JASMIM ジャーナル（日本音楽即興学会誌）第 6 巻 2021 年

Research report

A Discussion on Improvisation Pedagogy in Music Conservatories:
A Reflective Study Based on Four Authors' Learning Experiences
and Their Present Musical Activities
Daisuke TERAUCHI (Hiroshima University)
Tomomi OHRUI (Kunitachi Music College, Senzoku Gakuen Music College)
Hiroko HIRATA (Elisabeth University of Music)
Yukari UEKAWA (freelance musician)Abstract
This paper is a research report that aims to discuss the objectives and content of
improvisation pedagogy at music conservatories by authors who have conducted their studies
through conservatory curriculums and are currently engaging in musical activities; it is areflective study that draws on their own learning experiences and current musical activities,
as well as how they are related. The fields of specialization of the authors in their student years
include saxophone (Uekawa), piano (Ohrui), and composition (Terauchi, Hirata). The
authors' interests include the following two points. The first is to categorize the tendencies
among music conservatory courses that include improvisation into several categories. The
second is to draw upon the practices of the authors' practical experiences as musicians to
consider appropriate curriculums suited for improvisation at music conservatories. Based onthese aforementioned interests, this paper is an attempt for each individual author to conductreflections on their performance activities and educational activities in relation to their historyof learning. As a result, commonalities emerged among the four authors. Their current workand activities have been significantly influenced by educational opportunities that extend
beyond conservatories, including music schools and workshops such as those held at music
festivals. Next, the authors' content of learning was discussed with reference to their expertiseas performers and music teachers. Following this, important factors in learning for all students,
regardless of their field of specialization, were discussed.

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1. The aim and structure of the paper
This paper is a reflective study, conducted by authors who have graduated from music
conservatories, that discusses the objectives and content of improvisation pedagogy at music
conservatories, drawing on their learning experiences and current musical activities as well as
how they are relatedi.
The authors’ interests that lie in the background of this paper include the following two
points. The first is to categorize the tendencies among music conservatory courses that
include improvisation into several categories. At music conservatories, various kinds ofimprovisation have been included as part of a wide variety of courses. However, the purposeof learning, methodology and their positioning in the overall curriculum have also been
diverse. For example, improvisation that takes place as part of solfege courses, andimprovisation that has been included as part of courses for advanced performance training
obviously differ considerably. This paper aims to consider courses that include
improvisational performance in light of the personal histories of learning among the authors
as well as their history of educational practice.
Second, is to consider curriculums of improvisation appropriate for music
conservatoriesii, with reference to the past musical activities of the authors. For the authors,
who are all graduates of music conservatories, while some learning experiences atconservatories have felt useful for current musical activities, there were other aspects thatwere vital in practice that were not learned at music conservatories, and further aspects
learned outside of music conservatories. Reflecting on how the authors’ studies at music
conservatories have been useful in practice and what was missing in the learning that took
place at music conservatories, will become an important first step in thinking about
curriculums for studying improvisation appropriate for music conservatories.
The structure is as follows. In Section 2, the authors, currently conducting musicalactivities related to improvisation, will each describe their learning at conservatories that theyenrolled in as well as their learning in places other than music conservatories, and discuss how

The four authors were panelists for the symposium “Improvisation Classes in Conservatoire” at The
Japanese Association for the Study of Musical IMprovisation, the 11th Annual Conference held at Shobi
University on Saturday, November 30th, 2019, and their discussion has been the starting point.
ii
The term “Music conservatories,” in this report, refers to educational institutions that issue bachelor’s
degrees and higher level degrees and have educational programs that place music as its chief field ofspecialization or major. This may include programs that are part of departments of education or programs
within universities, and overseas “conservatories.” Such institutions have various educational purposes andobjectives, but it is difficult to have criteria to clarify their difference. However, what is common among
them is their emphasis on training specialists in music, so all such institutions are referred to as “music
conservatories.”i

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those experiences are related to their current musical activities. In the subsequent Section 3,
improvisation-related learning discussed in Section 2 will be categorized based on theirtendencies. Based on this, Section 4 will be a discussion of specialization as musicians and its
relationship with the learning of improvisation. In Section 5, the prior discussion will be
synthesized, and future issues to be tackled will be shown while considering the limitations of
this paper and the issues raised.

2. Reflective study conducted by the authors
In the current section, each author will conduct a reflective study concerning the relation
between their past study of improvisation at domestic and overseas music conservatories andtheir current musical activities. The authors' fields of specialization during their student years
as well as their main musical activities are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 The authors' main fields of specialization during their student years
as well as their main musical activities currently undertaken
AuthorField of specialization Main musical activities currently undertakenin their student years

Yukari Uekawa

Saxophone, Modern
Music

Saxophone performance, gamelan
performance, research concerning musicalexpression

Tomomi Ohrui

Piano

Piano performance, outreach activities, piano
performance instruction at music
conservatories

Daisuke
TerauchiComposition

Composition, improvisation (recorder, voice,other), music instruction at the university
level for elementary school teachers training
courses

Hiroko Hirata

Composition

Composition, instruction of courses related tomusic theory and solfege at a music
conservatory

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As for each of the authors' history of learning, three of the following aspects will be considered.
(1) Out of the courses taken at a music conservatory, those that included improvisationiii(2) Out of the courses taken at a music conservatory, those that did not include
improvisation but significantly contributed to strengthening improvisation skills(3) Out of the courses completed at places other than a music conservatory, those thatsignificantly contributed to strengthening improvisation skills
2.1 Reflective study by Uekawa
2.1.1 Field of specialization and music conservatories attended
The author's (Uekawa, hereafter "the author") field of specialization is saxophone. She
studied at the Elisabeth University of Music from 2001 to 2005, the Conservatoire Nationalde Region de Musique, Danse et Art Dramatique de Lyon from 2005 to 2007, and theConservatorium van Amsterdam, as well as its graduate school, from 2007 to 2011. From 2012
to 2014, she concentrated in modern music through the University College Ghent Master ofArts Soloist Contemporary Music course.
2.1.2 Summary of activities as a musician
The author's chief activity is music performance. She has conducted premiere
performances of works by composers such as Noriko Koide, Claude Ledoux and othercontemporary composers, actively performed modern music, and participated in dance works
performed at many events such as dance festivals around the Netherlands, Art Setouchi, andRoppongi Art Night. She has gained experience as a gamelan performer around theNetherlands, Japan, and Indonesia, and has performed not only as a saxophone soloist but asa gamelan performer (sometimes as both) in many gamelan festivals and concerts.
As an improviser, while studying at the Elisabeth University of Music, she participatedin the improvisational group performance work entitled "Cobra" composed by John Zorn
which triggered her to continue performing in "live houses," and final concerts for
improvisational workshops and other opportunities.
2.1.3 Reflection on studies related to improvisation
Here, courses that the author completed at the Elisabeth University of Music,

There are many definitions of “improvisation,” and therefore, it is difficult to clarify the difference from“playing that is not improvisation.” In this paper, “improvisation” refers to the general understanding of
improvisation as “creating and performing music at the same time, partially or in its entirety.” In terms of
performance of notated music, when the performance refers to only part of what is written (melody, bass
notes, chord names and other chord symbols), involves partially or entirely changing the notated music,
uses music with graphic notation or textual notation that calls for improvisation, or considers a cadenza
portion to be an opportunity for improvisation, it will be referred to as “improvisation,” but playing what is
written on standard sheet music while improvising the expression (such as changing the tempo in an
improvisational way) will not be regarded as “improvisation.”

iii

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Conservatoire National de Region de Musique, Danse et Art Dramatique de Lyon,
Conservatorium van Amsterdam and University College Ghent Master of Arts Soloist
Contemporary Music course that include improvisation will be mentioned. (Table 2, Table 3,
Table 4）．

Table 2 Courses taken at the Elisabeth University of Music (2001-2004）
Course nameInstructor

Content

Keyboard
Harmony

Yasuhiko Kitabayashi(composer, guitarist)

Create a piano accompaniment and melody
for sheet music that only has written chords

Table 3 Courses completed at Conservatoire National de Region de Musique,
Danse et Art Dramatique de Lyon (2005-2007）
Course nameInstructor

Content

Saxophone
Ensemble

Jean-Denis Michat ・Ensemble performance of “Soundpainting”iv(saxophonist,・As part of the course, entered a “contest forcomposer)making an accompaniment for silent films,” a city
event.

