Discussion Paper Series

Work, family life and wellbeing of couples
during COVID-19

By
Saki Sugano (Daito Bunka University)

Discussion Paper No. 21-4, October 2021

Institute of Economic Research
Faculty of Economics

DAITO BUNKA UNIVERSITYTOKYO, JAPAN 175-8571

Work, family life and wellbeing of couples during COVID-19

By
Saki Sugano (Daito Bunka University)

Discussion Paper No. 21-4
October 2021

大東文化大学経済研究所
175-8571 東京都板橋区高島平 1-9-1This paper presents preliminary findings and may be distributed not only to fellow
members at the IER or the Faculty of Economics, Daito Bunka University but also toother interested readers exclusively to stimulate discussion and elicit comments.

Work, family life and wellbeing of couples during
COVID-19
Saki Sugano12

Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has forced people to spend more time at home with theirfamilies than ever before. This paper examines whether the changes in people’s
lifestyles as a result have also changed their life satisfaction. To this effect, I employ
nationally representative data from Japan to analyze how the changes in work styles andthe burden of increased housework and childcare have affected the wellbeing of people
as well as the wellbeing of their spouses. My empirical analysis shows genderdifferences in the effects of the crisis: Women saw an uneven decline in their life
satisfaction in the early stages of the crisis; this was especially true for mothers withsmall children. While the new work style—that is, working from home—had a positiveeffect on almost everyone, this effect did not hold true for mothers. Co-working couples
are adjusting their working hours and the division of labor between housework andchildcare. Importantly, when husbands reduced their working hours, there was apositive impact on the wellbeing of spouses with children.

Keywords: COVID-19・ life satisfaction・ housework・ childcare・ work from home
JEL codes: I31・ J13・J16
Statement and Declarations:
Conflict of interest: The author declare no competing interest.

1 Daito Bunka University, Department of Economics, Tokyo, Japan

Email: sugano@ic.daito.ac.jp
2 Acknowledgments This paper is based on data provided by the Cabinet Office, Government of Japan. I would liketo thank the Cabinet Office for providing me with the data.

11. Introduction
The pandemic of the novel Coronavirus Disease, or COVID-19 as it is now known, haschanged the lives of all people, especially favoring a lifestyle with least physical contact
with others to reduce the rate of transmission. Since the spring of 2020, people have
responded to this crisis by changing the established routines of the way family members
spend their time, the burden of housework and childcare, and work style. How couples
in households are coping with the challenge of lifestyle changes together and to theextent how their life style change impact on each other’s wellbeing? Despite thismonumental period in history, little is known about the full effects of such dramatic andalien lifestyle changes on wellbeing3.
In this study, I discuss how household are coping with sudden lifestyle changebrought about by the pandemic in terms of work, housework and childcare arrangement,
and people’s wellbeing as well as spouses’ wellbeing. In particular I hypothesize thatlife style change - spread of the work from home style, change in working hours, andincreased burden of housework and childcare- have different effects on the wellbeing
between fathers and mothers. Most of the recent studies have examined the impact of
the COVID-19 pandemic on either employment (Adams-Prassl et al. 2020a; Montenovo
et al. 2020) or housework/childcare (Huebener et al. 2021), and its effect on wellbeing
or mental health separately (Zamarro & Prados 2021) 4. However, as Biroli et al. (2021)
discusses that the way family members spend their time, the burden of housework andchildcare, work style, and household tension have changed simultaneously. Several
studies have been showed that women had a significantly lower level of life satisfaction
or worse mental health than men in the early stages of the crisis (Adams-Prassl et al.
2020b)5. The main reason for this is said that owing to the closure of schools anddaycare centers and online lectures, childcare role in households, especially of mothers,
have increased6. Given that women have had a heavier burden of childcare than meneven before this pandemic (Aguiar & Hurst 2007; Schoonbroodt 2018), the increased
burden of childrearing may have fallen more heavily on mothers as in several recent

3 The survey literature about the effects of COVID-19 is in Brodeur et al. (2021a).
4 See also Huebener et al., (2021); Mangiavacchi et al., (2020); Russell & Sun (2020); Yamamura & Tsutsui (2021a).
5 See also Belot et al. (2021); Davillas & Jones (2020); De Pedraza et al., (2020); Etheridge & Spantig, (2020);

Niedzwiedz et al., (2021).
6
The other study explain that women are more likely to be worried about economic prospects than men, feel moreafraid of infection (Oreffice & Quitana-Domeque, 2021) and loneliness under the lockdown measures, and evenworry about domestic violence (Brodeur, et al. 2020b; Brodeur, et al. 2021).

2

studies (Zamarro & Prados 2021; Yamamura & Tsutsui 2021b). However, it is still
unclear whether only mothers have responded to the crisis by adjusting (or reducing)
their working hours and, thus, increased their burden overall, or whether parents of bothgenders have responded equally. Inoue et al. (2021) uses the same data with this study
and shows that the possibility of men doing household chores increases by 9.3% when
they have one more day of remote work. If the decline in women’s wellbeing is due toan increase in domestic and childcare work, it may be mitigated by the way spouses
work and the division of roles within the household. The effects of workstyle change
and intra-household role change on life satisfaction of couples remains unclear.
I use rich nationally representative data from Japan to estimate how the couples in
the household tackle with the lifestyle changes together and how their wellbeing isaffected by each other’s behavior. The survey was conducted by Cabinet Office,
Government of Japan, focusing on the wellbeing, lifestyle and behavior changes during
COVID-19. The data include more than 10,000 respondents who report their wellbeingin May, December 2020 and before the COVID-19 each. Although wellbeing before the
COVID-19 is retrospective, the level of wellbeing is not that different from otherwellbeing statistics conveyed at the same period. The survey also asks for information
on changes in the respondents’ employment status, working hours, roles of houseworkand childcare, income, and wellbeing. Using the data that includes similar information
about their “partners”, how families adjust to new lifestyles under the COVID-19 crisis
are identified.
My empirical analysis shows that the new working style have the potential to
improve wellbeing among couples, especially fathers and mothers with young children.
Our data show that increased housework and childcare responsibilities for fathers areassociated with working from home, fewer working hours, having children ofelementary school age or younger, and increase in wife’s working hours. Although there
was a large drop in life satisfaction for both men and women at the early phase of thepandemic, working from home are associated with increased in life satisfaction of maleand female, with limited effect on mothers. Moreover, mothers with small children
substantially increase their wellbeing when fathers decrease working hour.
There are at least three reasons why it is important to discuss the impact of COVID19 induced life changes on the wellbeing of couples. In Japan, the birthrate is declining,and one of the reasons is said to be the long working hours. If at least one of the spouses3(usually the husband) works long hours, the burden of child rearing falls on the partner(wife), leading to an environment where it is difficult to have and raise children. If
work-from-home becomes more widespread, or if the reduction in working hours causes
couples to be more satisfied with their lives, this will indicate that the environment will
be more conducive to raising children in the long run in Japan. Second, it will help us tounderstand the reasons for the decline in women's wellbeing during the COVID-19
pandemic. The suicide rate of women in Japan has increased dramatically during thecrisis in Japan (Tanaka & Okamoto 2020). Experts attribute this increase to theworsening economic situation and distress about work, domestic violence, childcare,and nursing may become more serious with time. Third, it is important to understandwhat can improve the gender imbalance in the burden of domestic work. Japan’s gender
gap rank is 120th among 156 countries in 2021— lowest among major industrialized
economies, according to World Economic Forum. In Japan, women have maderemarkable inroads into the labor market in recent years, but the majority of these
women workers are working as non-regular part-time employees. They are working
under low wages and poor working conditions. Also, there are still many women who
stop building their careers and become housewives. The burden of housework andchildcare has traditionally been skewed toward women. In this paper, I show whether
the imbalance in the division of housework and childcare among couples could be
improved by the work environment.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, I present therelevant literature. Section 3 describes the data and documents the variable statistics.
Section 4 presents an analysis of gender differences in life satisfaction at different time
periods. Section 5 presents the main results that focus on the interaction between thehusband and wife. Finally, section 6 concludes the paper.

