Discourses on Neoliberalism in Japan

Tsutomu Hashimoto*

Abstract
How have people in Japan accepted or criticized neoliberal ideology in recent years? This paper analyzes
various discourses on neoliberalism in Japan, especially the period 2007 to 2013. First, I will examine neoliberaldiscourses in the reconstruction discussion after the Great East Japan Earthquake. Second, I will focus on elementsof Keynesianism in neoliberal discourses. Third, I will analyze neoliberal discourses in politics and government
administrations. Fourth, I will explore various sociological analyses of neoliberal consciousness. Fifth, I will analyze
the psychological strategies of neoliberal persuasion. Sixth, I will look at anti-neoliberals’ argument on the wage
system. Finally, I address when the starting point of neoliberalism in Japan was. This paper seeks to show that (1) theGH¿QLWLRQRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIQHROLEHUDOLVPKDYHGHYHORSHGWRLQFOXGHHOHPHQWVRI.H\QHVLDQLVP  SHRSOHPD\have practical reasons for accepting the neoliberal ideology, and such acceptance does not necessarily depend on its
theoretical power of persuasion, and (3) some leading anti-neoliberals accepted neoliberal policies.

Introduction
How have people in Japan accepted or criticized neoliberal ideology in recent years? This paper
analyzes various discourses on neoliberalism in Japan especially the period 2007 to 2013. In previous
works, I examined arguments on neoliberalism in western culture of economic thought. In this paper, I
focus on discourses on neoliberalism in Japan, making complementary and updating examinations regarding neoliberalism in Japan.1 In particular, my focus will be on how we understand this ideology. The¿QGLQJVSUHVHQWHGLQWKLVSDSHULQFOXGH  WKHGH¿QLWLRQRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIQHROLEHUDOLVPFRQWDLQLQJ
elements of Keynesianism, (2) practical reasons for the acceptance of neoliberal ideology that do notnecessarily depend on its theoretical persuasiveness, and (3) how some leading anti-neoliberals haveapparently accepted neoliberal policies.

* Tsutomo Hashimoto is Professor at the Faculty of Economics, Hokkaido University, Kita 9, Nishi 7, Kita-ku,
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1 Tsutomo Hashimoto, Teikoku no Jouken [Conditions of Empire@ 7RN\R.REXQGR 7VXWRPR+DVKLPRWR
Losto Kindai [Lost Modernity@ 7RN\R .REXQGR   )RU UHFHQW DQDO\VLVRQ QHROLEHUDOLVP LQ RWKHU$VLDQFRXQWLHVVHH$LKZD2QJNeoliberalism as Exception: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty 7H[DV'XNH
University Press, 2006).

99Eurasia Border Review < Discussion >Neoliberalism
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are represented especially by Hayek2 and Friedman.3 (2) Elements promoted by contemporary neoliberalleaders (mostly unsystematic). (3) Elements that are conceived by its contemporary critics (mostly unsystematic). In this paper, we focus on (2) and (3). Neoliberalism in (2) and (3) may differ from its originalusage. However, our primary aim is to conceive the reality of its plural usages as they are. We are also
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market competition to be arranged by the government. Michael Foucault’s criticism directed to the very
point of this arrangement in terms of its act of micro-power to agents’ autonomy formation as entrepreneur in the market.4$VZHOODV.H\QHVLDQVQHROLEHUDOLVPSXWVDKLJKYDOXHRQWKHUROHRIJRYHUQPHQWarrangement and its perspective overlaps with Keynesianism. Ideological identity of neoliberalism is
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Theoretically, neoliberalism is compatible with Keynesianism in arranging conditions of themarket competition and market opportunity. Keynes criticized laissez-faire libertarianism but the latter
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2 Friedrich Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty &KLFDJR7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVV 
3 Milton & Rose Friedman, Free to Choose: a Personal StatemenW 1HZ<RUN+DUFRXUW%UDFH-RYDQRYLFK 
4 Michael Foucault, Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the College de France 1978–79 1HZ<RUN 3DOJUDYH
Macmillan, 2008).
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EHWZHHQ QHROLEHUDO PDUNHWIXQGDPHQWDOLVP DQG .H\QHVLDQ VWDWLVP VHH -HRQJ 6HRQJMLQ ³7KH .RUHDQ'HYHORSPHQWDO6WDWH)URP'LULJLVPHWR1HROLEHUDOLVP´Historical Materialism-Research in Critical Marxist
Theory  ±2QWKHYLHZWKDWQHROLEHUDOLVPLVFRPSDWLEOHZLWKVWDWHFRUSRUDWLVPWKURXJKQRQJRYHUQPHQWDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV VHH 5RJHU 0DJD]LQH ³$Q ,QQRYDWLYH &RPELQDWLRQ RI 1HROLEHUDOLVP DQG 6WDWH
&RUSRUDWLVP7KH&DVHRID/RFDOO\EDVHG1*2LQ0H[LFR&LW\´Annals of The American Academy of Political andSocial Science  ±2QWKHYLHZWKDWWKHDFWXDOIRUPRIQHROLEHUDOLVPZLWK³VKRFNGRFWULQH´LVD
state-corporatism, see Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism 1HZ<RUN0HWURSROLWDQ%RRNV+HQU\+ROW 2QWKHYLHZWKDWWKHDFWXDOIRUPRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLQPRQHWDU\SROLF\DGRSWVQHZ
Keynesianism, see Shigeyuki Hattori, Shinjiyushugi no Kiketsu [Consequences of Neoliberalism@ 7RN\R,ZDQDPL6KRWHQ 2QFRPSDWLELOLW\EHWZHHQ.H\QHVLDQLVPDQGQHROLEHUDOLVPLQWKHOHYHORIWKHLUEDVLFLGHRORJLHVRQSROLFLHVVHH7VXWRPR+DVKLPRWR³.H\QHVWR6LQML\XVKXJL6KLMRWR.RNNDQR%HVW0L[ZDNDQRXND">.H\QHVDQG
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2QWKHGH¿QLWLRQRI³VRSKLVWLFDWHGQHROLEHUDOLVP´VHH+DVKLPRWRTeikoku no Jouken, 144.