Final Exam

Jean-Denis Michat In the graduation exam, other than a performance(saxophonist,of the assigned piece, there was also an assignment
composer)called Une piéce autonomie.v The author used the
melody of the koto piece “Rokudan no shirabe” as amotif and carried out an improvisation entitled“Improvisation in the Japanese style” (acollaboration with dance).

An improvisation method using signs developed by Walter Thompson. (Soundpainting: The Art of Live
Composition website)v
An assignment where students freely construct their forms of expression based on their interest. Not only
the technical abilities of the student but their planning abilities will also be evaluated.
iv

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Table 4 Courses taken at Conservatorium van Amsterdam (2007-2011）
Course nameInstructor

Content

Music
Theater andStage
Performance

Jorge Isaac(recorderist)

As a part of theatre and dance workshops, learned
how to structure improvisational pieces and body
movement methods. Presented the author’s theatre
piece “Marebito” as part of the exam. It was aperformance where a pre-recorded piece composedby the author was used, and an improvisationalmusic and dance performance went together withthe recording.

GamelanElsje Plantema(gamelanperformer)

Studied Indonesian gamelan performance method.
While performing the solo saxophone part in“Cornish Lancaran,” a piece for gamelan andsaxophone composed by Lou Harrison, the author
started to lengthen the solo part with improvisation.
In addition, in classical pieces, the author also usedmicrotones to go with the gamelan scales, adding
melodies and interjections through improvisation.

Next, the author will reflect on studies conducted through the University College Ghent
Master of Arts Soloist Contemporary Music, Advanced Master in Contemporary Music course.
Here, in connection with a modern music ensemble and dance company from Belgium, aninterdisciplinary production of music and dance became a series of jointly produced projects
performed at several theaters in Belgium. Due to its nature, it is difficult for this to fit into theframework of a "registered course" and the author will discuss this without putting it in a tableformat. The method of production was as follows. First, everyone improvisationally put out
ideas that can become parts of the performance. Then, the more interesting ideas are selected
and connected together. During this process, a student specializing in music may use theirbody to express, and a student specializing in dance may express using sound. In addition, as
part of the course, there were activities where students themselves decided their assignments,
and the author continued to present original pieces performed by herself that included many
improvisational elements. As part of the graduation exams, aside from the performance ofmodern pieces, the author continued to present pieces composed and performed by herself
that included many improvisational elements. For each performance, advising faculty
members provided criticism.
Next, although a performance component of improvisation was not included, coursesthat contributed significantly to the author's improvisation skills will be discussed. First,
saxophone lessons as well as musical analysis and solfege courses at all the schools are
mentioned. Such learning gained through foundational courses in music can be considered to8

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be directly and indirectly related to improvisation. In "Harmony" (Instructor：Kazunori Nagai),a course taken at the Elisabeth University of Music, there was an assignment to add different
chords to each individual note that forms the melody of "Ah! Vous dirais-je, Maman" and also
an assignment to create a melody to go with accompaniment from Johann Sebastian Bach's
Well-Tempered Clavier Book 1 No. 1 Prelude and Fugue BWV 846 in C major in a similarmanner to Charles Gounod's Ave Maria. Also, as part of the course Saxophone Ensemble(Instructor: Keiji Munesada), there was an assignment to arrange an existing piece for asaxophone ensemble, and the author learned methods of note selection and reassembling.
Lastly, learning that took place in places other than conservatories will be reflected upon.
The author attended the "Creative Music Festival" (Japan) in 2004, and met the guest artist
Urs Leimgruber (a saxophonist). After that, the author also participated in his improvisation
workshops held in Luzern, and learned about mental readiness for improvisation, methods forsmall group ensembles, as well as technical aspects that can be shared as saxophonists. In
addition, the author has also attended the International Conferences for Improvisation(Internationale Tagung Fur Improvisation, Switzerland) as well as workshops for
improvisational contemporary dance.
2.1.4 Connections with musical activities until the present
Here, the author will discuss how studies related to improvisation conducted in her
student years have influenced her musical activities up to the present.
Three factors that are important for the author are saxophone performance skills, skills
to enable the shaping of music, and a "feeling" which is a kind of psychological attitude. These
factors are important for all kinds of performance activities by the author, whether or not theperformance in question is improvisational or is of an existing piece. Learning related to
improvisation mentioned in the previous section has had a significant impact on those three
aspects.
First, I will discuss saxophone performance skills. The saxophone has relatively frequent
opportunities for performance of modern music using extended techniques. Through Urs
Leimgruber's improvisations and workshops, the author learned many extended techniques.
Also, "Umiushi," a piece for gamelan and saxophone composed by Noriko Koide, utilizes
microtones to come close to scales used in gamelan music; skills gained through performanceswith gamelan that include improvisation, have been utilized in the performance of modern
pieces and premiers of new compositions. Through improvisations with contemporary
dancers during the author's enrollment in the University College Ghent Master of Arts Soloist
Contemporary Music as well as improvisations with various instruments at the "Creative
Music Festival," the author gained insight into new extended techniques through imitation ofother collaborating performers.

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Next, the author will discuss the craft of giving shape to music. This was gained in theprocess of presenting the author's own pieces. The advice I received during the production
process of the "Music Theater and Stage Performance" course at the Conservatorium van
Amsterdam, and criticism I received after presenting my own piece in the University College
Ghent Master of Arts Soloist Contemporary Music course helped me to understand how toformulate the introduction, development, turn and conclusion and how to reflect the intentionof the work, among many other aspects. In addition, I feel that my studies in "Keyboard
Harmony" and "Harmony," as well as the process of learning how to select and place notes inharmonic progressions, helped me to improvise while looking at chord-based scores andspontaneously find notes in gamelan or Baroque music.
The author's changes in mental attitude towards the act of performance had a profoundeffect on her performance activities. Prior to studying improvisation, the author strongly felt
the pressure to "avoid mistakes in reading the score" whenever performances took place. Of
course, such pressure does not completely disappear simply by improvising, but the author
now feels she is able to have a more optimistic attitude that it will "turn out alright." Thereason for this is deeply related to how improvisation has the characteristic of creating musicin the "here and now." In improvisation, if an unpredictable note occurs, or the balance withother performers is not appropriate, or there is some equipment failure or other"unpredictable event," it is possible to make use of the situation from there and develop themusic in an even more appealing way. Also, in the case of ensembles, performers can often
support each other. When performing existing works, it is not possible to change notes
arbitrarily, but aspects that can be adjusted in a flexible manner, such as balance issues withother performers, one's own physical state, or performance adjustments based on the
acoustics of the venue, are not few in number. It can be considered that improvisation, andgaining experience dealing with "unpredictable events" in a constructive manner, has helped
in making the author's attitude towards performing existing works more optimistic to someextent.
2.2 Reflective study by Ohrui
2.2.1 Field of specialization and music conservatories attended
The author’s (Ohrui, hereafter “the author”) field of specialization is piano. She studied
at the undergraduate level at The Juilliard School (1984-1988), her graduate school master’scourse at the Yale University School of Music (1988-1990), and her graduate school doctoral
course at the Manhattan School of Music (1990-1995).
2.2.2 Summary of activities as a musician
The author moved to New York at the age of 7 due to her father’s work transfer, and10

