science, 114, 121-128.
Lu, I.F., Sung, M.S. and Lee, T.M. 2006. Salinity stress and hydrogen peroxide regulation of antioxidant
defense system in Ulva fasciata. Marine Biology, 150, 1-15.
Nanjo, T., Kobayashi, M., Yoshiba, Y., Sanada, Y., Wada, K., Tsukaya, H., Kakubari, Y., Shinozaki, K.Y.
and Shinozaki, K. 1999. Biological function of proline in morphogenesis and osmotolerance revealed in
antisense transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana. The Plant Journal, 18 (2), 185-193.
Sevengor, S., Yasar, F., Kusvuran, S., and Ellialtioglu, S. 2011. The effect of salt stress on growth,chlorophyll content, lipid peroxidation and antioxidative enzymes of pumpkin seedling. African Journalof Agricultural Research, 6(21), 4920-4924.
Verdoy, D., Pena, T., Redondo, F.J., Lucas, M.M. and Pueyo, J.J. 2006. Transgenic Medicago truncatula
plant that accumulate proline display nitrogen-fixing activity with enhanced tolerance to osmotic stress.
Plant, Cell and Environment, 29, 1913-1923.
Yoshiba, Y., Kiyosue, T., Nakashima, K., Shinozaki, K. and Shinozakj, K. 1997. Regulation of levels of
proline as an osmolyte in plant under water stress. Plant Cell Physiology, 38, 1095-1102.

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Research article
erd

Effects of Chitosan and Lotus Extracts as Growth
Promoter in Dendrobium Orchid
PIYAVADEE CHAROENWATTANA*
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email:piyavadeec@yahoo.com

UMNOUI PETPRAPAI
MahidolUniversity, Bangkok, Thailand
Received 14 January 2013

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of chitosan and lotus
extracts to stimulate growth of orchid plantlets in greenhouse conditions. Chitosan was
extracted from prawn shells (Penaeus monodon) with 90% deacetylation (DD) and 8589% purity. The lotus extracts from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera ‘Roseum Plenum’
were used as the sources of antimicrobial agents. The Dendrobium orchid ‘Sureepeach’plantlets were treated with 10,30,50 and 100 mg L-1 chitosan and 1,3 and 5 g L-1 lotus
extracts at 7 day intervals. The combination of 100 mg L-1chitosan and 5 g L-1 lotus
extracts gave the maximum number of leaves and shoots of the plantlets after 10 weeks oftransplanting.
Keywords chitosan, lotus extracts, orchid, growth promoter

INTRODUCTION
Thailand is the world premier producer and exporter of orchids. The Thai orchid industry is wellknown for both cut orchid flowers and the supplier of in vitro plantlets and pre-blooming plants.
Most micro-propagated Dendrobium hybrids are the majority of Thai cut flowers. Key export
markets are in Asia (China, Korea, and Japan), Europe (Italy and the Netherlands), the US andAustralia. In 2011, the quantity of orchid exports was 23,392 tons or equivalent to Baht 2,111
million (Office of Economic Agriculture, 2012). The government's orchid strategy (2011-2016)envisages that Thailand will become the world’s leading orchid exporter, with a target export value
reaching 10,000 million Baht by 2016 (Than Sethakit. 2012). Increased demand for orchids could
lead to an expansion of cultivated areas, especially for large scale production of orchid plantlets. To
triple orchid production, the strategy aims to improve the quality of orchids and diversify theirvarieties. The orchid industry will benefit from the development of more efficient micropropagation techniques, especially Dendrobium orchids.
Chitosan is wildly used in agriculture due to its positive effects on plants growth anddevelopment. Chitosan (poly [b-(14)-2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucopyranose]), a biopolymer
derivative of chitin, is mostly found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and crustaceans (Palpandi, etal., 2009). In Thailand, chitin can be extracted from the abundant prawn and crab shells that are
sustainable and readily available as a natural waste product from the seafood industry. For the cut
flower hybrid orchid, Dendrobium ‘Earsakul’, chitosan of 45 kDa molecular weight and a >90%
degree of deacetylation (DD) applied at a concentration of 1–100 mg/L significantly increases bothquantitatively and qualitatively inflorescence yields (Limpanavech et al., 2008). However, theimpacts of chitosan on in vitro orchids and orchid propagation have been limited. Nge et al. (2006)
found that the size and the origin of the chitosan as well as its concentration affected the number ofDendrobium and Phalaenopsis plantlets regenerated from a protocorm-like body (PLB).
Additionally, the research also found that spraying with chitosan significantly reduced the severityof leaf spot diseases in orchids, promoted plant growth of some orchids, and increased the size andlength of the Dendrobium florets and inflorescences, respectively (Uthairatanakij et al., 2007).

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Moideen et al. (2011) found that the medicinal plant of Nelumbo nucifera (lotus) has a wide
range of medicinal properties. Various techniques using different chemical solutions such as
ethanol, methanol and water were applied to the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera to obtain someextracts for testing using preliminary phytochemical analysis. The antimicrobial susceptibility
studies were conducted against gram (-) bacteria such as E. coli, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumonia andgram (+) bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus. The results show that ethanol extract is antimicrobial.
Li and Xu (2008) tested the anti-microbial of the lotus leaf extracts against five
microorganisms. The most active antimicrobial extract was subjected to spectroscopic analysis.
The result shows that the minimum inhibitory concentrations of the most active extract were 0.625,
1.25, 1.25, 0.625 and 2.5 mg/mL for Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans Y4, Actinomyces
viscosus 19246, Porphyromonas gingivalis 33277, Fusobacterium nucleatum 25586, andActinomyces naeslundii wvl45. Quercetin from lotus leaves was found to have the greatest
antimicrobial activity; this suggests it could be a potential antibacterial agent for periodontitis.
The use of chitosan and lotus leave extracts to stimulate growth and increase disease
resistance is expected to increase orchid production and thus further develop the orchid exportindustry. They will replace chemical fertilizer and pesticide and are environmental friendly.
OBJECTIVE
This research aims to demonstrate that chitosan and lotus extracts can stimulate the growth ofDendrobium orchid plantlets.
METHODOLOGY
Extraction of chitin and chitosan
Chitin and chitosan were produced from prawn shells through demineralization, deproteinizationand deacetylation (Burrows et al., 2007). Shells of prawns (Penaeus monodon) were washed, dried
and then ground into small pieces. Approximately 25 g of prawn shells were demineralized with
100 ml of 1% (v/v) hydrochloric acid (HCl) for 24 h to remove the minerals (mainly calcium
carbonate). To obtain the chitin, the washed and cleaned shells were transferred to 50 ml of 2%(w/v) sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and soaked for 1 hour in order to dissolve proteins and sugars.
Subsequently, the chitin was cleaned and oven dried, resulting in a chitin product that was
subsequently de-acetylated in 100 ml 50% (w/v) sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and boiled at 100°C
for 2 h on a hot plate to obtain chitosan. The 1% (w/v) chitosan solution was obtained from
dissolving 5 g of chitosan in 500 ml of 0.1M acetic acid and stirred continuously at 55°C for 12 h.
The filtrated chitosan solution had the pH of 3.99, 90% deacetylation (DD), and 85-89% purity.
Concentrated chitosan of 10, 30, 50 and 100 mg L-1was obtained from diluted chitosan in 1% acetic
acid.
Lotus extracts
The leaves of Nelumbo nucifera ‘Roseum Plenum’ were air dried for 2-3 days before cutting into
small pieces (2-3 cm.) and ground up. The leaves were coldly extracted using ethanol at room
temperature. 200-gram leaves were filled in a cloth bag and soaked in 3 L of ethanol three times
during one week until no extracts came out. Subsequently, the ethanol was discarded using a rotary
evaporator to get the brown and concentrated crude extracts that were kept in a cold dry place.
Crude extracts were fractioned using the Column Chromatography technique to derive hexane
crude extracts, which were then diluted into 1, 3 and 5 g L-1 concentrations.
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The study also used Dendrobium ‘Sureepeach’ plantlets from Mana orchid farm, Nakornpathom
province. 2 to 4 leave plantlets with well-developed roots were removed from medium culture andwashed thoroughly under running tap water to remove traces of agar. Plantlets were acclimatized inpots for 4 weeks, then transferred to a greenhouse and watered daily with 400 g L-1 of 21-21- 21
fertilizer every week for 10 weeks. The Dendrobium orchid ‘Sureepeach’ plantlets were treatedwith 10, 30, 50 and 100 mg L-1 chitosan and 1, 3 and 5 g L-1 lotus extracts at 7 day intervals.
Data analysis
All experiments were carried out in a completely randomized design with three replications underdaily visual observations to record the number of leaves and shoots over the course of 10 weeks.
Subsequently, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were calculated and compared using
Duncan’s new multiple rang test (DMRT).

a

d

b

c

e

f

Fig. 1 Chitin (b) and chitosan (c) are produced from prawn shells (a) throughdemineralization, deproteinization and deacetylation, ethanol extracts comefrom lotus leaves (d), the crude extracts were fractioned by rotary evaporator(e) to obtain brown crude extracts (f)

A

D

a

b

c

d

Fig. 2 Flowers of Dendrobium ‘Sureepeach’ (a), plantlets were transplanted to pots filled withsmall pieces of coconut husk (b), chitosan and lotus leave extracts (c, d)© ISERD
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study found that the number of leaves after 2 weeks of transplanting was not statisticallydifferent. However, the number of leaves after 4, 8 and 10 weeks of transplanting was significantly
different. The orchid plantlets treated with 100 mg L-1 chitosan in combination with 5g L-1 lotus
extracts gave the maximum number of 8.5 leaves. The control plantlets without the treatment ofchitosan and lotus extracts gave an average number of 5.1 leaves. The new shoots and leaves thatemerged after 8 weeks were strong compared to those without the chitosan and lotus extract
treatment after 10 weeks. The application of 100 mg L-1 chitosan combined with 5g L-1lotus
extracts resulted in the maximum number of leaves on average. The concentrated chitosan used inthis study was higher than in Dendrobium orchid ‘Earsakul’ that was applied to 1-100 mg L-1
chitosan.
Table 1 The effects of chitosan and lotus extracts on the number of Dendrobium ‘Sureepeach’leaves within 10 weeks after transplanting in the greenhouse
Treatment
Number of leaves per pot
ChitosanLotus extracts
Week(mg L-1)(g L-1)
2
4
6
8
0
0
3.0
3.1 a-e
3.2 a
3.9 a-d1
3.6
3.3 a-d
2.2 b-d
2.8 de3
3.3
4.0 a
2.8 ab
4.9 ab5
3.8
2.7 c-e
2.7 ab
2.8 de100
3.4
3.6 a-c
2.8 ab
3.4 c-e1
3.4
3.7 ab
2.8 ab
4.4 a-c3
3.0
3.0 b-e
2.7 ab2.5 e
5
3.2
2.8 b-e
2.2 b-d
4.1 a-d30
0
2.8
2.8 b-e
2.2 b-d
4.1 a-d1
3.2
2.7 c-e
2.1 b-d
3.3 c-e3
3.4
3.4 a-d
2.3 a-c
4.4 a-c5
3.3
4.0 a
2.9 ab
3.5 b-e50
0
3.1
2.9 b-e
2.8 ab
4.5 a-c1
2.7
2.2 e
2.3 a-c
3.6 b-e3
3.4
3.2 a-d
2.6 a-c
3.6 b-e5
2.7
2.6 de
1.4 d
3.7 a-e100
0
3.2
2.8 b-e
1.7 cd
3.4 c-e1
2.7
2.8 b-e
2.6 a-c
4.4 a-c3
3.4
2.7 c-e
2.6 a-c
3.8 a-e5
3.3
3.1 a-e
2.5 a-c
5.0 aF-testNs*****
CV (%)
15.7
15.9
18.9
18.6
Means followed by the same letter in the same column had no significant difference by DMRT*, ** indicatessignificance at 5% and 1% levels of probability, respectively.ns = not significant

a10
5.1 b-f
3.7 ef
6.4 a-d
2.8 f
4.9 b-f
6.3 a-d
3.7 ef
5.6 b-e
4.2 c-f
4.5 c-f
6.6 a-c
4.2 c-f
5.7 b-e
4.9 b-f
4.7 c-f
5.6 b-e
4.0 d-f
6.1 a-e
7.4 ab
8.5 a
**
4.2

b

Fig. 3 Comparison of the effects of chitosan and lotus extracts on plantlet growth
controlled plantlets (a) and plantlets treated with chitosan and lotus extracts after10 weeks (b),Photograph is representative of three such independent replications.

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It increased both the yield and quality of the inflorescence (Limpanavech et al., 2008). The plant
responded differently to various type of chitosan molecule. The lower molecular weight of chitosan
was more effective in inducing and disease resisting than the higher molecular weight of chitosan(Lin et al., 2005).
CONCLUSION
The appropriate concentrations of chitosan and lotus extracts were investigated for their effects on
the growth of Dendrobium orchid plantlets in greenhouse conditions. According to the result
obtained, prawn chitosan has the ability to enhance the survival rate and the growth of the plantlets.
Chitosan of 100 mg L-1 are the most effective. The results indicates that plantlets treated with 100
mg L-1 chitosan and 5 g L-1 lotus extracts yielded the maximum number of leaves and shoots after
10 weeks of transplanting. However, further work is required to evaluate the effects of chitosan andlotus extracts interaction or alone for various stages of plant growth.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Faculty of Agricultural Technology,
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, which provided a research grant from the
University’s extra-budgetary revenue to finance this study.
REFERENCES
Burrows, F., Louime, C., Abazinge, M. and Onokpise, O. 2007. Extraction and evaluation of chitosan fromcrab exoskeleton as a seed fungicide and plant growth enhancer. American-Eurasian J. Agric. andEnviron. Sci., 2(2), 103-111.
Li, M. and Xu, Z. 2008. Quercetin in lotus leaves extract may be responsible forantibacterial activity. Arch.
Pharm. Res., 31(5), 640-644.
Limpanavech, P., Chaiyasuta, S., Vongpromek, R., Pichyangkura, R., Khunwasi, C. Chadchawan S.,
Lotrakul, P., Bunjongrat, R., chaidee, A., and Bangyeekhun, T. 2008. Chitosan effects on floral
production, gene expression, and anatomical changes in the Dendrobiumorchid. J. Scientia
Horticulturae, 116, 65-72.
Lin, W., Hu, X., Zhang, W., John Rogers, W. and Cai, W. 2005. Hydrogen peroxide mediates defence
responses induced by chitosans of different molecular weights in rice. Journal of Plant Physiology, 162,
937-944.
Moideen, M.M.J., Raffick.M., Kumar, S. and Kishore, N. 2011. Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical
analysis of Nelumbonucifera leaves. Journal of Global Trends inPharmaceutical Sciences, 2, 404-410.
Nge, K.L., New, N., Chandrkrachang, S. and Stevens, W.F. 2006. Chitosan as a growth stimulator in orchid
tissue culture. Plant Science, 170, 1185-1190.
Office of Economic Agriculture, 2012. The quantity of orchid exports.
(Available: http://www.oae.go.th/download/bapp/Q3-2555.pdf, accessed: November 15, 2012.)
Palpandi, C., Shanmugam, V. and Shanmugam, A. 2009. Extraction of chitin and chitosan from shell andoperculum of mangrove gastropod Nerita (Dostia)crepidularia Lamarck. International Journal of
Medicine and Medical Sciences, 1(5), 198-205.
Than Sethakit. 2012. Orchid production. (Available: http://www.thannews.th.com, accessed: November 3,
2012.)
Uthairatanakij, A., Teixeira da Silva, J.A. and Obsuwan, K. 2007. Chitosan for improving orchidproduction
and quality. Orchid Science and Biotechnology, 1, 1-5.

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Research article
erd

Water Footprint of Energy Crops under the Rain-Fed andIrrigated Cultivation in Eastern Thailand
SANIDDA TIEWTOY*
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email: saniddatiewtoy@hotmail.com

THANUTYOT SOMJAIKing Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Prachinburi, Thailand

CHALITA SUWANKing Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Prachinburi, Thailand
Received 13 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Under the current 15-year Renewable Energy Development Plan (REDP) of
2008-2022, Thailand’s Ministry of Energy promotes the production and use of ethanol tosubstitute fossil oil. Two major crops used to produce ethanol in Thailand are sugarcaneand cassava. This research assesses the water footprint (WF) of sugarcane and cassava
under the rain-fed and irrigated agriculture in the eastern provinces of the Kingdom. The
data on crop evapotranspiration, use of fertilizer, and yield are required for the estimationof the water footprint in crop production, the approach of which is based on The Water
Footprint Assessment Manual of Hoekstra et al. The results of this study show that the
average WF’s of sugarcane in rain-fed and irrigated cultivation are respectively 171 m3/ton(89% green, 11% grey) and 162 m3/ton (83% green, 7% blue, 10% grey). For cassava, theaverage WF’s in rain-fed and irrigated agriculture are 387 m3/ton (85% green, 15% grey )and 413 m3/ton (81% green, 5% blue, 14% grey), respectively. Rainfall is still a key factor
in the cultivation of sugarcane and cassava taking into consideration the proportion ofwater use. The sugarcane yield in the rain-fed fields is lower than that in the irrigatedfields, while the yield of cassava in both environments is similar. The findings not merely
would be of use to stakeholders and policymakers for better water management but also
could be used as basis data of sub-national water footprint for crop production.
Keywords water footprint, sugarcane, cassava, energy crops, Thailand

INTRODUCTION
Ministry of Energy of Thailand , has since 2008 implemented the current 15-year Renewable
Energy Development Plan (REDP 2008-2022) with the goal to increase renewable energy use to
20% of the total energy consumption by 2022. In addition, the present government, to expedite therealization of the REDP, has tasked the Energy Ministry with the drawing up of the Renewable andAlternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP 2012-2021) to identify the framework and directionof Thailand’s renewable energy development. Encouraging collaboration among the community
people in greater production and use of renewable energy is one of six strategies to promote AEDP.
The target of ethanol production output is 9 Ml/day by 2021 through improvement of average
yields of sugarcane and cassava to not less than 15 and 5 t/rai/yr (6.25 rai=1 ha). Moreover, otheralternative energy crops such as sweet sorghum are promoted.
Based on the aforementioned policies, the data on the amount of water consumption isimportant for policymakers in the promotion of ethanol production and use. In this regard, the aimof this research is to assess the water footprint (WF) of sugarcane and cassava under the rain-fed
and irrigated agriculture in the eastern part of Thailand.

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METHODOLOGY
Study area: The eastern region is an important cultivation area of fruits, maize, sugarcane andcassava. Provinces of Chachoengsao, Chonburi, Prachinburi and Sakaeo (i.e., 4 out of 7) wereselected as the study area (Figure 1).

Selected provinces

Fig.1 Ethanol plants in Thailand and study area
Source: (DEDE, 2008)

Research methodology: Calculation of water footprint of sugarcane and cassava under the rain-fed
and irrigated conditions in this research follows the Water Footprint Assessment Manual of
Hoekstra et al. (2011). The data on crop evapotranspiration, use of fertilizer, and yield are
requisites for the estimation of the water footprint in crop production.
The water footprint concept: Water footprint (WF) is an indicator of freshwater use that takes
into account both direct and indirect water use of a consumer or producer. It consists of threecomponents: green, blue, and grey water footprints. The green water footprint is the volume ofrainwater consumed during the production process, the blue water footprint refers to consumptionof natural water resources (surface and groundwater) along the supply chain of a product, and thegrey water footprint is defined as the volume of freshwater required to assimilate the load ofpollutants to meet the water quality standards (Hoekstra et al., 2011).
Calculation of green and blue water footprint: Green and blue water evapotranspiration duringcrop growth can be estimated with CROPWAT 8.0 model based on the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2009). According to Hoekstra et al. (2011), this research selects the irrigation
schedule option to determine the crop evapotranspiration. The calculated evapotranspiration iscalled ETa, which is calculated as the crop evapotranspiration under optimal conditions (ET c) times
a water stress coefficient (Ks) as shown below:
ETa = Ks × ETc= Ks × Kc × ETo(1)

Where ETa is the actual crop evapotranspiration, ETC the crop evapotranspiration, ETo thereference evapotranspiration, Kc the crop coefficient, and Ks a water stress coefficient with a value
between 0 and 1.
The green and blue components of crop water use (CWU) are calculated by accumulation ofdaily evapotranspiration over the complete growing period. The total ET green and ETblue in mm areconverted to crop water use in m3/ha by a factor 10.

