African Technology Policy Studies Network

WORKING PAPER SERIES | No. 57
Climate Change Awareness andAdaptation in the Niger Delta Regionof Nigeria
Thaddeus Chidi Nzeadibe
Chukwudumebi L. Egbule
Nnaemeka A. Chukwuone
Victoria Chinwe Agu

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in
the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Thaddeus Chidi Nzeadibe
University of Nigeria Nsukka,
Enugu State, Nigeria

Nnaemeka A. Chukwuone
University of Nigeria Nsukka,
Enugu State, Nigeria

Chukwudumebi L. Egbule
University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
Enugu State, Nigeria

Victoria Chinwe Agu
National Fadama Coordination Office
Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water
Resources, Abuja., Nigeria

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-6-9

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Abstract5

List of Acronyms & Abbreviation

6

1.

Introduction and Objectives of the Study

7

2.

Literature Review

123.

Research Methodology

15

4.

Preliminary Results & Findings

17

5.

Conclusions & Policy Implications

22

References

24

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 3

Acknowledgement
This paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy Studies Network(ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the Ministerie van
Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst others. The authors hereby
thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during the implementation of the program. The
Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and theProgram Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua (ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Owusu Essegbey (ATPS
Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas Ozor (ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS) for theirtechnical support during the research process.

4 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Abstract
Climate change is a major issue around which global development policy is being framed over the past few
years. Because of low adaptive capacities and the projected impacts of climate change, a consensus has
emerged that developing countries are more vulnerable to climate change than developed countries. Thisis due to the predominance of rain-fed agriculture in their economies, the scarcity of capital for adaptation
measures, their warmer baseline climates and their heightened exposure to extreme weather events. The
Niger Delta region of Nigeria is known to be particularly vulnerable because of its fragile ecosystem andhuman activities such as gas flaring that have heightened the propensity of climate change and its impacts
in the region. Unfortunately, knowledge of Niger Delta farmers about climate change leaves much to be
desired. Recognizing this, the present study sought to investigate farmers’ level of awareness of climatechange and potential adaptive measure for climate change in the region. The purpose of the study is to
examine the level of awareness of Niger Delta communities about impacts of climate change and to identify
and document innovations and practices for climate change adaptation by farmers in the study area. Multistage sampling technique was used to interview 400 heads of farming households in Cross Rivers, Delta
and Rivers States. Analysis of the data utilized simple descriptive statistics while the results were presented
as tables, figures and charts. Two single gender Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted in eachof the survey states giving a total of six FGDs. Data from the FGDs complemented the survey results.
Findings of this study indicate that the level of awareness of local communities of climate change impacts
was still low in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. About 60% of respondents know little or nothing aboutclimate change and its impacts. It was found, however, that the mass media played a major role in climatechange awareness in the study area. The results also indicate that the farmers have practiced someinnovative indigenous measures for climate change adaptation for many years. This study concludes that
extension workers, the media, researchers and civil society groups have something to learn from the Niger
Delta farmers and could assist in diffusing these innovations for widespread adoption in other communities.
At the policy-making level, it is recommended that policy makers should recognize and incorporate theinnovative practices of the farmers in designing Agricultural and Climate Change Policy in Nigeria. Morerobust collaboration among stakeholders for evolving innovative approaches and adaptive measures forthe climate change phenomenon in the region is advocated. Lastly, adequate investment in research andcapacity building is imperative in building resilient adaptation to climate change impacts in the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria.

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 5

List of Acronyms & Abbreviations
ADPs

Agricultural Development Programmes

ATPS

African Technology Policy Studies Network

CREDC

Community Research and Development Centre

EIA

Energy Information Administration of the US

ERA

Environmental Rights Action

FGDs

Focus Group Discussions

FMENV

Federal Ministry of Environment of Nigeria

GHGs

Greenhouses gases

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

MDGs

Millennium Development Goals

NGOs

Non-governmental Organizations

NPC

National Population Commission of Nigeria

RRA

Rapid Rural Appraisal

STI

Science, Technology and Innovation

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNN

University of Nigeria

6 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

1. Introduction & Objectivesof the Study
1.1
Context and justification of the study
Climate change refers to a change which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activities that alter thecomposition of the global atmosphere and which are in addition to natural climate variability observed overcomparable time periods (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992). Climatechange is one of the most serious environmental and human threats undermining the achievement of theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the international communities’ efforts to reduce extreme
poverty. It has, therefore, emerged as a major challenge to development in the 21st century. Recent
research has also noted the impacts of climate change on agriculture and natural resources management
in countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America (Speranza 2010). Because of low adaptive capacities and the
projected impacts of climate change, a consensus has emerged that developing countries are more
vulnerable to climate change than developed countries, because of the predominance of rain-fed
agriculture in their economies, the scarcity of capital for adaptation measures, their warmer baseline
climates and their heightened exposure to extreme events (Fischer et al. 2005; Nnamchi and Ozor 2009).
Human activities have tended to exacerbate climate change and its impacts on agriculture and livelihoods
in some communities in Nigeria. For example, the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is reported to have over 123
gas flaring sites making Nigeria one of the highest emitters of greenhouse gases in Africa (Akinro et al.
2008). A recent study by the World Bank (2008) revealed that Nigeria accounts for roughly one-sixth ofworldwide gas flaring. Nigeria flares about 75% of her gas and all take place in the Niger delta region. The
flares have apparently contributed more greenhouse gases hence climate change in the region thananything else. It is to be noted that agriculture in the Niger Delta is highly dependent on rain as irrigation isseldom practiced. The changes in the rainfall pattern have greatly affected vegetation and agriculture. Thereis almost complete absence of primary forests. Uncontrolled logging, agricultural activities, acid rain, oil
exploration and exploitation, urbanization and mining activities contribute to lose of vegetation. All thesehave contributed to climate change, the impacts of which are already being felt in the region with foodinsecurity, increasing risk of disease and the rising costs of extreme weather damage.
Climate change adaptation requires the development of natural resource management strategies that
ensure the sustainable use of soils and water, halt biodiversity decline and deal with emerging issues suchas growing demand for renewable energy. Societies must, therefore, respond through climate mitigation
Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 7