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studied piano at the Juilliard Pre-College Division at The Juilliard School. The author moved
back to Japan when she was in 4th grade, and then lived in New York from the end of 10th
grade to 1997 when she completed her doctoral course.
Ever since the author was a student, she held concerts that included modern pieces byJapanese composers and others, in addition to standard classical repertoire. She also
conducted community-based musical activities in elderly homes, libraries, churches and otherpublic spaces. However, during this period, the author was not very conscious of these
activities as “outreach activities,” and considered them to be rehearsals for concerts at major
music halls.
In the 10 years following the author’s 1999 return to Japan, the author periodically held
solo recitals for a period of 10 years at concert halls in the Tokyo metropolitan area, with
programs that included 21st century composers, all of the Etudes Op. 25 by Frederic Francois
Chopin, J.S. Bach’s Goldberg Variations and other pieces.
By 2000, the author established “Little Classic in Kawasaki,” (a private organization)and began performing classical music with the focus of creating learning opportunities for
local citizens. Unlike community-based musical activities in New York, such activities focusedon the learning possibilities for participants, where the audience does not merely listen to theperformance, but actively participates. This aspect will be further discussed in more detail in
2.2.4.
In terms of educational activities, the author has taught piano to piano majors as well as
students from other majors at Shobi Gakuen Junior Music College from 1997 to 2000,
Senzoku Gakuen Music College from 1998 to the present, and Kunitachi Music College from2008 to the present. In parallel with such educational work, the author has also conducted
research activities concerning new skills necessary for performers.
2.2.3 Reflection on studies related to improvisation
Prior to “Little Classic in Kawasaki,” the author’s musical activities had no connection
with improvisation. The author did not hold such interests, and courses taken by the author
at the university level did not include improvisation. (The author does not recall any suchcourses being offered.)
However, although the author did not realize it during her enrollment in university,
upon reflection, there are several courses that may have connected directly to improvisation
skills. Here, the author would like to mention “Keyboard Harmony” (instructor: Arnon
Baruch), a course taken at The Juilliard School. The course was a required course for piano
majors, and was a small class for 5 to 6 students. The course content included figured bass
realization, and score reading of string quartets and orchestral works. What is particularly
memorable were assignments that included continued performance of sequences based on

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excerpts from piano pieces by Ludwig van Beethoven and F. F. Chopin. This was acompositional technique that could be directly utilized in improvisation. At the same time,
the opportunity of gaining the ability to perform music by ear, without a score, became an
important foundation for the author’s improvisation.
In addition, there were several courses such as “Literature & Material” and “ear training”
which could be utilized for improvisation, but in courses including “Keyboard Harmony,”
students did not consciously improvise or learn connections with improvisation. Due to this,
there were no opportunities to apply the knowledge gained for the purpose of improvisation,and the author did not acquire abilities of improvisation through studies at university.
What led the author, who narrowly emphasized the value of performance technique
heretofore, to rethink her learning was meeting Noam Sivan, a pianist, improviser, composer,
conductor, theorist and interdisciplinary artist. Sivan is a multifaceted musician who gives
improvisational piano performances that use classical music styles of various periods, andconducts improvisations of large-scale instrumentation that are not limited to a particular
musical form. The author felt that if she could acquire such skills, it would be possible toprovide audiences with a rich musical experience, and she felt that she herself could enjoy
music more.
In 2013, the author was invited by N. Sivan to observe the Improvisation Intensive
Project held at Royal Conservatoire The Hague which was held as part of Erasmus (TheEuropean Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students).vi As part ofthe project, improvisation professionals and students from such schools as Guildhall,Conservatoire de Paris, Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre, Sibelius Academy Helsinki,
Norwegian Academy of Music Oslo, Hochschule für Musik und Theater Leipzig gathered,and there were many workshops and concerts of various improvisational styles. The author
saw firsthand how improvisation pedagogy is spreading in Europe among classical musicians.
During the author’s observation, she was also given the opportunity to improvise in front of
an audience, but due to limited prior experience, it was an uncomfortable experience that
seemed to reveal the author’s weakness. However, the author was able to start the process of
relearning thanks to exchanges with experts at the event. The author was able to audit theclasses as described in Table 5, and receive private lessons from the musicians, alongsideconducting self-study using a variety of learning materials, including those related to harmony,
keyboard harmony, basso continuo, jazz texts, and texts for church organists.

vi

The project was funded by the ERASMUS+ programme as a strategic partnership between several
European conservatories. It is an ongoing project which focuses on curriculum development andmodernization of European higher music education in the field of improvisation, with the aim of creating a
European Master course for improvisation.

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At the start of the author’s studies in improvisation, due to a lack of understanding ofpractice methods, and the gap between the quality of the author’s improvisational music andthe music she usually performed, the author was unable to enjoy improvisation. However, as
practicing progressed, there were gradually more and more aspects that could be utilized in
the author's performances and pedagogical activities. The process of studying improvisation
became one with her learning as a performer and educator. Improvisation seemed to help toadjust the imbalance of the author’s musical activities, and became a kind of glue that held
her creativity and performing skills together. The author will discuss this further in the next
section.

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Table 5 List of improvisation instructors and course content
Name of musician

Affiliation

Content

Noam Sivan (pianist,
improviser, composer,
conductor, theorist andinterdisciplinary artist)

Curtis Institute ofMusic, The Juilliard
School, State
University of Musicand Performing Arts
Stuttgart

Improvisation using church modes andostinato, modulation among modes,
and imitating composers of various
styles on the piano. Free style
improvisation with the use of two
pianos as well as chamber music
instrumentation.

Karst de Jong
(improviser, pianist,
theorist)

Royal Conservatoire
The Hague,
Catalonia College ofMusic, National
University ofSingapore

Piano improvisation using partimento(Baroque improvisation method),whole tone scales, pentatonic scales,
Messiaen’s modes of limited
transposition, and other forms ofimprovisation using assigned materials.
Jazz and free style improvisation using
various kinds of instrumentation.

Anto Pett (improvising
pianist)Estonian Academy ofMusic and Theatre

Free improvisation on the piano that is
free from restrictions of tonality andfunctional harmony. Improvisational
practice that has a limited focus onfactors such as intervals, rhythm, range,
dynamics, or intonation.

Jeffrey Brillhart(improviser, organist,
author of “Breaking
Free”）

Yale University

Improvisation practice using hymns invarious styles as well as Olivier
Messiaen’s “modes of limited
transposition” and improvisation using
church modes. Improvisation on theorgan and piano took place based on
pictorial images and forms that were
determined in advance.