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Calculation of the green, blue and grey water footprint for crop production: Calculations of
the water footprint (WF) of crop growing process are shown in Eq. (2) and (3). The total water
footprint of the crop growing process is the sum of the green, blue, and grey components as shownin Eq.(5).
WFproc,green =CWU green(2)

Y

WFproc,blue = CWU blue
Y
WFproc,grey =(3)(  AR) /( cmax  cnat )Y(4)

WF proc = WFproc,green+ WFproc,blue+ WFproc,grey(5)

Where CWU is crop water use (m3/ha), Y crop yield (ton/ha), α leaching-run-off fraction (%),
AR chemical application rate (kg/ha), Cmax the maximum acceptable concentration (kg/m3), andCnat the natural concentration for the pollutant considered (kg/m3).
Data collection: Primary and secondary data were obtained from various sources. Primary data
were collected using interviews and questionnaires while secondary data, such as land use map,climatic data, soil type etc., were taken from reports and publications. Additional details about themethods used in this study are indicated below:
Climate data: The climate data for a 30-year period (1981-2010) were taken from the Thai
Meteorological Department.
Soil types: Based on the Land Development, Department classification, soil types are mostly sandy
loam suitable for cassava and sugarcane production.
Crop parameter: Farmers from the four selected provinces were interviewed with the questions
from the questionnaire. Data on household size, age structure, water source for crop production,
cropping pattern, crop yield, and fertilizer application were part of the questionnaire.
Ambient water quality standard: Based on the Notification of the National Environment Board
No. 8, the maximum acceptable concentration for nitrate in surface water quality standards is 5
mg/l.
Crop coefficient (kc): Crop coefficients of sugarcane and cassava were taken from the Royal
Irrigation Department (RID, 2010).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Calculation of green and blue WF under the rain-fed and irrigated conditions in this research
employed irrigation scheduling based on actual water use from field survey. In the case of irrigatedcondition, irrigation schedule option of without irrigation was used to determine the water use bycrop. The sugarcane yield in the rain-fed fields is lower than that in the irrigated fields, while theyield of cassava in both conditions is similar. The outputs of sugarcane and cassava for rain-fed andirrigated conditions are respectively shown in Tables 1 and 2.
The grey WF is estimated based on the application of nitrogen fertilizer to crops. The averagenitrogen fertilizers applied to sugarcane and cassava are 66.21 and 68.23 kg/ha, respectively. The
leaching run off fraction is assumed at 10% of the application rate (Chapagain et al., 2006). Due tosurface quality standards (DEQP, 1994), the maximum allowable concentration is 5 mg/l. The
natural concentration in the receiving water body is assumed to be zero. The grey WF is calculated
based on Eq.(4). The outputs of the grey WF of sugarcane and cassava for rain-fed and irrigatedconditions are respectively shown in Tables 3 and 4.

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Table 1 Components of green and blue water footprint for sugarcane production
Province
Rain-fed
Chonburi
Prachinburi
SakaeoIrrigated
Chonburi
Prachinburi
SakaeoETgreen(mm)

ETblue
(mm)

ETa
(mm)

CWUgreen(m3/h)

CWUblue(m3/h)CWUtotal(m3/ha)Y(ton/ha)WFproc,green(m3/ton)WFproc,blue(m3/ton)944.4
1105.71111.2

0.0
0.0
0.0

944.4
1105.71111.2

9444
11057
11112

0.0
0.0
0.0

9444
11057
11112

70.0
65.9
70.6

134.9
167.7
157.3

0.0
0.0
0.0

944.4
1105.71111.2

280.5
46.0
2.2

1224.91115.31113.4

9444
11057
11112

2805
460
22

12249
11153
11134

96.9
70.3
72.3

97.5
157.4
153.4

29.0
1.4
0.3

Table 2 Components of green and blue water footprint for cassava production
Province
Rain-fed
Chonburi
Prachinburi
SakaeoChachoengsao
Irrigated
Chonburi
Prachinburi
SakaeoChachoengsao

ETgreen(mm)

ETblue
(mm)

ETa
(mm)

CWUgreen(m3/ha)CWUblue(m3/ha)CWUtotal(m3/ha)Y(ton/ha)WFproc,green(m3/ton)WFproc,blue(m3/ton)

832.5
709.2
773.3
742.8

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

832.5
709.2
773.3
742.8

8325
7092
7733
7428

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

8325
7092
7733
7428

25.0
23.3
25.0
20.3

333.0
305.0
309.3
396.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

832.5
709.2
773.3
742.8

33.6
129.1
35.5
24.9

866.1
838.3
808.8
767.7

8325
7092
7733
7428

336
1291
355
249

8661
8383
8088
7677

24.9
23.7
25.1
19.5

333.8
299.4
308.5
394.0

13.5
54.5
14.2
13.0

Table 3 Water footprint of sugarcane production in Eastern Thailand
Province
Chonburi
Prachinburi
SakaeoAverage

WFgreen
134.9
167.7
157.3
153.31Rain-fed (m3/ton)
WFblue
WFgrey
0.0
18.0
0.0
22.3
0.0
14.2
0.0
18.17

WFtotal
152.9
190.0
171.5
171.48

WFgreen
97.5
157.4
153.7
136.18Irrigated (m3/ton)
WFblue
WFgrey
29.0
13.0
1.4
20.9
0.3
13.8
10.21
15.90

WFtotal
139.4
179.7
167.8
162.29

Table 4 Water footprint of cassava production in Eastern Thailand
Province
Chonburi
Prachinburi
SakaeoChachoengsao
Average

WFgreen
333.0
305.0
309.3
396.0
335.8

Rain-fed (m3/ton)
WFblue
WFgrey
0.0
61.6
0.0
58.3
0.0
53.9
0.0
60.1
0.0
58.5

WFproc
394.6
363.4
363.2
426.0
386.8

WFgreen
333.8
299.4
308.5
394.0
393.9

Irrigated (m3/ton)
WFblue
WFgrey
13.5
61.8
54.5
57.3
14.2
53.8
13.0
62.6
23.8
58.9

WFproc
409.1
411.2
376.5
456.0
413.2

Table 5 Comparison of this study result, Mekonnen and Hoekstra’s (2011) and global
average water footprint
Area/Farming system
Eastern Thailand
Rain-fed
Irrigated
Mekonnen and
Hoekstra (2011)
Rain-fed
Irrigated
Global Average

WFgreen

Sugarcane (m3/ton)
WFblue
WFgreyWFproc

WFgreenCassava (m3/ton)
WFblue
WFgreyWFproc

153
136

0
10

18
16

171
162

336
334

0
24

56
59

387
413

164
120
139

0
104
57

13
14
13

176
238
210

550

0

13

564

The estimated total water footprint of crop production process (WFproc) is the summation of
the green, blue, and grey water footprint as Eq.(5). The water footprints of sugarcane and cassava
production in eastern Thailand under rain-fed and irrigated agriculture are illustrated in Tables 3-4.
The results show that the average WF’s of sugarcane in rain-fed and irrigated cultivation are
171.48 m3/ton and 162.29 m3/ton, respectively. For cassava, the average WF’s in rain-fed andirrigated agriculture are 386.8 m3/ton and 413.2 m3/ton, respectively.

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As shown in Table 5, water footprint of sugarcane of eastern Thailand of the irrigatedcondition (162) is lower than that of rain-fed (171), those of rain-fed (176) and irrigated cultivation(238) of Mekonnen and Hoekstra, and that of global average (210). In the same table, water
footprints of cassava of eastern Thailand (387 and 413 for rain-fed and irrigated respectively) arelower than that of global average (564).
CONCLUSION
This paper deals with the assessment of water footprint (WF) of sugarcane and cassava under therain-fed and irrigated agriculture in the eastern part of Thailand. The results show that the average
WF’s of sugarcane in rain-fed and irrigated cultivation are 171 m3/ton (89% green, 11% grey) and
162 m3/ton (83% green, 7% blue, 10% grey), respectively. For cassava, the average WF’s in rainfed and irrigated agriculture are 387 m3/ton (85% green, 15% grey) and 413 m3/ton (81% green,
5% blue, 14% grey), respectively. The average WF of sugarcane in rain-fed is higher than that in
irrigated agriculture because the rain-fed yield is lower than the irrigated yield. The yields ofcassava in both conditions are very similar, but crop water use of irrigated cassava is higher thanrain-fed cassava, thereby leading to the lower average WF of cassava in rain-fed than in irrigatedagriculture. With the proportion of water use taken into account, rainfall remains a key factor in thecultivation of sugarcane and cassava. The WF reduction in the eastern region is achievable throughadoption of part or all of the following suggestions in combination: 1) increase yield throughimproved agricultural practice; 2) improve the irrigation schedule by optimizing timing andvolumes of application; 3) support investments in irrigation systems and techniques that conserve
water; and 4) reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides. The findings of thisstudy not only would be of great use to both stakeholders and policymakers for better water
management but also could be further used as basis data of sub-national water footprint for crop
production.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to express deep gratitude and sincere appreciation to the National ResearchCouncil of Thailand for the financial support.
REFERENCES
Chapagain, A.K., Hoekstra, A.Y., Savenije, H.H.G. and Gautam, R. 2006. The water footprint of cotton
consumption: an assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water
resources in the cotton producing countries. Ecological Economics, 60, 186-203.
Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE). 2008. Facilitation workshop under
the T@W project. Montien hotel. 25 February 2008. Bangkok, Thailand.
Department of Environmental Quality Promotion (DEQP). 1994. Surface water quality standards. Ministryof Natural Resources and Environment. Bangkok, Thailand.
FAO. 2009. CROPWAT 8.0 Model. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome, Italy.
Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., Aldaya, M.M. and Mekonnen, M.M. 2011. The Water footprint
assessment manual: Setting the global standard. Earthscan.Washington, D.C., USA.
LDD. 2000. Soil database. Land Development Department. Thailand. (Retrieved : June 20, 2010, fromhttp:// www.ldd.go.th).
Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. 2011. The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived
crop products. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 15, 1577-1600.
RID. 2010. Crop coefficient. Royal Irrigation Department. (Retrieved: August 26, 2010, from: http://water.
rid.go.th/hwm/cropwater/CWRdata/Kc/kc_th.pdf)© ISERD
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Research article
erdAnalysis of Requisite Quality of Cassava and Temperaturefor Baking Cookies
SARIN NEANG*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: neangsarin@gmail.com

VITOU ORNG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

VOUCHSIM KONG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SAROM MENRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

LINDA FORRESTER
Education Advisor, Australia

BORARIN BUNTONGRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cookies are a kind of food product made from flour and other ingredients suchas butter, egg, sugar, milk, and baking soda. This research was conducted to find the
optimum temperature and the optimum proportion of cassava flour required in cookie
production. The experiment was divided into nine treatments with three replications,different temperatures included 160 °C, 170 °C ; 180 °C and proportions of cassava flour
trialed were 50 %, 75 %; 100 %. The processing and sensory testing were conducted in thefood processing laboratory of the Faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University ofAgriculture (RUA) while the analysis of chemicals was done in the Industrial Laboratory
Centre of Cambodia (ILCC). The results show that using 50%, 70% and 100% 5 % and
100 % of cassava flour at the temperature of 160 °C, 170 °C and 180 °C affected thechemical properties of cookie products such as ash, moisture, protein, fat, sugar,
carbohydrate, and energy. Also, they affected the color, texture, odor, as well as flavor andcrispness, factors which all related to consumers identifying cookies as their favorites.
Among nine treatments, the second treatment which used 50% of cassava flour at thetemperature of 170 °C was the best treatment; whereas, the ninth treatment which used
100% of cassava flour at the temperature of 180 °C had the lowest quality. Therefore,
results show that 50 % of cassava flour baked at the temperature of 170 °C for 8 minutes isthe optimum configuration to use in cookie production.
Keywords processing, temperature, sensory test, cassava, cookies

INTRODUCTION
Cassava is a kind of plant that mostly grows in tropical area in South America. The root of Cassava
has poisonous substances, but the rest of the plant is edible and provides a lot of essential nutrients.
Cassava is rich in Carbohydrate and low lipids that play a role in providing energy to the humanbody. Energy from Cassava is related to the density of calories, where 100 gram provides 160
calories (Willett, 2005). Cassava is known and grown by Cambodian farmers since 19 th century. It
was grown for starch production for commercial purpose, livestock feed and used for human.

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Before 1970, this crop was planted in small areas, especially on black soil, along the river, andupland areas and red soil in some areas of the country.
Between 1975 and 1979, this crop becomes a staple, and people eat cassava instead of rice.
This is a very popular crop among farmers in southeastern and eastern areas of the country,
especially for people living in upland areas. However, some farmers living in lowland areas also
grow this crop on the space around their house, and they consume it as their food (MAFF, 2003).
The cassava yield increased from 535,600 tons in 2005 to 2 million tons in 2007. This is theresult of increasing lands for growing cassava crops. Cassava was planted on 30,000 hectares in2005 and 1,000,000 hectares in 2007 and the yield rose from 17.9 tons/ha to 20.5 tons/ha (CIAT,
2008). Cassava has an important role in the development of rural areas because it is the raw
material in industrial productions such as animal feed, starch, ethanol, bioethanol and other foodprocesses in bakery production, such as ice cream, cakes, and biscuits (Willett, 2005).
OBJECTIVE
This research was aimed at finding the optimum temperature and the amount of cassava flour
required in cookie production.
METHODOLOGY
Study site
This research included processing cookies, analyzing chemical contents and sensory testing andwas conducted at the laboratory of the faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University of Agriculture(RUA). The analysis of chemical contents in processed cookies was done at the Industrial
Laboratory Centre of Cambodia (ILCC), Phnom Penh, while the sensory test was done at RUA.
The research study was conducted between May and August, 2012.
Experimental design and treatments
The factorial Complete Randomized Design (CRD) was used in this experimental method; there
are three factors including temperature (160ºC, 170 ºC and 180 ºC), cassava flour (50%, 75% and100%), and wheat flour (50% and 25%) as shown in table 1.
Table 1 Divisions of experimental treatments
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9

Temperature (ºC)
160
170
180
160
170
180
160
170
180

Cassava flour (%)

Wheat flour (%)

50

50

75

25

100

00

Raw materials of the cookies were cassava flour, wheat flour, sugar, egg, butter, baking soda,
blue berries and milk. 11% of egg white was mixed by a hand mixer and then 31. 25% of butter
was added in the egg port. 31. 25% of sugar, 6.25% of milk, 16% of blue berries and 1% of baking
soda were subsequently mixed in the egg and butter port. The cassava flour and wheat flour wereadded and compressed into cookie dough 1 cm thick before baking in the oven for eight minutes ineach temperature that had already been set. Noticeably, before using the oven, it needed to be© ISERD
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heated 250 ºC for 20 minutes. Taken out from the oven, the cookies were placed on the tray inambient temperature for 10 minutes before packing in a plastic bag.
Chemical analysis
After getting the processed cookies, all were taken to test chemical contents such as ash, energy
and sensory test (color, texture, odor, flavor and crisp). Recorded data was organized for analysis
using Microsoft Excel to specifically determine comparative, quantitative and qualitative analysis.
A. Ash: Dry the cup of ash in an oven with temperature of 150 ºC for 1 hour and then take the cup
to further dry in desiccators for 30 minutes before weighting. Then, put a sample of about 2 g in thecup. Weigh and record the weight. Take the sample to dry in the oven with the temperature 600 ºC
for 3 hours. Lastly, take it to put in desiccators and weight it again (AOAC, 2005).
B. Energy: Energy consists of carbohydrate, fat and protein (Willett, 2005).
Total energy = (Protein × 4 cal/g) + (fat × 9 cal/g) + (carbohydrate × 4 cal/g)
Where, protein 100 g, energy 100 g, fat %, carbohydrate 100 g
C. Sensory test: The questionnaires designed to test, color, texture, odor, flavor, and crispness.
Preference was recorded from 30 participants. The score ranged from 1 to 5 (1: dislike, 2:
somewhat dislike, 3: like, 4: somewhat like and 5: like very much).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ash

% Ash

Figure 1 showed that the fourth treatment used cassava flour 75% and wheat flour 52% intemperature of 160 °C had the highest ash of 0.978% and the third, sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth
had similar percentage of ash. On the other hands, the second treatment used cassava flour 50% andwheat flour 50% in 160 °C had the lowest ash of 0.95 %. In general, food products that made offlour had ash between 0.3 to 1.4 %.
0.985
0.98
0.975
0.97
0.965
0.96
0.955
0.95
0.945
0.94
0.935
T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

Treatments

T7

T8

T9

Fig. 1 Ash analysis in each treatment
EnergyFigure 2 showed that the fourth treatment using cassava flour 50% and wheat flour 50% at thetemperature of 160 °C has energy of 454 kilocalories, which was the highest energy of alltreatments. Conversely, the ninth treatment using 100% of cassava flour in temperature of 180 °C
to 160 °C had energy 445.544 kilocalories, which was the lowest energy of all treatments.