measures (by reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere) and finding ways toadapt to the impacts that warming will bring, such as shifting precipitation regimes, more frequent andsevere extreme weather events, and sea-level rise. To cope with these obstacles, the rural poor draw on
indigenous knowledge and innovate through local experimentation and adaptation. Hence, climate action
through adaptation is therefore increasingly important. Adaptation is understood to include efforts to adjust
to ongoing and potential effects of climate change (Mani et al, 2008). Within the context of climate change,
adaptation includes the actions people take in response to, or in anticipation of changing climate conditions
in order to reduce adverse impacts or take advantage of any opportunities that may arise.
Some recent studies in Niger Delta have drawn a link between effects of gas flaring on health and agricultural
productivity, and people’s perceptions and attitudes towards gas flaring, (Ibeanu et al. 2007; Dung et al.
2008; Edino et al. 2010) hence, an exacerbation of climate change and its impacts in the region. Noteworthy
is the fact that farmers of Niger Delta communities, knowingly or unknowingly are adapting to the changing
climatic conditions using their traditional knowledge, innovations and practices (Uyigue and Agho 2007,2009; Etuonovbe 2008). Despite all these, it does appear that the level of awareness of farmers in the regionof climate change and its impacts leaves much to be desired. As a result, the need for more awarenessraising among stakeholders about the phenomenon cannot be over-emphasized.
This Working Paper presents some preliminary results and findings of the study on Climate change
awareness and indigenous adaptive technologies in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. It reviews potential
adaptation strategies which may be applied to agriculture in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The study
aims to contribute to a framework for informing key stakeholders and decision-makers on and making themmore aware of the climate change phenomenon with a view to stimulating discussion around this topicalissue in research and policy circles.
1.2
The Research Problem
The Niger Delta region of Nigeria which contains one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity on theplanet could experience a loss of about 40% of its inhabitable terrain in the next thirty years (Finance andDevelopment, 2008). This perceived situation can be attributed to concentration of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere, extensive dam construction, oil spillage, natural gas flaring, unfavourable farm practices ,and over exploitation of natural resources found in the area. As majority of the people living in the Niger Delta
are farmers, the environmental and social consequences of climate change is putting livelihoods at serious
risks.
Agriculture in the Niger Delta is highly dependent on rain as irrigation is seldom practiced. The changes in
the rainfall pattern have greatly affected vegetation and agriculture. There is almost complete absence ofprimary forests. Uncontrolled logging, agricultural activities, acid rain, oil exploration and exploitation,
urbanization and mining activities contribute to lose of vegetation.
Climate change requires the development of natural resource management strategies that ensure thesustainable use of soils and water, halt biodiversity decline and deal with emerging issues such as growing
demand for renewable energy. Societies must therefore respond by both minimizing further warming (byreducing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere) and finding ways to adapt to theimpacts that warming will bring, such as shifting precipitation regimes, more frequent and severe extreme
weather events, and sea-level rise. To cope with these obstacles, the rural poor draw on indigenous
8 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

knowledge and innovate through local experimentation and adaptation. Hence, climate action regarding
adaptation is therefore increasingly important.
Adaptation is understood to include efforts to adjust to ongoing and potential effects of climate change(Mani et al, 2008). Within the context of climate change, adaptation include the actions people take inresponse to, or in anticipation of changing climate conditions in order to reduce adverse impacts or takeadvantage of any opportunities that may arise. The need for, type and scale of adaptation depends on thekind of change taking place, as well as the vulnerability of people and natural systems to this change. This
Working paper is not necessarily about impacts of climate change on Niger Delta communities as these are
fairly well-known and documented. The paper is an attempt at reviewing the level of climate change
awareness among farmers and communities in the Niger Delta and identifying those strategies hitherto
undocumented which they are employing at the farm-level in adaptation to climate change in the region.
1.3
Objectives of the Study
The overall objectives of the study on climate change awareness and indigenous adaptive technologies in
the Niger Delta region of Nigeria were to:> Identify and document effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climatechange adaptation in the study area;> Enhance behavioural changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual andinstitutional levels in the study area;> Build the capacities of farming communities in the study area to adapt to climate change impacts;> Make policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at the state and national levels in
Nigeria - Draw policy lessons for the State government’s effort in promoting sustainable environmentand climate change mitigation and adaptation;> Determine the level of awareness of local community about impacts of climate change;> Identify specific practices contributing negatively to climate change in the area;> Identify available extension services relating to climate change and adaptation strategies; and> Determine problems associated with adapting to effects of climate change.
1.4
Purpose of the Working Paper
Following from the above, the purpose of this Working Paper is to:> Report the level of awareness of Niger Delta communities about impacts of climate change; and,> Document innovations and practices for climate change adaptation by farmers in the study area.
1.5
The Study Area
The area of this study is the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The Niger Delta covers an area of 70,000 Km2 ofmarshland, creeks, tributaries and lagoons that drain the Niger River into the Atlantic at the Bight of Biafra.
About one-third of this area is fragile mangrove forest, the second largest mangrove forest in the world. The
biodiversity of the Niger Delta is very high with the area containing diverse plant and animal species,
including many endangered, exotic and endemic animals and plants (World Bank 1995).
The Niger Delta has an estimated population of over 30 million people (NPC 2009), the bulk of which lives inrural fishing and farming communities .The region is also the headquarters of Nigeria’s oil and gas industry
and currently the only oil and gas producing region in Nigeria (Nzeadibe and Ajaero 2010). Regrettably,
activities of multinational oil companies have recently been linked to degradation of the natural environment,
Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 9

pollution and low agricultural productivity (Abutudu et al. 2007; Ibeanu et al. 2007) as well as insecurity oflives and property, hence, a reduction in quality of life expectations in Niger Delta communities (Nzeadibeand Ajaero 2010).
It is pertinent to note that over the years, persistent debates have raged over what constitutes the Niger
Delta1 . Officially, however, the Niger Delta consists of the nine States of Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, CrossRiver, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers. Ethnically, the region consists of the Ijaw, Urhobo, Efik, Ibibio,
Ogoni, Edo, Yoruba (mainly Itsekiri and Ilaje) and the Igbo (Ibeanu 2006). The Niger Delta region is thereforeof immense geopolitical, ecologic and economic importance. It is also an important agro-climatic region in
Nigeria. In view of the problems and controversies inherent in the different definitions of the Niger Delta, thisstudy adopts the official definition of the Niger Delta as consisting of the following nine states: Abia, AkwaIbom, Bayelsa, Cross-River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers. Fig.1 depicts the relative location of the
Niger Delta region while Fig. 2 shows states of the Niger Delta region.