Eri Kozaki(improviser, composer,
pianist）

Tokyo Ballet
AcademyPracticing improvisation based on thestyles of various composers' harmony,as well as studying species counterpoint
and variations. Improvisation withdetermined intervals and scales(modes), adding improvisatory music
to silent films, and so on.

Tatsuya Hayashi(Composer, pianist,
author of “The New
Harmony: Integrationof Music Theory and
Auditory Senses”）

Tokyo University of
the Arts, Kunitachi
Music College

Improvisation using figured bass from atextbook written by the instructor,
practicing harmony assignments and soon.

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2.2.4 Connections with musical activities until the present
First, the author’s current musical activities will be discussed with a focus on two
community-based music performance activities.
The first example discussed are elementary school outreach concerts. These concerts
not only offer passive listening experiences but also include sections that allow children to
actively improvise with the musicians. For example, a pre-selected tone row may be used to
improvise with instruments such as marimbas, glockenspiels, and drums, or dance withcharacteristic patterns in the piece (such as ostinato or accompaniment patterns). The
improvisation study method using pre-existing repertoire can be useful to make suchactivities.
A second example is volunteer activities in music at group homes for children. Children
in such homes often have no choice but to live in a group apart from their families. Since many
children are not very interested in music appreciation, instead of having them listen to our
performances, we provided them with small percussion instruments, keyboards, or Orff
instruments to participate in improvisatory music making sessionsvii with us. For the children,
such experiences seem to have become an opportunity to develop an interest in music
appreciation, and sometimes after the session is over, the children request more performancesby the volunteers.viii
With such community-based musical activities, it is not uncommon to adjust to theneeds and various restrictions of the receiving side, which may include factors related to thelength, tonality or instrumentation of the pieces, and so on. In order to make possible suchchanges, it is often better to prepare simplified sheet music instead of detailed sheet music.
Regardless of whether or not prior preparation is possible, knowledge of composition,transcription and harmonization is of great use.
Since it is not possible to predict how things will start in the sessions, rather than
improvising based on patterns, free improvisation with greater flexibility is more
appropriate. Especially, in the case of multiple improvisers, there are many cases where
unpredictable sounds clash, so the modern musical style, with a more complicated harmony,
is more suitable. In this sense, it can be said that the study of many modern pieces has been
useful.
Next, the connection between the author’s educational activities and improvisation are
discussed.

“Sessions,” as described in this paper, are not restricted by sheet music prepared in advance, like jam
sessions in jazz, and the class content was also not determined in advance. It is used in the sense thatpeople who happen to gather improvisationally create something as part of a site of exchange.
viii
In terms of the practical application of this, details are given on the Little Classic in Kawasaki website.
vii

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In piano lessons taught by the author at universities, although many students are
beginners at improvisation, since 5 or 6 years ago, the author has conducted lessons that
include improvisational elements. In the process of reading music, students are asked to findpatterns in the piece (sequences, set chord progressions, typical phrases, and so on) and asked
to transpose them, or add different harmony to the melody, and in the case of pieces withmultiple voices, ask them to create an arrangement of one of the voices. Through this type oflesson, students learn to avoid reading notes individually, and understand the music as chunks
or groups. This process helps in understanding a piece from the perspective of the composer.
The author has felt that the students’ expressiveness in performance has become moreconvincing through acquiring such perspectives.ix
Such lessons overlap with the content of the course “Keyboard Harmony” that theauthor took during her student years. Of course, the chief purpose of piano lessons is to beable to acquire necessary skills to perform piano pieces at a certain level, and the study of
improvisation is positioned solely as a means to acquire such skills.
However, at the same time, bringing in improvisational approaches to a course thatutilize the piano, a highly versatile instrument, provides a synergetic effect for students intheir studies in other fields such as “composition”, “theory”, “solfege” etc. Also, continuous
learning is of importance in the study of improvisation, just like ear training and performancestudies. That is why the author thinks it is important that many types of classes inconservatories provide students to experience variety of improvisational approaches.
2.3 Reflective Study by Terauchi
2.3.1 Field of specialization and music conservatories attended
The author’s (Terauchi, hereafter “the author”) field of study is composition. From 1993
to 1999, he studied at the Elisabeth University of Music and the graduate school at the same
university. After that, from 2004 to 2006, he studied at the Rotterdam Conservatorium, andthe Conservatorium van Amsterdam from 2006 to 2007.x
2.3.2 Summary of activities as a musician
The author’s musical activities include composition, improvisation, music education,
writing papers and essays, and development of computer applications and card games related
to improvisation. Here, improvisational music performance and music education activities willbe the focus.
The author’s improvisation centers on the voice and switching between variousix
x

The practice of these has been mentioned in detail in Ohrui (2017, 2018)．
There are other universities and graduate schools that the author was enrolled in, but since they do nothave much relevance to this paper, they have been omitted.

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JASMIM ジャーナル（日本音楽即興学会誌）第 6 巻 2021 年

instruments and is of a style that frequently uses extended techniques, combining elements
seen in music from the latter half of the 20th century. The author has performed in many typesof locations, not only in concert halls, but in clubs, museums, on the street and many otherplaces. The author’s interest in performing with musicians of different genres has led tocollaborative performances, not only with musicians of the Western music tradition but alsowith Japanese music instrumentalists, Indian music instrumentalists, computer musicians,
dancers, poets, calligraphers, fashion designers and many other artists from different fields.
So far, the author has been actively performing in art festivals and concerts in twelve different
countries including Japan.
In terms of the field of music education, after teaching part-time at multiple elementary
schools, high schools and universities, from 2011, he has been teaching at Hiroshima
University as well as its graduate school, involved in education and research concerning music
pedagogy as well as elementary school teacher training. As part of courses for the elementary
school teacher training course, the author has taken up topics of music pedagogy that utilizemusical games and improvisational expression. In addition, the author has been an instructor
for workshops and other events related to improvisation, composition, music appreciation,
music making instruction, and use of the mouth harp that are organized for the general public
as well as those specializing in music pedagogy.
2.3.3 Reflection on studies related to improvisation
Here, out of the courses that the author completed at the Elisabeth University of Musicand Conservatorium van Amsterdam, courses that include improvisational performance will
be mentioned (Table 6, Table 7). At the Rotterdam Conservatorium graduate school, theauthor did not take courses that included improvisation.
Next, some courses will be mentioned that were indirectly useful for improvisation. In
the Elisabeth University of Music graduate school course “Keyboard Harmony,”（Instructor:
Kazunori Nagai） there was a performance-based class that asked students to play a melody
they composed on top of a given harmonic progression, and perform with the piano in various
keys. The musical styles were based on functional harmony modeled on harmonic progressionof the classical period. Although the course required students to play melodies already writtenout, such a performance-based course grounded on functional harmony can be thought of as
deeply connected to improvisation using keyboard instruments. In terms of other courses, theauthor learned musical styles as well as the characteristics of instruments (including extended
techniques) in “Composition Research I, II, III, IV” (Instructor：Koji Tomotani, Jo Kondo),
harmony and counterpoint in “Composition Theory I, II, III, IV”（Instructor: Koji Tomotani),basic performance technique (including four-hand playing and ensemble performance) in thecourses “Piano as a minor” (Instructor ： Yuko Sumida), “Voice” （ Instructor ： Yasushi

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Yamagishi)，and ”Guitar”（Instructor：Norio Sato) as well as skills of singing while playing
the piano in courses such as “solfege” or “music teaching methodology.” Overall, there are too
many courses related to improvisation to mention exhaustively.
The author would like to touch upon his studies after completing his graduate study atthe Elisabeth University of Music. The author participated in the Creative Music Festival
mentioned by Uekawa in 2.1.4 nearly annually since 1998, and has attended lectures andworkshops related to improvisation. The theme of the music festival changes each year, butthere are more than a few years where improvisation was the theme, and up until now, there
have been many guest artists who are improvisers active at the forefront internationally.xi
In terms of other opportunities of learning, much was gained through the author’s
appearances as an improviser at concerts and events as well as experiences as a teacher. The
author worked with the class for disabled children (currently, “class for special needs
children”) at Kure Shiritsu Shiratake Elementary School from 2000 to 2002. Improvisationalsessions with children who have intellectual disabilities were conducted as a learning activity
and this was an important experience to help the author himself grow in terms of his
improvisation.