100

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toward disequilibrium of the market, intervention for promoting dynamic competition and growth of
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to control monetary supply in order to stabilize the market order, intervention through constructing an
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In short, a certain type of Hayekian would agree to those interventions that promote and utilize the act ofmarket coordination (the act of spontaneous ordering of the market). Thus, the compatibility of Hayekian
and Keynesian policies depends on the nature of intervention.
Neoliberalism in Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction
The Great East Japan Earthquake (March 11, 2011) and its subsequent destruction of FukushiPDQXFOHDUSODQWVKDYHEURXJKWWUHPHQGRXVGDPDJHVWR-DSDQHVHVRFLHW\5RXJKO\VSHDNLQJPDMRUVRFLDO
issues on which discourses on neoliberalism have concentrated shifted from the issue of social differentiDWLRQLQWKHVWRWKHLVVXHRIUHFRQVWUXFWLRQDIWHUWKH*UHDW(DVW-DSDQ(DUWKTXDNHLQ$OWKRXJKWKLVSDSHUGRHVQRWH[DPLQHWKHNLQGVRILQÀXHQFHVWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRI)XNXVKLPDQXFOHDUSODQWVKDGRQ
Japanese economic policies, what kind of responses to the accident the government gave, or what kind
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discourse of neoliberalism in the discussion of reconstruction support after the destruction of Fukushima
nuclear plants, and how the ensuing political discussions about the earthquake disaster reconstruction
have shown various characteristics of neoliberalism.
For instance, Nippon Keidanren>-DSDQ%XVLQHVV)HGHUDWLRQ@Keizai Doyukai >-DSDQ$VVRFLation of Corporate Executives], Nippon Shoko Kaigisho [Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry]
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agricultural land use, aggregation of agricultural businesses into large-scale operations, property rights
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endorsed some of these proposals. In their understanding, Japan needs to adopt pioneering practices of
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Hidenobu Yokoyama points out that rash reconstruction without any thorough investigation
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or private corporations such rights.85HGXFLQJWKHQXPEHURI¿VKLQJKDUERUVZRXOGLQHYLWDEO\OHDGWRORFDO ¿VKHUPHQ ORVLQJ RU DEDQGRQLQJ WKHLU MREV 7KH &RPPLWWHH RI 5XUDO &XOWXUH$VVRFLDWLRQ SRLQWV
out that alternative plans need to be explored in order to avoid situations in which people abandon their¿VKLQJRUDJULFXOWXUDOMREVLQWKHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQSURFHVV9
Reconstruction with consolidation and replacing small local operations in primary industries
with large scale corporations has been perceived as a neoliberal policy. In other words, neoliberalism
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such positive revitalization of the market.

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which neglects human dignity of sufferers@ 7RN\R1RXEXQN\R 
7 Ibid., 53.
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related article in Nihon-Keizai Shinbun, May 11, 2011
9 Ibid., 45.

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Tsutomu Hashimoto

Neoliberalism Includes Elements of Keynesianism
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Neoliberalism has destroyed social rights for people in the world, making people responsible for their own
poverty, weakening regulatory control of corporate activities and property rights, and guiding companies
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when we take Milton Friedman’s negative income tax or Hayek’s reference to distributions for disabled
people into account, we understand that neoliberalism is also one of the ideologies that pays attention to
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and to provide for the weak. Neoliberalism cannot be equated with a market fundamentalism or a naked
struggle for survival.
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and market fundamentalism. For instance, Tomoyori Hidetaka points out that there are three characterLVWLFV RI WKH QHROLEHUDO SURFHVV RI FDSLWDO DFFXPXODWLRQ   KDUVK DFFXPXODWLRQ EDVHG RQ D QHZ IRUP
of exploitation through ICT (Information and Communication Technology) innovation, (2) speculative
accumulation through money capital which becomes extraordinarily expanded, and (3) arbitrage accumulation by multi-national corporations in the global market economy.11 This characterization of neoliberalism necessarily includes elements of Keynesianism since ICT innovation has been strongly guided
by the government.
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but Osaka ishin no kai >WKH2VDND5HVWRUDWLRQ$VVRFLDWLRQ 25$ @DQRUJDQL]DWLRQZKLFK+DVKLPRWR
represents, shows that Hashimoto’s idea of social reform is a mixture of neoliberal deregulation and.H\QHVLDQSXEOLFZRUNV25$DGYRFDWHV  LQIUDVWUXFWXUHLPSURYHPHQW  FUHDWLRQDQGSURPRWLRQRI
local specialties or famous sights, and (3) deregulation. Nonetheless, critics regard his policies as neolib-

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Keieigaku: Shinjiyushugi-teki Keiei kara Shakai-teki Keiei he [Business Administration of Society and Corporation:from Neoliberal Management to Socially Symbiotic Management], eds. Hiroyouki Kunishima, Naotoshi Shigemoto,
7RVKLR<DPD]DNL .\RWR0LQHUYDVKRER 11+LGHWDND7RPR\RUL³6HNDL6KLKRQVKXJLQR*HQN\RNXPHQZR'RXPLUXND>+RZWR6HHWKH&RQWHPSRUDU\6WDJH
RI:RUOG&DSLWDOLVP@´Keizai, February (2013).

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Eurasia Border Review < Discussion >eral since they do not seem to take the problem of poverty seriously. His policies focus on enhancing test
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as wasteful.12 It appears that recent understanding of neoliberalism includes some elements of Keynesianpublic works.
+RZHYHUWKHUHLVDQRWKHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHQHROLEHUDOLGHRORJ\LQWKH¿HOGRI¿QDQFLDOGHregulation. Yoichi Torihata explains that neoliberal monetary theory is a trend in economic theories and
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international capital market through the deregulation of the foreign exchange market. When neoliberalism promotes these three policies, as Torihata points out, it reveals that the following three situations
ZRXOGRFFXU L FDSLWDOPDUNHWFHQWHUHG¿QDQFLDOV\VWHPLVPRUHDSSURSULDWHWKDQEDQNFHQWHUHGRQHVLQSURYLGLQJSULYDWH¿QDQFLQJ LL SXEOLFVHFWRULQ¿QDQFHWKDWLPSHGHVSULYDWH¿QDQFLQJQHHGVWREHOLPLWHG
WRDFRPSOHPHQWDU\UROHDQG LLL ¿QDQFLDODGPLQLVWUDWLRQVKRXOGOLPLWLWVUROHWRex post control such as
LVVXLQJUXOHVRQFDSLWDOUHTXLUHPHQWVLQRUGHUWRSURPRWHPDUNHWFRPSHWLWLRQLQ¿QDQFLQJ13
7RULKDWDSRLQWVRXWWKDWWKHUHDUHVHYHUDOSUREOHPVZLWKWKHVHSROLFLHVWKH\DVVLVWODUJHDPRXQWVRIFDSLWDOÀRZLQWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVWKH\GLUHFWSULYDWH¿QDQFLDODVVHWVWRVKRUWWHUPSUR¿WPD[LPL]Dtion and deprive the vitality of businesses in the long term. He characterizes neoliberalism as an ideologythat impedes sound and healthy production over the long-term. This understanding of neoliberalism
seems not to include any Keynesian elements but such understanding would not be true. Keynesian intervention can also cause instability in a market economy. For example, the economic downturn precipitated
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the public policy of asset making in the housing market. The causal relationship between public policy
and the 2008 economic crash is now understood by the Keynesians in Japan.
There is another similar criticism of neoliberalism from a (post-) Keynesian perspective. Sano
Makoto points out that there is a business cycle which is inherent to contemporary capitalism. He calls it
WKH³QHROLEHUDOF\FOH´DQGLGHQWL¿HVWKUHHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV14(a) Policy and institutional transformation toward more economic freedom, i.e., deregulation
DQGÀH[LEOHDUUDQJHPHQWLQODERUPDQDJHPHQW(b) Subsequent instability in the real economy and monetary policies which causes ups and