Fig. 1: Relative Location of Niger Delta region (Source: Ugochukwu 2008)

1
These debates are largely driven by the politics and governance of petroleum resources. Consequently, four
different socio-political and geographical definitions of the Niger Delta have been identified in recent development
literature [see Ibeanu (2006) for a detailed analysis and discussion of these definitions].

10 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Fig. 2: Map of Nigeria showing the states in the Niger Delta Region
Key: (1) Abia, (2) Akwa Ibom, (3) Bayelsa, (4) Cross River, (5) Delta, (6) Edo, (7) Imo, (8) Ondo,(9) Rivers(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_Delta , 2010)

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 11

2. Literature Review
2.1
Climate Change: Causes and Consequences
Climate change has the potential to affect all natural systems thereby becoming a threat to humandevelopment and survival socially, politically and economically. Anthropogenic activities such as theburning of coal, oil, and natural gas, as well as deforestation and various agricultural and industrial
practices, are altering the composition of the atmosphere and contributing to climate change. These
human activities have led to increased atmospheric concentrations of a number of greenhouse gases.
Since its creation in 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has conducted four
assessments to date. These assessments show that Warming of the climate system is unequivocal. The
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that Continued GHG emissions [...] would induce many changes in
the global climate system during the 21st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during
the 20th century (Pachauri 2009). This study further stated that Delayed emission reductions significantly
constrain the opportunities to achieve lower stabilisation levels and increase the risk of more severe climatechange impacts. Africa has also been identified as being especially vulnerable because of low adaptive
capacity and projected climate change impacts.
These findings of the IPCC are clearly in tandem with observations and events in the Niger Delta region of
Nigeria where it is estimated that over 70 million cubic meters daily), amounting to about 70 million tonnes ofcarbon dioxide are flared off during oil and gas exploration and production activities (UNDP/World Bank
2004). Approximately 75 percent of total gas production in Nigeria is flared. It has been estimated that
Nigeria accounts for about 17.2% of global gas flaring. As a result, more gas is flared in Nigeria's Niger Delta
than anywhere in the world (EIA 2003). Flaring in Nigeria contributes a measurable percentage of theworld's total emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and is probably the greatest contributor of GHGs in
the Niger Delta region. Due to the low efficiency of many of the flares much of the gas is released asmethane (which has a high warming potential), rather than carbon dioxide. At the same time, the low-lying
Niger Delta is particularly vulnerable to the potential effects of sea levels rising (Ugochukwu 2008;
Ugochukwu et al. 2008).
Climate change in the Niger Delta affects rainfall pattern, emergence of diseases and pests, crop andanimal production, fisheries, biodiversity, frequency and regularity of floods, human health (see Figs. 3 and4 showing gas flaring in different parts of the Niger Delta region. It has been suggested that climate change
could potentially contribute to increased incidences of flooding. This being the case, communities in the
12 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Source: Ugochukwu 2008

Source:Ugochukwu 2008

Fig. 3a: Gas flaring in farmlands inRivers StateFig 3b: Gas flaring in farmlands inRumuekpe community, Rivers State

Source: Environmental Rights Action, 2004

Source: Uyigue and Agho 2007

Fig 4: Multiple gas flare points at
Ebocha community, Niger Delta

Fig. 5: Urban flooding in Benin City,
Niger Delta

Niger Delta would seem to be especially at risk with serious consequences for property, livelihoods and theenvironment. Fig.5 shows a recent episode of urban flooding in Benin City of Niger Delta, Nigeria.
2.2

Climate Change Research, Advocacy and Policy-making in the Niger
Delta
The past few years have witnessed a flurry of activities regarding climate change in the Niger Delta region of
Nigeria. Some of these have been by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups
while others are more academic and policy-oriented. Some Niger Delta- based NGOs such as Community
Research and Development Centre (CREDC) and Environmental Rights Action (ERA) have also been activein trying to create awareness about impacts of gas flaring and its linkages with climate change and poverty
in the region (Ibeanu 2006; Uyigue and Ogbeibu 2007; Uyigue and Agho 2007, 2009). Recent studies haveaddressed issues of environmental degradation and vulnerability and mitigation of climate change impacts(Akinro et al. 2008), coastal management and adaptation to climate change (Etuonovbe 2008), climatechange, poverty and women’s socio-economic challenges (Chinweze and Abiola-Oloke 2009). The needfor building institutional and professional capacity of urban and regional planners in the face of the climate
Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 13