Table 6 Courses completed at Elisabeth University of Music (1993-1999）

xi

Course nameInstructor

Content

Sonic
Laboratory(graduate
school master’scourse ）Jo Kondo(composer）

Ensemble performances of experimental pieces
from the 20thcentury onward.
Instruments that each student performed differedaccording to the piece, but the author mainly
played the keyboard harmonica and used his
voice.
-Compositions based on graphic notation
Example: Pieces by the composer Carl
Bergstrom-Nielsen and others-Compositions based on directions given bywords only (Word Event）
Example: Joji Yuasa’s "Calling Together"-Compositions based on simple rules for
improvisation
Example: Terry Riley’s “in C” among others.

Past guest artists are published on the Creative Music Festival website.

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Table 7 Courses taken at Conservatorium van Amsterdam （2006-2007）
Course nameInstructor

Content

No course name.
Not a course thatwas offeredthrough
Conservatorium
van Amsterdam. A
special class thatthree members
directly asked Mr.
Ernst Glerum tooffer as a class.

Ernst Glerum
Sessions conducted with some sort of rules.
(double bass
Instruments used are by choice.
player, improviser)

Course nameunknown.
Took place in aroom at theConservatorium
van Amsterdam,
but unclear
whether it wasconsidered to be
an official course.

Misha Mengelberg(Jazz pianist,composer)Free improvisation (including the instructor)
by a few members who happened to gather.
Instruments by choice.

2.3.4 Connections with musical activities until the present
Here, the focus will be to consider the connection between the author’s learning
experience in his student years and his current musical activities.
In the course “Sonic Laboratory” at the Elisabeth University of Music graduate school,
as noted in Table 6, since musical works that use diagrams, texts or some other method ofnotation were often used, interest in “methods” for creating improvisation were cultivated.
However, depending on the piece, it was also important not only to think about “methods,”
but the performance practices in connection with the background of the piece. Performance
practices may include “listening carefully to sounds from other performers,” “being careful
not to produce too much sound” and other types of “points to note.” An awareness to takeheed of both “method” and “points to note” have had a significant effect on the author’s
activities related to improvisation, including application and card game development.
Also, in the Elisabeth University of Music course “Keyboard Harmony,” it was possible
to improvise transpositions played on keyboard instruments, as well as accompaniment skills
based on pre-determined harmonic progressions. As an improviser, the author has limited
opportunities to use keyboard instruments, and does not improvise using pre-determined

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chord progressions very often, and from this standpoint of “connection with performance
activities,” it seems that what was studied in this course is not directly utilized. However, inthe case of practical instruction as a teacher at the elementary schools, high schools anduniversities, since there are many situations that require improvisational piano
accompaniment, what was studied in this course has clearly been more than useful.
At the elementary school the author worked at after completing his graduate work at the
Elisabeth University of Music, he was in charge of music instruction. The author’s experiencesin courses such as composition and Sonic Laboratory were very useful in the learning process
where children with intellectual disabilities collaborated with the author and improvised
together.xii
Aside from the above, one significant learning experience with a strong connection to
the author’s activities up until the present came from collaboration with genres other thanmusic. Through activities so far, the author frequently felt how convenient improvisation is incollaborating with different genres-- especially dance or theatre which include much
improvisational expression-- but these could not be experienced at the Elisabeth Universityof Music. One occasion that felt to be a good learning opportunity for facing such challenges
was the aforementioned music festival, the Creative Music Festival. At the festival, the author
was not only able to attend lectures and workshops related to improvisation but had
opportunities to perform in music festival concerts. By gaining numerous opportunities tomeet artists (not necessarily musicians), the author became more conscious of both “methods”
and “points to note.”
The period of learning at Conservatorium van Amsterdam was a period where the author
had already been conducting activities as an improviser. Furthermore, improvisation
conducted in E. Glerum and M. Mengelberg’s classes had few restrictions and were close instyle to so-called “free improvisation,” and were a good match with the author’s improvisation
activities. Also, such classes placed emphasis on performing in many sessions rather than the
instructor “teaching” something. The period of enrollment in the school was short, but theauthor believes that the classes there were important in providing an opportunity to build
practical skills.
The author’s experiences thus far are directly related to educational activities at
Hiroshima University where the author currently works. In order to teach while using musicalgames or improvisational expression in elementary school classes, it is necessary to have theflexibility to deal with the diversity of the children’s artistic expression. For students to be able
to acquire such skills, the author, as a teacher, must show a wide variety of practical examples
Numata (2007, pp.47-49) has noted the affinity between the improvisation of people with intellectual
disabilities and free improvisation.

xii

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and clarify “methods” and “points to note” through verbalization or visualization techniques.
The above describes connections with the author’s musical activities up until now.
However, such various forms of learning are mutually compatible, influencing each otherthrough actual activities that take place. Composition, improvisation, music education(research and practice) and others may look different at first hand, but improvisation thattakes place in each of these fields are profoundly connected and as a result the author feelsthat such experiences have led to growth in his improvisation skills.
2.4 Reflective Study by Hirata
2.4.1 Field of specialization and music conservatories attended
The author’s (Hirata, hereafter “the author”) field of specialization is composition. The
author studied at the Elisabeth University of Music and its graduate school from 1992 to 1998.
2.4.2 Summary of activities as a musician
The author has been involved with music education activities in parallel withcomposition activities, but here, the main focus will be on activities related to music education,and her basic stance and classroom practices related to improvisation at Elisabeth Universityof Music.
The author’s activities related to music education do not overemphasize the reading andwriting of sheet music, and have focused, in terms of foundational studies in music, on aural
training which focuses on capturing music by ear. This basic stance is to 1) listen to many
types of musical works, 2) listen to actual musical works and integrate sensibilities andknowledge necessary for performance or composition, and 3) make use of what is gained in2), and also make sure one’s ear (sensation) is utilized. Such factors have been influenced bycharacteristics of "The Musician's Ear Comprehensive Training in Musicianship", a system
for foundational studies in musicxiii developed at the Elisabeth University of Music in 2002,
and used in the university’s courses in “Music Theory” and “Solfege.”
Table 8 includes the main courses related to improvisation that the author teaches.xiv
All of them focus on improvisation based on functional harmony, especially improvisation