127RPLR,]DR³6KLQML\XVKXJL6DLNDGRQRWDPHQR.XVDQRPH'RNXVDLVHLML>*UDVVURRWV'LFWDWRUVKLSIRU5HVWDUWLQJ
1HROLEHUDOLVP@´Kagakuteki Shakaishugi [6FLHQWL¿F6RFLDOLVP@2FWREHU  13 Yoichi Torihata, Ryakudatsu-teki Kinyu no Bouso [Reckless Driving in Plundering Finance@ 7RN\R*DNXVKXQR
Tomosha, 2009), 129.
14 Makoto Sano, 99 parsento notameno Keizaigaku [Economics for 99 per cent: Theory@ 7RN\R6KLQK\RURQ ±

104Tsutomu Hashimoto

downs in business cycles and increases income inequality.
(c) Subsequent emergency measures for coping with negative outcomes in monetary and trade
sectors, which keep business cycles successive.
Makoto Sano also pointed out that there has been four neoliberal cycles in the Japanese econoP\VLQFHWKHPLGV  EDODQFHVKHHWGHSUHVVLRQDIWHUWKHEXUVWLQJRIWKHDVVHWEXEEOH ±  ¿QDQFLQJIRUH[FHVVLYHLQYHVWPHQWVLQWKHEXEEOHHFRQRP\  JHQHUDOFUHGLWFRQWUDFWLRQDQGEDQNruptcy of small and medium-sized enterprises (1997±   FUHGLWFRQWUDFWLRQRU¿QDQFLDOFULVLVDVDUHVXOWRIWKHEXUVWLQJRIWKHKRXVLQJPDUNHWEXEEOHLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV ± 
To escape from the neoliberal cycle, Sano proposes placing restrictions on international trade,SXWWLQJLQSODFHSROLFLHVIRUWKHJURZWKRIGRPHVWLFGHPDQGHVWDEOLVKLQJDVHOIVXI¿FLHQWHFRQRP\LQWKH
food supply, energy, and medical care. In particular, he emphasizes the importance of club corporative soFLHW\DQGWKHFUHDWLRQRIDV\PELRWLFHFRQRP\$FFRUGLQJWRKLPDVHOIVXI¿FLHQWRUV\PELRWLFHFRQRP\does not impede the market economy as long as it runs within the market. Cooperation can exist alongwith competition and does not exclude competition.157KXV6DQR¶VSURSRVDORIDVHOIVXI¿FLHQWHFRQRP\
is compatible with the neoliberal market economy. In other words, Sano’s last proposal represents a kindof reform within the neoliberal framework.
Neoliberalism in Politics/HWXVQRZWXUQWRQHROLEHUDOGLVFRXUVHVLQSROLWLFV,QWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKH¿UVWGHFDGHRIWKH
WZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\LWZDVVRPHWLPHVDUJXHGWKDWVLQFHQHROLEHUDOLVPEULQJVDERXWVRFLDOLQVWDELOLW\LW
would require neoconservatism as a counterbalance for achieving national integration. However, theFKDQJHRIWKH-DSDQHVHJRYHUQPHQWIURPWKH/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\WRWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\RI-DSDQ
has revealed that neoliberalism can work without a neoconservative ideology.
$FFRUGLQJWR0DVDUX6DWR16 the Koizumi administration (2001-2006) combined both neoliberDOLVPDQGQHRFRQVHUYDWLVP$QH[DPSOHRIQHRFRQVHUYDWLVPFDQEHLGHQWL¿HGZLWKWKHSULPHPLQLVWHU¶Vworshipping at the Yasukuni Shrine. This gesture is used as a symbol of conservative nationalism to stoke
a sense of national solidarity and play down serious social issues, especially as people become more and
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serious issues in a de facto sense, their salience was able to be downplayed by distracting the populace
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15,ELG$OWKRXJK6DQRFULWLFL]HVQHROLEHUDOLVPIURPD.H\QHVLDQSRLQWRIYLHZRQHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQW

alternatives he proposed is a club cooperative activity within the realm of the market economy and it is compatible
with neoliberalism since it does not require any governmental intervention. Here we observe that contemporary
Keynesians differ from the conventional type and are compatible with neoliberalism in some aspects.
16 Masaru Sato, Terorizumu no Wana, Sakan [Trap of Terrorism Left-volume: The Place of Neoliberalism @ 7RN\R
Kadokawa Gakugei Shuppan, 2009).

105

Eurasia Border Review < Discussion >6HSWHPEHU±$XJXVW XVLQJQHRFRQVHUYDWLYHVWUDWHJLHVDOVRWULHGWRHPSKDVLVWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIQDWLRQDOLQWHJUDWLRQ$EHVRXJKWWRPDNHDQDPHQGPHQWWR$UWLFOHRIWKH-DSDQHVH&RQVWLWXWLRQ UHQRXQFLQJDFWVRIZDU LQRUGHUWREUHDNRXWRIWKH³SRVWZDUUHJLPH´SXUVXDQWWRWKH86-DSDQSecurity Treaty. This undertaking caused rifts in the relationship between the United States and Japan,
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VWDWHKDVEHHQZHDNHQHGGXULQJWKHSHULRGRIWKHVHWZRDGPLQLVWUDWLRQVIt is a stereotype to view the issue of Japanese abduction by North Korea as a right-wing matter and the
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both issues, an unavoidable consequence of neoliberalism which the government has promoted. Neoliberalism and its related world perspective of atomism have penetrated the public mind, and national integration in Japan now has collapsed. In terms of nationalism, the Japanese nation-state has been weakened by
QHROLEHUDOUHIRUPVE\ERWKWKH.RL]XPLDQG$EHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQV17

In Sato’s understanding, national integration through neoconservatism was a necessary measure to cope with the segmentation among the public caused by neoliberalism, but this measure failed.
The subsequent Fukuda administration (September 2007±$XJXVW   UHVLJQHG VKRUWO\ DIWHU FRPLQJ
into power, without exhibiting any strong will to integrate the nation-state. Sato also points out that the
Fukuda cabinet lacked a philosophy and therefore risked evoking fascism because fascism grows out ofpolitical situations with an empty philosophy.18,QZLWKWKH/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\ ZKLFKFRQWUROOHGWKHJRYHUQPHQWIURPZLWKRQHH[FHSWLRQ VWHSSLQJRXWRISRZHUDQGWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\RI-DSDQWDNLQJRYHUSHRSOHH[SHFWHGWKH
QHZJRYHUQPHQWWRWDNHSROLWLFDODFWLRQWRWHUPLQDWHQHROLEHUDOLVP,QKLVHVVD\³7KH(QGRI1HROLEHUDOLVPDQGWKH&KRLFHRI$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ´-LUR<DPDJXFKLWKHLQWHOOHFWXDOIRUFHEHKLQGWKH'HPRFUDWLF
3DUW\ZURWHDVIROORZV
7KHLGHDOWKDWWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\KROGVIRURXUVRFLHW\LVRQHLQZKLFKKXPDQGLJQLW\FDQEHVHFXUHGIn more concrete terms, as its main agenda, this society should provide social security even for part-timeworkers, allow equal opportunities to children regardless of their parents’ economic background, and secure general public services in medicine and education in every local place. In addition, the basic idea for
WKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\PXVWEHWRUHJDLQVRFLDOVROLGDULW\ZKLFKZDVGHVWUR\HGE\WKRVHSROLFLHVWKDWIRFXVH[FOXVLYHO\RQHFRQRPLFHI¿FLHQF\19