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456
454
Kilocalorie Energy

452
450
448
446
444
442
440
438
T1

T2

T3

T4
T5
T6
Treatments

T7

T8

T9

Fig. 2 Energy analysis of each treatment
Color
The second treatment using cassava flour 50% and wheat flour 50% in the temperature of 170 °Cscored 4 out of 5, which was the highest mark. Conversely, the ninth treatment using cassava flour
100% without using wheat flour in the temperature of 180 °C scored 3.37 out of 5, which was thelowest mark. The changing score was because the cookie’s color changed. Baking cookies in atemperature of 160 °C gave a pale color, in a temperature of 180 °C the cookies had a dark color,and in a temperature of 170 °C the outcome was a pleasing golden color, which was the favorite
cookie for participants. The cookie’s color changed because of the changing temperature.
TextureFigure 3 shows that the second treatment using cassava flour 50% and wheat flour 50% at atemperature of 170 °C was the highest mark of 4 out of 5, and the ninth treatment using cassava
flour 100% without using wheat flour at a temperature of 180 °C was the lowest mark of 3 out of 5.
The changes in marking were because the temperature of 160 °C and 180 °C made the cookies
crack. Baking cookies in a temperature of 170 °C resulted that a cookie was red and shinier thanboth of the others. The changes of food texture were caused by the changes of temperature; in
addition to, the changes of texture also made cassava flour changes in color and brightness.
Texture markT9, 3.3 T1, 3.4
T8, 4.03
T2, 4.1
T7, 3.6

T3, 3.6

T6, 3.3
T5, 4.0

T4, 3.4

Fig. 3 Evaluation on texture of cookie in each treatment
The results above showed that the second treatment that used cassava flour 50% attemperature of 170 oC was the best treatment out of the nine treatments because in this treatment
pH value, moisture, ash, protein, fat, and energy were in appropriate level when compared to thestandard of Hard biscuit or Hard Cookie that contains pH 7.6, humid 2.6%, ash 2%, protein 7.6%,
lipid 10% and carbohydrate 77.8%. Moreover, in outcomes of sensory testing of color, texture,
odor, sweet flavor, hardness, and crispness, the second treatment was the favorite one forparticipants, followed by first and third treatments. However, treatment nine, which used 100%

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cassava flour at a temperature of 180 oC was the least appropriate treatment of all because thistreatment contained the lowest protein and energy, and it was also the least favorite treatment fromthe participants’ point of view.
CONCLUSION
Using more than 50% of cassava flour in cookie production produced less quality cookies. In
cookie processing, the temperature range from 160 to 180 oC could affect chemical properties suchas humidity, proteins and lipids and also lower the calories. This problem showed that the higher
the temperature we used the lower quality of chemical properties the cookie had. 50 % of cassava
flour baked at a temperature of 170 °C for 8 minutes should be recommended and used in cookie
production.
REFERENCES
Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC) International. 2005. Official method of analysis. 18th
edition.
Bose, D. 2010. How to make cookie dough. (From: www.how-to-make-cookie-dough.html.htm.)
International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). 2008. A new future for cassava in Asia. Its use as food,feed and fuel to benefit the poor. Bangkok, Thailand.
Nielsen, S.S. 2009. Ash analysis. In: Book of Food Analysis, (Maurice R. and Marshall. Eds.) Department offood science and Human Nutrition. University of Florida. Gainesville, USA.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF). 2003. Agriculture statistics and research planning.
Develop of Planning and International Cooperation. Phnom Pehn, Cambodia.
Willett, B. 2005. Cassava benefits. (From: www.Cassava Benefits _ Livestrong.com.htm.)© ISERD
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Research article
erd

Assessment of the Shelf-life of Cucumber underThree Low Cost Storage Methods
SONGHAK PHAL*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: songhakphal@rocketmail.com

THIDA KEM
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

VOUCHSIM KONG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

BORARIN BUNTONGRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

THONG KONG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cucumbers, harvested from Saang district, Kandal province, Cambodia werewrapped with low density polyethylene (LDPE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE) orin the open before they were stored in two types of storage conditions (evaporative coolingsystem (ECS)(80 USD), designed in the faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University ofAgriculture and in ice foam box (2.375 USD) filled with an amount of ice for cooling the
cucumbers or in ambient condition (1.5 USD) in order to seek for appropriate and low cost
methods to maintain the quality and enhance shelf-life of cucumbers. The shelf-life of
cucumbers were determined based on weight losses, fruit shriveling, changes in color,
titratable acidity (TA) and total soluble solids (TSS). Of the storage treatments, keeping
fruit in both type of polyethylene film in ice foam box filled with husk-covered ice was themost effective way in reducing weight loss, maintained higher TA, TSS and the color
changes as well as retarding fruit shriveling than that of the other treatments. Fruit stored
in the open at ambient condition had the highest weight losses and shortest shelf-life due
to rapid yellowing and shriveling. Regarding the cost of storage, ice foam box was
significantly reasonable accepted in term of gaining better quality (benefit) comparing to
the higher weight losses and unmarketable quality of other treatments.
Keywords cucumber, shelf-life, quality, evaporating cooling system, ice foam box

INTRODUCTION
Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) of Cucumbitaceae family are one of the famous vegetable consumed
freshly and as processed food in Cambodia. The fruits were harvested in immature stage based on
the fruit size and skin color. They are used as salad, fresh slicing vegetable and pickling for daily
diet (New Guyana Marketing Corporation, 2004). These fruits normally suffer high moisture losses,rotting, and change color quickly from green to yellow during storage. They are also bruised or
injured under mechanical forces in case of improper handling which cause of short shelf-life andunmarketable quality after harvesting. Improper storage condition of cucumbers both at low
temperature (below 10C) and at ambient temperature rapidly results in water loss, decay, andyellowish color in several days that lead to unacceptable quality in the market (Mikal, 2010).
So far, to improve the storage condition of many vegetables to recast in Cambodia,
evaporating cooling system (ECS) has been set up and introduced to the vegetable grower for© ISERD
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preserving the vegetables quality. The system has shown the effectiveness in many aspects since its
temperature is decreased lower than the ambient at least 3 to 5C while its RH is higher thanambient from 20 to 40%. It is very effective to extend the color changes and decay during storage
time of vegetable such as chili, eggplant and leafy vegetables (Buntong, 2010). However, thecombination treatment with film wrapping or other modified packaging materials were not fully
tested for such kind of cucumber vegetable. It is known whether vegetables stored in low or highdensity polyethylene can maintain the shelf-life and quality of vegetable better than those stored inambient temperature because of polyethylene films that can acts as moisture and oxygen barrier
and delay the respiration of the vegetables (ITDG, 2010). As a result, cucumbers can be stored
longer than those in the ambient condition for a few days (Buntong, 2010).
In this study, in order to seek for appropriate and low cost methods to maintain the quality andenhance shelf-life of cucumbers, cucumbers harvested from Saang district were wrapped witheither low density polyethylene (LDPE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE) or left in the open
before they were stored in two types of storage conditions (evaporative cooling system (ECS),
designed in the faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University of Agriculture and in ice foam box
filled with an amount of ice for cooling the cucumbers) or in ambient condition.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to find out the appropriate and low cost methods that effectively
maintain the quality and prolong self-life of cucumbers.
METHODOLOGY
Fruit sampling
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus), for the age about 45 days after planting, were harvested from Saang
district and immediately brought to the postharvest laboratory located in the faculty of AgroIndustry, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Storage materials and conditions
Initially, they were washed with the 100 ppm concentration of chlorine for eliminating microbial
contaminations and preventing fungal infections; then sorted only for uniform size, maturation,color and non-injured cucumbers (FAPRT, 2011). Before storing the fruits in different containers(evaporating cooling system, ice foam box and the ambient condition), they were wrapped with low
density polyethylene (LDPE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE) or in the open.
Evaporating cooling system (ECS), made from zinc and iron film and covered by wet tissues
along with dropping-water system, to conduct heat that kept the temperature between 24-28 oC
with relative humidity between 76-94%.
Ice foam box designed in faculty Agro-Industry is the low cost materials that can be used asstorage equipment for maintaining cucumber quality. The ice foam box was filled with 21kg of ice
and covered with rice husk to reduce ice melting with the temperature between 17-21 oC andrelative humidity 60-70%. Husk rice is traditionally used for keeping ice from melting and easilyfind in local area. It is a good material to reduce the interaction between heat and cool air of ice inbox that decrease melting and stabilize temperature cold (17 to 21 C) and RH (60 to 70%). The
husk rice have low water and moisture permeability, low value of equilibrium moisture content,
low value of the coefficient of temperature conductivity (below 0.036 W.m-1.k-1), high resistance todamage of fungi (Valche et al, 2009). Ice foam box is the well-organized and effective equipmentused for reducing moisture loss, color changes and decay as polyethylene was used in ECS
condition for this study. In addition to storing cucumbers in ECS and ice foam box, fruits were also
stored in ambient condition at (temperature at 28-29oC and relative humidity at 80-86%).

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Experimental design and treatments
Split plot design was applied in this research. The fruits were packed in Open, LDPE and HDPE
and stored in different containers including ambient, ECS and ice foam box. The summary oftreatments is as in table 1.
Table 1 Treatments of experimental cucumbers
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9

Packagingmaterials
Open

LDPE

HDPE

Storage conditions

Replications

Ambient
ECS
Ice foam box
Ambient
ECS
Ice foam box
Ambient
ECS
Ice foam box

3

Fruit analysis
Throughout the storage, all treatments were tested and recorded every two days with fourparameters-weight losses (WL); color changes (a* and L value) done by using color reader CR-10;
Titratable Acidity (TA) tested by titrating NaOH concentration with phenophtelenine and Total
Soluble Solids (TSS) were tested by using refractometer. Recorded data were analyzed by using
Microsoft Excel 2010.
Weight losses: Weight losses was determined by weighting and recording every 2 days for all
treatments, calculated as a percent of the initial weight following equation 1.

WL (%)  (Wo  Wi ) / Wo  100(1)

Where Wo is the weight on the first day of storage and Wi is the weight in the tested day(Moalemiyan & Ramaswamy, 2012).
Color changes: Color reader CR-10 was used to assess external color of cucumbers. External color
readings were taken on screen of color reader CR-10 before storing in equipment on the following
day of observation. Individual fruit was measured at three point along the axis of the furit for threefruit in a replication.
Total acidity (TA): TA contents was determined by titrating NaOH concentration 0.1N along withphenophtelenine as indicator and calculated by following euquation 2.

CTotal acidity (g/L)  (VNaOH titration  F  C NaOH  M) / V sample(2)

Where C total acidity is the concentration of acid in cucumber (g/L); V NaOH is volume of sodiumhydroxide; CNaOH is concentration of sodium hydroxide of titration (N), and M is molecular weightof ascobic acid (C6H8O6) (g/mole).
Total soluble solids (TSS): Total soluble solid was determined by using refractometer. The
cucumber was extracted and its juicy part was put on the refractometer prism and read for its valueof total soluble solid in Brix degree.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Weight losses
An evaluation of the postharvest quality of cucumbers was conducted after the fruit had been stored
in different conditions. Figures 1, 2 and 3 had shown that moisture losses of opened cucumbers in© ISERD
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the three conditions decreased orderly from 0 day to 10 days. Ambient lost 21% more than ice
foam lost 17.75%, while ECS had RH higher than ambient (20-40%) and lost only 3.09% during 8days with fewer changes for wrapped HDPE cucumbers. RH of ambient was lower than ECS, buthigher than RH of ice foam box which caused possible higher weight loss (5.7%) for HDPE
cucumber in ice foam box as ambient lost 0.95% in 10 days. However, water loss of wrapped
LDPE cucumber of ambient condition dramatically rose (6%) as water loss of wrapped LDPE
cucumber of ECS and ice foam box slightly changed when the temperature and RH of them wasprobable in the remaining of moisture contained in cucumber.

Fig. 1 Percentage of weightin Ambient

Fig. 2 Percentage of weightloss in ECS

Fig. 3 Percentage of weightloss in Ice foam box

Fig. 4 a* value of cucumber
stored in Ambient

Fig. 5 a* value of cucumber
stored in ECS

Fig. 6 a* value of cucumber
stored in Ice foam box

Fig 7. L value of cucumber
stored in Ambient

Fig 8. L value of cucumber
stored in ECS

Fig 9. L value of cucumber
stored in Ice foam box

Color changes
Peel color of cucumber originally remained dark green at ambient and in ECS after 6 days ofstorage. Although the previous stages retained original color, its color kept changes very quickly
becoming yellow as shown in the fig. 4 and 5. For ice foam box, cucumber peel color was
relatively dark green from the initial day to the end of storage period, with a bit changes a*=1.46,
0.81 for LDPE and HDPE respectively on the 6th day of storage. The open cucumber stored in ice
foam box was in yellow (color a*=3.17) on the 10th day while others remained green color.
The L value of color’s of cucumber at Ambient and Ice foam box get result of insignificant
change in color L comparing to original brightness color L= 52, accept for ECS condition. It is
more changed in the L value that reached to L= 48.27, 45.29, 47.12 for Open, LDPE, HDPE
respectively at 4th day storage.

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Total acidity (TA) and total soluble solids (TSS)
Changeable decline of TA value (1.26-0.88 g/L) of opened cucumbers in each condition had no
significant differences (0-6 days). ECS had higher RH (20-40%) and lower temperature (1-2 C)than ambient that leaded to senescence very quickly and its TA declined in 1.31 g/L at 8 days.
HDPE cucumbers in ambient condition and ice foam box had similar TA value (1.26-0.80 g/L) in 4days, then TA of ambient values 1.05 g/L, when TA of ice foam box values 0.73 g/L developed tosenescence in 10 days. TA of HDPE cucumbers in ECS were slightly different in TA value (1.260.83 g/L) in 6 days then it would reach to aging when its TA was 1.18 g/L in 8 days. Low density
polyethylene, which was a good moisture barrier and had high gas permeability resistance,
wrapped cucumbers up. They were remarkably varied in the three conditions. In 6 days, TA of ECS
dropped sharply in 0.94 g/L which was higher than TA of ice foam box (0.66 g/L), when the lowest
TA of ambient values was 0.71 g/L in 4 days.
Total soluble solids interactively changed and slowly increased in all fruit treatments stored inthree equipments (shown in fig. 13, 14 and 15), but fruit stored in ice foam box had the highest TSS
value. TSS value increased higher in ambient-stored fruit as in open and as followed by HEPD.
LEPD showed the minimal increase in TSS value of stored-fruit with ECS and ice foam box.

Fig. 10 Concentration of TA
of stored-cucumber inAmbient

Fig. 11 Concentration of TA Fig. 12 Concentration of TA
of stored-cucumber inof stored-cucumber
ECS
Ice foam box

Fig. 13 Concentration of TSS Fig. 14 Concentration of TSS Fig. 15 Concentration of TSS
of stored-cucumberof stored-cucumberof stored-cucumber
in Ambient
in ECSin Ice foam box
CONCLUSION
Wrapped-cucumber with LDPE was effective when used with ice foam box and ECS for reducing
water losses. However, ambient was ineffective in storing fruit which made both moisture losses
and color changes remove high. ECS and ambient could maintain water losses from wrappedcucumber with LDPE, but it could not maintain color changes, TSS increase or TA decrease thatdeveloped to senescence very fast. Water losses, color changes, TA, and TSS of wrappedcucumber of LDPE stored for 10 days in ice foam box was better than the ECS and ambientcondition. According to the result and discussion, ice foam box used in this storage method was© ISERD
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effectively available to buy, convenient for storing fruit, and cost-saving (only 2.375 USD per set).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Gratefully, we would like to give our profound thanks to, Mr. Thong Kong, Dean of Faculty ofAgro-Industry, Royal University of Agriculture, and Mr. Borarin Buntong, Head of Department ofPostharvest Technology, who had kindly offered us very helpful, useful advices, good explanationand friendly encouragement. Last but not least, particular thanks also goes to Ms. Vouchsim Kongfor her constructive comments on our research writing.
REFERENCES
Buntong, B. 2010. Guideline of research and development technology of postharvest tomato and chilly.
Project RETA 6208, AVRDC-The world vegetable Center.
Food and Agricultural Products Research and Technology center (FAPRT). 2011. Guidelines for the use ofchlorine bleach as a sanitizer in food processing operations. Oklahoma state university. (Retrieved on
October 7, 2011. From; ucfoodsafety.ucdavis.edu/files/26437.pdf)
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) Ltd patron HRH. 2010. Packaging materials for foods.
(Retrieved on October 3, 2011. From; www.practicalaction.org/docs/ technical _ information_
service/packaging_ materials.pdf.)
Valche, I., et al. 2009. Silica products from rice hulls. Journal of the university of chemical technology and
Metallurgy. 44(3), 257-261.
Mikal, E.S. 2010. Cucumber. Department of vegetable crops, Mamn lab. University of California, California.
(Retrieved on October 2, 2011. From; www.ba.ars.usda.gov/ hb66/057 cucumber.pdf.)
Moalemiyan, M., and Ramaswamy, H.S. 2012. Quality retention and self-life extension in mediterranean
cucumbers coated with a pectin-based film. Journal of Food Research. 3(1), 159-167.
New Guyana Marketing Corportion (NGMC). 2004. Cucumber postharvest care and Market preparation.
Postharvest handling technical bulletin No. 28. 2-11.

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Research article
erd

Passive Sampling Approach to Identify Contaminants ina Tropical FreshwaterI River System
TATIANA KOMAROVA*

4
.
7
2

Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Brisbane, Australia
Email: Tatiana_Komarova@health.qld.gov.auwo

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAIr
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen dUniversity, Khon Kaen, Thailands

ATCHARAPORN SOMPARN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

NATSIMA TOKHUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen,Thailand

BARRY NOLLER
Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation (CMLR), Sustainable Minerals Institute, The Universityof Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Received 17 January 2013

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study aimed to understand labile metal distribution and water quality
associated with agro-industry and farming activities along the Namphong River, a subcatchment of the Mekong River located in NE Thailand. An integrated sampling program
was designed to identify the range of potential contaminants in the Namphong River byincorporating active or grab sampling along with passive sampling using the diffuse
gradients in thin films technique (DGTs) for the bio available heavy metal forms, fieldmeasurement of pH, electrical conductivity, temperature and dissolved oxygen andlaboratory-based measurement of total solids, total alkalinity, hardness, nutrients anddissolved organic carbon concentration together with heavy metals (total and filtered (<0.45 µm) fractions). The DGTs were deployed at 10 different sites along approximately 50
km of the Namphong River for 4 days to enable sufficient integrative sampling of heavy
metals. One liter of water samples were collected from the sites before and after
deployment of the DGTs. Although total and filtered (<0.45 µm) concentrations of
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and zinc in the Namphong River from active samplingsignificantly exceeded the trigger values of water quality guidelines for protection of
freshwater aquatic species, the concentration of metals estimated from DGT data indicatedmore accurately that the bio available metal levels were below the trigger values and that
there were no predicted effects on aquatic species. The agro-industrial area (pulp and sugar
mills) was a major potential source of contamination of the Namphong River associatedwith increased levels of heavy metals (aluminium, chromium, cobalt, iron and manganese)but diluted to insignificant levels in the Namphong River. The release of copper, nickel
and lead to the downstream Namphong River occurred in the area of rice and mixed
vegetable cultivation and was most likely related to extensive pesticide use. The outcomeof this study will help to develop more focused monitoring of specific toxic heavy metals
at particular locations on the Namphong River.
Keywords active and passive sampling, aquatic ecosystem, DGT, heavy metals,
bioavailability

INTRODUCTION
The NE part of Thailand is the location of extensive wet-dry agricultural activities with major use© ISERD
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of irrigation from dam storage and some supplementation of water supply from groundwater
sources. The rivers systems of NE Thailand are also part of the sub-catchment of the Mekong River(Fig. 1). One of the sub-catchments of the Chi River is that of the Namphong River. Below the
Ubolratana Dam there are extensive agro-industry and farming activities along the NamphongRiver which flows to the Chi River and via the Mun River to the Mekong River. A key question
was the extent and the effects on aquatic species of heavy metal additions to the river system that
result from the collective of agricultural activities. River water may also be used for humanconsumption and recreational activities.
The Diffusive Gradients in Thin-films (DGT) technique uses passive sampling to give an
integrated concentration measurement (Davison and Zhang 1994). The DGT technique waspreviously described for measurement of labile metal forms in water and predicting their toxicity toaquatic biota (Komarova et al. 2012). In contrast, active sampling collects a grab sample at a fixed
time. This paper uses passive sampling techniques to measure dissolved inorganic compounds inwaters at sub-nanogram per liter levels. “Passive” samplers are defined as human-made devices
where sample collection is completely passive. The DGT technique is designed to accumulate
labile metal species in environmental systems including from water (Davison and Zhang, 1994;
Davison et al. 2000; Zhang and Davison, 1995; Zhang and Davison, 2000).
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to understand the labile metal distribution associated with agro-industry andfarming activities along the Namphong River a sub catchment of the Mekong River located in NE
Thailand. The study addressed the following questions: (i) to compare passive DGT and active
sampling techniques for heavy metals and associated water quality in the Namphong River water
body for different locations; (ii) to compare labile heavy metal concentration data from the DGTtechnique with water quality guidelines that can be incorporated into the trace metal monitoring
programs in water together with traditional methods and replace them in the future; and (iii) to use
DGT analysis for labile metals to assess bioavailability to aquatic freshwater species.
METHODOLOGYThe DGT technique employed an ion exchange resin (Chelex-100) that was immobilized in apolyacrylamide gel (the binding or resin gel), to exchange analytic species from solution (Davison
and Zhang 1994). Chelex-based resins can be used for simultaneous collection of many metals inwater including aluminium (Al), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe),lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn) (Komarova et al. 2012). The binding gel was
separated from the bulk solution by a permeable polyacrylamide gel (the diffusive gel) and asolution diffusive boundary layer.
An integrated sampling program was designed to identify the range of potential contaminantsin the Namphong River by using diffuse gradients in thin films technique (DGTs) for the passive(integrated) sampling of labile heavy metal forms, field measurements of pH, electricalconductivity (EC), temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration and active sampling for
total solids (TS), total alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3), hardness (mg/L CaCO3), nutrients, dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) and heavy metal concentrations for the total and filtered (< 0.45 µm)
fractions. DGTs were deployed for 4 days from 19-23 January 2012 to accumulate labile heavy
metals at 10 different sites along approximately 50 km of the Namphong River (Fig. 1).
One liter of grabbed water samples were collected before and after DGT deployment; themean concentrations of metals were calculated from the measured parameters. All measurementson the active water samples were undertaken in the field or at the Division of Land Resources andEnvironment, Department of Plant Sciences and Agricultural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture
Khon Kaen University. Following deployment, DGTs were sent by air courier to the Queensland
Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Inorganic Chemistry Division laboratory at
Coopers Plains, Australia to separate the gels and elute the accumulated analyte from the binding© ISERD
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gel using dilute nitric acid. The concentrations of metals in the eluant were then determined byinductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). The time-averaged concentration ofdissolved metal species in the bulk solution, C, is then calculated using Eq. (1), which is derived
from Fick’s first law of diffusion (Zhang and Davison, 1995): M is the accumulated mass of ametal on the binding gel; Δg is the thickness of the diffusive gel, D is the diffusion coefficient of a
specific metal in the diffusive gel, t is the deployment time, and A is the surface area of the
diffusive gel exposed to the bulk solution.
C = M Δg / D t A(1)

The assessment of water quality for the protection of the aquatic ecosystem made use of a
combination of analytical methods based on following the Australian ANZECC/ARMCANZ(2000) decision tree process for assessing metal toxicity in water. An initial step was to calculate
site-specific trigger values for metals by using a correction for hardness, calculated from thecalcium plus magnesium concentrations expressed as mg/L CaCO3, to the default
ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) guideline value. This more accurately predicts aquatic metal toxicity
which decreases with increasing water hardness as soluble metal is precipitated. The next step inthe decision tree process used the measurements of metals in labile or bioavailable forms andmetals in particulate and insoluble colloidal fractions that could be measured through filtration(<0.45 µm membrane) to predict the bioavailable fractions of metals in waters. Thus DGT samplersoffered an alternative to conventional water sampling techniques for measuring labile trace metals.