challenge has also been advocated (Olujimi 2007).On the academic front, studies on climate change in the
Niger Delta have tended to be orientated to social aspects and food security. For example, Edino et al.
(2010) examined people’s perceptions and attitudes towards gas flaring. This study concludes that mostresidents appear to be resigned to the continued presence of gas flaring activities in the community. The
study, however, raised several questions on modeling perception and attitudes toward environmental
problems in areas where political tension and economic adversity are prevalent. A related study exploredthe spatial variability effects of gas flaring on the growth and development of cassava (Manihot esculenta),
waterleaf (Talinum triangulare), and pepper (Piper spp.) crops commonly cultivated in the Niger Delta (Dunget al. 2008). Findings of this study indicate that cassava yields were higher at location further away from gas
flare while starch and ascorbic acid tended to decrease when cassava plant is grown close to gas flare.
Curiously, however, the study also found that the waterleaf plant appeared to thrive better around the gas
flare point (Dung et al. 2008).
At the policy-making level, the Federal Ministry of Environment of Nigeria (FMENV) set up a “Special Unit” on
Climate Change. It was established in recognition of “importance attached to the issue of climate change
and global warming, and in view of the enormity of activities required for the implementation of the Climate
Change Convention and the Kyoto Protocol” (FMENV 2010). It is this Unit that has been the driver of the
Ministry’s Policy and Programmes on Climate Change. In addition, it was recently reported that the Ministry
has commenced “massive” awareness programme on climate change in the nine erosion-prone states in
the Niger Delta region and northern parts of Nigeria (The Punch Newspaper 2010). According to a Director
in the Ministry, the programme would enlighten the people in the area about the threat and impact of the
global phenomenon. However, this awareness programme which illustrated the impact of climate change,
through jingles on television, radio and drama also had in participation “people at the grassroots” and someNGOs. It should be noted, however, that programmes, policies and activities of the Ministry on climatechange do not seem to have specifically targeted and involved farmers e.g. the awareness campaign
mentioned above (FMENV 2010). Consequently, farmers as major stakeholders appear to have
inadvertently been left out in the climate change debate and policy making in the Niger Delta by
governmental authorities.
In a related development, the climate change discourse in Nigeria received a big boost with a major
conference that was organized by the Department of Geography, University of Nigeria (UNN) in 2009. The
conference whose theme was Climate Change and the Nigeria Environment touched on various facets ofthe climate change phenomenon including agriculture and food security, socio-economic development,
vulnerability and adaptation to climate change, climate change education and awareness (Anyadike et al.
2010). However, only a few papers dealt with climate change and its impacts in the Niger Delta region of
Nigeria (Efe 2010; Ekuase et al. 2010; Ubuoh et al. 2010), while very little on indigenous knowledge systems
and climate change awareness in Nigeria was presented (Nabegu 2010).
The conclusion of the above review is that studies on climate change and its impacts in the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria are not lacking. What has been missing is the fact that major stakeholders particularly
farmers have not been part of the climate change dialogue as their awareness level of the climate change
phenomenon is dismally low. In addition, efforts have not been made to involve farmers’ innovative
practices and traditional knowledge systems in climate change adaptation in the region. This is a major
challenge to researchers, civil society and policy makers in the quest for innovative approaches to foodsecurity and agricultural adaptation to climate change in the region.
14 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

3. Research Methodology
3.1
Study Population and Sample
The population for this study comprised farmers estimated to be about 7,814,858 which represented about
60% of the population of the sample states in the study area (NPC 2009). Multistage (random) samplingtechnique was used. Three states were randomly selected from the nine states that make up the Niger Delta
region in the first stage. The states are Cross River, Delta and Rivers. In the second stage, using thedelineation by the different states’ Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs), two agricultural zones
were randomly selected from each state giving a total of 6 agricultural zones. From each of the selected
zones, two blocks were randomly selected for study. This gave a total of 12 blocks.
First, residents from the selected blocks were invited to a community forum at which a preliminary
identification of different categories of households was carried out. At the community forum, 15 rural
households members made up of males, females and youths who constituted the focus group were
purposively selected from the list of those identified and discussions were held with them. During thecommunity forum, focus group discussion, and key informant interviews and with the help of community
leaders, a sampling frame of all farmers was built up in each community. From this list, random samples of
35 respondents were selected and interviewed using semi-structured interview schedules. In all, a total of
420 respondents were interviewed. However, 400 completely filled questionnaires were used for analysis.
3.2
Data Collection
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) (transect walks, identification and inspection of farm lands) was used first to
encourage the respondents to describe their relationship with their natural resources, particularly theindigenous adaptation measures. Again, this helped in identifying variables of importance to the rural
dwellers and in the formulation of questions that were included in the more formal semi- structured interview
schedule in locally meaningful terms. Two single gender Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), one for men
and another for women were held with farmers in each state with number of participants ranging from 10-21.
This gave a total of six FGDs. The FGDs /Community fora were particularly helpful in eliciting clearer
information on respondents’ relationships to the natural resource base. Key informant information enabled
the selection of different sites for in-depth study, while the semi-structured interview schedule was used tocollect quantitative information from the randomly selected respondents.
3.3
Measurement of variables
The interview schedule was divided into eight sections (A-H). However, only Sections B and F are relevant tothe analysis presented in this Working Paper. Section B determined rural households’ level of climate
Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 15

change awareness. Respondents’ were asked to indicate the extent to which variables such as highrainfall, massive floods, food insecurity and hunger, extinction of planting and animal species etc
represented their awareness level of climate change by ticking against the appropriate responses/optionsof “Yes” or “No”.
Section F elicited indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations adopted by the farmers to
mitigate the negative effects of climate change in their communities. In this case, respondents were asked
to list / enumerate different indigenous practices and innovations adopted in the communities to mitigate
the negative effects of climate change. The perceived levels of effectiveness of the different adaptation
strategies were measured on a three-point Likert-type scale of very effective (3); effective (2) and noteffective (1). Adaptation strategies with mean scores greater or equal to 2.0 were regarded more
“effective”, while strategies with mean responses lower than 2.0 were regarded as less effective.
3.4
Data Analysis
Analysis of the survey data entailed use of means, percentages, standard deviation and frequencies. The
results were presented graphically in charts, graphs and tables. Data collected from FGDs and keyinformant interviews were analysed by first transcribing and translating them from local languages to English
and then organizing them into themes. Results of FGDs were content analysed and complemented thequantitative data. Verbatim quotations from FGDs are used to illustrate the indigenous adaptive practices ofthe farmers. Both data types were used in drawing of conclusions and policy implications on climatechange awareness and adaptation in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.