2. Connection to previous studies
The findings in this paper contribute to the emerging literature on the gender impacts of
the COVID-19 pandemic. Several studies finds that COVID-19 change the role ofhousework and childcare between husband and wife. While many papers find theuneven distribution of burden of housework and childcare with heavily on women(Alison et al. 2020; Zamarro & Prados 2021), some points out the crisis makes fathers
more responsibility for housework/childcare than previously (Alon, et al. 2020; Farré et4al. 2020, Sevilla & Smith 2020; Alison et al. 2020; Hupkau & Petrongolo 2020;
Oreffice and Quintana-Domeque 2020; Reichelt et al. 2020). While many studies haveinvestigated them for men and women separately and see the sex differences, very few
studies look at the behavior of couples within the household. Only some studies havefocuses on the couple’s arrangement in work and housework/childcare (Del Boca et al.
2020; Feng & Savani 2020; Zoch et al. 2020; Sevilla & Smith 2020; Champuaux &Marchetta 2021). Del Boca et al. (2020), which is close to this study, shows more
fathers do household chore when their spouse work outside. Unlike Del Boca et al.
(2020), which focuses on remote work effect, I examine the effect of not only the
introduction of remote work but also the impact of changes in working hours during thecrisis. It will bring important policy implication for the problem of long working hours
in Japan. In addition, based on the hypothesis that the burden is heavier on women in
part-time employment and housewives, I also conducted an analysis by employment
status, which has never been analyzed before.
Concerning the effect on well-being, a number of studies found that women’swellbeing or mental health are disproportionally affected by the COVID-19 crisis (forU.S., Adams-Prassl et al. 2020b; for UK, Davillas & Jones 2020; Etheridge & Spantig
2020; Niedzwiedz, 2021; Oreffice & Quintana-Domeque 2021; Proto & QuintanaDomeque 2021). While many studies on wellbeing have shown that, under normal
circumstances, women usually tended to have higher life satisfaction than men in many
countries (Powdthavee et al. 2015), the COVID-19 disaster has had an uneven effect on
women’s wellbeing due to school closure and increased housework and childcare
burden (for U.S., Zamarro & Prados 2021;for Germany, Huebener et al. 2021; for Japan,
Yamamura & Tsutsui 2021b). As for the impact of work style on wellbeing, previous
studies have shown that working from home is related to greater job satisfaction (Binder
2016; Wheatley 2017; Reuschke 2019) and decreasing working hours are associatedwith higher well-being of mothers (Alison et al. 2008; Gash et al. 2012; Lunau et al.
2014; Beham et al. 2019). However, what makes the pandemic different from previous
situation is the possibility that remote work, reduction in working hours and increased
household and childcare burdens are occurring simultaneously in the household.
Yamamura & Tsutsui (2021a) shows that fulltime working mothers with children in
primary school are more likely to work remotely than fathers. Parents who work fromhome during the pandemic have been able to spend more time taking care of their
5

children at home. Without the hassle of commuting and office routines, couples havegained greater control of their working hours and style, allowing them to meet
additional housework and childcare needs. Thus incorporating work from home, theeffect of housework and childcare on wellbeing is unclear. Unlike previous literature,
which focus on the relationship between work style and wellbeing, the novelty of thispaper is the idea that not only changes in one's own work style, but also changes in one's
spouse work style and housework/childcare role may affect wellbeing. As far as I know,
this is the first paper that incorporates the spouse work style or housework/childcare in
the same context to investigate the determinants of wellbeing change during the
COVID-19 crisis.

3 Data and descriptive statistics
3.1 Data
I use nationally representative data from the Survey on Changes in Attitudes andBehaviors Resulting from the Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic (Shingata
koronauirusukansenshō no eikyō-ka ni okeru seikatsu ishiki kōdō no henka ni kansuru
chōsa)7, conducted by the Cabinet Office, Government of Japan. This survey was
conducted online twice, the first wave of which was conducted during the early phase of
the pandemic between May 25 and June 5, 2020, and the second wave between
December 11 and December 17, 2020. In April and May, when the first state of
emergency was declared8, residents were asked to refrain from going out, although it
did not go as far as the lockdown implemented in other countries. For businesses, thegovernment requested the following. With the exception of positions that are necessary
to maintain social functions, office work should, in principle, be able to done at home,and even in cases where it is unavoidable to go to work the number of people going towork should be reduced at least 70%. At the time of the first wave survey, it was justafter the declaration of the state of emergency was lifted, but to reduce contact with

7

https://www5.cao.go.jp/keizai2/wellbeing/covid/index.html

8

In the first declaration of a state of emergency in Japan, the emergency was declared in seven prefectures (Tokyo,
Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Osaka, Hyogo, and Fukuoka) on April 7, 2020, and the scope was expanded to the entire
country on April 16. Then, on May 14, the state of emergency was lifted in 39 prefectures except for eight prefectures(Tokyo, Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Osaka, Kyoto, and Hyogo), and on May 25, the state of emergency was liftednationwide for the first time in a month and a half.

6people, schools were still closed in some areas9, and remote work was still requested. In
December, at the timing of the second wave survey, although the number of infected
people had remained high, the state of emergency had not been declared. School wasback to normal, and more people were going to work than in May. It was a time whendaily life was slowly returning to normal, albeit temporarily.
The survey includes not only information about respondents' place of residence andsocioeconomic status, but also information on whether their working styles, working
hour, and the division of roles between housework and childcare have changed becauseof the pandemic effects. The survey also includes information on change in overallsatisfaction with life before and after the outbreak of COVID-19. A total of 10,092
people responded to the first survey and 10,091 responded to the second survey: 5,176of these responded to the first and second surveys in succession.10. The sample size wasdesigned by allocating the same number of respondents equally by gender and by age
group (10-year age brackets), and by allocating the sample proportional to the
population in seven regions (Hokkaido and Tohoku, Tokyo, metropolitan areas
excluding Tokyo, Chubu, Kinki, Chugoku, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa).
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics in my empirical analysis: total sample
and marriage couple with children under 18 years old. About half of the respondents
were women and the other half were men, covering all regions of Japan. About 52% ofmale respondents in the first wave work full time, and 54% in the second wave. About
25% of the female respondents work full time, 25% of female work part time, and 39 %of female are not working and are not seeking job (housewives) in both Wave 1 andWave 2. About 20 % of respondents reported having children below the age of 18 in thehousehold. In this analysis, a respondent was considered to have children in thehousehold if he/she answered that he/she lived with a daughter or son under the age of
18. About 87% of 1,075 father and 90% of 1,087 mother reported they have at least one
children in elementary school age or younger in Wave 1.