A

Mekong River

B

Namphong River
Mekong River

C

ThailandKhon Kaen

B
Khon Kaen
Chi River

Mun RiverBangkokCAB
Namphong River

Ubolratana Dam

C1
C
C2

C3
Do

Khon Kaen
Chi RiverD
E
F

Fig. 1 Location of study site in the Mekong River basin NE Thailand (Maps A and B) andsampling sites along the Namphong River (Map C)
Sites A – Ubolratana Dam; B – fish cage (in-river cage aquaculture for Tilapia production); C – pulp/paperindustrial plant (discharge via tributary to main river); sugar industrial plant; C2 cucumber culture; C3 corn
culture; Do vegetables culture; D vegetable culture and paddy fields; E vegetables culture; and F –vegetables culture, residential discharge to Chi River just upstream from confluence with Namphong River© ISERD
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Tables 1 and 2 give the water quality data (mean (±sd) of before and after DGT sampling) for the
10 sampling sites along the Namphong River below the Ubolratana dam (Fig.1).
Table 1 Field water quality data (mean of before and after DGT sampling)pH

Sampling site
A. Ubolratana
B. River cage Aquaculture
C. Pulp mill
C1. Sugar mill
C2. Cucumber culture
C3. Corn culture
Do. Vegetable culture
D. Vegetable culture
and paddy field
E. Vegetable culture
F. Vegetable culture

Temp
(0C)
23.0
23.0
25.0
25.0
23.0
23.0
25.0

DO
(mg/L)
6.28
5.45
5.88
5.29
7.65
7.31
5.46

Sat (%)

7.0
7.0
7.7
7.3
7.4
7.4
7.3

EC
(µS/cm)
94
86
1250
97
80
99
102

7.3

106

25.0

5.75

70.5

7.2
7.3

109
110

25.0
25.0

5.54
5.47

69.6
69.7

76.4
62.8
75.1
70.3
91.4
90.1
69.6

Table 2 Water quality data (mean±sd of before and after DGT sampling)
Sampling site
A. Ubolratana
B. River cageaquaculture
C. Pulp mill
C1. Sugar mill
C2. Cucumber
cultureC3. Corn culture
Do. VegetablecultureD. Vegetable culture
and paddy field
E. Vegetable culture
F. Vegetable culture

Hardness(mg/L
CaCO3)
64± 4

DOC(mg/L)

Total N
(mg/L)

NO3(mg/L)

46±3

Alkalinity(mg/L
CaCO3)
18±1

2.3

23±4

1.8±0.2

80± 4

47±1

31±1

66± 4

1.9

26±4

2.8±0.31790±80360±20

672±7
52±0

131±1
24±0

227± 5
70± 7

2.3
3.4

28±7
19±8

2.5±0.5
3.1±0.2

107±10

47±4

29±7

69± 4

1.9

23±8

2.9±0.3

80± 0

51±3

12±0

67± 5

1.8

12±2

2.0±0.1

133±19

55±0

18±1

65± 7

1.3

13±2

1.9±0.6120± 0

55±0

23±3

69± 3

3.6

12±4

3 ±1

150±19150±19

57±0
57±0

30±2
30±0

61±13
66± 7

2.9
3.1

12±4
7 ±0

2.2±0.7
2.4±0.1

TS(mg/L)

TDS(mg/L)

53± 2

Generally good water quality was found. The Namphong River water pH (range 7.0-7.4) andhardness (range 64-70 mg/L as CaCO3) were consistent and electrical conductivity showed slightincrease in proceeding downstream, apart from Site C (pulp mill) which was a tributary receiving
discharge to the main river and indicated that groundwater may be used in the processing. Sites C
and C1 also showed that increased total solids in water were associated with these agro-industries.
Nitrate was consistent travelling downstream while dissolved organic carbon (DOC) tended toincrease downstream and total-nitrogen decreased downstream (Table 2). Total and filterable
phosphorus (ranges 0.33 - 0.39 mg/L and 0.03 - 0.05 mg/L respectively, excluding Site C) showedno change from upstream to downstream Namphong River.
The total and filtered (<0.45 µm) concentrations of cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and zincin the Namphong River were measured from before and after sampling and significantly exceeded
the ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) the hardness-adjusted trigger values of water quality guidelines(Table 3). However, the concentration of metals estimated from the DGT data were below thehardness-adjusted trigger values (Table 3) and indicated (more accurately) that the labile(bioavailable) metal concentrations in the Namphong River were not significant to freshwater© ISERD
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aquatic biota. The industrial area (Site C - pulp and sugar mills) was a major potential source ofcontamination of the Namphong River associated with increased levels of heavy metals (aluminium
chromium, cobalt, iron and manganese). Confirmation that groundwater was being used in the pulp
mill (Site C) was indicated by the increased total alkalinity, hardness, electrical conductivity(Tables 1 and 2) and the presence of iron and manganese from the total, <0.45 µm filtered and
DGT concentration data (Table 3 and Fig. 2). Comparison of the DGT and active sampling (<0.45µm filtered) data for manganese (Fig. 2) at Site C suggested that there was a high short term releaseof manganese into the tributary of the Namphong river during DGT deployment. Active samplingtechnique data (Fig. 2) showed only a slight elevation in manganese concentration as sampling wasundertaken before and after the release.
Table 3 Mean concentrations of heavy metals in Namphong River and trigger values
for 95% level of aquatic species protection (ANZECC/ARMCANZ 2000)
Cmax (µg/L)
DGT conc.

Cmin (µg/L)
Total conc.

0.03
0.2
0.2
1.5
34.3
0.5
3.8

57.9
0.3
58.7
42.2
470.0
64.0
223.0

Cmin (µg/L)
Filtered (0.45 µm)
conc.

Metal

Cd
Co
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Zn

11.5
0.1
48.0
19.2
77.0
28.0
32.2

Trigger value (µg/L)
95% of aquatic
species protection(adjusted for
hardness)
0.5
ID
2.5
3.5
ID
13.6
20.0

ID; insufficient data to derive reliable trigger value

300

Mn µg/L

250
200
150
100
50
0
A

B

C

C1

C2

C3

Do

D

E

F

Site
Mn µg/L

Mn Total

Mn <0.45µm

Mn DGT

Fig. 2 Manganese (µg/L) in total, 0.45 µm filtered water fraction by active sampling andpassive DGT technique from the Namphong River
The release of copper, nickel and lead in the Namphong River occurred in the area of rice andmixed vegetable cultivation (Sites Do - F) and was most likely related to extensive pesticide uses
(metals in the pesticides used such as carbamates).
The overall finding is that there is little effect on the water quality of the Namphong River
from upstream to downstream and taking into account of dilution removing observed additions ofsuspended solids and metals from the major agro-industrial activities located upstream. In addition
the Namphong River water is considered safe for human consumption and recreational activities
based on comparison with relevant guidelines.

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CONCLUSION
Active and passive sampling methods produce similar trends with results when usedsimultaneously at the same sites. DGTs were shown to be effective for measuring ultra-trace levelsof the labile fraction of heavy metals in water. DGTs offer an extra cost effective and sensitive
method for the independent evaluation of environmental sites. DGTs help to estimate the actuallevels of toxicities of metals under the specific environmental conditions and measure time
integrated average water concentrations of metals over the deployment time where active sampling
represents single points in time. Concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn in the Namphong Riverby active sampling significantly exceeded the hardness-adjusted ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000)
trigger value for 95% protection of aquatic species. Concentration of metals estimated from DGTdata were far below the trigger values and indicated more accurately that there were no predicted
toxicity effects on aquatic biota in the Namphong River from dissolved metals. Although theindustrial area (pulp and sugar industries) is a major source of contamination of the NamphongRiver with heavy toxic metals (aluminium, cobalt, chromium, iron and manganese), there issufficient dilution from the Namphong River to give safe levels downstream for protection of
aquatic species. The outcome of this study will help to develop more focused monitoring ofspecific toxic heavy metals at particular locations on the Namphong River.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Develpoment
Center in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen University, Thailand for assistance. The Clinical andStatewide Services (CASS), Queensland (Australia) provided financial support of this work andstaff of Inorganic Chemistry Division of QHFSS (Australia) especially Michael Peters and Tetyana
Krasnoff for assistance with sample analyses and data interpretation. Assistance with field work
was provided by Aung Naing Oo, Suraden Chason, and Pantakarn Wanciaen from Khon Kaen
University. Dharawan Noller prepared the figures.
REFERENCESANZECC/ARMCANZ. 2000. Australian water quality guidelines for fresh and marine water quality.
Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource
Management Council of Australia and New Zealand. Australia and New Zealand.
Davison, W., Fones, G., Harper, M., Teasdale, P. and Zhang, H. 2000. Chemical analysis and speciation. In:
Situ Monitoring of Aquatic Systems, J. Buffle, G. Horvai (Eds.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,USA.
Davison, W. and Zhang, H. 1994. In situ speciation measurements of trace components in natural waters
using thin-film gels. Nature, 367, 546-548.
Komarova, T., Olszowy, H., Noller, B. and Golding, G. 2012. The Diffusive gradients in thin films technique(DGT) for trace metals versus active sampling. Int. J. Environ. Rural Devt., 3, 169-174.
Zhang, H. and Davison, W. 1995. Performance characteristics of diffusion gradients in thin films for the insitu measurement of trace metals in aqueous solution. Anal. Chem., 67, 3391 -3400.
Zhang, H. and Davison, W. 2000. Direct in situ measurements of labile inorganic and organically boundmetal species in synthetic solutions and natural waters using diffusive gradients in thin films.
Anal.Chem., 72, 4447-4457.

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Research article
erdChanges in Soil Nitrous Oxide and Carbon Dioxide
Dynamics after the Application of Digested Liquid Cattle
ManureTOMONORI FUJIKAWA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: t3fujika@nodai.ac.jp

MASATO NAKAMURA
National Institute for Rural Engineering, National Agriculture and Food Research
Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan
Recieved 13 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(* Corresponding Auther)

Abstract The aim of this study was to clarify the changes in N2O and CO2 emission fromthe soil surface, their concentrations in soil gases, and gas diffusion fluxes after applicationof digested liquid manure (DL) produced by anaerobic digestion of cattle manure slurry.
N2O emission increased more and faster after application of DL compared to after theapplication of conventional inorganic fertilizer. The N2O emission rate from the DL was
0.25% of the applied nitrogen. CO2 emission after the DL application also increased, andthe CO2 emission ratio from the DL was 33% of the applied C. Soil N2O concentration
increased after DL application. The highest soil N2O concentration occurred earlier thanthe largest N2O emission. The increase in CO2 concentrations near the surface was small.
The largest N2O diffusion flux was observed near the surface, and a negative flux was
observed in deeper layers 14 days after DL application. The difference in the CO2 flux
between deeper and surface layers flux was smaller than that in the N2O flux, whichsuggests that the contribution of CO2 generation in deeper layers is larger than that of N2O.
Keywords Methane fermentation, soil gas concentrations, gas diffusion, greenhouse gases

INTRODUCTION
Anaerobic digestion of livestock slurry can potentially reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emission andsustainably generate electrical and heating energy (Rico et al., 2011). However, digested liquidmanure, which is a by-product of anaerobic digestion, contains a large quantity of organic matters.
Treatment of wastewater containing the digested liquid manure is expensive in terms of energy andchemicals (Massé et al., 2007). The digested liquid manure contains high levels of carbon andnitrogen compounds and other nutrients that can promote plant growth. Application of this liquid toagricultural fields as liquid fertilizer would therefore be an efficient use of the digested liquidmanure, but the environmental effects of this application, and especially the emission of GHGs
need to be better understood.
In a farmland soil, GHGs such as N2O and CO2 are generated by the decomposition of theapplied nitrogen or carbon compounds by soil microorganisms, and the generated gases diffuse
through the soil profile following concentration gradients until the gas is emitted from the soil
surface into the atmosphere. This scenario indicates that the emission of the gases from the soil
surface depends on not only the total amount of generated gases in the soil but also the location (i.e.
depth) of the generation and gas diffusion fluxes.
The aim of this study were to clarify the changes in N2O and CO2 emission from the soil
surface, the corresponding changes in their concentrations and gas diffusion fluxes in the soil after
the application of digested liquid manure produced by digestion of cattle manure slurry.

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METHODOLOGY
Site description and experimental setup
Samples of digested liquid manure produced by anaerobic digestion mixture of dairy cattle manureslurry and vegetable scraps at the Yamada Biomass Plant in Katori City, Chiba Prefecture, Japan(Nakamura et al., 2007) was obtained. The digested liquid manure used in the present study wascollected in September 2007. Approximately half of the nitrogen in the digested liquid manure isorganic nitrogen, and the remainder is NH4-N, with a very small NO3-N content. In this study, thedigested liquid manure without any dehydration or filtration was used. The field experiments wereconducted in an experimental field at the National Institute for Rural Engineering in Tsukuba City,
Ibaraki Prefecture. This field was classified as Andosol soil, and the surface soil was light clay
(LiC). This field had not been cultivated for more than 3 years prior this experiment.
A total of 4 plots (1 m × 2 m) in the field were established. Based on previous standard
fertilizer application rate that has been used around this site, we applied 24 g N m-2 (7800 cm3 m-2)of the digested liquid manure to the surface soil in the first plot (hereafter, the DL treatment). In thesecond plot, (NH4)2SO4, which included the same total amount of nitrogen as in the DL treatment,
was applied (hereafter, the conventional fertilizer [CF] treatment). In the third plot, we added thesame amount of (NH4)2SO4 used in the CF treatment, but added water equal to the amount includedin the digested liquid manure; hereafter, we refer to this as the conventional fertilizer plus water(CW) treatment. We also included a non-fertilized plot (hereafter, the NF treatment) as the control.
All three treatments were applied in October 2007. In the DL, CF, and CW treatments, Mg3(PO4)2
and KCl were also applied to prevent P or K deficiency from affecting the results. Japanesemustard spinach (Komatsuna: Brassica rapa var. perviridis) was sown 7 days after the fertilizer
application. The komatsuna plants were harvested after 57 days. The field was not irrigated, andrainfall during the growth period totaled 169 mm which is normal for the study area; thus, the soils
were neither excessively dry nor flooded. The yield of komatsuna was highest in the DL treatment,
at 1900 g m-2 (9.1 g N m-2). The plants absorbed 37% of the applied nitrogen in this treatment. The
yield in the CF treatment (890 g m-2) was smaller than that in the CW treatment (1800 g m-2). These
differences appear to have resulted from a water shortage during the early growth stages suggested
by Fujikawa and Nakamura (2010).
Measurements
Emissions of N2O and CO2 from the soil were measured surface using the closed-chamber method(Rolston and Moldrup, 2002). Daily measurements were completed between 09:00 to 11:00 h.
Three collars were installed in each plot. N2O and CO2 concentrations in the sampled gas wereanalyzed using a GC-8A gas chromatograph (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) with an electron capture
detector and a GC-14A gas chromatograph (Shimadzu) with a thermal conductivity detector,
respectively. Hutchinson and Livingstone (2002) estimated the gas emission flux (q; g N m-2 h-1 for
N2O; g C m-2 h-1 for CO2) using the slope of the change in gas concentration in the chamber (a; m3
m-3 h-1), the height of the gas chamber (h; 0.20 m), the ratio of nitrogen mass to N2O mass orcarbon mass to CO2 mass (s; 28/44 for N2O; 12/44 for CO2), the density of each gas at 273.15 K (ρ;g m-3), and the temperature (T; K): 273.15 q  ρ ahs
T 


(1).