A system designed to develop abilities to immediately capture music by ear and quickly respond, which
consists of 14 grades from the beginner to the advanced level. There are three features that arecharacteristic of the system; aural training is emphasized, the learning process integrates solfege and music
theory, and actual musical pieces are used as assignments. Through the system, there are assignments
offered, such as e) in Table 8 among others, and students use given material (rhythm, tempo, form, motif,
tone rows, etc.), to improvise or add basso continuo accompaniment and so on.
xiv
Although they are not courses taught by Hirata, as of 2019, the Elisabeth University of Music offers
courses related to improvisation such as “Special Lecture/Master Class (Improvisation Workshop)”,“Liturgical Organ” “Digital Keyboard Performance (major study),” “Special Areas of Early Childhood
Music Education,” “Basic Skills in Early Childhood Music Education (piano, voice)” and “Rhythmics.”
xiii

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based on periodic forms of the classical style. Although the two courses “Music Theory” and“Solfege” have different course names, both courses integrate music theory and solfege, andthey are therefore listed in the same table cell.
The a) and b) in “Content that relates to improvisation” in “Music Theory” and “Solfege”
are not focused on improvisation itself, but are more intended to check on theory, and build
a sense of meter, rhythm, cadences, and harmony. a) includes performance assignments that
aim to connect short rhythms in a relay format. First, the order of playing, meter and tempo
are decided. Hirata plays piano accompaniment for b), and students listen to theaccompaniment while improvisationally humming the chord tones.
In the “content that relates to improvisation” for the course “Improvisation,” the phrase“Actual pieces are used” means that, for instance, students may utilize a section of W.A.
Mozart’s work for adding accompaniment or variations, and improvising. Students actively
listen to, play and analyze the original work, and improvise while imitating the harmonicprogression, accompaniment pattern or forms among other aspects.
The l) for “content that relates to improvisation” in the course “Accompaniment &Ensemble” considers cases that may occur in the classroom where the accompaniment is too
difficult, or it is difficult for students to hear and sing the intervals, and the aim is to improvise
and arrange a piece on the spot without altering the character of the original piece.

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Table 8 Main courses taught by the author that are related to improvisation (current as of 2019)

Course nameApplicable year
level

PurposeContent that relates toimprovisation

Music Theory I.
II
Solfege I-1,2

Required courses
for first year
students

Solfege II-1,2

Required courses
for second year
students

Acquire necessary
knowledge andsensibility as amusician focusing
on active listening.

a) Improvisation using only
rhythmb) Improvisation utilizing
previous studied works using
chord tonesc) Listening to melodies andcoming up with appropriate
bass or chordsd) Listening to phrases andimprovisationally creating a
melody of the same length tocomplete the piecea) is done by clapping hands orknees, and b) and d) are doneby humming.

Improvisation I1,2

Electives for firstyear to fourth year
students.
(Maximum periodof enrollment: 4
years)

Cultivating a senseof meter, rhythm
and harmony as wellas the knowledge ofmusic theory whileaiming to improvise
based onaccompaniment or
motifs. Build sightreading, music
analysis andmemorization skills
by gaining
experience inimprovisation, andapply knowledge
from the course to
the student’s own
field ofspecialization.

e) Adding accompanimentf) Melody (andaccompaniment)
improvisationg) Improvisation based on
motifsh) Variations
These are played on the piano
while confirming music
theory aspects and practicing
cadences. Instrumentalists
concentrating in instruments
other than the piano also use
their own instruments.
Improvisation is done throughensembles as well. Actual
pieces are used for
assignments andimprovisation.

Aims for students toacquire skills to beable to provide
piano
accompaniment forpieces in music
textbooks fromelementary school
to high school.

i) Adding accompanimentj) Adding an introductionk) transposition, modulationl) Arranging theaccompaniment
Use the piano for the above
using pieces from elementary
school to high school music
textbooks.

Required electives
for students
enrolled in the
Junior HighSchool and HighSchool Teachers
Training Courses

Accompaniment& Ensemble II

Electives forsecond year tofourth year
students.
Required electives
for students
enrolled in the
Junior HighSchool and HighSchool Teachers
Training Courses

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2.4.3 Reflection on studies related to improvisation
During her enrollment in college and graduate school, the author did not take any
courses that included improvisation. Due to this, she has no sense of having actually learned
improvisation at a music conservatory. In the current section, the author will not limit thescope to learning that took place during her time at music conservatory, and reflect on various
activities from childhood to today that probably led to the growth in the author’s improvisation
abilities.
Tracing back past memories related to improvisation leads to playful humming of songs
that might have taken place around the author’s kindergarten days. Sometimes, random words
may have been sung to go with a song. The author was not conscious of these as learning
experiences, but they made improvisational expression feel close to the author, and as a result,it may have led to a kind of learning.
The author’s oldest memory related to improvisation is what she learned from a teacher
in her early years of elementary school about accompaniment. This was probably a period
where she played cadences for the first time. Sometimes she saw chord names and added
accompaniment. Sometimes, a motif was given by the teacher, which was used to perform ashort piece through improvisation. Advice might have been given but the author cannot recall
what happened at the time.
In a class on rhythm that the author attended then, she improvised using drum sets,wood blocks, conga, güiro, and other percussion instruments while Western pop music
recordings were being played. There were about twenty students, and some students
combined previously studied rhythm patterns, some imitated other students, and others did
some continuous fast hitting in a completely free manner. The teacher would not, however,comment on the content of the playing; he simply put them in pairs and gave instructions,saying that when one student performs, the other can tap that student’s shoulders, or countthe beats orally while the recording was repeatedly played. At the time, the author did notunderstand the purpose of this activity, but it seems that instead of improvisation itself, feelingthe groove, meter, and rhythm were prioritized.
During her enrollment in high school and university, through classical music repertoirein her piano lessons, she was able to understand melody and bass movements, harmonicprogression, as well as accompaniment shapes and forms, although she was unaware at thetime. Consequently, the author was able to indirectly gain knowledge and sensibility that led
to improvisation.
In terms of other types of learning, at the Elisabeth Youth Music Academy, a musicacademy affiliated with the university she taught at after finishing graduate school, she
included improvisation as part of solfege lessons she was in charge of. Improvisational playing,24

JASMIM ジャーナル（日本音楽即興学会誌）第 6 巻 2021 年

such as those in the cases listed in Table 8 under “Accompaniment & Ensemble,” wereconducted numerous times, and the author was able to strengthen her improvisational skills
by gaining practical experience seeing the reactions of children.
2.4.4 Connections with musical activities until the present
Here, the relation between the aforementioned author’s reflection on the study of
improvisation and the practical application in classes mentioned in 2.4.2 will be discussed.
In piano lessons, the author played a great variety of pieces. Although unaware at thetime, through playing, the author gained knowledge and sensibility related to improvisational
performing. This experience has been applied in the author’s classes, by using actual pieces
both as assignments and reference material for improvisation.
Partly because the author’s memory of her period of studies at music schools is limited,she does not have a sense that the experiences have been useful in being applied to theclassroom. However, this was probably the period where the author built up her experience inpiano performance, by following chords using chord names, and understanding harmonicprogression patterns through playing cadences, and this experience was useful in terms ofclassroom application.
In the rhythm class, as mentioned before, improvisation was considered as a way to build
a sense of meter or rhythm. This kind of positionality is similar to the author’s practicalapplication in classes currently.
In classes that include many students who are enrolled in teachers training courses, theauthor sharing her experiences in the classroom has been useful. What is called for in theclassroom is not just doing improvisation, but to understand the situation of the students, andperforming in a way that suits the situation. For this, it is necessary to have the ear to hear
performances by others and to have the knowledge and sensibility to respond to them. Due toher past experiences, the author is able to pass on to students how multiple factors are
required in order to improvise, showing practical applications to students who will be in aposition to put these into practice, communicating what is needed as a teacher.