17 Ibid., 165.
18,ELG±19-LUR<DPDJXFKL³1HROLEHUDOLVPQR6KXHQWR6HLNHQ6HQWDNX>7KH(QGRI1HROLEHUDOLVPDQGWKH&KRLFHRI

5HJLPH@´ Sekai1RYHPEHU  

106

Tsutomu Hashimoto,QSUDFWLFHWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\DGRSWHGWKHVHSROLWLFDOLGHDOV+RZHYHULWUHPDLQVDTXHVWLRQas to whether this party actually terminated neoliberalism. Tokyo Jichi Mondai Kenkyusho [The Research,QVWLWXWHRI7RN\RRQ/RFDO*RYHUQPHQWV@SRLQWHGRXWWKDWWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\¿UVWKHOGXSWKHLGHDRIDZHOIDUHVWDWHXQGHUWKHVORJDQ³Kokumin no Seikatsu ga Daiichi>3HRSOH¶V/LIH)LUVW@´EXWLWVVXEVHTXHQW
policies ran in the opposite direction.
$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVLQVWLWXWHWKHUHZHUHWKUHHPDMRUSRZHUVZKLFKDVVLVWHGWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\LQ-DSDQ7KH¿UVWLVWKHUDGLFDOVLQWKHEXVLQHVVZRUOGVXFKDVWKH-DSDQ&RPPLWWHHIRU(FRQRPLF
'HYHORSPHQWZKRH[SHFWHGWKHVXFFHVVLRQDQGSURPRWLRQRIQHROLEHUDOVWUXFWXUDOUHIRUPVLQWKH/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\7KHSROLWLFLDQVZKRDUHNQRZQDV³VWUXFWXUDOUHIRUPLVWV´UHVSRQGHGWRWKLVSRZHU.DWVX\D2NDGDWKH6HFUHWDU\*HQHUDORIWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\6HLML0DHGDWKH)RUHLJQ0LQLVWHU<RVKLKLNR1RGDWKH0LQLVWHURI)LQDQFH<RVKLWR6HQJRNX&KLHI&DELQHW6HFUHWDU\2QHRIWKHPRVWVWULNLQJH[DPSOHVRIWKHLUSURMHFWZDV³EXGJHWVFUHHQLQJ´ Jigyo Shiwake, or review and prioritization of
government programs).
The second group of supporters includes people from various social strata who sympathize with
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part-time employment), reinstitution of additional support and social services for single-parent families,
abolishing the restrictions on medical care for the later-stage elderly, getting rid of the limitations in the$FWIRU6XSSRUWLQJWKH,QGHSHQGHQFHRI3HUVRQVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHVHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDSHQVLRQV\VWHPWKDW
secures minimum income, housing guarantee for the agricultural sector and so forth.20 This group wanted
to terminate neoliberalism.
7KHWKLUGJURXSRIVXSSRUWHUVLVWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\SROLWLFLDQ,FKLUR2]DZDDQGKLVSROLWLcal group, supported by various industry groups, which used to be a conventional electorate base of the/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\6XEVHTXHQWO\WKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\LQWXUQSURPLVHGYDULRXVVXEVLGLHVDQG
public services, such as maintenance of highways, for such interest groups.
7KHVHWKUHHSRZHUVLQWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\FRPSHWHGZLWKHDFKRWKHUEXWHYHQWXDOO\DIWHUWKH
FRQIURQWDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWZROHDGLQJ¿JXUHV1DRWR.DQDQG,FKLUR2]DZDLWZDV.DQZKREHFDPHLWV
OHDGHUDQGUDQWKHJRYHUQPHQW ± 7KH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\SXVKHGQHROLEHUDOLVPIRUZDUGDQG
2]DZDFRXOGQRWUHVSRQGWRKLVSROLWLFDOVXSSRUWHUVZKRH[SHFWHG.H\QHVLDQSXEOLFVHUYLFHV,WZRXOGEHULJKWWRVD\WKDWWKHQHROLEHUDOSRZHULQWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\GLGQRWUHFRQFLOHZLWKQHRFRQVHUYDWLVPEXWFRPELQHGLWZLWKWKHOLEHUDOLGHDOVRIWKHVHFRQGJURXSLGHQWL¿HGDERYH'HVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWWKHVHFRQG
group represents anti-neoliberalism, the combination of the two groups in Naoto Kan’s administration
was regarded as neoliberal politics.

207RN\R-LFKL0RQGDL.HQN\XVKR>5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHRI7RN\R/RFDO*RYHUQPHQW@Gyakuso suru Minshuto

Seiken: Shinjiyushugi Kozokaikaku no Shindankai [Reverse Running in the Democratic Party in Japan: New Stageof Neoliberalism@ 5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHRI7RN\R/RFDO*RYHUQPHQW 107

Eurasia Border Review < Discussion >However, the concept of neoliberalism was called into question. The point is that the second
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³GHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQRISRZHU´DQRWKHURQHRIWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIQHROLEHUDOLGHRORJ\1HROLEHUDOLVPLV
a way of governance that transfers sovereign power from the nation to the local region and changes the
VXSSOLHURISXEOLFVHUYLFHVIURPWKHJRYHUQPHQWWRSULYDWHVHFWRUV&ULWLFVSRLQWRXWWKDWWKHOHYHOTXDOLW\of public services should remain above a set national minimum, but, in reality, the central government
GLGQRWIXO¿OOLWVUHVSRQVLELOLW\7KHJRYHUQPHQWZDVDZDUHWKDWDQDWLRQDOPLQLPXPRISXEOLFVHUYLFHVLQ ZHOIDUH HOGHUO\ FDUH QXUVHU\ FDUH DQG HGXFDWLRQ FDQQRW EH VHFXUHG EXW QHYHUWKHOHVV MXVWL¿HG WKHdecentralization. For example, the government explicitly admitted that the number of nursery schools
in a region and its size for the number of infants do not necessarily satisfy the national minimum level.
The government also admitted that the allowance for teachers in remote places, facilities for the mentally handicapped, intensive home care for the elderly, nursing homes, and public housing failed to meet
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for inhabitants) among local governments.
7KXVZHXQGHUVWDQGWKDWWKHUHDUHWZRFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLQWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\
2QHLVWKHGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQRIWKHJRYHUQPHQW21 and the other is the limitation or reduction in KeynesLDQSXEOLFVHUYLFHVGXHWRWKHLQWUDSDUW\SROLWLFDOGHIHDWRI,FKLUR2]DZD$IWHUWKHHQGRILWVSROLWLFDOSRZHUWKHVHFRQG6KLQ]R$EHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ 'HFHPEHU± RIWKH/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\VWDUWHG
to increase the amount of public services, despite the ideas of neoliberalism. It is ironic to see that the'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\EHFDPHPRUHRUOHVVOHGE\WKHLGHDRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLQSUDFWLFH
Background of Neoliberal Consciousness+RZHYHUZK\GLGWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\LQKHULWWKHLGHDVRIQHROLEHUDOLVPIURPWKHIRUPHUJRYHUQPHQWUXQE\WKH/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\"7KLVZDVQRWMXVWDFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHSROLWLFDOVWUXJJOHV
within the party but was also supported by ideological consciousness of the people at that time.
Yuriko Saito reported the following interesting data by analyzing the SSM (The National SurYH\ RI 6RFLDO 6WUDWL¿FDWLRQ DQG 6RFLDO 0RELOLW\ LQ -DSDQ  LQ  6KH DQDO\]HG WKH DQVZHUV WR WZRTXHVWLRQV7KH¿UVWTXHVWLRQDVNHGSHRSOHWRJLYHD\HVQRUHVSRQVHWRZKHWKHUWKH\WKRXJKWLWLVPRUH
important to remove social inequalities rather than protecting freedom of competition. If the answer was\HVLWFDQEHLQWHUSUHWHGWKDWWKHSHUVRQVXSSRUWV³HTXDOLW\´DQGWKHUHIRUHH[KLELWVDQWLQHROLEHUDOLVP

213ROLFLHVRIGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQZHUHSURSRVHGQRWRQO\E\WKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\EXWDOVRE\WKH/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF
Party, Komeito (Clean Government Party), and Minna-no-to (Your Party). Criticism was mainly directed at the
problem of undersupply of national minimum services under decentralization. What the government has to do when
the supply for welfare or nursing services cannot keep up with the demand is controversial.

108

Tsutomu Hashimoto,I WKH DQVZHU ZDV QR LW FDQ EH LQWHUSUHWHG WKDW WKH SHUVRQ VXSSRUWV ³IUHHGRP´ DQG WKHUHIRUH H[KLELWVQHROLEHUDOLVP$VRQHFDQH[SHFWWKHGDWDVKRZVWKDWKLJKHULQFRPHJURXSVZHUHPRUHOLNHO\WKDQORZHU
income groups to support neoliberalism.22
7KH VHFRQG TXHVWLRQ IRFXVHG RQ SHRSOH¶V DWWLWXGH WRZDUG ³GHUHJXODWLRQ´ DQG WKHLU DQVZHUV
were unexpected. The second questionnaire asked whether people support deregulation or not. The datashows that lower income groups supported it more than higher income groups. In addition, among lower
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to be twisted in ideology as Saito described because such answers would mean that lower income groups
support neoliberalism and anti-neoliberalism at the same time.
The groups who support both equality and deregulation tend to have the following characterisWLFVWKH\DUHOHVVHGXFDWHGEOXHFROODUZRUNHUVIHPDOHDQGZRUNIXOOWLPHLQQRQPDQDJHULDOSRVLWLRQVPart-time workers tend not to support equality-deregulation as much as those employed full-time. In
addition, workers in oligopolistic industries tend to support equality-deregulation more than workers inless oligopolistic industries. However, there is no visible difference in the numbers of workers supportingHTXDOLW\GHUHJXODWLRQLQROLJRSROLVWLFLQGXVWULHVDQGLQFRPSHWLWLYHLQGXVWULHV/DVWO\ZRUNHUVLQWKRVH
companies that are declining rather than growing in their industries tend to support equality-deregulation
instead of market freedom and deregulation. Rapid decline of their company’s market share might makepeople support equality and deregulation at the same time.
7KLVDQDO\VLVRIWKHVXUYH\VKRZVWKDWVXSSRUWRI³HTXDOLW\´ WKHDWWLWXGHDJDLQVWLQFRPHGLIferences) does not necessarily require government policies that restrain market competition. Instead ofdemanding Keynesian or Marxian policies, this attitude seems to call for the reinforcement of redistribution and neoliberal market competition at the same time. Such an attitude may support the idea of basic
income redistribution along with free market competition. This ideological consciousness has spread toa certain degree in Japanese society in recent years. Why did people support this equality-deregulation
ideology?
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Japan are obliged to decrease the quality of their welfare programs for their workers due to the recent
economic stagnation. When corporations cannot be the provider of welfare services for workers, workers
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of such needs. It would be proper to say that, with the deterioration of the corporate welfare systems,
people have become more supportive of the ideas of wealth redistribution and welfare state, while at thesame time supporting market competition and deregulation.
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22<XULNR 6DLWR ³6KLQML\XVKXJL QR -\X\R ZD 1DQLQL\RUL 8QDJDVDUHWDND >:KDW 3URPRWHG WKH$FFHSWDQFH RI

1HROLEHUDOLVP"@´Gendai no Kaiso Shakai 3: Ryudoka no nakano Shakaiishiki [&RQWHPSRUDU\6WUDWL¿FDWHG6RFLHW\
III: Social Consciousness in Liquidation@HGV<XULNR6DLWRDQG.D]XWR0LVXPL 7RN\R7RN\R8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2011), 192.

109

Eurasia Border Review < Discussion >in 2005, Norihiro Nihei made it clear that the neoliberal consciousness is not necessarily connected with
WKHVXSSRUWRID³VPDOOJRYHUQPHQW´,QKLVDQDO\VLVQHROLEHUDOFRQVFLRXVQHVVLVPHDVXUHGE\DQVZHUVWRWKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQV³,VUHGXFLQJLQHTXDOLW\PRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQSURWHFWLQJIUHHGRPRIFRPSHWLWLRQ"
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WD[DWLRQ" DQVZHU QR ´³,VLWEHWWHUIRUXVWRKDYHDVOLWWOHHFRQRPLFUHJXODWLRQVE\WKHJRYHUQPHQWDVSRVVLEOH" DQVZHU \HV ´³6KRXOGWKHJRYHUQPHQWWDNHFDUHRIWKHGHVWLWXWHUHJDUGOHVVRIWKHFDXVHVRIVXFKGHVWLWXWHQHVV" DQVZHU QR ´³6KRXOGSXEOLFVHUYLFHVEHSURYLGHGE\SULYDWHFRPSDQLHVDVPXFKDV
SRVVLEOH" DQVZHU \HV ´³,VSURWHFWLQJLQGLYLGXDOOLEHUW\PXFKPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQPDNLQJRXUVRFLHW\
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In light of answers to these questions, Nihei pointed out that within the neoliberal consciousness
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LVIRUZHOIDUHZKLOHWKHRWKHULVDJDLQVWLW$FFRUGLQJWR1LKHL¶VDQDO\VLVWKHDQWLZHOIDUHW\SHRIQHROLEeralism has a negative correlation with the frequency of participation in civic movements and neighborKRRGFRXQFLOV RUDVVRFLDWLRQV 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHQHROLEHUDOLVPWKDWVXSSRUWVZHOIDUHKDVDQHJDWLYH
correlation with participation in neighborhood councils (or associations). However, the participation in
YROXQWHHU DFWLYLWLHV GRHV QRW KDYH DQ\ VLJQL¿FDQW FRUUHODWLRQ ZLWK HLWKHU W\SHV RI QHROLEHUDOLVP 7KLVPHDQVWKDWYROXQWHHUVPD\QRWQHFHVVDULO\UHMHFWQHROLEHUDOLVPIt also became clear from the SSM in 2005 that participation in groups such as labor unions, civLFPRYHPHQWVQRQSUR¿WRUJDQL]DWLRQVDQGYROXQWHHUJURXSVGRHVQRWKDYHDQHJDWLYHFRUUHODWLRQZLWKthe anti-welfare type of neoliberalism when we disregard the frequency of participation in those groups.
It is interesting to see that even participation in labor unions does not have a correlation with the support
for a welfare state.23 It might seem paradoxical but people who participate in civic movements or laborXQLRQVGRQRWUHMHFWWKHDQWLZHOIDUHW\SHRIQHROLEHUDOFRQVFLRXVQHVV1HROLEHUDOLGHRORJ\LVDFFHSWHGE\those who are active participants in intermediate groups.
It would be worthwhile here to remember that neoliberalism is compatible with the rise ofintermediate groups. Neoliberal consciousness is an ideology that is compatible both with welfare andsocial participation. In other words, neoliberalism can become civic and democratic when combined withwelfare and social participation. When we face this sophisticated neoliberalism,24 criticism against this
LGHRORJ\FDQWDNHWKHIROORZLQJWZRDQJOHVRQHLVWRTXHVWLRQLWVSROLWLFDODQGFXOWXUDOVRSKLVWLFDWLRQDQG
the other is to criticize the reality that it fails to address.
$LNR.DVKLPXUD¶VH[FHOOHQWZRUNNeoliberalism no Seishin Bunseki [Psychoanalysis of Neoliberalism], is an enlightening book. Exploring the direction of cultural sophistication of neoliberalism,