Cumulative gas emission (Q; g N m-2 for N2O; g C m-2 for CO2) in the DL, CF, and NF
treatments were calculated based on the assumption of linear changes between consecutive
measurements: 2  t  q  q 
n

Q

1

i

i 1

(2).

i

i 1

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where qi is the ith measurement flux, Δti is the time interval between measurements i and i - 1, andn is the total sampling time. The increase in emission of each gas as a result of fertilizer application(Q’) was calculated by subtracting Q in the NF treatment from Q in the DL and CF treatments, andthe nitrogen and carbon emission rates were estimated by dividing Q’ by the amount of nitrogen or
carbon (respectively) in the applied fertilizer.
Soil gas was collected using the stainless-steel gas sampling pipes described by Fujikawa et al.
(2000). Soil gas samples (10 cm3) from around the gas inlets were removed from the pipes using asyringe. The N2O and CO2 concentrations in the soil gases were quantified using the gas
chromatographs, as described above.
Undisturbed 100 cm3 soil cores were collected to determine the gas diffusion coefficient ofeach soil layer. The soil gas diffusion coefficient for O2 was quantified using the non-steady-statemethod suggested by Osozawa and Hasegawa (1995). Relative gas diffusivity (D/D0) was
calculated by dividing the O2 gas diffusion coefficient of the soil (D) by that in the atmosphere(D0). The gas diffusion coefficient of each gas (Da) was estimated by multiplying the relative gas
diffusivity by the diffusion coefficient in the atmosphere for each gas (N2O = 0.0514 m2 h-1, CO2 =0.0756 m2 h-1) as suggested by Rolston and Moldrup (2002).
The gas diffusion flux (qd) in the soil was calculated by multiplying the gas diffusion
coefficient (Da; m2 h-1) by the gas concentration gradient, which was obtained by dividing thedifference in gas concentrations by the distance between two measurements at adjoining depths:
 273.15  Cu  Cd
qd   ρ 
 Da
s
T 
z u  zd(3).

where Cu and Cd are the gas concentrations at depths of zu and zd, respectively, where u and d referto the upper and deeper soil layers, respectively. The datasets for the calculation of qd are shown in
Table 1. The values of Da of the samples obtained 3 days after the fertilizer application were used
for qd after 7, 14 and 21 days and those of the samples obtained 36 days after the application wereused for qd after 36 days.
Table 1 Datasets of zu, zd and Da for the calculation of
the gas diffusion flux (qd) in the soil
Depth of qd (cm)
- 2.5
2.5
7.5
12.5
22.5
32.5
42.5

zu (cm)
- 5**
0**
5
10
20
30
30

zd (cm)
0**
5
10
15
25
50
50

Depth of Da* (cm)(atomosphere***)0 to 55 to 1010 to 15
20 to 25
30 to 35
40 to 45*: Depth of the undisturbed samples using for the measurement of D a**:The atmosphere above the soil surface was also sampled using a syringe.
***: Da at -2.5 cm is gas diffusion coefficient in the atmosphere (D 0)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Emissions of N2O and CO2
One week after fertilizer application, a strong increase in N2O emission was observed in DL. The
increase of N2O emission were also observed in CF and CW but it took about 7 days longer toreach its peak in CF and CW than in DL. The difference in N2O emission between the CF and CW
treatments was negatively small, even though plant growth was much lower in the CF plot.
Changes in cumulative N2O emissions in the DL, CF, CW and NF treatments over time are shownin Fig. 1(a). The cumulative N2O emission in DL was higher than that in CF or CW for about
30days after the fertilizer application. The difference in N2O emission rates could have resulted© ISERD
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100
80

120

(a)

60
40
20
0
0

Cumulative CO2 emission(g CO2-C m-2)

Cumulative N2Oemission(mg N2O-N m-2)

from activation of microorganisms by the organic compounds in the digested liquid manure. The
cumulative N2O emission in DL was 63 mg N m-2 (reached after 57 days) and the N2O emission
rate was 0.25%. This emission rate was similar to that (0.17%) reported by Wulf et al. (2002).
In the DL treatment, the peak CO2 emission was observed just after the fertilizer application.
The CO2 emission decreased with time after 2 days from the application and remained relatively
constant or increased slightly until about 57 days after fertilizer application. No significant
difference between that in CF and CW and that in NF during the first 20 days after the fertilizer
application. This suggests that the effect of the application of inorganic nitrogen and water on theCO2 emission rate was small and that the increase in CO2 emission after application of the digested
liquid manure was caused by 1) the decomposition of the organic matter in the digested liquidmanure and/or by 2) the activation of soil microorganisms by the organic nitrogen. By 30 days after
the fertilizer application, CO2 emission in CF and CW became larger than that in NF. The reason
for this increased CO2 emission was probably that promotion of plant growth by the fertilizer
increased root respiration. The cumulative CO2 emission by the application of digested liquidmanure during the first 28 days, during that time the effect of plant root respiration would be small,was 41 g CO2-C m-2 (Fig. 1(b)). The CO2 emission rate was 33% in the DL plot. Part of the carbon
applied to the soil was emitted as a gas and the remainder moved downward into the groundwater
after dissolving in the soil water or accumulated in the soil.

20

40

60

(b)

80
40

0
0

20

40

60

Time (days after fertilizer application)

Fig. 1 Changes in cumulative (a) N2O and (b) CO2 emission in DL and CF, and NF plot.
Concentrations of N2O and CO2 in the soil
The soil N2O concentration increased after the fertilizer application in both the DL and CF
treatments (Fig. 2). Soil N2O concentrations remain unchanged throughout the study period in the
NF treatment. Throughout the first 7 days of the study, the N2O concentration increased withincreasing depth in the DL and CF treatments; in contrast, at 14 days, the N2O concentration inboth treatments increased to a depth of 5 cm, then decreased thereafter with increasing depth. The
decrease in the N2O concentration in DL was faster than that in CF, which agrees with the changes
in N2O emission. The highest N2O concentration occurred between 7 and 14 days (DL) andbetween 14 and 21 days (CF), which were earlier than the largest N2O emissions observed in theseplots. This suggests that the increase in N2O emission is delayed compared with the increase in theN2O concentration in the surface soil layers.
The soil CO2 concentration tended to increase with increasing depth in all plots (Fig. 3). In the
DL treatment, there was a small and possible non-significant increase in CO2 concentration
between days 7 and 14 in the surface layers (0 to 20 cm). However, the amount of the increase in
DL was smaller than that in CF and NF, which indicates that changes in CO 2 concentration in thesurface soil after the application of the digested liquid manure were smaller than those caused by
the changes in the temperature, aeration, and water content of the soil. Changes in CO2
concentrations in deeper layers (> 30 cm) were larger than those in surface layers in each plot. Thisagrees with the results of Fujikawa et al. (2000) stated that diurnal fluctuations in soil CO2
concentrations were larger in deeper layers in a field with a hard pan. The large diffusion flux of
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respiration rates of roots and microorganisms would be larger in this layer because of the abundant
substrate and oxygen availability.

Depth (cm)

0

0

0

20

20

20

40

40

40

(DL)

60
0

0.4 0.8 1.2

(CF)

60

Days after
the application
7
14
21
36
(NF)

60
1.6
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
Soil N2O concentration（mg N2O-N m-3）

1.6

Fig. 2 Distribution of the concentration of N2O as a function of time

Depth (cm)0Days after
the application
7
14
21
36

20

40

0

20

20

40

40

(DL)
(CF)
60
60
1
2
3
0
2
3
0
Soil CO2 concentration（g CO2-C m-3）

60
0

0

1

(NF)

1

2

3

Fig. 3 Distribution of the concentration of CO2 as a function of time
Soil gas diffusivity and diffusion flux
In DL, agglutination of the soil particles was observed, and the bulk density of the soil was reducedby these large pores. However in the top layer of the soil (0 to 5 cm) the differences in air-filled
porosity and the relative gas diffusivity between treatments were small, whereas in deeper layers,
the differences were large because of the large differences in bulk density in these deeper layers.

Depth (cm)

-10
-10
(a)
(b)
0
0
10
10
Days after
the application
20
20
7
30
30
14
21
40
40
36
50
50
-100 0 100 200 300-100 0 100 200 300
Gas diffusion flux of N2O （g N2O-N m-2 h-1）Depth (cm)Depth (cm)

-10 (c)
-10
(d)
0
0
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
40
50
50
-40 0 40 80 120-40 0 40 80 120
Gas diffusion flux of CO2 （mg CO2-C m-2 h-1）

Fig. 4 Distributions of the gas diffusion flux of N2O in the (a) DL and (b) CF treatments andof the gas diffusion flux of CO2 in the (c) DL and (d) CF treatments© ISERD
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The maximum N2O gas diffusion flux in the top layers of the soil (Fig. 4(a), (b)) was larger inDL than in CF. A negative flux was observed in DL at 5 to 50 cm in depth 14 days after thefertilizer application. This indicated that downward N2O diffusion occurred as a result of theapplication of digested liquid manure. It must be verified whether the larger downward flux of N2O
by digested liquid manure than inorganic fertilizer originated from the properties of the digested
liquid manure. The CO2 gas diffusion flux decreased with increasing depth in the DL and CF
treatments (Fig. 4(c), (d)). Compared with the N2O diffusion flux, the difference in the CO2 flux
between deeper and surface layers was smaller. This supports previous reports that the contributionof the generation of CO2 in deeper layers is larger than that of N2O. The distribution of the CO2 gas
flux in CF varied with time; for this scenario, further research need to be conducted.
CONCLUSION
We cultivated komatsuna in the field under three fertilization treatments, inclusive of digested
liquid manure and an unfertilized control, to clarify the changes in N2O and CO2 dynamics in thesoil and at the soil surface. N2O emission increased more rapidly and substantially after theapplication of the digested liquid manure compared to inorganic fertilizer. Based on the cumulative
N2O emission, the N2O emission rate was 0.25% for the digested liquid manure. CO2 emission
increased drastically after the application of the digested liquid manure, and then decreased withtime from 2 days after the fertilizer application, but remained higher than the initial value. The CO2
emission ratio for the digested liquid manure was 33%. The soil N2O concentration increased after
the application of digested liquid manure and inorganic fertilizer. The increase in N2O emission isdelayed compared with that in the N2O concentration in the surface soil. The changes in the CO2
concentration in the surface soil caused by the application of digested liquid manure were smaller
than those caused by changes in the temperature, aeration, and water content of the soil. The largest
N2O gas diffusion flux was observed in the surface layer and negative flux was observed in deeper
layers 14 days after the application of digested liquid manure. The difference in the CO2 flux
between deeper and surface layers was smaller than that for N2O. This suggests that thecontribution of CO2 generation in deeper layers is larger than that of N2O after the application ofdigested liquid manure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study was supported by grant from Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries ofJapan (Rural Biomass Research Project, BUM-Cm3200). And for soil carbon analysis, it was also
supported a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B), No. 22780222, provided by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, the Government of Japan.
REFERENCES
Fujikawa, T. and Nakamura, M. 2010. Influence of application method and rate of digested liquid frommethane fermentation on N2O gas emission and plant growth. (In Japanese with English abstract.) Jpn. J.
Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 81(3), 240-243.
Fujikawa, T., Miyazaki, T., Seki, K. and Imoto, H. 2000. Correlation between the distribution of
microorganisms and CO2 and O2 gas concentrations in a field under rotating use. (In Japanese withEnglish abstract.) Trans. Jpn. Soc. Irrig. Drain. Reclam. Eng., 68(4), 443-452.
Hutchinson, G.L. and Livingstone, G.P. 2002. Chap 4.5. Soil-atmosphere exchange; In: Dane, J.H. and Topp,
G.C. (eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis Part 4, Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Madison, U.S.A., 1159-1182.
Massé, D.I., Croteau, F. and Masse, L. 2007. The fate of crop nutrients during digestion of swine manure inphychrophilic anaerobic sequencing batch reactors. Bioresour. Technol., 98, 2819-2823.
Nakamura, M., Yuyama, Y., Yamaoka, M. and Fujikawa, T. 2007. Material balance in biogas plant andfertilizer characteristics of digested liquid and digested liquid supplement. (In Japanese with English
abstract.) Trans. Jpn. Soc. Irrig. Drain. Reclam. Eng., 75(3), 337-343.

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Osozawa, S. and Hasegawa, S. 1995. Diel and seasonal changes of carbon dioxide concentration and flux inan andisol. Soil Sci., 55, 55-62.
Rico, C., Rico, J.L., Tejero, I., Muñoz, N. and Gómez, B. 2011. Anaerobic digestion of the liquid fraction of
dairy manure in pilot plant for biogas production: Residual methane yield of digestate. Waste Manage.,31, 2167-2173.
Rolston, D.E. and Moldrup, P. 2002. Chap 4.5. Gas Diffusivity; In: Dane, J.H. and Topp, G.C. (eds.),
Methods of Soil Analysis Part 4, Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Madison, U.S.A., 1113-1139.
Wulf, S., Maeting, M. and Clemens, J. 2002. Application technique and slurry co-fermentation effects onammonia, nitrous oxide, and methane emission after spreading: II. Greenhouse gas emissions. J. Environ.
Qual., 31, 1795-1801.

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Research article
erd

An Evaluation of Evaluation Systems for Rural Water
Supply and Sanitation Systems
TUNG NGUYEN NHU*
Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Email: nntung@hcmiu.edu.vn
Received 14 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract An evaluation of evaluation systems applied to water supply and sanitation
systems in rural areas would contribute to improving the validity and quality of theevaluation results. An evaluation system is supposed to be based on latest indicators in thefield, theory-based evaluation principles, in consideration of threats to the validity of theevaluation. A case study of the Mekong Delta Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project(AUSAID Project) is used for a review of its evaluation system. This project was
implemented in five provinces in Vietnam for the period from 2000 to 2007. Informationon this evaluation is collected from regular project monitoring and evaluation reports andthe Activity Completion Report. The author’s work as an evaluation officer for the project
improves the understanding of the project’s evaluation approaches. The project evaluation
reports serve the purpose of measuring the effectiveness and sustainability of the project’s
activities. Several potential threats to the validity of the evaluation include some missing
assumptions and intermediate outcome for the project’s impacts. Notwithstanding theabove threats, this evaluation system of rural water and sanitation was the first in this field
in Vietnam, and its indicators satisfy the evaluation standards. This evaluation ofevaluation, based on theory-based evaluation principles, for a specific case of rural watersupply project in Mekong Delta has never been conducted before.
Keywords threats to validity, effectiveness, evaluation systems, water supply,
sustainability, participatory

INTRODUCTION
Because of its importance, an evaluation report must be a useful document for learning. However,
Busby (1999) has stated that evaluation reports are not used effectively because their contents are
too shallow: they fail to explicitly identify the true causes of problems, lack of objective outcomeof data and misinterpret data. The validity of an evaluation report depends on the quality of its
evaluation system design and implementation. Therefore, it is necessary to determine whether an
evaluation system is free of technical errors, misinterpretation, and bias. This type of auditing helps
to improve an ongoing evaluation process. A review of post-project evaluation also audits thecompleteness and soundness of final evaluation reports to provide information to future project
managers. Because of this importance, international donors conduct reviews of evaluations. For
example, AUSAID audited 162 evaluation reports of its funded activities from July 2006 to June2010 and found that approximately one-quarter of these evaluation reports were of “insufficientquality to be published”, and that only 11% of them were of excellent quality (Bazeley, 2011).
An evaluation of an evaluation is defined as a way “to aggregate findings from a series of
evaluations. It is also used to denote the evaluation of an evaluation to judge its quality and/or
assess the performance of the evaluators” (glossary for M&E terms, OECD-DAC 2002). Other
names for an evaluation of an evaluation are a secondary evaluation, a meta-evaluation and anevaluation audit. This evaluation category includes professional critiques of evaluation reports,
reanalysis of data and external evaluations of internal audits. In this paper, the term “metaevaluation” is used to refer to the evaluation of evaluations.

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OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this study is to compile meta-evaluation criteria for a Rural Water Supply andSanitation (RWSS) evaluation based on an intensive literature review and to assess the evaluation
system used by an AUSAID-funded project, the Mekong (Cuu Long) Delta Rural Water Supply
and Sanitation (CLDRWSS) Project. Specifically, the research questions are as follows: 1) Whatshould be reviewed in an evaluation of a RWSS evaluation system? 2) What are the evaluation
methodologies used by the CLRWSS Project? 3) What are some threats to the validity of theevaluation results in the CLRWSS Project?
This research will contribute by providing a proposed framework of meta-evaluation to which
future evaluation efforts in the relevant sector may refer. Evaluators will be able to determine
which aspects of their evaluation content will be checked to allow their auditing to be more
complete, accurate, accountable, and usable.
The limitation of this paper is that it ignores considerations of some meta-evaluation
indicators, including cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness issues (e.g., was the evaluation conducted ata reasonable cost?) and the extent of learning from evaluation results (what did people learn andhow well did people learn from these lessons?). It is important that future meta-evaluations include
these contents.
METHODOLOGY
For the first research question, literature review is used to compile a set of relevant meta-evaluation
indicators to answer the first question. Substantial research has been conducted to include relevant
meta-evaluation indicators in the rural water and sanitation sector. The sources of this information
are mainly evaluation books, journal articles and websites. I also refer to the guidelines publishedby the World Bank, OECD, AUSAID and UNICEF for evaluation standards.
To answer the second and third research questions, desk research is used to retrieve the
CLDRWSS Project’s Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) reports and the M&E Summary Reportfor the Activity Completion Report to provide evidence of the evaluation system. The above
evaluation reports are scrutinised through the lens of theory-based evaluation model to understandhow and why the project activities would lead to outcomes (Weiss, 1995; Fitz Gibbon et al., 1996;
Rogers et al., 2000). Theory-based evaluation is more and more popularly used in designingevaluation of community-based interventions and the CLDRSS project evaluation system is not an
exception. The theory-based evaluation normally uses a form of logic framework (Logframe) to
guide the collection and analysis of data for evaluation reports.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
What should be reviewed in an evaluation of a RWSS evaluation system?
Stufflebeam (1974) proposed eleven specific criteria to determine the quality of an evaluation(Table 1). Weiss (1995) and Rogers (2007) suggested that theory-based evaluation should include alogical framework, or Logframe, which has increasingly been applied in health community-based
interventions such as water and sanitation projects. According to these authors, the outcomes of anintervention are based on theories of how and why this intervention will work or through a pathway
in a particular context. Therefore, a theory-based evaluation must be designed based on a logicalframework or Logframe, and its focus should be on collecting and analysing data as required by theframework. Chelimsky (1995) regarded the political dynamics or environment as one of theconstraints to the quality of an evaluation, which may lead to “the total restriction or classificationof information”. Furthermore, according to the World Bank, three major criteria for evaluating
rural water supply and sanitation systems are sustainability, effective use, and replicability.
Capacity building is central to the progress of these dimensions. Narayan (1993) has emphasised
the importance of a participatory approach to the evaluation of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation© ISERD
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community-based (RWSS) interventions for the purpose of sustainability (Table 1).
Table 1 Summary of Meta-Evaluation Considerations/Indicators
Authors/
Organisations
Stufflebeam (1974)

Weiss (1995) and
Rogers (2007)
Narayan (1993)

Meta-Evaluation Considerations/Indicators
1) Internal validity, 2) External validity, 3) Reliability, 3) Objectivity, 4) Relevance,5) Importance, 6) Scope, 7) Credibility, 8) Timeliness, 9) Pervasiveness, 10) Cost/
effectiveness
Theory-based evaluation (logical framework, input-outcome model, assumptions, context)

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS) indicators (participatory evaluation,effectiveness, sustainability, capacity building, replicability)
OECD Development
Effectiveness (e.g., Independent Completion Report effectiveness, gender, M&E system,
Assistance Committee
lessons learned); relevance (theory of change/intervention logics, context); sustainability
Evaluation Criteria(use of government systems, transactional vs. transformational); efficiency (e.g., size andscale, expenditure)
AUSAID criteria
Gender equality, monitoring and evaluation, analysis and learning, overall quality
Chelimsky (1999)
Political dynamics as a constraint
Source: Compilation from literature

What are the evaluation methodologies used by the CLRWSS project?
Evaluation Indicators: A set of indicators, with checklists, were established to review the major
components (Table 2).
Table 2 Major Components of CLDRSS Evaluation Indicators
Project Indicators

Component
A. WATER SUPPLY ANDSANITATION SYSTEMS

1.
2.
3.
4.