16 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

4. Preliminary Results & Findings
4.1
Farmers’ Awareness of Climate Change in the Niger Delta
Results of the household questionnaire survey indicate that the level of awareness of local communities ofclimate change impacts was still low in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Nearly 60% of respondents know
little or nothing about climate change and its impacts. Specifically, it was found that 41.5% of respondents
indicated that they know little about the phenomenon while 17.5% stated that they do not know aboutclimate change at all.
On the other hand, about 32% of respondents indicated that they know about climate change impacts to areasonable extent. Only about 8.5% of the respondents claimed that they were very knowledgeable aboutclimate change impacts. Fig. 6 shows the extent of knowledge of respondents to climate change impacts.

Fig. 6: Extent of knowledge of climate change
From Fig. 6, the mean (x) of the extent of awareness on climate change is 2.32 while the mean years
respondents have lived in the communities was 27.10 years. Interestingly, 94.8% of the respondents
indicated that they were aware of climate change impacts on their farming activities and on their lives. Table 1
presents a distribution of respondents' extent of climate change awareness in Niger Delta region of Nigeria.

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 17

Table 1: Distribution of respondents' extent of climate change awareness

Variables*%

Extent of knowledgex
2.32

Knowledge on climate change on farming practices
Yes

94.8

No

5.2

Understanding of climate change
Excessive rainfall

61.0

Increased incidence of drought

56.2

Crop failure

60.2

Decline in fish production

24.2

Pests and disease infestations

45.2

High winds and heat waves

41.2

Years lived in the community

27.10* Multiple Responses
4.2
Farmers’ Understanding of the Climate Change Phenomenon
This study sought to elicit the understanding of the farmers of climate change. Farmers were asked toindicate their understanding of the phenomenon. Curiously, 69% of respondents reported that they
understood climate change as “change in weather”. This observation is probably representative of themost basic understanding of the term “climate change”. 11% related climate change to “poor yield” while
9% understood it as “ozone layer depletion”. Some farmers (6%) understood climate change as “heavy
rainfall” while 5% regarded climate change as “excessive sunshine”. Descriptive analysis of Table 1 showsthat 56.2% of the respondents perceived it as “increased incidence of drought”; about 41.2% of themunderstood climate change to mean “high wind and heat waves”. Table 1 also reveals that some
respondents understood climate change to mean “excessive rainfall” (61.0%). Another factor that
contributed to their understanding of the term is “crop failure/poor yield” (60.2%). Fig 7 presents a
description of climate change phenomenon as understood by farmers in the Niger Delta.

18 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Fig. 7: Respondents' understanding of climate change
4.3
Sources of Information on Climate Change
Knowledge of climate change impacts is related to availability and accessibility of information on thephenomenon. It was found that the mass media (radio/TV and newspaper) was the largest source of
information on the climate change phenomenon. A significant number of respondents , however, reported
that their source of climate change information was informal contacts with friends. Table 2 presents different
sources of climate change information to respondents. It is evident from Table 2 that the farmers received
information on climate change from the following three major sources;. radio/television (61.0%),
newspaper (44.0%), and friends (43.8%). Other sources included internet (18.2%), researchers (14.8%),extension workers (13.8%), farmers' co-operative (10.2%) and politicians (3.5%).

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 19

Table 2: Sources of information on climate change to farmers

Sources*

Percentage (%)

Extension workers

13.8

Friends

43.8

Farmers co-operatives

10.2

Politicians

3.5Internet

18.2

Newspaper

44.0Radio/Television

61.0

Researchers

14.8*Multiple responses

4.4
Climate Change and Potential Adaptive Measures for farmers
Adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change is a key issue for all countries, especially developing
countries, which are often the most vulnerable and least, equipped to defend themselves. De Chavez andTauli-Corpuz (2008) defined climate change adaptation as the process by which ecological, social, or
economic systems adjust to actual or expected climatic stimulus and their effects or impacts. Adaptation is
widely recognized as a vital component of any policy response to climate change because it helps farmers
achieve their food, income and livelihood security objectives in the face of changing climatic andsocioeconomic conditions, including climate variability, extreme weather conditions such as droughts andfloods, and volatile short-term changes in local and large-scale markets (Kandlinkar and Risbey 2000).
Studies show that without adaptation, climate change is generally detrimental to the agriculture sector; butwith adaptation, vulnerability can largely be reduced (Easterling et al. 1993; Mendelsohn 1998).The degree
to which an agricultural system is affected by climate change depends on its adaptive capacity. Adaptive
capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) tomoderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences (IPCC
2001). Thus, the adaptive capacity of a system or society describes its ability to modify its characteristics or
behaviour so as to cope better with changes in external conditions (Gbetibouo 2009).
Adaptation is understood to include efforts to adjust to ongoing and potential effects of climate change(Mani et al. 2008). Also, adaptation to climate change consists of initiatives to reduce the vulnerability ofnatural climate change effects (IPCC 2007). Adaptation to climate change requires that farmers first noticethat the climate has changed, and then identify useful adaptations measures and implement them
(Maddison 2006). Adaptation to climate change refers to any adjustment that occurs naturally within
ecosystems or in human systems in response to climatic change that either moderates harm or exploits
beneficial opportunities in response to actual or expected climate related environmental changes (IPCC
Third Assessment Report). It is also defined by the UNFCCC as something that is about finding andimplementing ways of adjusting to climate change. It looks into ways of responding to changes that pose
20 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

greater risks to life and livelihood and increasing damage-related costs such as climate change effects on
rainfall, the strength and distribution of tropical storms, sea levels and glacier melt.
Adaptation measures always seek to reduce the risks and impacts of climate change, to moderate thenegative effects, and to exploit beneficial opportunity. Adaptation is a proactive process because itenvisages possible future changes in the climate, unlike coping measures which are reactionary(www.nigeriaclimatechange.org). The devastating effects of climate change can be reduced if appropriate
adaptation measures are employed. Many agricultural adaptation options have been suggested in theliterature. They encompass a wide range of scales (local, regional, global), actors (farmers, firms,
government), and types: (a) micro-level options, such as crop diversification and altering the timing ofoperations; (b) market responses, such as income diversification and credit schemes; (c) institutionalchanges, mainly government responses, such as removal of present subsidies and improvement inagricultural markets; and (d) technological developments - the development and promotion of new cropvarieties and advances in water management techniques (Smith and Lenhart 1996; Mendelsohn 2001; Smit
and Skinner 2002; Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal 2003).
4.5