9 According to an NHK survey, 10 prefectures had already reopened as of May 18, 2020 (Aomori, Iwate, Akita,
Yamagata, Tottori, Saga, Nagasaki, Kumamoto, Oita, Kagoshima prefectures), 14 prefectures were scheduled toreopen in May (Tochigi, Niigata, Toyama, Yamanashi, Nagano, Shizuoka, Shimane, Yamaguchi, Tokushima, Ehime,
Kochi, Fukuoka, Miyazaki, Okinawa prefectures), with 23 prefectures stating they would reopen in earnest from June
1.
10
According to the published information concerning the targets of the surveys, 10,128 people were surveyed in thefirst survey, 10,128 people were surveyed in the second survey, and 5,212 people were surveyed in both the first andsecond rounds, and the above description could be identified by respondents in the data.

7

In the next subsections, I describe the key variables which give us some backgroundinformation before the empirical analysis: work, housework or childcare role, andwellbeing. I show descriptive patterns in the data along these dimensions. In section 4, I
further formalize this analysis.
Table 1 Summary statistics
Wave 1

Wave 2

Male

FemaleMale

Female

N

Mean

N

Mean

N

Mean

N

Mean

1. Full time

5,031

0.52

5,061

0.25

5,044

0.54

5,047

0.26

2. Part time

5,031

0.10

5,061

0.25

5,044

0.10

5,047

0.25

3. Self-employed etc.

5,031

0.12

5,061

0.07

5,044

0.10

5,047

0.05

4. Break/Unemployed

5,031

0.02

5,061

0.04

5,044

0.02

5,047

0.05

5. Not employed including student

5,031

0.24

5,061

0.39

5,044

0.23

5,047

0.39

3,734

0.34

2,915

0.22

3,747

0.17

2,788

0.11

1. Not change

3,734

0.44

2,915

0.44

3,747

0.57

2,788

0.55

2. Decrease

3,734

0.47

2,915

0.47

3,747

0.28

2,788

0.32

3. Increase

3,734

0.09

2,915

0.09

3,747

0.15

2,788

0.13

5,031

0.21

5,061

0.21

5,044

0.20

5,047

0.21

1,075

0.87

1,087

0.90

1,016

0.78

1,063

0.79

Of whom, change in husband role
( from pre-COVID)
Increase
Of whom, change in wife role（from pre-COVID）

1,043

0.44

953

0.29

911

0.26

849

0.16

Increase

1,043

0.23

953

0.32

911

0.11

849

0.12

Employment

Of whom employment = 1,2, or 3
Work from home
Working hour( from pre-COVID)

Having children
Of whom, Having children lessthan elementary school

3.2 Work from home and Working hours
The biggest change in the workstyle during the COVID-19 crisis is working from home.
The questionnaire asks whether respondents experience the following work styles under
the pandemic: 1. work from home ( almost 100%), 2. work from home (more than 50%)
with combined regular attendance, 3. regular attendance but regularly work from home,
4. Generally attend work, but work from home irregularly. I define 1 to 3 as work fromhome because not to see the effect of occasional remote work, but to see the effect of
remote work, which has taken root as a new way of working in the COVID-19 crisis.
8

Approximately 34% of 3,734 working male respondents in Wave 1 reported that theywork from home regularly and 17 % of 3,747 working male respondents in Wave 2.
Before the crisis, only 5.6% of respondents work from home which can be seen in the
Wave 2 survey. This result is in line with other surveys, such as those conducted by theJapan Productive Center11.
At the same time, workers change their working hours. Their business shrinks
owing to social distancing requirements or people who work remotely tended to haveshorter working hours (Gupta et al. 2020). The decrease (increase) in working hours
dummy is defined as a person whose working hours have decreased (increased) by morethan 6% from the pre-COVID level for both waves. The proportion of respondents whostated that they had decreased their working hours are 47% of the working men andlikewise 47% of working women in May 2020. Compared with pre-COVID era, thepercentage of people who worked fewer hours in wave 2 (December 2020) was 28% for
men and 32% for women. Fig. 2 shows that, by employment, at the early stage of
COVID-19, full-time male workers are more likely to reduce their working hours(46.1%) than full-time female workers (41.3%).

Fig. 2 Percentage of respondents who decreased working hours in May 2020 after
COVID-19 spread, by gender and employment status
As shown in Fig 3, a higher proportion of working fathers than working mothers
declared having reduced their working hours in May 2020. In December 2020, it wasreported that people’s working hours had partially recovered and more people answered11

https://www.jpc-net.jp/research/assets/pdf/5th_workers_report.pdf
9

that their working hours were not much different from the pre-COVID-19 period,
except for mothers. In December 2020, 33.7 % of the mothers who have less thanelementary school age or younger children had still reduced their working hours,
contrary 22.8% of fathers. Although I am unable to disentangle whether voluntarily or at
the request of their employers, it could affect the allocation of housework and childcare
among couple, and their life satisfaction. In section 4, I will further discuss thedifference in working hours between couples in the household and its effects on the life
satisfaction of each couple.

Fig. 3 Percentage of respondents who changed working hours after COVID-19 spread,by father and mother with children of elementary school age or younger
3.3 Housework and childcare
Respondents who reported living with children under 18 years of age are asked about
the division of labor between the husband and wife in May and December 2020. In
particular, they were asked whether there were changes in the allocation of roles forhousework and childcare between spouses because of the effects of the COVID-19
pandemic. Respondents could choose one of the following options: 1. The husband’srole increased; 2. The husband’s role increased slightly; 3. The wife’s role increased; 4.
The wife’s role increased slightly to; 5. Both the husband and wife’s roles increased; 6.
Both the husband and wife’s roles decreased; and 7. No change. I then created anindicator of the division of roles between the father and mother: the husband(wife) role10