System Quality (4 sub-indicators)
Coverage and Access (2 sub-indicators)
Costs and Affordability (3 sub-indicators)
Operation – Maintenance – Management (3sub-indicators)
B. RWSS AGENCY
1. Capacity to promote water supply and
CAPACITY
sanitation
2. Capacity to support institutional capacity
building
3. Capacity to implement RWWS investments
4. Capacity for project management
C. INFORMATION,
1. Focus group analysis of key IEC activities,
EDUCATION AND
including clean water sources, canal water
COMMUNICATION (IEC)treatment, looking after piped water sources
2. Focus group analysis of IEC healthy schools
model
3. Reported cases of diarrhoea (Department of
Health data)
D. COMMUNITY
1. Activity is an appropriate solution, matches
ENVIRONMENTAL
design and is well implemented
SANITATION ACTIVITIES
2. Number of direct beneficiaries disaggregatedby activity type
Source: CLDRWSS Project M&E Report

Relevance to literature
indicators
Sustainability
Effective Use
Efficiency

Capacity building
Replicability

Effective use

Effective use

The indicators, the first ones applied in this field in Vietnam, were designed by an Australian
M&E Specialist and project consultants in compliance with the Vietnam Monitoring and
Evaluation Manual developed by the Vietnam Australia Monitoring and Evaluation Project 2005.
The measurements of sub-indicators for these components are based on 5-point, 4-point or 3-point
scale with scoring guidelines and checklists.
Theory-based Evaluation: Figure 1 shows reporting hierarchical structure. Different evaluation
reports from four teams, i.e. household survey team, technical evaluation team, IEC evaluators and© ISERD
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school IEC evaluators, are compiled and summarized into an M&E Summary Report. Eachevaluation team performed a different function using different data-collecting methods. Household
surveys conducted by external consultants for rating customer-based water and service quality;
technical site visits for standard-based system quality inspection; household surveys and interviews
for IEC outcome auditing; school IEC team for school hygiene and water using checklists andinterviews.
M&E Summary
ReportHousehold
SurveysTechnical
Evaluations

Household IEC
Evaluations

School IEC
Evaluations

Fig. 1 The CLDRWSS Project’s M&E Document Hierarchy
Source: CLDRWSSPThe above indicators and function structure are guidelines for conducting post-project
evaluation. The Project also formed a core M&E team, comprised of an Australian M&E specialist,an M&E project officer, an IT officer and five provincial M&E liaison officers for both processesof evaluation and post-project evaluation.
Table 3 Potential Threats to Evaluation Results
Component
Logic
Framework(Logframe)

Summary Description
Logframe consists of narrative summary
at project, component outcome andoutput levels; verifiable indicators andmeans of verification; achievements (i.e.
inputs).

Threats to Evaluation Reliability
Possible missing inputs: other healthpromotion interventions outside of project
influence water use behaviour during 5 projectyears; such factors as social norms, behaviour
control, service quality, price, etc would
impact intention to use.
Missing assumptions: food bacterial
contamination controlled; diarrhoea
seasonability
Unidentified intermediate outcome: would
the reduced incidence of diarrhoea be an
impact or an outcome? The answer to it is notclearly found in the Project M&E IEC reports.

Process
Evaluation

Indicators: investment information,
IEC activities, performance progress,
beneficiary number
Methods: synchronized data files
Time: monthly
Tools: RUWASS Management
Information System (MIS)
Indicators: See Table 2 for major
indicators
Methods: Site visits, surveys,
interviews
Time: 3 months upon completion
Tools: checklists, questionnaires,
records
Sampling: for household survey, about
10% beneficiary households.

None
Post-projectEvaluation
© ISERD170

 No weighted factor scoring system.
Specifically, the importance weight forsystem quality is 0.67 while that forcoverage and access is only 0.04.
 Three months is too short to see a behaviourchange in a context with deeply-rooted
health practices
 Sample size (about 20 per commune) may
be small as total beneficiary population percommune is 200.
 Good reports on achievements are more
likely to be appreciated (political dynamics).

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

What are some threats to the validity of the evaluation results of the CLRWSS project?
In consideration of the theory-based evaluation model and other literature, the following tablesummarizes some threats to the evaluation results as perceived by the author.
Most of uncovered failure to mention assumptions falls on the information-educationcommunication (IEC) impacts. For example, one note is that prior to the Project, local people
already had high demand for improved water hence the Project IEC delivery programs might beunlikely to have much impact on increasing the demand. Take another example of assumption.
Safer drinking water is assumed to produce better health because it eliminates the risks of waterborne diseases (e.g., diarrhoea). In fact, some health studies conclude that other factors that cause
diarrhoea in poorer countries include flies, poor hand-washing practices, food bacterial
contamination, and diarrhoea seasonality (Blogg, 2005). Another point for justification is weighing
importance to each evaluation indicators (Table 4).
Table 4 shows that the weighted factor of “Coverage and Access” component is only 0.04
(5/135), which is too low compared to that of system quality (0.67). This component should
deserved a higher score because it is important to have more water users to prove that the water
scheme is effectively used. Also, some sub-indicators are on 5-point measurement scale whereas
the others on 3-point measurement scale. Some justification is needed to explain why.
Table 4 Score structure for evaluation in a rural piped water system
Components

Max Score (points)

Weighted Factor

90
5
14
26
135

0.67
0.04
0.10
0.19
1.00

System Quality
Coverage and AccessCosts and Affordability
Operation, Maintenance & Management
Source: CLDRWSS Project M&E Report

CONCLUSION
An evaluation report should be read and applied hence its quality needs to meet some standards.
This study proposes a new model for evaluation systems in a rural water supply and sanitation
project. Firstly, it should measure the degree of capacity building achievement as a result ofeffective use, replicability and sustainability of the intervention. The evaluation system should
stipulate that six months and even some years after water supply construction, site visits should be
conducted to inspect if the water scheme is well functioning, if more villagers change their
behaviour to the use of improved water and if the model of the project success could be copied toother rural locations. This inspection is critical because it is a waste of investment money if thewater supply system breaks down just a short period of time after being constructed due to limited
capacity in management. Previous studies have shown that a rural water supply activity is more
likely to be sustainable with active participation of community members, especially women.
Therefore, evaluation indicators should include the measurements of community participation, withconsiderations of gender issues, in the process of project implementation. Secondly, evaluation
methodology should be based on participatory approach. Community members, as direct
beneficiaries, would have more exact answers to evaluators’ questions on the impacts of the waterproject. Lastly, a review on an evaluation report sticks to the logic framework of the project.
Therefore, the design of an evaluation should include an adequate and clear logic framework. A
logical framework, with clear description of inputs, outputs, outcomes and impacts, with statedassumptions and contexts would be critical in an evaluation system as they would be used as
guidelines to steer evaluators to fairly assess the achievements of a project. Future evaluations
should use these indicators to verify the robustness and soundness of evaluations in this sector.
Generally, the evaluation reports of the CLDRWSS Project served the purpose of measuring theeffectiveness and sustainability of the Project’s activities. Several potential threats to the validity of© ISERD
171

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

the evaluation, as described above, include the lack of some assumptions and intermediateoutcomes, timing for mature outcomes and assigning more resources for larger sample size.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe a debt of gratitude to the following specialists for their inputs to this paper: Mr. Ray Miles,
the former Australian Team Leader; Mr. Bruce Bailey, Australian Evaluation Specialist; Mr. Chris
Trewethey, the M&E coordinator; and Mr. Vince Keogh, Senior Engineer. Without them, I would
have been unable to produce this study.
REFERENCES
Bazeley, P. 2011. Study of independent completion reports and other evaluation documents. Ausaid.,
Australia.
Bailey, B. 2007. Monitoring and evaluation report. Cuu Long Delta Rural Water Supply and Sanitation
Project. Ausaid., Australia.
Busby, J.S. 1999. An assessment of post-project reviews. International Journal of Project Management. 30(3), 23-39.
Blogg, J.R. 2005. Health impact of Cuu Long Delta. Cuu Long Delta Rural Water Supply and Sanitation
Project. Ausaid., Australia.
Fitz-Gibbon, C.T. and Morris, L.L. 1996. Theory-based evaluation - What do we mean by theory-based
evaluation? Evaluation Practice. 17 (2), 177-184.
Chelimsky, E. 1995. The political environment of evaluation and what it means for the development of the
field. Evaluation Practice, 16, 215-225.
Cuu Long Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project. 2007. Monitoring and evaluation report for activity
completion report. Ausaid, Australia.
Narayan, D. 1993. Participatory evaluation – Tools for managing change in water and sanitation. World Bank
Technial Paper No. 207. World Bank.
OECD-DAC, 1991. Glossary of terms used in evaluation, in: Methods and procedures in aid evaluation.
OECD, 2000. Glossary of evaluation and results based management (RBM) terms. The 32nd Meeting at
OEDC, Paris, France. February 10-11, 2000.
Prosavac, E.J. and Carey, R.G. 1997. Program evaluation. Methods and case studies. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New
Jersy, USA.
Rogers, P.J. 2007. Theory-based evaluation. Reflections Ten Years On. New Directions for Evaluation, 6465.
Stufflebeam, D.L. 1974. Meta-evaluation. Evaluation Center, College of Education, Western Michigan
University. USA.
Weiss, C.H. 1995. Nothing as practical as good theory: Exploring theory-based evaluation for comprehensive
community initiatives for children and families. New approaches to evaluating community initiatives.
Concepts, methods, and contexts, 65-92.
UNICEF.(nd). Evaluation standards. (from;http://www.unicef.org/evaluation/files/Evaluation_standards.pdf.)
Vietnam Australia Monitoring and Evaluation Project. 2005. Monitoring and evaluation manual.
FERD/Ministry of Planning and Investment of Vietnam. Vietnam.
World Bank. (nd.) Glossary of M&E terms. (from; http://www.worldbank.org/ieg/ecd/docs/annex_e.pdf)© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Research article
erd

Assessment of Sustainable Energy Potential of NonPlantation Biomass Resources in Sameakki Meanchey
District in Kampong Chhnang Province, Cambodia
VIBOL SAN*
Faculty of Science, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email : san.vibol@rupp.edu.kh, sanvibol@gmail.com

DALIN LY
Faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

NEANG IM CHEK
Faculty of Science, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 10 June 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Biomass has always been a major source of energy for mankind, and accounts
for about 14% of the world’s total energy supply. Biomass is a clean energy resource,
considered neutral on CO2 emissions, that has a high potential for meeting increasingenergy demands as a substitute for fossil fuels. Biomass energy sources are abundant in
Cambodia. We assess the energy potential of the following non-plantation biomass
resources: (1) agricultural residues, (2) animal manure. The production of agriculturalresidues and animal manure was based on the production of crops obtained from the
National Census 2008 and one study site. This information was categorized into: (i)primary residues (paddy straw, sugarcane tops, maize stalks, empty coconut bunches andfronds, palm oil fronds and male bunches etc.) and, (ii) secondary residues (paddy husks,
bagasse, maize cobs, coconut shells, coconut husks, coir dust, saw dust, palm oil shells,
fiber and empty bunches, etc.), and (iii) animal manure. The estimation of residue
generated can be calculated from the residue to product ratio (RPR). To estimate thepotential for deriving additional energy from a residue, it is important to establish thepresent utilization pattern of the residue. The results of energy potential analysis indicatethat agricultural residues could have produced 212.11 GJ in 2010. The total annual
potential of biogas from animal manure in 2006, 2007 and 2008 was 1357.96 thousand m3,
1432.89 thousand m3 and 1452.66 thousand m3, respectively, and the corresponding
energy potential was 29.87 GJ, 31.52 GJ and 31.96 GJ, respectively. If this energy
potential can be developed in order to meet the demand for energy, it can reduce thepressure on natural forests, the impact on human health, especially of women and children,and the amount of greenhouse gas emissions.
Keywords biomass, conservation, energy potential, residues, sustainable energy

INTRODUCTION
Biomass has always been a major source of energy for mankind, and accounts for about 14% of theworld’s total energy supply. The term biomass refers to all organic materials that originate fromliving organisms e.g. wood, agricultural residues, animal manure etc. Biomass sources are therefore
diverse(Bhattacharya et al. 2005). Biomass is a clean energy resource that shows high potential as a
substitute for fossil fuels and to meet the world’s increasing energy demand.
Biomass energy sources are abundant in Cambodia. Fuelwood is the most common source ofenergy for the majority of the population in the Kingdom. Firewood and charcoal are often referred
to as traditional fuels, yet they remain the dominant source of energy for cooking within thedomestic sector, and are used extensively by industry and the service sector. The Statistical
Yearbook 2008 published by the National Institute of Statistics reported that fuelwood was by far© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

the most commonly used fuel for cooking purposes; 85.0% of Cambodian households in 2007.
Around 98.2 percent of rural households used fuelwood and charcoal.
In Sameakki Meanchey district in Kampong Chhnang province, fuelwood is the main energy
source for cooking, boiling water, preparing animal feed and protecting cattle against insects.
Approximately 96% of the households in the district depend on fuelwood as a primary energy
source for cooking along with other energy types such as charcoal, animal dung, crop residues,
LPG, kerosene, and biogas(San et al. 2012a). Kerosene was the main energy source used by local
people (60.5%) for lighting (San et al. 2012b). Other energy sources used for lighting among the767 households interviewed were rechargeable batteries, 57.9%, and electricity, 5.1%.
Although wood biomass is important for people in Sameakki Meanchey district, nonplantation biomass is an alternative energy source that could reduce pressure on natural forests by
reducing fuelwood dependency for cooking and boiling water and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to assess the sustainable energy potential of the following biomass
resources in Sameakki Meanchey district, Kampong Chhnang province, Cambodia: (i) agriculturalresidues, (ii) animal manure, and (iii) fuelwood saving potential through improved efficiency.
METHODOLOGY
Site description
Sameakki Meanchey District located in the south western Kampong Chhnang Province wasselected as the study area. The district lies in the south of the province and shares a border with
Kandal and Kampong Speu Provinces to the south. The district is subdivided into 9 communes(Khum) and 85 villages (Phum). The total number of households in 2010 was 15,516 households ofwhich the total population was 73,303 people (NCDD, 2010). The average household size was 5.37
(Mode = 5) (San et al. 2012a).
Non-plantation energy potential assessment
This section presents the methodologies used to assess the potential of the different non-plantation
resources considered in this study. These can be categorized into: (i) primary residues (paddy straw,
sugarcane tops, maize stalks, coconut stalks and fronds, palm oil fronds and male bunches etc.) and,(ii) secondary residues (paddy husk, bagasse , maize cobs, coconut shells, coconut husks, coir dust,
saw dust, etc.), (iii) animal manure, and (iv) fuelwood released through efficient improvement. The
production data of each non-plantation biomass resource was obtained from the homepage of the
National Committee of Sub-National Democratic Development (NCDD, 2010).
Primary and secondary residues: The term agricultural residue is used to describe all the organic
materials which are produced as by-products from harvesting and processing of agricultural crops.
Agricultural residues, which are generated in the field at the time of harvest are defined as primaryor field based residues (e.g. rice straw, sugar cane tops), whereas those co-produced during
processing are called secondary or processing based residues (e.g. rice husk, bagasse). The
availability of primary residues for energy applications is usually low since collection is difficult
and they have other uses as fertilizer, animal feed etc. However secondary residues are usuallyavailable in relatively large quantities at the processing site and may be used as captive energy
sources for the same processing plant involving little or no transportation and handling cost. Theenergy potential of various primary and secondary residues was estimated.
Energy potential of the residues: The estimation of residue generated was calculated on the basisof the residue to product ratio (RPR). To estimate the potential of deriving additional energy from aresidue, it is important to establish the present utilization pattern of the residue (Bhattacharya et al.

© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

1999).
)∑(()

Where ARG is the amount of a residue generated annually (t yr -1), RPR is the residue
production ratio, AH is the annual harvest of the crop or product (t), EPresidue is the total energy
potential of residue (J t-1), SAF is surplus availability factor (dimensionless), EUF is the energy use
factor (dimensionless), and LHVresidue is the lower heating value of residue (J t-1).
Fuel characteristics: Moisture content of residues normally varies widely at different stages of
harvesting and storage. The moisture content of a residue influences its fired heating value andshould be known. A review of RPR values at different moisture content and lower heating values(LHVs) for different residues was carried out by Bhattacharya et al. 1996. The RPR values reportedby them can be used for estimating the energy potential of agricultural residues; however, countryspecific RPR and LHV values should be used wherever possible.
Animal manure: Animal manure is principally composed of organic material, moisture and ash.
Decomposition of animal manure can occur either in an aerobic or anaerobic environment. Underaerobic conditions, CO2 and stabilized organic materials (SOM) are produced. Under anaerobic
conditions, CH4, CO2, and SOM are produced. Since the quantity of animal manure produced
annually can be substantial, the potential for CH4 production and hence energy potential of animal
manure is significant. Energy potential of recoverable animal manure is estimated by Bhattacharya
et al. 1997. A preliminary estimation of energy potential of animal manure was reported by
Bhattacharya et al. 1997. The amount of dry matter from an animal, recoverable fraction of animal
manure, volatile solid fraction, and biogas yield values reported by them, could be used for
estimating the energy potential of animal manure.
Fuelwood released through efficiency improvement: In the household sector, large amounts offuelwood are consumed, normally in inefficient traditional stoves, for cooking and water boiling
purposes. Energy saving through improved cooking stoves is discussed in this paper. A
methodology for estimation of fuelwood released through efficient improvement was reported by
Bhattacharya et al. 1999.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The potential for energy production from crop residues
The main occupation of households in the study is farming. Rice paddy is the main crop in the
study area. The other major crops grown in the study area are corn, peanuts, and cassava. During
the dry season, farmers in the research area could not grow rice because they lacked a water source
for irrigation. Rice production per ha in 2008 ranged from 1ton to 2.5 ton. It is necessary to notethat total production of corn, peanuts and cassava increased in 2007 but declined in the following
year because production demand decreased.
Table 1 Types of crop residues, RPR and calorific value for agricultural residue
Residue
Crop
Rice

Straw,
Rice husks
Corn
Stover, cobs
PeanutStraw, leaves, shell
Cassava
Stalks
Source:(Sajjakulnukit et al. 2005)

Moisture(%)

RPR

Energy use
Factor

8.17
8.83
8.65
---

0.447
0.230
0.250
2.663
0.088

0.000
0.531
0.193
0.007
0.000

© ISERD
175

Surplusavailability
factor
0.684
0.469
0.670
0.760
0.407

LHV
(MJ kg-1)(as received)
8.83
12.85
16.63
18.00
16.99

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

The crops grown in the study area produce various types of crop residues. These residues arise
from the harvesting of these crops and their subsequent processing into various products. The data
in Table 1 shows the types of crop residues found at the study site. The estimated energy potential
is performed based on residue product ratio (RPR) and as received caloriﬁc values as shown in
Table 1.
Greater rice production in comparison to other crops in the study area contributed to highavailability of rice residues such as rice husk and rice straw. Rice husk, also called rice hull, is theoutermost layer of the paddy grain. It is separated from brown rice during the first step in the
milling process. The unutilized rice husk mainly causes waste disposal problems and breathingproblems because of its low density but could be an option for biomass energy systems. The use ofrice husk as a solid fuel may be a promising way to avoid these problems and provide considerable
amounts of useful energy (Chungsanguit et al. 2010). Rice straw is another by-product of rice and agreat bio-resource since it is one of the richest materials in terms of its lignocelluloses (Yoswathanaet al. 2010). However, it is important to note that rice straw is also an import fodder for animals in
Cambodia. Table 2 shows the estimated energy potential from agricultural residues in 2008. The
production of agricultural residue is calculated based on the production of crops obtained from the
National Committee for Democratic Development in 2010. Total of estimated energy potentialfrom crop residues is approximately 212.11 GJ in 2008.
Table 2 Energy potential of agricultural residues in 2008
Product
Rice
Corn
PeanutCassava

Residue
Straw,
Rice husks
Stover, cobs
Straw, leaves, shell
Stalks

Production(tonne)31,53735913
95Residue available for energy(tonne)14,097.00
7,254.00
8.75
2,431.32
8.36
Total

Energy potential
(GJ)
85.14
93.21
0.13
33.57
0.06
212.11The potential for energy production from animal manure
In the study area the most important animals are cattle/buffalo, pigs, chickens and ducks. Other
livestock includes goats, sheep and horses, but the numbers are comparatively small. Livestock
farms produce polluting wastes. Traditionally their disposal has been by direct use as fertilizers orin some instances as landfill. These methods cause severe environmental problems such as odour,contamination of water, methane emission etc. The present study focused only on cattle/buffalo,
pigs, chickens and ducks. Livestock populations over three years were obtained from the National
Committee for Democratic Development 2010 (NCDD 2010).
Table 3 Dry matter, recoverable fraction, and volatile solid of animal waste
Number (head)
Animal

2006

2007

2008

Buffalo/cattle
37,922
40,773Pig
15,31913,900Chicken42,40243,368
Duck
2,462
2,780
*Source: (Sajjakulnukit et al. 2005)