Indigenous Measures for Climate Change Adaptation in the Niger Delta
RegionVarying strategies have been adopted by farmers in the Niger Delta for climate change adaptation. Table 3
shows that the percentage of respondents that adopted different strategies for climate change adaptation.
For example, 80.2% planted with early rainfall; 77.2% adopted mixed farming; 75.8 used proper preservationof seeds as an adaptive strategy. Similarly, 74.2% adopted use of inorganic manure; 72.0% utilized organic
manure; cover cropping was used by 71.8%; increase number of weeding of cropped land accounted for
67.5% use by farmers. Other noteworthy adaptive measures reported included protection of watersheds/mulching (64.5%), listening to information on climate change (59.2%), use of minimum/zero tillage(57.2%) and afforestation (56.0%) in cushioning the effects of climate change.
On the other hand, interactions during the FGDs indicate that farmers are adopting the “spiritual approach”
or “prayers” for adaptation to the effect of climate change. They noted that “these changes are brought
about by God and that they can only pray for mercies”. Some of the more widely adopted adaptive
measures identified by the farmers themselves during the FGDs and community forums included:
>
>
>
>
>
>

planting cover crops like melon to help conserve soil moisturezero tillage so as not to expose the soil to loss of nutrientsregular weeding of cropped farmland
early planting with first rain especially for crops like maize and cassava
mulching and use of organic manurepreservation and selection of seeds for next planting season

The farmers argued that while noticing the manifestations of climate change “we adopted these measuresand they have been helping our crop farming activities”. When probed further on the sources of these
innovative strategies for climate change adaptation, some of them remarked that “we did not learn thepractices from anywhere and that they are indigenous to us”. Some of them further opined that “thesemeasures have served us well in water and soil conservation and management”. Although the farmers
acknowledged that “there are no local equivalents for the term Climate Change”, they noted that “the above
Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 21

and many more have been practiced for so many years even before Climate change became a major issue
in development policy in country”.
From the foregoing, it is evident that farmers in the Niger Delta have been practicing adaptation measureseven before the concept of climate change became a topical issue in development policy discourse. The
finding that these innovative practices are indigenous to the farmers in Niger Delta could have some
implications for climate change and development policy in Nigeria.
Table 3: Percentage distribution of adaptive strategies for climate change in
Niger Delta
S/N

Adaptive strategies

Yes (%)

No (%)

1

Conservation of water and soil

50.5

49.5

2

Use of organic manures

72.0

28.0

3

Use of inorganic fertilizer

74.2

25.8

4

Planting pest and disease resistant crop

40.2

59.8

5

Use of crops varieties that are well acclimated

45.0

55.0

6

Draining of wetland for crop cultivation

30.8

69.2

7

Making of contour bund around farmland

40.8

59.2

8

Cover cropping

71.8

28.2

9

Use of minimum tillage system (zero or minimum)

57.4

42.8

10

Use of irrigation system/water storage

37.2

62.8

11

Reforestation/ Afforestation

56.0

44.0

12

Use of chemicals like herbicide, insecticide

53.8

46.2

13

Increase in number of weeding of cropped land

67.5

32.5

14

Use of early maturing crop varieties

57.5

42.5

15

Protection of water sheds and mulching

64.5

35.5

16

Proper preservation of seeds and plant seedling used for planting

75.8

24.2

17

Use of weather-resistant variety

28.5

71.5

18

Planting of crop with early rainfall

80.2

19.8

19

Reducing access to eroded and erosion prone area

49.2

50.8

20

Mixed farming practices

77.2

22.8

21

Change of planting date

51.2

48.8

22

Use of recommended planting distance

41.2

58.8

23

Listening to information about climate change

59.2

40.8

24

Changing the timing of land preparation

43.2

56.8

25

Changing harvesting dates

45.2

54.8

26

Out migration from climate risk areas

31.2

68.8

27

Processing of crops to minimize post-harvest losses

54.0

46.0

28

Use of windbreaks/shelter belts

35.8

64.2

29

Reclamation of wetlands/ river valleys

23.8

76.2

22 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

5. Conclusions & Policy Implications
This paper has reviewed the state of awareness and adaptation of farmers to climate change incommunities in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. In spite of the fact that NGOs and Policy makers havemade attempts at creating awareness of climate change and its impacts in the region, it does appear,
however, that such campaigns have not have specifically targeted and involved farmers. As a result, farmers
as major stakeholders appear to have inadvertently been left out in the climate change debate and policy
making in the Niger Delta by governmental authorities.
Although the level of awareness shown by farmers in the Niger Delta is still low, it is evident that the farmers
have been practicing adaptation measures even before the concept of climate change became a topicalissue in development policy discourse. A major challenge to researchers, civil society and policy makers in
the quest for innovative approaches to food security and agricultural adaptation to climate change in theregion is to involve farmers and learn from the adaptive measures they are already practicing.
The power of the mass media to bring about behavioural change cannot be underestimated. The farmers
indicated that radio/television were their main sources of climate change information. Policy makers could
tap into the vast potential of the media to disseminate climate change information and create moreawareness about causes, and consequences of climate change as well as strategies for climate change
adaptation in the Niger Delta region.
More importantly, the observed adaptive measures are indigenous to the farmers. This means that
extension workers, the media, researchers and civil society groups have something to learn from the Niger
Delta farmers and could assist in diffusing the innovations for widespread adoption in other communities.
The identified indigenous adaptive strategies have Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) policy
relevance as such practices of the farmers could inform the design and implementation of future Agricultural
and Climate Change Policy in Nigeria.
Climate change is a real threat to lives and livelihoods as well as to the environment. If the MDGs of foodsecurity are to be attained in the Niger Delta, then there is need for more robust collaboration among
stakeholders for evolving innovative approaches and adaptive measures for the climate change
phenomenon in the region. In addition, adequate investment in research and capacity building is imperativein building resilient adaptation to climate change impacts in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 23