increased dummy takes a value of one if a respondent indicated 1, 2, or 5; otherwise
zero. Similarly, the mother’s role increased dummy takes a value one if the respondent
indicated 3, 4, and 5; zero, otherwise. Option 5 was also included in the respective
increased dummy because the absence of school may have increased the burden ofhousework and childcare for both fathers and mothers at the same time.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics presents the percentage of respondents who reported
that either the role of the husband or wife increased in May and December 2020
compared with pre-COVID-19. Around 44% of fathers declared that they haveincreased housework and childcare role, and 32% of mothers declared that they haveincreased their role in wave 1. In December, still high percentage, 26%, of fathers
reported that they have increased in their role compared to pre-COVID-19, 12% of
mothers reported so. This result can be attributed to school closures across Japan in thefirst wave, which forced parents to home schooling for their children and prepare theirmeals. At the same time, fathers have more time for housework and childcare owing to
reduced working hours in May, as we saw in section 3.2.
To further explore the determinants of changes in housework and childcare roles
during COVID-19, I use wave 1 data which was surveyed in the early stage of COVID19, that is the timing when severe stay-at-home measurements are taken, and estimate
the models with the following probit model specifications:𝑃𝑟(ℎ𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒!" = 1|𝑋)
= 𝐹(𝛽# + 𝛽𝑋!" + 𝜇$ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒!" + 𝜇% 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!"+ 𝜇& 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!" + 𝜇' 𝑆𝑃_ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒!"+ 𝜇( 𝑆𝑃_ 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!" + 𝜇) 𝑆𝑃_ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!" )(1)
t=1
The dependent variable husband role increaseit can take the value of one if a respondent
answered “Compared with pre-COVID-19 crisis, husband has increased his role ofhousework and childcare” or “Compared with pre-COVID-19 crisis, both husband andwife have increased their role of housework and childcare.” The change in the divisionof housework and childcare could be associated with changes in working style orworking hours for both husbands and wives. A variable work from home is the changeof work styles. work from home takes a value one if respondents work from home attime and takes a value zero if work outside at time t. For the change in the respondent’s
11

own work during the pandemic, I also included the changes in the respondent’s own
working hours. Decreasing (Increasing) working hoursit is an indicator that takes avalue of one if the working hours are decreased by more than 6 %, compared with thepre-pandemic. The question asks whether there have been any “changes” in the way
your spouse works compared to last December (before the spread of COVID-19), andrespondents could select all that apply. Variables marked with SP represent those of
their spouses. I include fourteen dummies for respondent’s age group of four years (lessthan 19, 20–24, …, 75–79, more than 80) , six dummies for respondents’ educational
background (junior high school, high school, vocational school, university, or graduate
school), five dummies for respondents’ employment status (full-time worker, part-timeworker, self-employed, break or unemployed, and unemployed including student), andthree household income categories (less than 2 million yen, more than 2 but less than 6
million yen, or more than 6 million yen) and the prefecture dummy.
The main coefficients of interest are those for changes in men’s work styles andchanges in their spouses’ work styles. Table 2 presents the estimated marginal effects ofthe probit model for the probability of a respondent declaring that husbands haveincreased in their housework and childcare roles during the COVID-19 crisis. I also
estimate the same model (1) by separating for spouse employment status since thehousehold work arrangement could varies with spouse (wives’) employment. The
results in column (1) show the results for men who answered that husbands had
increased their role after the COVID-19 crisis. It was found that fathers who started towork from home presented a 58% higher probability of increasing their role inhousework and childcare. Fathers who work from home can allocate their additionaltime at home to housework and childcare. Fathers who work fewer hours than they did
before COVID spread are 74 percent more likely to participate in housework andchildcare. If their wives work full time, fathers are increasing their roles, regardless ofwhether working hours increase or decrease, but the probability of this increasing isgreater if working hours decrease. More importantly, when wives' working hours
increased from pre-COVID levels, husbands were 73 percent more likely to increase
role in housework and childcare. In addition, if they have children in elementary school
age or younger, they also increase their role in housework and childcare by 30%.
Fathers do increase their share of housework and childcare because they are able towork from home, their working hours decreased, their children are the age to be takencare of, or spouse working hour increased.
12

Table 2 Probability of husband increase in role of housework and childcare during the
pandemic (marginal effect)
Dep. var = Probability (husband role increase = 1)
FathersAll

Spouseworkingfull-timejob

Spouseworking
part-timejob

Spouseworkingas selfemployee

Spouse arehousewives

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

0.58***

0.91***

0.45**

0.23

0.67***[4.72][4.06][2.37][0.33][2.73]

0.74***

0.74***

0.61***

2.10***

0.92***[6.23][3.42][3.34][3.29][4.01]

0.44**

0.87***

0.06

0.09

0.43

[2.34][2.73][0.18][0.09][1.14]

0.26

0.22

0.24

-0.13

[1.62][0.89][0.79][-0.14]

0.22*

0.17

0.36**-0.74[1.82][0.71][2.00][-0.92]0.73***

0.26

0.76*

[2.81][0.48][1.93]

0.30*

-0.18

0.63**

0.80

0.51[1.67][-0.45][2.43][0.86][1.16]

709

253

323

62

239

change of own workstyle before COVID-19
Work from homedecreasing working hours

increasing working hours

change of spouse workstyle before COVID-19
Work from homedecreasing working hours

increasing working hours
Children in elementary schoolor younger

Observations
z-statistics in brackets*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Education, household income, age, prefecture of residence controls included.

3.4 Wellbeing
By looking at life satisfaction, we can understand how couples’ wellbeing are changed
with lifestyle changes brought about by COVID-19, such as changes in the work

13

environment, including work from home and working hour, and changes in the divisionof roles, such as childcare and housework.
All respondents were asked about their satisfaction with life. In the first wave ofdata conducted between May and June 2020, respondents were asked “If the overalllevel of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with your life as a whole is assigned 0 points for‘not at all satisfied’ or 10 points for ‘very satisfied12,’ what do you think would be therespective scores for (1) life before the pandemic and (2) life now, under the effects ofthe pandemic.” (1) asked retrospective questions about life before the pandemic. The
same question with (2) was asked in the second wave in December 2020: “How many
points would you give your life today?” One advantage of this survey is that we cancompare the situation before the pandemic's spread, the situation at the time of the firstsurvey between May and June 2020, and the time of the second survey in December
2020. In order to compensate for the limitation of the retrospective question, I also
conduct a similar analysis using comparable data in the appendix.
Figure 4 shows the wellbeing of men and women in May 2020; December 2020;
and the pre-COVID time, which was taken in retrospect in the first wave. In May 2020,
when the COVID-19 infection was widespread throughout Japan and first declaration of
emergency was just lifted, men’s average score was dropped by 22 % and women’s
average score was dropped by 28 % compared with pre-COVID-19 crisis. In December
2020, men’s scores recovered to 5.6 points and women’s scores recovered to 5.7 points.
The gaps in wellbeing between men and women are significant at the 5% significancelevel in May but December 2020.
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

5.8

5.6
4.6

6.1

5.7
4.4

pre-COVID wave1 (May wave2 (Dec. pre-COVID wave1 (May wave2 (Dec.
2020)
2020)
2020)
2020)
Male

Female12

In the original data that the author received from the Cabinet Office and in the analysis, all wellbeing
values were converted to plus one to avoid a value of zero. Thus, the maximum value of life
satisfaction takes eleven and the minimum value takes one in the analysis.
14

Fig. 1 Life satisfaction (0–10) before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

4. Gender differences in life satisfaction before and during the COVID-19
pandemic
In this section, I present the method of analysis to further study gender differences,
especially between married couples, in change of life satisfaction before, at the peak of
the initial phase, and the middle phase of COVID-19. Unlike previous studies whichmainly focus on the initial phase of the crisis in the spring of 2020, this study looks atboth life satisfaction change in May when the initial infection is exploding and there is
the strongest stay-home order restriction, and in December at the point when the
restriction becomes milder.
4.1 Methods
I used rich nationally representative data before and during the COVID-19 survey atthree different times: one before the crisis; and two points during the crisis, in wave
1(May–June 2020) and wave 2 (December 2020) of data. An estimation is done using
three periods of pooled data with the following OLS model specification:

Δwellbeingit = β0 + β1Female dummyi + β2employmentit＋X’iβ + εit(2)
t = 1, 2
The dependent variable is Δwellbeingit = wellbeingit – wellbeingi,before ( t represent
wave 1 and wave 2). wellbeingit takes a numerical value on a 10-point scale, with higher
values indicating greater satisfaction with life. wellbeingi,before is the level of life
satisfaction in pre-COVID era. For wave 2 as well as wave 1, I use the difference frompre-COVID-19 level by utilizing 5,176 respondents who answer to the first and second
surveys in succession because respondents in wave 2 are not asked about the level ofsatisfaction before the COVID-19 spread. The control variables are the same as inEquation (1). In order to remove the influence of the degree of concern about infection
itself on wellbeing, a prefecture-specific dummy was included. The number of newly
infected people with COVID19 varied greatly from prefecture to prefecture, and the15more populated a city was, the more people were infected, due to the characteristics ofthe virus that is transmitted from person to person.
The main coefficients of interest here are those for a female dummy. The
parameter β1 captures the gender difference in wellbeing in May 2020 and December
2020 under COVID-19 relative to the pre-COVID-19 period. Moreover, I estimate
separate models for parents with children under age 18 and parents with less thanelementary school children. These coefficients could show us how much people’s life
satisfaction has changed in the COVID-19 disaster compared with the pre-COVID-19
period in May and December, respectively, whether there are gender differences, andwhether parents with children and those without children are affected differently.
4.2 Result
Table 2 shows the coefficients of the OLS models for the determinants of change of life
satisfaction before the pre-COVID level to the early stage, and the middle stage of thecrisis. Column (1) reports the results for general life satisfaction for all respondents with
controls, column (2) for parents with children under 18 years old, column (3) for parents
with elementary school children or younger. Column (4)-(6) show the results for middle
stage of the crisis in December 2020 in wave 2 data.
Compared with the pre-COVID-19 period, women experienced a statisticallysignificant decrease in life satisfaction compared with men, especially in May. Mothers’
subjective wellbeing was even lower; the gender difference showed that it was
statistically and significantly lower than fathers’. This result conforms to the literaturethat have been showed that women had a significantly lower level of life satisfaction orworse mental health than men in the early stages of the crisis (Adams-Prassl et al,
2020b; Niedzwiedz et al., 2021). In Japan, at the time of the first survey, from the end of
May to the beginning of June, many people were still staying home and their lives werevery different from a few months ago. Schools had not started to reopen in some areas,
and the situation must have been stressful for parents with small children. Even though
the school closure had lifted in some area, they were also in the midst of fear of
infection of their children as well as themselves. Mothers are often responsible forcaring for their children. Therefore, it is not surprising that mothers are less satisfied
with their lives than fathers in the Japanese study in the school closed time. By
December, the gender difference in wellbeing was no longer statistically significant forparents. As shown in Fig. 1, comparing May and December, we can see an improvement16

in life satisfaction. Compared with the May survey, when the second wave wasconducted in December 2020, people were getting used to the new lifestyle, and thenumber of new infections was still high but stable, leading to less concern about
infection and increased parental burden owing to school closure. Overall, all thesemodels show that women have experienced lower life satisfaction during the early stageof the COVID-19 crisis than men, and this is especially true for mothers with smallchildren who need to be cared for by adults.
To address the limitation of the data that we have only retrospective information
on wellbeing before the COVID-19 crisis, I use supplementary data from the Wellbeing
Survey and Quality of Life (WSQL) (Manzokudo, Seikatsu no sitsu ni kannsuru chōsa)
13for the life satisfaction before the crisis. In the Appendix Table A3, the results of

estimation of Ordered logit model using WSQL, wave 1 and wave 2 of the data in thisstudy show that women statistically and significantly decrease their wellbeing in May
2020, compared with men in May, but this gender difference diminished in December
for parents.

13

https://www5.cao.go.jp/keizai2/wellbeing/manzoku/index.html

17

Table 2 Gender differences in life satisfaction before and during the COVID-19
pandemic
Dep. var = wellbeing change(wellbeing in wave t - wellbeing before COVID)
Wave 1
Wave 2(early phase of COVID19)(middle phase of COVID19)
Parents with
Parents withchildren inchildren inelementaryelementary school
school oror youngerAllparents
youngerAllparents
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Female dummyPart timeSelf-employ etc.
Break/UnemployedNot employedincluding student-0.35*** -0.44***[-6.15][-3.06]-0.44***[-2.87]-0.15*[-1.75]-0.14*[-1.90]-0.12[-1.29]-0.20[-1.15]-0.59***[-2.99]-0.18[-0.94]-0.51**[-2.34]-0.24[-1.63]-0.72**[-2.14]-0.86**[-2.41]-0.14[-1.26]-0.18[-1.22]0.51**[-2.48]-0.34***[-4.06]
9,057
0.03-0.33*[-1.77]
2,154
0.06

-0.32
[-1.62]
1,900
0.06

-0.12
[-0.99]4,808
0.02

Observations
R-squared
t-statistics in brackets*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Education, household income, age, prefecture of residence controls included.

0.07[0.29]
0.60**[-2.01]0.04[0.11]-0.75*[-1.85]0.69**[-2.31]
1,122
0.05

0.09
[0.34]-0.43[-1.25]-0.35[-0.83]-0.71[-1.63]-0.63*[-1.87]877
0.07

5 Main Analysis: Spouse’s lifestyle changes matter for wellbeing
In this section, I explore the factors that define couple’s wellbeing during the pandemic.
In particular, I focus on changes in women’s own work style, as well as, changes in thework style and lifestyle of their spouses brought about by the pandemic. Owing torequests to stay home and school closures, the burden of housework and childcare has
increased. At the same time, some people needed to take a temporary leave from workor reduced working hours owing to scaling down business activities. Other people are inoccupations that allow them to work from home, and some are in occupations that
increase their working hours. How they dealt with or shared the increased burden ofhousework and childcare would have been adjusted according to the working style andworking hours of the couple in each household. If the burden of these works affects life
satisfaction and if there are changes in work and the role of housework and childcare
18

between husbands and wives owing to this pandemic, then the way a spouse works andshares housework and childcare would affect that person’s life satisfaction. Therefore, I
examine the impact of changes in working hours and working style of a person and theirspouse on life satisfaction.
5.1 Estimation strategy
To study how couples’ life satisfaction, especially that of women, in the household are
affected by changes in each other’s workstyle and division of household responsibilities
during the COVID-19 crisis, I used the information that included changes in the way
respondents and their spouses’ work and division of housework and childcare between
respondents and their spouses compared with before the pandemic. In addition to that,the data includes level of wellbeing before the pandemic. Although the questions are
retrospective, supplemental data demonstrated validity in the appendix.
Some may concern that it may have a self-selection problem about work fromhome and working hour decision. Simply regressing the value of wellbeing on remote
work and working hours may bring biased estimation if there is common unobservablecharacteristics to determine both remote work or working hours and the level ofwellbeing . Therefore, in this paper, I regress the “change” in wellbeing on the“change” in working style, working hours, and role. This is the similar to the firstdifference estimation method and remove an omitted variable bias which mightoccurred due to the time-invariant unobserved individual characteristics. Unlike normaldays, they are asked to do work from home or change their working hours by theircompany or the government rather than choosing to do so of their own volition under
the COVID-19 pandemic, and because of the fact that most people did not work fromhome before, whether they work from home or not and whether they decrease (increase)in their working hours is considered to be a change that occurred exogenously in a sense
as in Möhring et al. (2021). As for the spouse's work style, the survey asked about the“change” compared with before the pandemic. It is possible to estimate straightforward
how the “change” in workstyle affected the change in wellbeing. For the employees,
whether work from home or not and whether they reduce (raise) their working hour are
not kinds of self-selection under the emergency. Even the self-selection of spouse workfrom home decision are rather not possible, and therefore, unobserved heterogeneity toselect-in to make spouse work from home is unlikely in this situation.