40,96015,19046,282
2,151

Fresh Waste*(kg head-1 d-1)

Recoverable
fraction*

12.40
1.50
0.03
0.03

0.50
0.80
0.80
0.40

Dry mater*
(DM)
(%)
17.77
35.22
33.99
26.82

Volatilesolid*
(%)
13.64
24.84
22.34
17.44

Values for different characteristics of animal manures considered in the present study, such as
dry mater, fraction recoverable as well as physical and chemical properties are given in Table 3.
The heating value of biogas is taken as 22 MJ m-3 (IPCC, 2006). The estimated amount of animal
manure recoverable, the potential of biogas production and the total potential of energy fromanimal manure are presented in Tables 4 and 5. The total annual potential of biogas from animal
manure in 2006, 2007 and 2008 is 1357.96 thousand m3, 1432.89 thousand m3 and 1452.66© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

thousand m3, respectively, and the corresponding energy potential is 29.87 GJ, 31.52 GJ and 31.96
GJ, respectively.
Table 4 Biogas yield and recoverable DM of animal manure
Number (head)
Animal2006
37,922
15,31942,402
2,462

Buffalo/cattle
Pig
ChickenDuck

2007
40,773
13,90043,3682,780

2008
40,96015,19046,2822,151

2006
30499.53
2953.53
157.82
7.23

Recoverable DM(tonne DM yr-1)
2007
2008
32792.51
32942.91
2680.33
2929.08
161.41
172.268.16
6.32

Biogas yield(m-3 kg-1 VS)
0.286
0.217
0.242
0.310

Table 5 Energy potential from animal manure
AnimalBuffalo/cattle
Pig
ChickenDuck

2006
37,922
15,31942,402
2,462

Number(head)
2007
40,773
13,90043,3682,780

2008
40,96015,19046,282
2,151
Total

Amount of biogas(Tm-3 yr-1)
2006
2007
2008
1189.80
1279.25
1285.12159.23144.48157.89
8.53
8.73
9.31
0.39
0.44
0.34
1357.961432.891452.66

Energy potential
(GJ)
2006
2007
2008
26.18
28.14
28.27
3.50
3.18
3.47
0.19
0.19
0.20
0.01
0.01
0.01
29.87
31.52
31.96

Fuelwood saving through efficiency improvement
The New Lao stove, known as the Cambodian improved stove, is the most frequently used stovetype in the study area (33%), followed by the Three Stone stove (18%), the Siam and Lao
Kompong Chhnang stove (13%), the Traditional Lao stove (10%), the Korng Rey stove (9%), theself-made or clay stove (2%) and the Samaki stove (2%) (San et al. 2012a). The study conductedby San et al. (2012) reports that more than 50% and 35% of households in the study area owns 2stoves or 1 stove, respectively. Some households use two different types of stove in their household.
Therefore, we assumed that households were using the same type of traditional stove in theirhousehold in order to calculate fuelwood saving by switching from inefficient traditional cooking
stoves to improved cooking stoves (Table 6). We also assume that all traditional cooking stoves are
replaced by New Lao Stove, which is a more energy-efficient cooking stove. The average fuelwood
consumption rate per family per year for cooking and boiling drinking water in study area is 1.87
and 1.02 tonne (San et al. 2012a).
Table 6 Biomass saving potential in residential cooking and boiling drinking waterType of stoveThree Stone
Siam
Loa Kampong Chhnang
Traditional Loa

Fuelwood
consumption(tonne family-1 year-1)
2.89
2.89
2.89
2.89

Efficiency (%)
Traditional
Improved
stove
stove
10
25
15
25
16
25
11
25

Saving potential
(t)
(GJ)
0.61
0.40
0.36
0.57

27.74
18.50
16.65
25.89

CONCLUSION
All biomass residues including primary and secondary residues have the potential to provide 244
GJ in 2008. Rice straw and rice husks have higher energy potential compared to other crop residues
because of their ready availability in large quantities. Animal manure, which produces 31.96 GJ in2008, is considered to be the main resource for biogas production. Improving the efficiency ofbiomass use for cooking and boiling drinking water through improved cooking stoves can savehuge amounts of fuelwood per family per year. More than 16 GJ per family per year were saved© ISERD
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when local households in the study area switched from inefficient traditional to energy-efficientcooking stoves.
The results of the study clearly indicate that non-plantation biomass residues provide a
promising potential energy source for local people in the study area. If this potential energy source
can be developed to meet their energy demands, it could reduce; the pressure on natural forest, theimpact on human health, especially women and children, and greenhouse gas emissions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to The Economy and Environment Program forSoutheast Asia (EEPSEA) for providing financial support. Part of this study was supported by the
MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 24252002 led by Dr. Nophea Sasaki of the University of
Hyogo. The authors also would like to thank to Mr. David Ford for checking this paper.
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NCDD, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. (Available at: http://db.ncdd.gov.kh/cdbonline/home/index.castle )Yoswathana, N., Phuriphipat, P., Treyawatthiwat, P. and Eshtiaghi, M.N. 2010. Bioethanol production fromrice straw Thailand. Energy Research Journal. 1 (1), 26-31.

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Research article
erd

Farmer's Awareness and Factors Affecting Farmer's
Acceptance to Grow Straw Mushroom in Mekong Delta,
Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines
NGO THI THANH TRUC*
Cantho University, Cantho, Vietnam
Email: ntttruc@ctu.edu.vn

ZENAIDA M. SUMALDE
University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

FLORENCIA G. PALISInternational Rice Research Institute, Laguna, Philippines

REINER WASSMANNInternational Rice Research Institute, Laguna, Philippines
Received 19 December 2012

Accepted 26 July 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The study aimed to determine the current utilization practices of rice straw, todescribe farmers’ awareness and perception about using rice straw to produce straw
mushroom, to determine factors affecting farmers’ acceptance to use this technology, andidentify the enablers and constraints in adopting straw mushroom production technology
To achieve these objectives, a survey of 417 respondents and focus group discussions wereconducted in four villages in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines.
Interviews of current adopters and key informants of straw mushroom production werealso done at those two study sites. The survey showed that majority of rice straw in
Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines was burned. In Mekong Delta, asmall percentage of rice straw was used to grow mushroom, left in the field and used tofeed cattle while rice straw in the Central Luzon was left in the field, used as feed for
cattle and for mulching. The study found that farmers have good knowledge of this subject
even low percentage of adopters. Using the Logit model, yet the significant factors
affecting the acceptability of the straw mushroom production in the Mekong Delta,
Vietnam include household income and household size whereas in Central Luzon,
Philippines are household income, farm size and willingness to attend additional trainings
related to straw mushroom production. On the other hand, the key informants and straw
mushroom growers identified the requirements to enhance farmers adoption of straw
mushroom culture such as 1) good quality of mushroom spore, 2) mushroom production
site, 3) supply a whole-year production cycle (if mass production), 4) techniques to growmushroom, 5) available labor, 6) knowledge in pre-processing mushroom in case farmers
are unable to sell fresh mushrooms, and 7) mushroom marketing.
Keywords rice straw, rice straw burning, straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea, Mekong
Delta, Central Luzon

INTRODUCTION
Rice straw, a by-product and considered as a waste material in rice, contains 41% C, 0.5 - 0.8 % N,
0.05 - 0.1% P, 0.3 - 2.0% K, 12% silica, and 10% lignin (IRRI Knowledge Bank, 2003). The
problem of disposing rice straw is generated during the intensification in rice production and due tolimited alternative uses and lack of time and resources to dispose this by-product, it accumulates
and becomes wastes.

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Straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) production introduced in Vietnam and Philippines in
the last twenty years is a promising strategy to mitigate greenhouse gas emission comparing toother alternative uses of rice straw (Truc, 2011). The questions are on the current usage of ricestraw, farmer's awareness of straw mushroom, the factors affecting their acceptance and thebenefits/constrains of using rice straw to grow straw mushroom as perceived by non-adopters andfaced by adopters. Answering these questions would help identify appropriate recommendations toenhance adoption of this alternative uses of rice straw. Thus, this study was conducted to a)
determine the current utilization practices of rice straw; b) describe farmer's awareness andperception about using rice straw to produce straw mushroom; c) determine the factors affecting
farmer's acceptance to use this technology; and d) identify the enablers and constraints in adopting
straw mushroom production technology.
METHODOLOGY
The study sites and methods of data collection
A total of 417 farmer-respondents were interviewed using a structured questionnaire in four
villages, namely, Truong Lac Commune, O Mon District, Can Tho City and My Thanh Nam
Commune, Cai Lay District, Tien Giang Province in Mekong Delta, Vietnam in June 2008 andBarangay Matingkis, Science City of Muñoz and Barangay Santo Rosario, Santo Domingo
Municipality, Nueva Ecija Province, Central Luzon, Philippines in June 2009 (Fig. 1).
The key informant interviews were done by using checklists with face to face interviews ofrepresentatives of current adopters of straw mushroom production, local authorities, agriculturalextension officers, and other related institutional organizations in the study sites.
The focus group discussions (FGDs) were also conducted in each site after completing thesurvey and key informant interviews for adopters to provide and share information on straw
mushroom production as well as their advantages and disadvantages, to assess the possibility of
introducing straw mushroom production and to identify the mechanisms of growing the crop at thestudies sites.

Fig. 1 Map of study sites in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines
Data analysis
The survey data were analyzed descriptively using frequency, descriptive and cross tabulation andmean comparison adapting t-test in SPSS 13.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences).
Literatures show that socio-economic characteristics, farmer's awareness and perception of thetechnologies are major determinants affecting farmer's adoption of agricultural technologies (Palis,
2006; Palis, 1998; Somda et al. 2002; Ghadim and Pannell, 1999; Oladele and Fawolde, 2007;
Adegbola and Gardebroek, 2007 and Corrales and Serrano, 1999). Basing on those literature,findings and the information observed at the study sites, the following factors were chosen to© ISERD180

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identify the factors affecting farmer's acceptance of straw mushroom (explained in Eq.(1) andTable 1). The factors affecting the probability of adoption were estimated by the logistic regression
or the Logit model.

AF  lnPi   iXi  
1  Pi (1)

Table 1 Descriptions of variables in the Logit model
Variables
AF
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6

Description
Farmers’ acceptance to use thetechnology (straw mushroom)
Household income per year
Farm size devoted to rice production
Household sizeAge of respondent/person involve inrice production
The educational level of
respondent/person involve in riceproduction
Dummy variable of farmers’ awarenessabout straw mushroom

X7

Dummy variable of farmers’ needtraining about straw mushroom

X8

Dumpy variable of distance (d) fromhouse to the rice field
ConstantαUnit / Value
AF = 1: accept
AF = 0: not accept
USD/household/year
Ha/household
Persons
Years

Expected signs
–
–
+
–/+

Number of years schooling–

X6 = 1: aware or have heard
about straw mushroom,
otherwise X6=0
X7 = 1: respondent wants tolearn about straw mushroom,
otherwise X7=0
X8 = 1 if d < 0.5 km, otherwise
X8 = 0++–RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Rice straw uses in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines
100%

0.7

0.6
0.3

90%

28.5

80%

17.6

70%

0.2

32.8

0.8
9.2

60%

18.6

50%

12.5

99.3
94.7

40%

70.6

30%

52.0

20%

45.4

10%
0%

SW

SA

AW

DS

WS

Fig. 2 Current uses of rice straw in Mekong Delta, Vietnam, 2008 and Central
Luzon, Philippines, 2009
Note: SW: Spring Winter crop, SA: Summer Autumn crop, AW: Autumn Winter crop in Mekong Delta
DS: Dry Season crop, WS: Wet Season crop in Central Luzon, Philippines© ISERD
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There are differences between Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines in thecropping pattern. The survey was conducted at the three paddy crops per year in the Mekong Delta(Spring Winter (SW) - October/November – February, Summer Autumn (SA)- February - April
and Autumn Winter (AW) - April - July/August). In Central Luzon, there are only two paddy crops
per year (Dry Season crop (DS) - January to April and Wet Season crop (WS) - July to October).
Majority of the rice straw in Mekong Delta, Vietnam was burned (SW-99%, SA-95% andAW-71%) while a minimal percentage is used for growing straw mushroom, leaving in the field
and feeding cattle. In Central Luzon, rice straw was burned (DS-52% and WS-45%), left in thefield (DS-29% and WS-31%), used to feed cattle (DS-19% and WS-23%) while the rest was used
for mulching (DS-1% and WS-9%) (Fig. 2).
Farmer’s awareness about straw mushroom production
Straw mushroom has been introduced in Mekong Delta and Central Luzon as a means to augment
farmer's income since the 1990s. Thus, the technology is no longer new to farmers. However, morethan half (60%) of the respondents in Central Luzon have never heard about straw mushroom. All
the farmer-respondents in Mekong Delta knew about straw mushroom since it is their daily
vegetables (Table 2). However, about 88% of the total respondents have never grown straw
mushroom with only 12% and 7.6% of the households in Mekong Delta and Central Luzon,
respectively, stating that they had grown the crop. However, none of the surveyed households inCentral Luzon grew straw mushroom in 2008 – 2009.
Table 2 Farmer’s awareness about straw mushroom in Mekong Delta, Vietnam, 2008 andCentral Luzon, Philippines, 2009 (% responses)
O Mon(n=120)

ITEMS
Never heard about straw mushroom
Heard about straw mushroom butnever grown itHeard about straw mushroom andused to grow the crop-

VIETNAM
Cai Lay Mekong(n=126)Delta(n=246)-PHILIPPINES
SantoCentral
DomingoLuzon(n=101)(n=171)
77.14
48.51
60.23

Muñoz
(n=70)

75.80

100.00

88.20

14.26

44.59

32.17

24.20

-

11.80

8.60

6.90

7.60

Farmer's acceptance of growing straw mushroom
Farmer's attitude towards attending trainings on straw mushroom production and their intent togrow straw mushroom after the training were investigated in the survey. Central Luzon farmers
were less likely to attend trainings and to grow straw mushrooms after participating in the trainings
with only 57% compared with 76% of the farmers in Mekong Delta (Table 3).
Table 3 Willingness to attend training in straw mushroom production in Mekong Delta,
Vietnam, 2008 and Central Luzon, Philippines, 2009
ITEMS
Willing to attend training andat least one person decided toafter attending training
Do not want to attend training
or attend training but not
grow after training

O Mon(n=120)VIETNAM
Cai Lay(n=126)

69.17

30.83

MekongDelta(n=246)

Muñoz(n=70)

83.33

76.42

65.71

16.67

23.58

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34.29

PHILIPPINES
SantoCentral
DomingoLuzon(n=101)(n=171)
50.50

49.50

56.73

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Factors affecting farmers’ acceptance of growing straw mushroom
The result of the Logit model that analyzes the factors affecting respondent’s attitude towards using
rice straw for growing mushrooms is shown in Table 4. However, the awareness and informationneeds variables were deleted in the regression for Mekong Delta since the level of awareness about
straw mushroom in this country is already 100%.
Among the six factors tested in Mekong Delta, two factors (household income and householdsize) appeared to have significant negative effect on farmer's decision to use rice straw in growing
mushrooms. Lower income and smaller households were more likely to grow mushrooms thanthose with higher income and bigger households. The results on the household size relative to theacceptance of mushroom growing were unexpected as the author anticipated the opposite.
Mushroom growing is labor-intensive, thus, it would have been logical that bigger households
would be more receptive to growing straw mushroom. However, in practice, bigger households
tend to send their children to work or study outside the communes. They also might have to takecare their children, so they have no more vacant time for straw mushroom growing.
Table 4 Factors affecting respondents’ acceptance of growing straw mushroom in
Mekong Delta, Vietnam, 2008 and Central Luzon, Philippines, 2009
VARIABLES

Xi

βi

Household income
Farm size
Household size
Age
Educational attainment
Awareness
Need
Distance
Constant
Number of observation
Percent of acceptance (%)
Pseudo R2

X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8

β1
β2
β3
β4
β5
β6
β7
β8
α

Mekong Delta
Coefficientz value– 0.0001925 **–2.22
0.3086298
0.88–0.2538631 **–2.45–0.0020682–0.11
0.0499579
0.78–0.4778684–2.993046 **

–1.47
2.48
242
76
0.1187

Central Luzon
Coefficientz value
0.0001574 **2.19–0.759491 0 **–2.41
–0.1191921–1.00–0.0058102–0.33–0.0639080–0.91
0.2019690
0.52
2.3617420 ***5.98–0.5649210–1.40
0.7589256
0.51
171
57
0.2422

Note: ***, ** and * indicate statistical significance at 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively

Among the eight factors tested for Central Luzon, only three factors significantly affected thedecision to grow straw mushroom (household income, farm size and willingness to learn more
about straw mushroom). Households with higher income and smaller farm size were more
receptive to grow straw mushroom. Growing straw mushroom is considered a small business inCentral Luzon rather than a livelihood, as opposed to the culture in Mekong Delta wherein poor
farmers engage in mushroom production to augment their household income. This culturaldifference in mushroom production may explain why the household income coefficients differed
between the two regions. The results show that higher income households in Central Luzon had
higher acceptance of mushroom production. Likewise, results showed that households with smaller
farm size were more likely to accept the technology as they would want to earn more tocompensate for the small income they get from producing rice within their small farm areas.
Further, those who were willing to learn about straw mushroom were also more likely to adopt
the technology after training. The results from focus group discussions and interviews highlighted
the importance of the product’s outcome in promoting mushroom growing. Because of the highperishability of straw mushrooms, farmers need to sell their products within a day in the market,
farmers or women union, cooperatives or any group in the commune who help mushroom growers
connect with the market within a day and secure their minimum selling price.
With regards to the conditions to learn about straw mushroom, Cai Lay and Muñoz farmers
showed more interest than O Mon and Santo Domingo farmers did. Data from the survey, FGDs,
and interviews showed that trainings on mushroom growing should be conducted in these two areas.
Central Luzon farmers also needed good quality and available supply of spores. This factor may© ISERD
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encourage them to grow mushrooms in this region. Growing mushrooms is simple yet requires a lotof labor. To encourage them, farmers can make use of the free and simple labor available in thecommune or can work in groups to help each other to save on labor. Lastly, market access andbetter selling price were among the most important factors to succeed in promoting straw
mushroom to farmers.
Enabling factors and constraints in straw mushroom production
The major motivating factors of growing mushroom cited by farmers in Central Luzon and Mekong
Delta were significantly different from each other. For the Mekong Delta, the major advantages ofgrowing mushroom in the two famous growing areas (Thom Rom, Can Tho city and Tan Hoa,
Dong Thap province) in Mekong Delta were 1) the availability of materials (rice straw and spore),
2) availability of labor, and 3) ease of production. On the contrary, mushroom production inCentral Luzon is still at the infancy stage and farmers were unable to market their products evenwhen the demand was very high in this region. The biggest enabling factor of growing mushroom
in Central Luzon was the availability of materials and labor.
Despite the numerous motivating factors in the two main study sites, mushroom growers stillencountered several difficulties in mushroom growing such as 1) limited market, 2) limited spore
supply, especially in Central Luzon, and 3) increasing labor cost.
CONCLUSION
The holistic approach of determining the factors affecting farmer's acceptance in growing straw
mushroom from both non - adopters and adopters as well as related key informants provided awhole picture of straw mushroom adoption in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon,
Philippines. This study also confirmed the importance of socio-economic characteristics, theirknowledge and perception of the technology significantly affecting their choice.
REFERENCES
Adegbola, P. and Gardebroek, C. 2007. The effect of different information sources on technology adoption
and modification decisions. Agricultural Economics, 37 (1), 55-65.
Corrales, A.M. and Serrano, S.R. 1999. Factors influencing the utilization of organic fertilizers. Phil. RiceTechnical Bulletin, 4, 18-29.
Ghadim, A.K.A. and Pannell, D.J. 1999. A conceptual framework of adoption of an agricultural innovation.
Agricultural Economics, 21, 145-154.
IRRI Knowledge Bank, 2003. Rice straw properties. (Retrieve on April 4, 2008. http//:www.knowledgebank.
irri.org/troprice/Rice_Straw.htm)
Oladele, O.I. and Fawole, O.P. 2007. Farmers perception of the relevance of agriculture technologies inSouth-Western Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol., 21 (3), 191-194.
Palis, F. G. 1998. Changing farmers’ perceptions and practices: the case of insect pest control in Central
Luzon, Philippines. Crop Protection. 17, 599-607.
Palis, F. G. 2006. The culture in farmer learning and technology adoption: A case study of farmers field
schools among rice farmers in Central Luzon, Philippines. Agriculture and Human Values, 23, 491-500.
Somda, J., Nianogo, A.J., Nassa, S. and Sanous, S. 2002. Soil fertility management and socio-economic
factors in crop-livestock systems in Burkina Faso: a case study of composting technology. Ecological
Economics, 43 (2), 175-183.
Truc, N.T.T. 2011. Comparative assessment of using rice straw for rapid composting and straw mushroom in
mitigating greenhouse gas emissions in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines. PhD.
Dissertation. University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines.