231RULKLUR1LKHL³.DLVRND+RVKXNDQRQDNRQR6DQNDJDWD6KLPLQVKDNDL>3DUWLFLSDWLRQW\SH&LYLO6RFLHW\LQ

6WUDWL¿FDWLRQ&RQVHUYDWL]DWLRQ@´LQGendai o Kaiso Shakai 3, HGV6DLWRDQG0LVXPL6HHDOVR-DPLH3HFNDQG
$GDP7LFNHOO³1HROLEHUDOL]LQJ6SDFH´Antipode  ±242QWKHGH¿QLWLRQRI³VRSKLVWLFDWHGQHROLEHUDOLVP´VHH+DVKLPRWRTeikoku no Jouken, 144.

110

Tsutomu Hashimoto.DVKLPXUDHTXDWHVQHROLEHUDOLVPWRPDUNHWIXQGDPHQWDOLVPZKLFKLVUHÀH[LYHRQO\ZLWKDPDUNHWLQJ
PHQWDOLW\ LHDWWDLQPHQWRIWKHVHOIWKURXJKUHÀH[LYLW\ 6KHVHHVWKLVUHÀH[LYLW\DVD³0F'RQDOGL]DWLRQ´
EDVHGRQIRUPDOUHDVRQLQJZLWKRXWDQ\VXEVWDQWLDOUDWLRQDOLW\:K\GRSHRSOHIDOOLQWRWKLVPHQWDOLW\"$UH
WKH\SRRULQWKHLUDELOLW\WRFRQFHLYHWKHLURZQFUHDWLYLW\"$FFRUGLQJWR.DVKLPXUD³KXPDQFUHDWLYLW\LV
based on the indigenous desire of aspiration for others and the world which deviates from market ratioQDOLVP+XPDQFUHDWLYLW\LVEDVHGRQWKHFXOWXUHRQZKLFKZHIRFXVRXUXQFRQVFLRXVQHVV«´25
While demanding cultural sophistication, Kashimura supports neoliberalism as an ideal social
institution.
Ideally, it would be a good environment where people choose their own educational system based on
their own initiatives and intellectual and cultural concerns. Neoliberal thinking is based on this ideal.
However, in reality, people tend to not face others and therefore our society falls short of temptations to
RWKHUV([SHFWDWLRQVIRUWKHULVHRIVRFLDOVWDWXVRUWKHDGYDQWDJHIRUMREVHDUFKLQJWKURXJKHGXFDWLRQKDYHQRZEHFRPHORVW«7KHUHIRUHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRHQFRXQWHU³RWKHUV´HVSHFLDOO\IRUFKLOGUHQLVEHFRPLQJ
substantially lost.26

Thus, neoliberalism is seen as proper in its institutional ideal but when applied in a society, it
FDQQRWDWWDLQWKHJRDOVRID³JRRGVRFLHW\´RUD³JRRGFLWL]HQ´7KLVPHDQVWKDWZHQHHGWRPDNHRXUselves sophisticated while we accept the institution of neoliberalism. Neoliberalism is criticized because
it brings a poor cultural identity.
2QWKHRWKHUKDQGVRPHFULWLFVDOVRSRLQWHGRXWWKDWWKHUHDOLW\FDQQRWEHRYHUFRPHE\DQ\activities of cultural sophistication. Such criticism sees neoliberalism as a mirror of real social probOHPV)RUH[DPSOH7DNDVKL$PDJDVDSRLQWVRXWWKDWWKH¿UVW\HDURIUHVWUXFWXULQJRIUHVXOWEDVHGKXPDQ
resource management, and part-time employment was in 1995 and neoliberalism was its superordinate
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consciousness was seen as the cause of such social diseases as the increase in the crime rate or corruption of the family structure.27 However, do we really imagine that these problems would vanish under anon-neoliberalism society (a society of egalitarianism and economic conservatism)? Critics are desperate
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We need to scrutinize whether this fundamental criticism of neoliberalism is true in light of an alternative
society and its problems.

25$LNR.DVKLPXUDNeoliberalism no Seishin Bunseki [Psychoanalysis of Neoliberalism@ 7RN\R.REXQVKD 
±
26 Ibid., 182.
277DNDVKL$PDJDVD³0HQWDUX+HUXVXQR0XNRJDZD6KLQML\XVKLJLNRVR7DFKLPXNDXEHNL$LWHGHZDQDLND>%H\RQG
0HQWDO+HDOWKIRU:RUNHUV7KH(QHP\0XVWEH1HROLEHUDOLVP@´Kokoro no Kagaku 136, November (2007), 6.