19

As these questions are for respondents who have children under 18 years of age athome, this analysis is limited to families with children. I focused on the early stages ofthe spread of infectious diseases, when changes were significant, and estimate thefollowing OLS model:∆𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔!" = 𝛽# + 𝑿′𝜷 + 𝜇$ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒!" + 𝜇% 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!"+ 𝜇& 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!" + 𝜇' 𝑆𝑃 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒!"+ 𝜇( 𝑆𝑃 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!" + 𝜇) 𝑆𝑃 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠!"+ 𝛿$ ℎ𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒!" + 𝛿% 𝑤𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒!" + ∆𝜀!

(3)
t=1
The dependent variable is Δwellbeingit = wellbeingt – wellbeingi,before . I estimate theimpact of the “changes” in own and spouse work styles and roles on the “changes” inlife satisfaction. The control variables Xit include employment status, education levels,
household income, age groups, and prefecture defined in equation (1) above. The
penetration of work from home and change in working hours were the most significant
changes in the way we worked during the pandemic. The respondents were also asked
whether there had been any change in the division of roles between spouses inhousework and childcare compared with the time before the spread of the infection. I
estimate a model separately for the respondents who do not have children, who havechildren, whose children are in elementary school or younger, given that children of thatage need more help from their parents and whose children are more than junior highschool age or older. These estimated coefficients would help us understand theimportant factors of women’s life satisfaction and how they are influenced by theirspouses.

5.2 Results
Table 3 shows the results of the analysis outlined in equation (2) using the data of wave
1 survey. Columns (1) and (2) report the results for life satisfaction of male and female
with control variables of change of own working style. Since only those who havechildren under 18 years old are asks about spouse work style and housework andchildcare role, the overall estimation does not include those variables. Column (3)-(8)shows the results of fathers and mothers with control variables of own and spouse
20

working environment changes and division of housework and childcare change among
couples after facing the COVID-19 crisis. Columns (3) and (4) shows the parents withchildren. Columns (5) and (6) report results for fathers and mothers with children ofelementary school age or younger. Columns (7) and (8) report results for fathers andmothers with children but no children younger than elementary school age. Generally,working from home statistically significantly increases people’s wellbeing as in Column(1) and (2). Especially, fathers with children under 18 years old who work from homehave more satisfied with life but we can see limited effect on mother. Appendix 4 whichanalyze by ordered logit model support the results. Interestingly, as shown in columns(3) and (5), fathers in households with children have increased life satisfaction by
engaging more in housework and childcare during the crisis. The fathers with smallchildren were definitely improving their wellbeing by working from home andincreasing their role in household chores and childcare. Moreover, for mothers, I findthat wellbeing is affected by husband’ way of work. Mothers’, especially with smallchildren, life satisfaction increased when their spouses decreased their working hour
during this crisis compared with pre-COVID. This result is also supported by orderedlogit model as seen in the Appendix Table A4. For mothers with small children who
need much care, the longer working hours of their husbands means that they cannot
share the load as much. The fact that this has a positive impact on the wellbeing of not
the fathers themselves, but also spouses, shows that improving the long working hoursof fathers, which is one of the problems in the Japanese work environment, is an
important policy issue. As seen in the Table A4, in ordered logit model, the decrease in
the role of wives also positively affected the wellbeing of mothers with small children.
Spending time at home together, and the increase in the father's share of housework andchildcare and the decrease in the mother's share are associated with an increase in thesatisfaction of both parties with small children. The effect on the satisfaction formothers without children of elementary school or younger cannot be explained by achange of workstyle, working hours and role allocation.
Table 3 Change in life satisfaction of the father and mother, and the change in theirwork and role in the household at the early phase of the COVID-19 crisis
Dep. var = wellbeing change(wellbeing in May - wellbeing before COVID)

21

No children
Men
Women
(1)
(2)
Work from homedecreasing working
hours
increasing working
hours
SP_Work from home
SP_decreasing
working hours
SP_increasing
working hours
Husband role increase
Wife role increase

With children
Father Mother(3)(4)

With children inelementary schoolor younger
FatherMother(5)(6)

Without children
in elementary
school or
younger
Father Mother(7)(8)

0.34***[3.29]

0.68***[4.81]

0.39*[1.81]

0.41[1.41]

0.47**[1.99]

0.52*[1.72]

0.36[0.43]-2.71[-0.95]-0.24**[-2.47]-0.19[-1.58]-0.07[-0.34]0.01[0.03]

0.04[0.18]-0.04[-0.15]-1.08*[-1.83]1.18[1.07]

0.05[0.30]-0.19[-0.93]0.20[0.62]

0.30[0.82]

0.23[0.66]

0.44[1.14]-0.83[-0.70]0.59[0.23]-0.11[-0.42]-0.01[-0.05]-0.14[-0.48]-0.03[-0.10]0.34[0.35]

1.79[1.23]-0.26[-1.24]0.43*[1.71]-0.29[-1.22]0.48*[1.76]-0.27[-0.35]-0.77[-0.59]-0.28[-0.64]-0.27[-0.41]-0.41[-0.81]-0.45[-0.60]2.14[1.61]

2.16[0.87]

0.50**[2.56]
0.03[0.13]
725
0.12

0.02
[0.08]-0.06[-0.28]597
0.12

0.65***[2.97]
0.14[0.55]
626
0.13

0.05
[0.21]-0.06[-0.25]
535
0.13

-0.30
[-0.42]-0.99[-1.15]
99
0.53

-1.53
[-1.02]-0.06[-0.04]62
0.65

Observations
2,678
2,201
R-squared
0.04
0.04
t-statistics in brackets*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
The sample is made up of working mothers and fathers whose partners are also working as fulltime employee,parttime employee or self-employed in the surveyed time.
Coefficient estimates from OLS regression.
Education, household income, age, prefecture of residence controls included.