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Research article
erd

Effects of Retting Treatment on Coconut Husk Buffer
Strips for Eliminating Nutrient Losses
JULIAN E. TORILLO, JR.
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 20 June 2013

Accepted 24 September 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Coconut husk has been applied as buffer strips for soil erosion control on slope
upland fields in Bohol of the Philippines. However, attention has been paid to the losses ofnitrogen and phosphorus components not only those leached from synthetic fertilizer
applied in upland fields but also those components released from coconut husk buffer
strips. Thus, pretreatment of coconut husk by retting before its installation into the fieldhas been proposed. The objective of this study is to find out the effect of ret treating thecoconut husk utilized as buffer strips on eliminating its releasing nitrogen and phosphorus
components. Coconut husks were trimmed then minor pounding by hammer were applied
to meet the desired porosity of the material as buffer. Retting treatment of 41.34 g in dry
mass of coconut husk was carried out by soaking into 1,300 ml of distilled water for 10
days to extract its nitrogen and phosphorus components. Ret treated coconut husk were
installed into stainless slope model plot filled with Philippine soil and set at 8 degrees inslope. Another plot was also prepared and installed with untreated coconut husk thenrainfall simulation was carried out into both plots. The experimental results showed thatthe amount of nitrogen released from the plot installed with ret treated coconut husk buffer
strip was significantly lower than that of untreated husk buffer strip at 99% significant
level. Therefore, it was concluded that 10 days retting treatment of coconut husk for buffer
strips was effective on eliminating the release of nutrient particularly on nitrogen fromleaching.
Keywords coconut husk, retting, nitrogen, phosphorus, bio-fertilizer

INTRODUCTION
Upland fields with protruding stones and rocks on ground surfaces as well as abandoned farmland
are dominant particularly in the southwestern part of Bohol, Philipines (Torillo and Mihara, 2011).
Moreover, these lands are mostly located on sloped-areas with 8-18% and even some portions withmore than 18% slope, particularly for subsistence agriculture (OIDCI, 2006). Together with highsqualls, uplands in the island are susceptible to soil erosion causing rapid degradation of land.
Meanwhile, about 5 million coconut trees are cultivated in the island of Bohol (OIDCI, 2006)
producing large amount of coconut husk. These coconut husks were considered as waste residue
and left rotten in the site. In this study, utilizing coconut husk, a locally available material has been
focused from a view point of conservation agriculture in Bohol. However, coconut husk that were
installed as buffer strips for soil erosion control tended to release nitrogen and phosphorus. Thistendency was observed during the slope modeling under artificial rainfall simulator (Torillo andMihara, 2011). Those nutrients released from the coconut husk may leach through percolation andsurface runoff resulting water pollution into downstream. Therefore, treating of coconut husk
before its installation as buffer strips through retting has been recommended.
The objective in this study is to find out the effect of retting treatment of coconut husk for
buffer strips on eliminating its nitrogen and phosphorus release.

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MEHODOLOGY
Retting treatment of coconut husks
Nutrient component particularly on phosphorus can be extracted from the coconut husk by retting
method (Torillo and Mihara, 2012). Thus, retting treatment of coconut husks has been applied bysoaking into distilled water.
Coconut husks were cut and trimmed into 5 cm wide and 12 cm length then minor poundingby hammer was done to make into a porous material similar to that being installed into the site asbuffer strips. Four pieces of pounded coconut husks were prepared while two of them wereintended for retting treatment and the other two pieces were retained as untreated coconut husks.
Small amount of coconut husk`s sample was taken for analyzing total nitrogen (T-N) and total
phosphorus (T-P) component after the decomposition with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) andpotassium peroxodisulfate (K2S2O8). Concentrations of T-N and T-P were measured by spectrometric methods (Mihara and Ueno, 2000).
Pounded two pieces of coconut husks weighing 41.34 g in dry mass for retting treatment werethen soaked into 1,300 ml of distilled water. Retting treatment was carried out up to ten days as
Torillo and Mihara (2012) reported that the optimum period of releasing nutrient components fromcoconut husk was at the tenth day of retting. After ten days passed of soaking, coconut husks weretaken out and ret liquor was sampled for analyzing the released amount of T-N and T-P from thecoconut husk.

Fifth dayof rettingFirst dayof retting

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 1 Procedures in preparing the coconut husks for retting treatment such asa) cutting, b) pounding and c) retting

Control

Untreated

Treateda)b)

Fig. 2 Slope model plots in a) controlled, untreated husk buffered and treated husk
buffered plots and b) slope model plots under artificial rainfall simulator© ISERD
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Slope modeling with coconut husks buffer strip
It was proven that there was no significant difference between the two rows of coconut husk buffer
strip and the two rows coconut husks buffer strip with 25 cm husk mulch on mitigating soil losses(Torillo and Mihara, 2011). Therefore, in this study two rows of coconut husk buffer strips havebeen installed into slope model plots.
Three stainless slope model plots were prepared as controlled plot, treated coconut husk
buffered plot and untreated coconut husk buffered plot. Each slope model plot (130 cm long and 11
cm wide) were filled up with Philippine soil having clay percentage at 63.8%, silt at 8.1% and sandat 28.1% (Torillo and Mihara, 2011) of around 7.5 kilograms. Ret treated and untreated coconut
husks were installed at the lower toe of the plots as treated coconut husk buffered plot anduntreated coconut husk buffered plot, respectively. Those two slope model plots along with
controlled plot were set at degrees in slope. Rainfall simulation was carried out at rainfall intensityof 60 mm/h within two hours. Suspended water samples from surface discharge were collected
every 15 minutes for the first hour then every 30 minutes for the second hour. Percolation water
was collected at each plot after 24 hours from the end of rainfall simulation. Surface water
discharge and percolated water samples were analyzed for total nitrogen (T-N) and total
phosphorus (T-P). Surface water discharge samples were also measured for soil losses by ovendrying method. Three repetitions of rainfall simulation were carried out in separate days.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total nitrogen and total phosphorus released from coconut husk during retting treatment
Minor pounded coconut husks of 41.34 g in dry mass were soaked into 1,300 ml of distilled water
within ten days. In the tenth day of soaking, distilled water soaked with coconut husks or called ret
liquor (Fig. 1-c) were sampled then analyzed for total nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus (T-P).
The amounts of T-N and T-P in coconut husk before soaking into the distilled water were also
analyzed to determine the released amounts of these nutrients from coconut husk by retting.
Analysis data showed that the amounts of T-N and T-P in raw coconut husk were 0.792
mgN/g and 0.863 mgP/g, respectively (Table 1). During the tenth day of soaking or retting, theamount of T-N in ret liquor was 0.119 mgN/g and 0.729 mgP/g of T-P. Those values indicated that
15.02% of T-N component and 84.47% of T-P component from coconut husks were released into
ret liquor within ten days of retting. The tendency of high released of T-P from coconut husk was
supported by Havis and Alberts (1993) which nutrient leaching dynamics from partiallydecomposed corn residue was examined in a laboratory simulation experiment. They found out that
more PO4-P leached than NO3-N and NH4-N.
Table 1 Amounts of T-N and T-P in coconut husks and in ret liquor

Total nitrogen (T-N)
Total phosphorus (T-P)

Amounts of nutrientsin coconut husk
0.792 ± 0.045 mgN/g
0.863 ± 0.011 mgP/g

Amounts of nutrientsreleased into ret liquor
0.119 ± 0.028 mgN/g
0.729 ± 0.188 mgP/g

Percentage of nutrient
released from coconut husk
15.02%
84.47%

Effects of coconut husk buffer strips on mitigating soil losses
Two pieces of coconut husks at 41.34 g in dry mass were ret treated while other two pieces wereretained as untreated coconut husk. To observe the effects of retting treatment on eliminating total
nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus (T-P) in coconut husks for buffer strips, those pieces ofcoconut husk were installed into slope model plots then simulated under artificial rainfall.
Mihara (2001) reported that nitrogen and phosphorus components were transported by
sediment and suspended solids which was observed in USLE plots under natural rainfall. In thisconnection, the amount of soil losses was also observed in this study. As shown in Fig. 3 that the© ISERD
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trend of cumulative amount of soil losses is increasing with the repetition of rainfall simulation
among slope plots. This tendency is due to the accumulation of transported soil with the repetitionof rainfall at the lower toe of the plots. Hence, the depth of the sediment deposited at buffer strip
increases with time and substantially altering the geometry and gradient of the surface (Rose et al.,2003). This trend results smaller soil particles to be runoff and passes through voids in buffer strips.
The results showed that the amount of soil losses at treated and untreated coconut husk
buffered plots were lower at an average of 29, 35 and 42% than that of controlled plot during thefirst, second and third rainfall simulation, respectively (Fig. 3). It was clearly indicated that coconut
husk buffer strips mitigated soil losses which significant differences at p<0.01 were observed.

200
150

a**
b**
c**

100
50
0
0

30

60

90

300
250
200

a**

150

b**
c**

100
50

120

Time (min)

0
0

30

60

90

Time (min)Controlled plot,

120

Third rainfall simulation
Cumulative amount of soil losses(g/m2)

250

Second rainfall simulation
Cumulative amount of soil losses(g/m2)

Cumulative amount of soil
losses (g/m2)

First rainfall simulation
300

300

a**

250
200

b**
c**

150

100
50
0
0

30

60

90

120

Time (min)Untreated husk buffered plot,
Treated husk buffered plot** Significant difference at p<0.01

Fig. 3 Cumulative amount of soil losses with time during the first, second andthird rainfall simulation
Effects of retting treatment on eliminating total nitrogen and total phosphorus in coconut
husk utilized as buffer strips
Fig. 4 shows the amounts of T-N and T-P losses through surface discharge and percolation. It is
indicated in the diagram at the right side of the figure showing the values plotted in histogram fromzero x-axis and up is the amount of T-N losses. Meanwhile, values plotted in histogram from zero
x-axis and down is the amount of T-P losses. Darker colors in histogram are the amounts of T-N
and T-P losses through percolation and lighter colors are the amount of T-N and T-P losses throughsurface discharge.
The amount of T-N losses through percolation and surface discharge are shown both (Fig. 4)
to observe the balance losses of this nutrient. However, the amount of T-N losses throughpercolation was averagely 95 times lower than that of T-N losses through surface discharge. For
instance in the case of (T) treated coconut husk buffered plot during the first rainfall simulation, TN losses through percolation was 0.004 g/m2 compared to 0.817 g/m2 of T-N losses through surface
discharge. Thus, T-N losses through percolation were insignificant that it did not affect in thestatistical quantification of T-N losses.
During the first rainfall simulation, the (U) untreated coconut husk buffered plot showed
higher amount at 0.378 g/m2 accounting 31.62% of T-N losses higher than that of (T) treatedcoconut husk with a significant difference at p<0.01. This trend indicated that T-N component incoconut husk has been eliminated by retting treatment. However, (T) treated coconut husk buffered
plot showed no significant difference than that of (C) controlled plot. This signifies that treatedcoconut husk buffer showed less effective on mitigating T-N losses from the plot.
A sudden decrease of T-N losses among three plots was observed from first rainfall simulation
to second rainfall simulation test. This might be due to most of T-N component in soil that aresusceptible for runoff had been transported during the initial rainfall simulation. During the second
rainfall simulation, (U) untreated coconut husk buffered plot also showed higher amount at 0.161
g/m2 accounting 36.84% of T-N losses higher than that of (T) treated coconut husk buffered plot.
Although, only p<0.05 of significant difference was observed. It was also showed that treated© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

coconut husk buffer were able to mitigate T-N losses since (T) treated coconut husk buffered plot
has 0.173 g/m2 of T-N lower than that of (C) controlled plot with significant difference at p<0.01.
During the third rainfall simulation, although (T) treated coconut husk buffered plot appeared
to be higher losses of T-N than that of (U) untreated coconut husk buffered plot, it was indicatedthat there was no significant difference between the two plots. Therefore, based on theexperimental results, retting treatment of coconut husk influences in eliminating T-N losses.
1.4

a**

1.2

Amount of T-N losses through surface
discharge and percolation(g/m2)

Second rainfall simulation

First rainfall simulation

31.62%

1.0b**

Third rainfall simulation

1.225

1.225

1.05

1.05

0.875

0.875

0.7

0.7

b**

0.8

0.6

0.525

0.4

Amount of T-N losses (g/m2)

Amount of T-N losses (g/m2)

Loss of T-N
0.525

a**

a*

36.84%

0.35

a*
a,b

0.35

b*

b*,**
0.2

0.175

0.175

0.0

0

0

Surfacedischarge

U

0.4(0.350)0.6(0.525)

U

T

a*,*
*

C

U

c**

b*

c*,**

b**

a**

b**
-0.175-0.175

-0.35

-0.35

0.0 axis

T

0

0

b**
0.2
(0.175)C

T

Amount of T-N losses (g/m2)

0.0
0.000

C

Amount of T-N losses (g/m2)

Amount of T-P losses through surface
discharge and percolation(g/m2)

Percolation

Percolation

0.0 axisb*,**
Surfacedischarge

Loss of T-P-0.525-0.525

C:Controlled plot U:Untreated coconut husk buffered plot T:Treated coconut husk buffered plot
* Significant difference at p<0.05, ** Significant difference at p<0.01

Fig. 4 Amounts of total nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus (T-P) losses throughsurface discharge and percolation
The amount of T-P losses are also shown in Fig. 4 which is below the zero x-axes. It was also
observed that the amount of T-P losses through percolation is significantly lower than that of T-P
losses through surface discharge. For instance, the amount of T-P losses through percolation from(T) treated coconut husk buffered plot was 1×10-4 g/m2 accounting 450 times lower than that of its
surface discharge which is 0.045 g/m2. Thus, the amount of T-P losses through percolation is also
very insignificant to affect the statistical quantification of T-P losses.
The trend of T-P losses from all of the plots showed almost no changes from first to third
rainfall simulation test. Although coconut husk buffered plots (U and T) had lower amounts of T-P
losses than that of (C) controlled plot, T-P losses from (T) treated coconut husk buffered plottended to be higher than that of (U) untreated coconut husk buffered plot where in significant
differences at p<0.01 and p<0.05 were observed during the second and third rainfall simulation
tests, respectively. This tendency might be due to the longer contact time of coconut husk with© ISERD
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

distilled water during retting treatment. As Cermark et al. (2004) reported that more amount of
PO4-P was leached from corn residue with longer time of immersing into the solution of distilledwater and inorganic salt. Thus, leaching of T-P from coconut husk residue has similar trend to thatof corn residue which releases more amount of phosphorus component. The experimental results
signified that with and without ret treating of coconut husk have less influence on eliminating T-P
losses.
On the other hand, even though retting treatment of coconut husk tended to be less effective on
eliminating T-P losses, it was observed that quantitatively the amount of T-P losses were verymuch lower than that of T-N losses. As shown in Fig. 4 that the amount of T-P losses from (T)treated coconut husk buffered plot were 18, 6, and 8 times lower than that of T-N losses during thefirst, second and third rainfall simulation tests, respectively. In addition, the amount of T-P at 0.863
mgP/g (Table 1) being released into the distilled water during the retting treatment is significantly
larger than that of T-P which loss from treated coconut husk buffered plot at an average amount of
0.046 g/m2.
CONCLUSION
This study dealt with the effect of retting treatment of coconut husk for buffer strips on eliminating
its nitrogen and phosphorus components. It was indicated that around 15% of total nitrogen (T-N)
and 85% of total phosphorus (T-P) component from coconut husk were released into distilled water
within 10-day period of retting treatment. It was also proven that retting treatment was able toeliminate T-N losses at 31.62% and 36.84% during the first and second rainfall simulation tests,
respectively. Thus, this amounts of T-N that were eliminated is important to taken into
consideration as a benefit of retting treatment. In addition, although retting treatment tended to beless effective in eliminating T-P losses during the slope modeling test, the amount of T-P that was
released into the distilled water during the retting was very high than that of T-P being loss fromtreated coconut husk buffer. The amount of T-P released into the distilled can be efficiently utilized
for liquid bio-fertilizer. Therefore, retting treatment of coconut husk not only eliminates T-N losses
but also it is an effective method to extract T-P component in the coconut husk.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express our gratitude to the Institute of Environment Rehabilitation andConservation and to the Nodai Research Institute which partly supported this research. It is also
very much appreciated the generous efforts of Mr. Hayato Iinuma for collaborating and assisting
throughout the experiment.
REFERENCES
Cermark, J.D., Gilley, J.E., Eghball, B. and Weinhold, B.J. 2004. Leaching and sorption of nitrogen andphosphorus by crop residue. Biological Systems Engineering, University of Nebraska, 47-1, 113-118.
Havis, R.N. and Alberts, E.E. 1993. Nutrient leaching from field decomposed corn and soybean residue
under simulated rainfall. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 57(1), 211-218.
Mihara, M. 2001. Nitrogen and phosphorus losses due to soil erosion during a typhoon, Japan. Journal of
Agricultural Engineering Research, 78(2), 209-216.
Mihara, M. and Ueno, T. 2000. Nitrogen and phosphorus transfer in soil erosion processes. IAHS Publication,
No. 263, 109-115.
Orient Integrated Development Consultants Inc. 2006. Bohol Agriculture Master Plan, CY2006-2026.
Rose, W.C., Yu, B., Hogarth, L.W., Okom, E.A. and Ghadiri, H. 2003. Sediment deposition from flow at low
gradients into a buffer strip - a critical test of re-entrainment theory. Journal of Hydrology, 280, 33-51.
Torillo, J. Jr. and Mihara, M. 2011. Soil erosion control by coconut husk buffer strip in Bohol Island ofPhilippines. International Journal for Environmental and Rural Development, 2(1), 25-30.
Torillo, J.Jr. and Mihara, M. 2012. Nitrogen and phosphorus released from coconut husk during retting
treatment. International Journal for Environmental and Rural Development, 3(2), 94-98.

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erd

International Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
Purposes of ISERD:
The primary purposes of ISERD are to contribute to sustainable rural development through social andeconomic development in harmony with the natural environment and to support the potential or capacity
building of local institutions and stakeholders in the rural area with academic background.
In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) or Association of Environmental and Rural
Development (Thailand) by writing or by other appropriate means.
Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Deputy President
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-2

Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Executive Secretary
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Editor-in-ChiefProf. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Managing Editors
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Yoko Mochizuki, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, France
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Mom Seng, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, African Program on Field Oriented Leaders in Environ. Sectors, Ghana
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
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Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
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All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the International Conference on
Environmental and Rural Development that was co-organized by United Nations University, Institute ofAdvanced Studies.