111

Eurasia Border Review < Discussion >Psychological Strategy to Make People Neoliberal
In any event, in the 2000s, the public became ambivalent about neoliberalism. They supported
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DULVHVDVWRZK\SHRSOHVXSSRUWHGWKLVLGHRORJ\LQWKH¿UVWSODFH)URPDVRFLRORJLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHSHRSOH
may have accepted neoliberalism in a non-rational way, surrendering themselves to its ideas by meansof a tempting political discourse. Neoliberal politics may have employed some psychological strategies,
ZKLFKVKRXOGEHFRPHWKHVXEMHFWRIVRFLRORJLFDODQDO\VLV
,Q UHDOLW\ SHRSOH PD\ QRW DFFHSW QHROLEHUDOLVP ZLWK VXI¿FLHQW UDWLRQDO UHDVRQLQJ 1R]RPX6KLEX\DSRLQWVRXWWKDWLQDQHROLEHUDOVRFLHW\WKH³HQWUHSUHQHXULDOVHOI´LVRQHRILWVLGHDOV7KHHQWUHSUHneurial self embodies the courage to start a business venture and to invest money and human capital in
the venture. In a neoliberal society, not only do business persons but also regular citizens tend to exhibit
WKHHQWUHSUHQHXULDOVHOI,WEHFRPHVDQLGHDOVHOIQRWRQO\LQWKHEXVLQHVV¿HOGEXWDOVRLQFLYLFDFWLYLWLHVFor example, communities can be managed by such enterprising people. To the entrepreneurial self, hard
work is considered as an act of self-realization, while salary becomes of secondary importance.
Why does neoliberalism consider the entrepreneurial self as an ideal? Shibuya explains as
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to be the only hope for those citizens who live in distant provinces. The same is true with other poverty
industries. Rental without deposit and key money is the only hope for the poor when there is no public
housing services. Temporary employment dispatching companies are the only hope for part-time workers
when employment opportunities become scarce under deregulation. For those people, the idea of autonomy in the sense of independence from public services is the only hope.… Finding hope in the neoliberalsocial order becomes possible only when the existing conditions of salvation through solidarity and public
assistance have been broken…28

Since the catastrophic failure of public institutions is regarded as the cause for the rise of neoOLEHUDOLVPZHPXVWDVNRXUVHOYHVZKHWKHUSHRSOHZRXOGUHMHFWQHROLEHUDOLVPZKHQWKHLGHDRIWKHHQWUHSUHQHXULDOVHOILVQRWDQLGHDO6KLEX\DSRLQWVRXWWKDWSHRSOH¿QGKRSHIRUWKHHQWUHSUHQHXULDOVHOIDQGLWV
realization when society adopts neoliberal privatization. If true, then we need to ask why people accepted
neoliberal reform at the start.
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281R]RPX6KLEX\D³$QWRUHSXUHQDWR+LVDLVKD1HROLEHUDOLVPQR.HQU\RNXWR6KLQULJDNXWHNL6KXWDL>(QWUHSUHQHXU
DQG6XIIHUHU3RZHURI1HROLEHUDOLVPDQG3V\FKRORJLFDO6XEMHFW@Japanese Sociological Review  
29<XNL6HQGD³6KLQML\XVKXJLQR%XQSR>*UDPPDURI1HROLEHUDOLVP@´Shiso0D\  ±112

Tsutomu Hashimoto

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that a small government would be better, as a large government would mean an increase in taxation. Suchpropaganda worked to bring people around to neoliberalism. (2) People are persuaded to accept neolibHUDOLVPXQGHUWKHORJLFRIWKH³WULFNOHGRZQHIIHFW´±WKHEHOLHIWKDWZHDOWKZRXOGJUDGXDOO\WULFNOHGRZQ
IURPWKHULFKWRWKHSRRUZKHQWKHHFRQRP\ERRPV  3HRSOHEHOLHYHWKDWLQDVWUDWL¿HGVRFLHW\WKHULFKwill give charitably (e.g., private redistribution) based on the spirit of noblesse oblige and promote social
equality. (4) People accepted neoliberal deregulation policies in order to mobilize people between different classes since under deregulation, people should be rewarded for their labours, while vested interest
JURXSVZRXOGQRWEHQH¿W  3ULYDWHZRUNHUVZKRVHHPSOR\PHQWFRQGLWLRQVEHFRPHXQVWDEOHPD\IHHO
hatred toward the stable working status of public servants and may agree to its privatization.
+RZGRZHHYDOXDWHWKHVH¿YHUHDVRQVIRUDFFHSWLQJQHROLEHUDOLVP"%\DQGODUJHWKHVHUHDVRQVDUHHLWKHULQYDOLGRUXQSHUVXDVLYHXQGHUWKHSKLORVRSKLFDOMXVWL¿FDWLRQVIRUQHROLEHUDOLVP7KH¿UVWUHDson would be invalid because neoliberalism can accept any increase in consumption tax. This ideology
GHIHQGVPDUNHWFRPSHWLWLRQXQGHUWKHUXOHRIÀDWWD[DWLRQZKHUHDQ\OHYHORIFRQVXPSWLRQWD[FDQEHWKH
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in the early 2000s, the trickle-down theory failed to work. Neoliberalism created a society with one per
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is true that people expected noblesse oblige from the rich when they accepted neoliberalism. However,neoliberalism per seGRHVQRWSURPRWHRULPSRVHSULYDWHGXW\RQWKHULFK$VIRUWKHIRXUWKUHDVRQLWLV
uncertain whether the idea that people would be rewarded if they make an effort is an ideal of neoliberalLVPDWDOO$VIRUWKHODVWUHDVRQFRQVLGHUWKHFDVHZKHUHSHRSOHPD\QRWIHHODQ\HQY\WRZDUGWKHVWDWXV
of public servants, and yet still support the privatization of postal services. Envy is not a crucial element
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persuade people to believe in neoliberalism as well. This possibility is illustrated by the fact that policy
alternatives raised by anti-neoliberals many times remained within the realm of the neoliberal ideology.
In the next section, we will examine the anti-neoliberal views on the wage system.
Anti-neoliberals on the Wage System$QWLQHROLEHUDOOHIWLVWVLQ-DSDQKDYHDUJXHGDERXWZKHWKHUZHQHHGWRUHFRYHUFRQYHQWLRQDO
solidarity of the labor movement and keep the existing wage system. For example, Ichiro Hirachi critiFL]HGWKHFRQYHQWLRQDOWKLQNLQJLQWKHODERUPRYHPHQWLQWKHMRXUQDOShakaisyugi [Socialism], published
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neoliberalism is to return to the previous system. To put it correctly, it is the idea of building a bridge to113