Next Table 4 shows the results of the analysis that I estimate separate models formothers of each employment. In recent years in Japan, more women are participating in
the workforce and the percentage has reached a record high. However many women are
taking part-time jobs which offer flexibility, but no promotion. In the data in this study,
among 1,087 female respondents with children in the household, 30% are in part-time
position, compared with 2.6% for men. Women in full-time job make up 28% of the
respondents with children, compared with 89% of men. Also, high proportion (30%) of
female respondents with children are not working and not seeking jobs (housewives),
compared with 1% of fathers. While those with non-full-time employment could havemore flexibility or shorter working hours to raise children, they are at disadvantage forhighly educated female workers into productive position. Therefore, it is important tolook at the impact of different employment positions in terms of policy.
22

Table 4 shows the estimated results by mother's employment as above using wave
1. Column (1) find that reducing the working hours of spouse (fathers) is particularly
important for the wellbeing of mothers who work full-time jobs. Interestingly, at theearly stage of COVID-19 crisis when schools are still closed in some areas, wellbeing ofhousewife has declined as their roles in housework and childcare have increased as inColumn (5). This can be pointed out as the possibility that the increased sharing ofhousework and childcare due to the school closure and husbands being at home during
this period may have weighed particularly heavily on housewives. Perhaps dual-earnercouples, especially full-time job couples, arranged the increased sharing of workload
between the two of them, but housewives may have had to bear the increased workloadon their own. Life satisfaction of mothers in other employment cannot explain by thework style change or role change. Those with non-full-time employment may be lessaffected by their spouse's work style than those who work full-time, because their hours
are more flexible to cope with the increased burden of housework and childcare.

23

Table 4 Change in life satisfaction of the mother, and the change in their work and rolein the household at the early phase of the COVID-19 crisis by employment
Dep. var = wellbeing change(wellbeing in May - wellbeing before COVID)
MotherWork from homedecreasing working
hours
increasing working
hours
SP_Work from home
SP_decreasing working
hours
SP_increasing working
hours
Husband role increase
Wife role increase

Full-time(1)

Part-time(2)

Selfemployee(3)

Break/Unemployed(4)

Not
employed(5)0.14[0.28]

0.30[0.58]

1.17[0.76]

0.31[0.75]-0.08[-0.22]-0.45[-0.24]-0.24[-0.37]0.16[0.36]

0.25[0.48]-0.11[-0.26]2.95[1.01]
2.96[0.62]

2.70[0.52]

0.18[0.42]

1.18**[2.44]-0.26[-0.70]3.10[1.52]

2.66[0.98]-0.34[-0.90]0.29[0.19]
0.32[0.84]-0.24[-0.59]
246
0.24

-0.22
[-0.25]-0.35[-0.91]
0.11[0.31]
290
0.23

-3.30
[-1.04]0.08[0.02]-0.72[-0.38]
61
0.88

-9.96
[-2.16]
6.21[1.95]
4.73[1.54]
39
0.99

-0.38
[-0.43]-0.52[-1.30]-1.23***[-3.35]277
0.26

Observations
R-squared
t-statistics in brackets*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Education, household income, age, prefecture of residence controls included.

6. Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way people live around the world, with moretime being spent at home with families. I examined how family members’ lifestyles
have changed and how these changes affect other family members’ wellbeing. Although
there exists emerging literature on gender differences in employment, childcarearrangements, and mental health during the pandemic, to the best of my knowledge, few
studies have focused on the interaction of husbands and wives’ lifestyle change and24partners’ wellbeing. As husbands and wives spend more time together at home during
this pandemic, they are more likely to affect each other, unlike ever before.
To begin with, the study examined how the division of housework and childcare wascoordinated between couples. Fathers are more likely to do housework and childcare if
they work remotely, if their working hours decrease, if their children are in elementary
school or younger, and if their spouse's working hours increase. My empirical results
support the similar results as related literature. Del Boca et al. (2020) shows that men
are more likely to devote household chores when their wives are working at their usual
workplace. Sevilla and Smith (2020) also find additional childcare done by father when
they are furlonged/ not working. In my analysis, father’s probability of increase inhousework and child care role increases by 58% if they work from home, 74% if they
reduce working hours and by 73% if their spouse increase working hours in the earlystage of the crisis.
Next, by using wellbeing data at three time points (one pre-COVID-19 and two
after COVID-19), I show there was a large drop in life satisfaction for both men andwomen in May. As with most previous studies, the decline was statistically significantly
larger for women. There was a recovery to the pre-COVID-19 level at the medium-stagein December.
Third, focusing at the early stage of the crisis, I find that a couple’s wellbeing is
influenced by their own work style, spouse’s work style and contribution to householdchores. Generally, working from home statistically significantly increases people’s
wellbeing. Especially, fathers with children under 18 years old who work from homehave more satisfied with life than men without children. Moreover, fathers with smallchildren were more satisfied when increasing their own share of housework andchildcare. Previous research has shown that the burden of housework and childcare canworsen the mental health of mothers or feel it difficult to balance work and family (Del
Boca et al. 2020), but to my knowledge, it has not been found to have a positive effecton fathers. The results suggest that the exogenous increase in time spent at home due tostay-home orders and remote work (called “supply side shocks” by Sevilla and Smith
2020) has allowed fathers who would have liked to do more housework and childcare
but could not due to time constraints to take charge during the COVID-19.
Finally, this study shows on the effect of spousal lifestyle change that motherswith small children substantially increase their wellbeing when fathers decrease25

working hour. This is especially true for full-time working mothers. This result is an
important finding in Japan, where long working hours have become a problem as acontributing factor to the declining birthrate. In Italy, Del Boca et al. (2020) highlighted
the advantages of partners’ working from home that generate better work-life balance
for women. Although they do not focus on working hours, their results are consistent
with mine in that more time spent at home by fathers has a positive impact on the
wellbeing of their wives.
The limitation of this study is that only those in households with children werequeried about their spouses’ work style and division of household work and childrearing roles. Expanding the survey to all respondents will allow us to compare theeffect of households with children with households without children. Also, for theestimation strategy, I assume that the unobserved variable that is common to changes inwork style and wellbeing to be a time-invariant, but if it is a time variant, it should be
noted that the estimation results may be overstated.
Although there are such limitation, this paper shows that remote work andreduction of men's working hours are recommended from the viewpoint of family
wellbeing in Japan. Whether the modified division of labor between couples under a
new working style will be sustained long after the pandemic will be the subject of future
research.

Appendix 1.
The limitation of the data is that we have only retrospective information on wellbeing
before the COVID-19 crisis. To make the analysis more reliable, I use supplementary
data from the Wellbeing Survey and Quality of Life (WSQL) (Manzokudo, Seikatsu no
sitsu ni kannsuru chōsa) 14, again conducted by the Cabinet Office, Government ofJapan. WSQL and the data in this study are comparable because both were conducted by
the Cabinet Office online with the same question and similar respondent sampling
methods. An interview was conducted with about 10,293 individuals between January
25 and February 7, 2019, and an additional survey was conducted from February 7 toFebruary 20, 2020, with responses from an additional 5,281 respondents, giving us a
total of 15,574 respondents. The WSQL focuses on people’s wellbeing to understand14

https://www5.cao.go.jp/keizai2/wellbeing/manzoku/index.html

26

Japan’s economy and society. This survey, much like baseline data, asks respondents
questions on life satisfaction. It includes the same questions on general life satisfaction
on a scale of 0 to 10 and basic socioeconomic information. I use this survey tocharacterize wellbeing in the population in the period before the COVID-19 infestation.
While baseline data and the supplemental data (WSQL) may not always be fully
identical, the descriptive statistics are not so much different with each other.
TableA1. Descriptive statistics
Pre-COVID19(WSQL)
Mean
Std. Dev.