References
Abutudu, M., Joab-Peterside, S., and Isumonah, V. (2007). Akwa Ibom State. In L.A Jinadu., B.A. Chokor .,O. Ibeanu., Y. Oruwari ., P.A. Egom ., M. Abutudu ., V.A. Isumonah ., S. Joab-Peterside., N. Toyo., D. Garuba., T. Bolton., and U. Ukiwo (Eds.), Democracy, Oil and Politics in the Niger Delta: Linking Citizens’
Perceptions and Policy Reform (pp.94-139). Port Harcourt: Centre for Advanced Social Science.
Akinro, A. O., Opeyemi, D. A., and Ologunagba, I.B (2008). Climate Change and Environmental
Degradation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria:Its vulnerability, impacts and possible mitigations.
Research Journal of Applied Sciences. 3 (3); Pp 167-173.
Anyadike, R.N.C; Madu, I.A and Ajaero, C.K (2010). Climate Change and the Nigeria Environment.
Conference Proceedings. Nsukka: Department of Geography, University of Nigeria.
Chinweze, C and Abiola-Oloke, G (2009) Women issues, poverty and social challenge of climate change
in the Nigerian Niger Delta context. Paper to be presented at IHDP Open Meeting 2009, the 7th International
Conference on the Human Dimension of Global Environmental Change, 26-30 April, 2009, UN Campus,
Bonn, Germany. Available fromhttp://www.openmeeting2009.org/pdf_files/Pdf%20papers/chizoba%20Chinweze.pdf
De Chavez, R and Tauli-Corpuz,V. (eds.) (2008). Guide to climate change and indigenous peoples.
Retrieved on 26th June, 2009 from www.tebtebba.org.
Dung E.J., Bombom L.S., and Agusomu T.A (2008).The effects of gas flaring on crops in the Niger Delta,
Nigeria. GeoJournal 73:297–305. DOI 10.1007/s10708-008-9207-z
Easterling, W.E., Crosson, P.R; Roseberg, N. J., Mckenney M.S., Katz, L.A. and Lemon, K.M. (1993).
Agricultural impact of and response to climate change in the Missouri – Iowa-Nebraska Region Climate
Change 24(1-2): 23-62.
Edino, M.O, Nsofor, G.N, and Bombom, L.S (2010). Perceptions and attitudes towards gas flaring in the
Niger Delta, Nigeria. Environmentalist 30 (1) DOI 10.1007/s10669-009-9244-2.
Efe, S.I (2010). Climate change and food security in Africa: Delta State Nigeria experience. In Anyadike,
R.N.C; Madu, I.A and Ajaero, C.K (Eds). Climate Change and the Nigeria Environment. Conference
Proceedings. Nsukka: Department of Geography, University of Nigeria, pp.105-126.
EIA, (2003). Energy Information Administration of the US, retrieved August 30, 2007
from http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/nigenv.html
Ekuase, I.O., Andrew, O and Osarobo, A. (2010). Emerging effects of regional climate changes on socioeconomic activities in Benin City: Impacts, Adaptations, and Vulnerability. In Anyadike, R.N.C; Madu, I.A
and Ajaero, C.K (Eds). Climate Change and the Nigeria Environment. Conference Proceedings. Nsukka:
Department of Geography, University of Nigeria, pp.595-611.
24 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Etuonovbe, A.K (2008). Sustaining coastal Management / Adaptation of climatic change and sea level risein the Niger Delta. Paper presented at Integrating Generations FIG Working Week 2008 Stockholm,
Sweden 14-19 June 2008. Available at
http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2008/papers/ts03f/ts03f_06_etuonovbe_2753.pdf.
Gbetibouo, G. (2009). Understanding farmers’ perceptions and adaptations to climate change andvariability: The Case of the Limpopo Basin, South Africa. Environment and Production Technology Division,
International Food Policy Research Institute. Available fromhttp://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/rome2007/docs/ifpri_limpopo_dp00849.pdf.
Federal Ministry of Environment of Nigeria (2010).Climate Change. Available at
http://environment.gov.ng/issues/climate-change/ (accessed on 30:09:2010).
Finance and Development (www.imf.org/fandd 2008).
Fischer, G; Shah, M; Tubiello, F.N and Van Velhuizen, H (2005). Socio-Economic andClimate Change
Impacts on Agriculture: An Integrated Assessment, 1990–2080 . Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 360, 2067–2083
doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1744.
Ibeanu, O (2006).Civil Society and Conflict Management in the Niger Delta: Scoping Gaps for Policy and
Advocacy. CLEEN Foundation Monograph Series No.2. Lagos: CLEEN Foundation.
Ibeanu, O., Oruwari, Y., and Egom, P.A (2007). Abia State. In L.A Jinadu., B.A. Chokor ., O. Ibeanu., Y. Oruwari., P.A. Egom ., M. Abutudu ., V.A. Isumonah ., S. Joab-Peterside., N. Toyo., D. Garuba ., T. Bolton., and U.
Ukiwo (Eds.), Democracy, Oil and Politics in the Niger Delta: Linking Citizens’ Perceptions and Policy
Reform (pp.49-93). Port Harcourt.: Centre for Advanced Social Science.
IPCC (2001).Climate Change (2001). Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. (McCarthy J.J. et al (eds).
Contribution of working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.
IPCC (2007). Climate Change (2007) Impacts, adaptations and vulnerability. (Parry, M. L., Canzian, O. F.,
Palutikof, J. P., van der Linden, Paul, J., and Hanson, C. (eds.)) Contribution of working group II to the 4th
Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge: University Press Cambridge.
Kandlinkar, M and Risbey, J, (2000). Agricultural impacts of climate change: If Adaptation the answer, what is
the question? Climatic Change 45, 529–539.
Kurukulasuriya, P. and Rosenthal, S. (2003). Climate change and agriculture: A review of impact andadaptations. Climate change series paper no. 91. Environment Department and Agriculture and Rural
Development Department, World Bank, Washington DC.
Maddison, D. (2006). The perception of and adaptation to climate change in Africa. CEEPA Discussion
Paper No 10. Center for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
Available at http://www.ceepa.co.za/docs/CDPNo10.pdf
Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 25