3. Tendencies in the study of improvisation
In this section, the learning that took place inside and outside music conservatories
mentioned in the previous chapter can be categorized into 6 tendencies based on theircharacteristics. (Table 9) The specific examples in the table include not only the education
received by the authors, but educational activities that the authors are involved in as teachers.

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Table 9 Tendencies in the study of improvisation
Tendencies among studies in improvisation

Specific examples of studies mentioned in
the section (excerpts)

Tendency A Studies in performance thatstrengthen interest in music

Ohrui’s experience at group homes forchildren (2.2.4)

Tendency B Studies in performance thatstrengthen skills in
improvisation

Uekawa’s experience in courses at theConservatoire National de Region de
Musique, Danse et Art Dramatique deLyon，Conservatorium van Amsterdam,and University College Ghent Master ofArts Soloist Contemporary Music course（2.1.3）, workshops that Uekawa andTerauchi experienced at the Creative Music
Festival workshop among others (2.1.3,
2.3.2), learning experiences Ohruimentioned in Table 5 (2.2.3)，Terauchi’s
experience in courses at Conservatorium
van Amsterdam (2.4.2)，Terauchi and
Hirata’s experiences in sessions withchildren and students (2.3.3, 2.4.3), Hirata’s
current course “Improvisation”（2.4.2)

Tendency C Studies in performance that
position improvisation as ameans to strengthen generalpurpose abilities in music
such as solfege, music theory,
performing from memory,sight-reading, musicalanalysis, and others

The course currently taught by Hirata“Music Theory” “Solfege” (2.4.2), Studies in
the rhythm class Hirata experienced during
her elementary school days (2.4.3)

Tendency
D

The joint production Uekawa experienced
with dancers (2.1.3)

Studies in performance thatare considered a part of the
production process for amusical work

Tendency E Studies in performance thatare positioned as a means ofimproving instrumental
technique.

Improvisation that Ohrui includes as part ofher current piano lessons (2.2.4)

Tendency F Studies in performance thatenable the teaching of
improvisation

Improvisation that Terauchi has included aspart of her elementary school teachers
training course (2.3.2)xv

When Terauchi was enrolled in the Elisabeth University of Music, there was a course for students
specializing in music education that included improvisational musical activities related to the educational
scene entitled “Special Studies in Music Education II” (Instructor: Lawrence MacGarrell). The syllabus atthat time included “Practice for acquiring teaching methods for improvisational creation,” (Elisabeth
University of Music, 1996, p.35), and the course utilized nursery songs and play songs, Orff instrument
improvisation and so on.

xv

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It must be noted, however, that these tendencies cannot be clearly differentiated. For
instance, even if a course has tendencies B to F, it is impossible for them to be completely
unrelated to Tendency A, which concerns interests in music. In addition, the course“Accompaniment & Ensemble” currently taught by Hirata (2.4.2) is a performance class thathas characteristics of Tendency B and C. In other words, each of these tendencies havecharacteristics that can be both cross-sectional and reciprocal.

4. Discussion ― the relation between specialization as a musician and studies
in improvisation
In this section, there will be a discussion based on sections 2.1.4, 2.2.4, 2.3.4, and 2.4.4
concerning the theme of specialization as a musician and studies in improvisation.
4.1 Discussion 1：The relation between specialization as a performer and musicteacher, and the learning of improvisation
4.1.1 Studies that are based on specialization as a performer
First, the kinds of studies that relate to a performer’s specialization may be based onmusical styles they specialize in, such as Baroque music, jazz, popular music, modern music,
Japanese music or ethnic music from around the world and their corresponding skills of
improvisation. Many music conservatories have courses that are catered to different fields ofspecialization of students.xvi
Second, studies that are related to more general-purpose performance abilities can be
mentioned. In the reflective study by the authors, there are more than a few references tothese. For instance, as mentioned in sections 2.1.4, 2.2.4, and 2.3.4, skills to create
arrangements of pieces and perform them, flexibility to handle uncertain situations, abilities
to quickly respond to unpredictable situations during a performance, and abilities to back upother performers are all important regardless of the musical style.
Third, acquiring the ability to think from the standpoint of the composer should be
mentioned. In 2.2.4, as Ohrui mentions, educational practices that have students improvise
leads them to gain the perspective of a composer, and as a result, strengthens the
persuasiveness of their performance, which suggests that experiences in improvisation have afavorable effect on performing notated pieces of music as well.
Fourth, studies that help students gain abilities in collaboration can be mentioned.

For instance, “Basso Continuo I, II” offered at the Elisabeth University of Music graduate school forstudents specializing in the pipe organ, and “Improvisation I” offered at the Kunitachi Music College forstudents specializing in jazz.

xvi

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Improvisational performing is an effective means to collaborate beyond differences in fieldsof specialization or musical styles. In addition, it is effective in collaborating between different
genres such as music and dance or music and theatre. This kind of ability to collaborate may
not be considered absolutely necessary for all performers, but considering the current musicscene where collaboration that cuts across different genres is spreading, it seems it can bepositioned as an important skill for performers.
Lastly, issues related to mental attitude, which is different to knowledge or skills, will bementioned. As Uekawa mentioned in 2.1 about the importance of feeling that it “will turn out
alright” when facing fear about doing new things or collaborating, it seems quite important tofind a kind of mental optimism by building on improvisational experiences.
4.1.2 Studies that are based on specialization as a teacher
Improvisation has so far played an important role for music education. Here,
improvisational skills required for music teachers will be broadly categorized into two typesof purposes.
The first concerns the ability to draw out improvisational expression from children or
students, and to connect this to further expression. Zoltan Kodaly, Emile Jaques-Dalcroze,
Carl Orff, R. Murray Schafer, John Paynter and others that have played an important role in
the field of music education have focused on children and students expressing
improvisationally from different educational approaches. There are many different aspects
related to this such as how nursery songs and play songs have many improvisational
expressions within them, improvisation can help them learn music theory through actual
experience, and such learning often plays an important role in the creative process. Their waysof thinking have had a major impact on Japan’s music education.
According to government guidelines for education, which have been the basis for setting
Japan’s educational curriculum, currently children and students’ Creative Music Making(elementary school) and Creative Music Making (middle and high school) activities have been
positioned in terms of “musical games” and “improvising with various musical ideas.”(Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2017, Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2018a，Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2018b). In fact, in elementary school
textbooks, there are many activities for improvising with various musical ideas using nursery
songs or play songs, improvisational activities for call and response using sound, activities thatuse chord cycles to play improvised melodies and many other music games andimprovisational activities of expression. Also, as Hirata mentioned in 2.4.3, children, not only
Hirata, often hum or “sing using some words,” and casually improvise; there are more than a
few cases where related activities take place in the classroom. School teachers need to be28