Mean

Std. Dev.

Mean

Std. Dev.

Female

0.50

0.50

0.50

0.50

0.50

0.50

Junior high

0.03

0.16

0.02

0.15

0.02

0.14

High school

0.30

0.46

0.28

0.45

0.28

0.45

Vocational School

0.12

0.33

0.12

0.33

0.12

0.33

Junior college

0.12

0.32

0.11

0.32

0.12

0.32

University

0.39

0.49

0.41

0.49

0.41

0.49

Graduate school

0.05

0.21

0.04

0.20

0.05

0.21

Never married

0.25

0.44

0.33

0.47

0.35

0.48

Married

0.69

0.46

0.58

0.49

0.57

0.49

Divorced

0.04

0.21

0.06

0.24

0.06

0.24

WidowedKids below age 18 in
HH
Full time

0.01

0.12

0.02

0.14

0.02

0.14

0.27

0.45

0.21

0.41

0.21

0.40

0.39

0.49

0.39

0.49

0.40

0.49

Part time

0.20

0.40

0.18

0.38

0.17

0.38

Self-employ etc.

0.11

0.31

0.09

0.29

0.08

0.27

Break/Unemployed

0.03

0.17

0.03

0.17

0.04

0.19

0.27

0.44

0.31

0.46

0.31

0.46

Not employed including
student
Number of observations

15,574

Wave 1

10,092

Wave 2

10,091

Appendix 2.
Fig. A1 shows the wellbeing of men and women in pre-COVID; May 2020; December
2020. WSQL surveyed in February 2019 and 2020, both were the pre-COVID time. In
comparing supplemental WSQL data to retrospective data in wave 1 that captures thepre-COVID situation, we find that retrospective data are likely to have a higher value
than data taken at that point in time. The plots show that, in the pre-COVID-19 survey,
27

WSQL, the average score for men was approximately 5.7, while the average score forwomen was about 5.9. In the baseline data, respondents tend to answer a little bit wellbefore the pandemic in retrospect, and the average score for men was 5.8 and women
was 6.1.
7.0
6.0

5.7

5.8

5.6

5.9

6.1

5.7

4.6

5.0

4.4

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0

Male

wave2 (Dec. 2020)

wave1 (May 2020)

pre-COVID(retrospective)

pre-COVID (WSQL)

wave2 (Dec. 2020)

wave1 (May 2020)

pre-COVID(retrospective)

pre-COVID (WSQL)

0.0

FemaleFig A1 Life satisfaction (0–10) before and during the COVID-19 pandemic with
supplemental data (WSQL)

Appendix 3.
To study the gender differences in wellbeing in Japan, I used rich nationally
representative data before and during the COVID-19 survey at three different times: one
from supplemental data, WSQL, which was surveyed before the crisis; and two points
during the crisis, in wave 1(May–June 2020) and wave 2 (December 2020) of baseline
data. An estimation is done using three periods of pooled data without the pre-COVID
level of satisfaction in retrospect. I estimate the following equation by ordered logit
model:
𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔!" = 𝛽# + 𝛾$ 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒1 + 𝛾% 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒2 + 𝛽$ 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 + 𝛿$ 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒1+ 𝛿% 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒2 + 𝑿& 𝜷 + 𝜀!"
The main coefficients of interest here are those for a female dummy, a wave dummy forthe surveyed period, and the interactions of female and wave dummies. The parameter γ
28captures the differential effects in wellbeing in May 2020 and December 2020 under
COVID-19 relative to the pre-COVID-19 period. The parameter β1 captures the meansatisfaction of women compared with that of men. The parameter δ captures the genderdifference in wellbeing and allows for different effects by wave to account for thedifferent evolution of wellbeing for men and women in May 2020 and December 2020
under COVID-19, compared with the pre-COVID 19 crisis.

Table A3. Ordered logit estimation of life satisfaction
Dep. var = wellbeing level(ordinal number)

1.wave2.waveFemale1.wave * Female
2.wave* Female
Observations

total

not parents

parents

(1)

(2)

(3)

-1.07***[-31.29]-0.19***[-5.71]0.30***[10.20]-0.29***[-6.39]-0.10**[-2.15]33,772-1.01***[-25.56]-0.12***[-2.97]
0.33***[9.66]-0.32***[-6.08]-0.10*[-1.94]25,262-1.21***[-17.60]-0.36***[-5.12]0.18***[2.77]-0.20**[-2.19]-0.13[-1.39]8,510

z-statistics in brackets*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Education, household income, age, prefecture of residence controls included.

Column (1) reports the results for general life satisfaction for all respondents with
controls, column (2) for people without children, column (3) for parents with children
under 18 years old. The results show significant decrease in life satisfaction for the earlystage and middle stage of COVID-19. As in the main estimation, we can see somerecovery in satisfaction in December in wave 2. The estimated parameters δ1 and δ2
shows that women do experience significantly different changes in satisfaction
compared to men in May. The gender difference still exist for those without children in
December, but for those with children.

29

Table A4. Ordered logit estimation of life satisfaction at the early stage of the COVID19 crisis
Dep. var = wellbeing level(ordinal number)With children
Father Mother(3)(4)

With childen inelementary schoolor younger
Father Mother(5)(6)

Without childen
in elementary
school or younger
Father Mother(7)(8)

0.40*** 0.40***[5.90][4.67]
0.24*** 0.18***[-3.90] [-2.60]

0.39**[2.41]

0.07[0.35]

0.45**[2.49]

0.18[0.82]

1.30[1.52]-1.41[-0.59]0.02[0.10]

0.01[0.08]

0.09[0.55]

0.02[0.10]-0.76[-1.36]1.01[1.03]-0.27**[-2.46]-0.23[-0.91]

0.01[0.04]-0.20[-0.76]0.02[0.07]-1.54[-1.09]1.77[0.95]

0.08
0.26
0.13
0.25
[0.40][1.32][0.58][1.19]
0.47*** 0.50*** 0.49*** 0.52***[-2.85][2.70][-2.73][2.62]

0.08[0.10]

3.13***[2.67]-0.86[-1.22]0.61[0.60]-0.51[-1.43]0.28[0.55]-0.98**[-2.48]0.73[1.32]

3.94***[3.44]

0.10[0.65]

0.19[1.06]

0.24[1.44]-0.87[-1.23]-0.14[-0.84]725-0.37**[-2.17]597

0.02[0.12]
626

0.29[1.55]
0.48***[-2.67]535-0.02[-0.01]
3.58***[-2.69]-1.76*[-1.94]99

0.03[0.02]
62

No children
Men
Women
(1)
(2)
Work from homedecreasing
working hours
increasing
working hours-0.21*[-1.74]

SP_Work fromhome
SP_decreasing
working hours
SP_increasing
working hours
Husband role
increase

Wife role increase

Observations
3,734
2,915
t-statistics in brackets*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Education, household income, age, prefecture of residence controls included.

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