Mendelsohn R. (1998). Climate change damages. In Wordhaus, W. D. (ed). Economics and Policy Issues
in Climate Change. Washington, D. C: Resources for the future.
Mendelsohn, R. (2001). Adaptation. In: Mendelssohn, R., Edward, E. (eds.).Global Warming and American
Economy: A Regional Assessment of Climate Impact. UK: Cheltenham
Mani , M; Markandya, A. and Ipe, V (2008). Climate change: Adaptation and mitigation in development
programmes: A practical guide. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Nabegu, A.B (2010). Local knowledge in climate change assessment in Kano region. In Anyadike, R.N.C;
Madu, I.A and Ajaero, C.K (Eds). Climate Change and the Nigeria Environment. Conference Proceedings.
Nsukka: Department of Geography, University of Nigeria, pp.459-470.
National Population Commission of Nigeria (2009). 2006 Population and Housing Census of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria: National and State Population and Housing Tables – Priority Tables Vol.1. Abuja: NPC.
Nnamchi, H.C. and Ozor, N.O (2009). Climate Change and the Uncertainties Facing Farming Communities
in the Middle Belt Region of West Africa. Paper presented at the 7th International Science Conference on
the Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change (IHDP Open Meeting 2009) held at the United
Nations University, Bonn, Germany between 26 April and 1 May, 2009. Available at
http://www.openmeeting2009.org/pdf_files/Pdf%20papers/Nnamchi_Ozor.pdf
Nzeadibe, T.C and C.K Ajaero.(2010). Assessment of socio-economic characteristics and quality of life
expectations in rural communities of Enugu State, Nigeria. Applied Research in Quality of Life. 5 (4) 353371.DOI: 10.1007/s11482-010-9096-4.
Olujimi, J (2007). Climate change and coastal settlement planning in Nigeria: A call for capacity building .
Bulletin of Science Association of Nigeria vol. 28, 28-31.
Pachauri, R.K (2009).State of Climate Science: Enabling Enlightened Policies. Paper presented at theInternational Scientific Congress, Copenhagen 10th March 2009.
Smith, J. B. and Lenhart, S. (1996). Climate change adaptation policy options. Climate Research 6: 193201
Smit, B. and Skinner, M.W. (2002). Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: A typology.
Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 7 (1) 85-114, DOI: 10.1023/A:1015862228270.
Speranza, C.I (2010). Resilient adaptation to climate change in African agriculture. Bonn: German
Development Institute (DIE).
The Punch Newspaper (2010). Niger Delta: Ministry holds climate change awareness. Wednesday, 21 Apr
2010. Available at http://www.punchng.com/Articl.aspx?theartic=Art2010042113175143

26 | Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Ubuoh, E.A; Anyadike, R.N.C ; Akande, S.O; Igbojionu, D.O; Akhionbare, S.M.O and Njoku, J.D (2010).
Atmospheric corrosion of corrugated iron roofing sheet in selected parts of Akwa Ibom, Nigeria. In
Anyadike, R.N.C; Madu, I.A and Ajaero, C.K (Eds). Climate Change and the Nigeria Environment.
Conference Proceedings. Nsukka: Department of Geography, University of Nigeria, pp.489-500.
Ugochukwu, C.N.C (2008). Sustainable Environmental Management in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria:
Effects of Hydrocarbon Pollution on Local Economy. Unpublished PhD dissertation Brandenburg Universityof Technology, Cottbus.
Ugochukwu, C.N.C; Ertel, J and Schmidt, M (2008). Environmental Sustainability and Sustainable
Development Issues in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Forum der Forschung 21/2008: 151-156.
UNDP/World Bank, (2004). Strategic Gas Plan for Nigeria, Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector
Management Assistance Programme (ESMAP).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change- UNFCCC (1992). Retrieved fromwww.http://unfccc.int/2860.php.
Uyigue, E and Agho, M (2007). Coping with climate change and environmental degradation in the Niger
Delta of Southern Nigeria. Benin City: Community Research and Development Centre. Available at
http://www.credcentre.org/Publications/adaptation_nigerdelta.pdf
Uyigue, E and Agho, M (2009). Community adaptation to climate change and other environmental changes
in the Niger Delta region of Southern Nigeria IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science.DOI:10.1088/1755-1307/6/5/352041.Available at
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/17551315/6/35/352041/ees9_6_352041.pdf?request-id=7ca5de48-0f87-48e3-b96c-29f7c82326af
Uyigue, E and Ogbeibu, A.E (2007). Climate Change and Poverty: Sustainable Approach in the Niger Delta
Region of Nigeria. Available at
http://www.2007amsterdamconference.org/Downloads/AC2007_UyigueOgbeibu.pdf
World Bank (1995). Defining an Environmental Development Strategy for the Niger Delta. Washington, DC:
World Bank.
World Bank (2008).World Bank Development Report: Agriculture for Development. Washington, DC: WorldBank.

Climate Change Awareness and Adaptation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria | 27

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.

African Technology
Policy Studies Network
Contact the Executive Director at
The Chancery, 3rd Floor, Valley Rd.
P O Box 10081, 00100-Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: (254 020) 2714092, 2714168,
2714498, 2723800
Fax: (254 020) 2714028
http://www.atpsnet.org

Science, Technology and Innovation
for African Development

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-6-9