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receptive to such casual artistic expressions of children, including their intuition-based,
playful and diverse expressions, and they need to connect this to new musical games or formsof expression. Such abilities are important not only in schools, but for music teachers in othertypes of situations.
The second concerns the ability to support and encourage the performance of children
or students. Specifically, as described in 3.1.1, accompaniment skills using simple sheet musicwith chord names alone, improvisationally adding harmony to a melodic line, and adding
melody to a given harmony can be mentioned.
4.2 Discussion 2：Study content relevant to music students of all specializations
In 4.1, the focus was on the relation between specialization as a musician and studies in
improvisation with reference to performers and music teachers. Next, the discussion will be
about the study content for all music conservatory students, regardless of their specialization,
and what the authors hope conservatories may offer in the future.
First, the authors hope that courses that are required regardless of specialization which
focus on the foundational knowledge and skills of Western music, such as music theory,solfege and other courses, will be related to improvisation courses. For instance, whenstudying scales, students may improvise using the scales. Such activities can help tounderstand the content of music theory or solfege classes with a greater sense ofaccomplishment.xvii In musical expression, there are some activities based on sheet music thatcan lead to spontaneous performing without sheet music, where the number of factors thatare “already decided,” can be reduced. At the same time, the opposite direction is also possible
by starting from a playful or improvisational expression which can then develop to a more
reproducible piece by increasing the number of things that are decided in advance. In thisway, it is important in the learning process to be aware of both “music with many
improvisational elements” and “music that has few improvisational elements,” and move
between them not only for the acquisition of foundational skills but to expand the possibilities
for music after graduation.
Second, the authors hope for the establishment of courses that concern theunderstanding of the basic historical and cultural background related to improvisation.
Currently, it can be inferred that there are not many examples of such courses being offered.
However, as discussed in 4.1.1, considering that improvisation is of relevance to musicians inCampbell (2009, pp.120-121) divides education for improvisation into three categories including“improvising to learn music,” “learning to improvise music,” and “improvising music to learn.” Since thetype of learning mentioned here relates music theory and solfege study to improvisation, it would bepossible classify this learning as the first type of study.

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many genres, it seems it will be important to study for students with any area ofspecialization.
Third, what can be considered is the establishment of courses that aim to train students
towards the acquisition of multiple culturally varying musicalities, such as “bi-musicality.”
The concept of “bi-musicality” originally emerged in the context of ethnomusicology, and its
involvement with improvisation runs deepxviii. Non-Western music, jazz and other types of
popular music have amply included improvisation that is different from Western Music
studied at music conservatories. At the Conservatorium van Amsterdam where Uekawa
studied, just as how the course “Gamelan” was available, some music conservatories have sucheducational curriculums in placexix but they are far from sufficient. Uekawa, as a saxophonist,strongly acknowledges that her experience of studying gamelan music contributed towidening the range of her activities as a musician, and also enriched her own musicality. In
other words, the significance of improvisation for the sake of widening the range of musicality
cannot be understatedxx.
Fourth, the authors hope for the offering of courses that are conscious of how
improvisation can be useful in the acquisition of general-purpose skills. Specifically, as
mentioned in 4.1.1, goals may include cultivating flexibility to respond to uncertain
occurrences, developing the ability to combine others’ wide-ranging expression with one’s
own expression appropriately and developing it further, the ability to quickly respond tounpredictable situations during performances, the skills to lay the groundwork for an active
attitude for performance, and the adoption of a carefree mindset regarding improvisation as
well as other skills.

5. The limitations of this report and future targets for research
The results of the discussion thus far include the following three points. The first pointis that four musicians conducted reflections regarding the relationship between their own
musical activities and learning experiences through a focus on “improvisation.” The direct
opinion of musicians is indispensable in thinking about the objectives and content of

Hood (1960), who introduced “Bi-musicality” in his paper “The Challenge of bi-musicality” points out
the importance of the practice of improvisation.
xix
At the Rotterdam Conservatorium where Terauchi was enrolled from 2004 to 2006, the course “MusicWorldwide” was offered, which focused on experiencing traditional music worldwide. However, Terauchi
did not take this course, and therefore has not discussed it in Section 2.
xx
Koizumi (1980) claims that fostering “bi-musicality” can act as a basis in accepting the third or fourth
type of unknown music. (p.162)
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improvisation pedagogy, and such material is expected to remain of great use in the field in
the future. The second point is that the types of learning of improvisation were categorized
and presented based on their tendencies (Chart 9). For the third point, in Section 4, therelationships between the specialization of musicians and the study of improvisation are
discussed. These are also expected to be significant in stimulating future discussions
concerning the objectives and content of improvisation pedagogy at music conservatories.
Lastly, the limitations of this report and future research topics will be mentioned. Since
this report consisted mainly of the personal individual reflections of the authors related totheir learning experiences and current musical activities, there is no doubt that the content is
unbalanced to some extent. For example, in the previous section, there was a discussion
concerning the relationship between specialization as a musician and the study of
improvisation, but there, performance activities and music education activities were theprimary focus. In terms of work (activities) as a musician, there are also other activities suchas composition, music therapy, writing, planning, management and many other diverse
aspects, but these have not been a focus in this report.
Although there are such limitations, a reflective study among the authors (who havethemselves completed their education at music conservatories and become musicians) has
certain value in discussing the nature of music conservatory education in the future.
In terms of future themes for research, the next three issues may be raised. The first is
to research the current situation at domestic and overseas music conservatories, and how theircourses that relate to improvisation are being conducted. It is necessary to conduct further
research concerning courses placed in specific curriculums for specific specializations, as wellas courses offered to students regardless of their specialization; further research is necessary
for both. In this report, the objectives and content of the study of improvisation werecategorized into 6 tendencies (Chart 9), but, of course there are other possibilities such as aseventh or eighth category which were not included.
Second, in combination with results of the first point, there should be researchconcerning the current state of the overall educational curriculum at music conservatories. It
seems especially important to research curriculums for students in fields with deep
connections to improvisation, including jazz, Baroque music and music therapy fields. Also,
as Ohrui mentions in 2.2.3, education in improvisation for classical musicians is spreading
overseas. Especially in the West, there are many music conservatories that have set up
curriculums that center on improvisation, such as the Estonian Academy of Music and
Theatre, and the Mills College, which offers a master’s degree with a concentration in
improvisation, the Conservatoire de Paris which offers the Improvisation Generative course,
and the Curtis Institute of Music, which offers a Performance Certificate in Improvisation.

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Researching the educational curriculums of such universities is sure to point towards
possibilities for the educational curriculums at Japanese music conservatories.
Third, based on the results from the first and second points mentioned, it is important
to develop and make proposals regarding improvisation pedagogy at music conservatories.
For this to be possible, it is necessary to further consider the applicability of proposals
mentioned in the prior sections, and think up more concrete plans to make such proposals
possible, such as syllabi for classes. In addition, although each of the courses related to
improvisation is valuable, in their current state, it can be inferred that the connection among
the courses is insufficient and the overall curriculum appears to be lacking in consistency.
Looking at the tendencies summarized in Table 9 in Section 3 while considering thecharacteristics of each course, it seems crucial to develop and propose a consistent educational
curriculum that takes into account connections between the courses to extensively meet theneeds of graduates and their future careers.
Supplementary Note
All authors discussed the content, and 2.1, 2.2, 2.4 were written by Uekawa, Ohrui and
Hirata respectively, with the remaining portions written by Terauchi.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Christopher S. Gibson for his support in translating thismanuscript into English.
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