Eurasia Border Review < Discussion >VRFLDOLVPWKURXJKFODLPVRIERWKVHQLRULW\ZDJHV\VWHPDQGOLIHWLPHHPSOR\PHQW´+RZHYHUDFFRUGLQJ
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a new foundation of solidarity that goes beyond the limits of both the internal and external labor markets.
He disagrees with the idea that the conventional relations between capital and labor are ideal (as stated in
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Yashiro showed his sympathy to Kumazawa’s proposal to eliminate the disparity (in income, pension
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Nippon de Hataraku toiukoto>7R:RUNLQD'LVSDUDWH6RFLHW\-DSDQ@ 7RN\R,ZDQDPL .XPD]DZDSRLQWVRXWWKHIROORZLQJSUREOHPVLQWKHSXEOLFVHFWRU  PDQDJHPHQWDQGZRUNHUVLQSXEOLFVHFWRUVKDYHGHYHORSHGDFR]\UHODWLRQVKLSVLQFHZRUNHUVGRQRWKDYHWKHULJKWWRVWULNH  /DERUXQLRQVRISXEOLFVHUYDQWVDVVXPHGWKDWWKHLULQWHUHVWVDUHLQDFFRUGZLWKWKHQDWLRQDOLQWHUHVWHYHQZKHQWKH\MXVWSXUVXHEHQH¿WVIRUIXOOWLPHSXEOLFVHUYDQWV  7KHVDODU\RISXEOLFMREVKDVEHFRPHXQUHDVRQDEO\KLJKLQFRPSDULVRQZLWKWKHVDPHMREVLQSULYDWHVHFWRUV$NDERUL¶VDQDO\VLVVKRZVWKDWERWK.XPD]DZDDQG
Yashiro share the belief that these problems need to be solved.31$NDERULDOVRSRLQWVRXWWKDW0LFKLR*RWRDQRWKHUOHDGLQJ¿JXUHRIDQWLQHROLEHUDOLVPKDVDOVR
come to accept neoliberalism. In his article,32 Goto examines the issue of wage gaps in private businesses
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30,FKLUR+LUDFKL³1LSSRQ.HLGDQUHQQR.R\R6HQU\DNX6KLQML\XVKXJLQR5RGRVKLMR.DLNDNX>(PSOR\PHQW
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group in this party and powerfully affected its agenda.
310DVDQDUL$NDERUL³1LKRQWHNL.HLHLZD.DLWDL6KLWDQRND>'LG-DSDQHVHVW\OH%XVLQHVV0DQDJHPHQW&ROODSVH"@´in Shinjiyu-shugi Hihan no Saikouchiku [Reconstruction of Criticism on Neoliberalism@HGV0DVDQDUL$NDERUL
DQG7DNXWD,ZDVD 7RN\R+RULWVXEXQNDVKD <DVKLURSURSRVHV³PDUNHWWHVWLQJ´IRUWKHVDNHRIUHIRUPRISXEOLFVHUYDQWV\VWHPDQGLQUHVSRQVHWRWKLV$NDERULSRLQWVRXWWKDWWRNHHS.XPD]DZD¶VFULWLFLVPZKLOHGHIHDWLQJ<DVKLWR¶VSURSRVDOLVDVGLI¿FXOWDVDFDPHOSDVVLQJWKURXJKDQH\HRIDQHHGOH
32³5RGR6KLMRQR7HQNDQWR5RGR8QGRQR.DGDL -R*H >7KH7UDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKH/DERU0DUNHWDQG,VVXHVRQ/DERU0RYHPHQW,,,@´Gekkan Zenroren6HSWDQG2FW

114

Tsutomu Hashimoto

Takuta Iwasa also criticizes Goto’s argument. In his book,33 Goto characterizes the society of
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neoliberalism in Japan as bringing about its destruction. For example, extensive bureaucratic restrictions,strong discretionary powers of bureaucrats, vertically segmented administrative systems in government
RI¿FHVEDFNVFUDWFKLQJDOOLDQFHVDPRQJSROLWLFLDQVJRYHUQPHQWDQGEXVLQHVVSRUNEDUUHOSROLWLFVE\
WKH/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\WKHVRFDOOHGFRQYR\V\VWHPWKHKHUGLQJPHQWDOLW\RIHDFKLQGXVWU\WKH
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special treatment to bureaucrats, local government depending on public undertaking and subsidies and so
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were directed toward developmentalism in Japan and were not directed at the welfare state in Japan.
7DNX\D,ZDVDFULWLFL]HG*RWR¶VXQGHUVWDQGLQJE\VD\LQJWKDW³LIZHDGPLWWKDWWKH-DSDQ¶VVRFLDOVHFXULW\V\VWHPLVGHYHORSPHQWGLUHFWHGDV*RWRVD\VZHPLJKWQRWEHDEOHWRPDNHDQ\REMHFWLRQWRWKHQHROLEHUDODWWDFNVWRZDUGWKHVRFLDOVHFXULW\V\VWHP´34 Iwasa raised doubt as to whether neoliberal
attacks on the welfare state were indeed a disguise of their attack on developmentalism.
These arguments among anti-neoliberals show that in reality, alternatives to neoliberalism might
still remain in the realm of neoliberal ideas. The real problem is that it may not be possible for us to criticize neoliberalism unless we take the position of political conservatism which supports the conventional
wage system and developmentalism.
Starting Point of Neoliberalism$WODVW,ZRXOGOLNHWRH[DPLQHWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQWRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLQ-DSDQ7KHUHDUHWZRYLHZVsome believe that neoliberalism started in the mid-1970s, others believe it started in the mid-1990s.
6KRJR0XNDZDWDNHVWKHODWWHUYLHZ$FFRUGLQJWRKLPHDUO\DGRSWLRQRIQHROLEHUDOSROLFLHVZDV VHHQ LQ WKH 7KDWFKHU DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ LQ WKH 8QLWHG .LQJGRP ±  DQG LQ WKH 5HDJDQ DGPLQLVWUDWLRQLQ8QLWHG6WDWHV ± 7KH7KDWFKHUDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWULHGWRLQWURGXFHGHUHJXODWLRQnot only in the economic realm but also in social realms, such as the labor market, the pension system,
education, medicine, and welfare services. However, it failed to produce positive results in medicine andwelfare services and it failed to privatize the pension system.35
When compared to the United Kingdom, deregulation in Japan was delayed for almost 20 years.
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33 Michio Goto, Sengoshiso Hegemoni no Shuen to Shin-fukushikokka [The End of the Hegemony of Postwar
Ideology and a New Plan for Welfare State@ 7RN\R-XQSRVKD 
347DNX\D,ZDVD³1LKRQQLRNHUX6KLQML\XVKXJLQR6HLNDNXNLWHLQLWVXLWH>2Q&KDUDFWHULVWLFRI1HROLEHUDOLVPLQ
-DSDQ@´ Chingin to Shakaihosho-XO\  35 Shogo Mukawa, Shakaiseisaku no Shakaigaku: Neoliberalism no Kanatahe [Sociology of Social Policy: Beyond
Neoliberalism@ .\RWR0LQHUYDVKRER 

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realized in 2005 with three housing laws.
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integration of kindergartens and nursery schools, (5) contracting out the management of public schools, GHUHJXODWLRQRIWKH$JULFXOWXUDO/DQG/DZIRUVWRFNFRPSDQLHV  GHUHJXODWLRQRIODERUGLVSDWFKLQ
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care for senior citizens, (12) allowing nationwide leasing of agricultural land to stock companies.36)XOOÀHGJHGQHROLEHUDOUHIRUPVLQ-DSDQHVHVRFLDOSROLFLHVFDPHLQWREHLQJLQWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\,QWKHVDQGV-DSDQVWLOOPDLQWDLQHGDZHOIDUHVWDWHHYHQGXULQJLWVFULVLVDQG
deregulation and privatization were limited to the economic realm and did not reach the realm of social
policies. What happened in social policies at that time was mainly aimed at curbing the growth rate of
VRFLDOH[SHQGLWXUHVWKURXJKUHGXFWLRQVLQEHQH¿WV37

Thus, it is possible to see that neoliberalism in Japan started in the mid-1990s with deregulaWLRQVLQWKHUHDOPRIVRFLDOSROLFLHVDQGEHFDPHIXOOÀHGJHGLQWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\$VLPLODUYLHZSHUFHLYHVQHROLEHUDOLVPLQWKHOLJKWRILPSRVLQJUHVWUDLQWRQSXEOLFXQGHUWDNLQJVThe starting point of this restraint also started in the mid-1990s. Chikanobu Michiba pointed out that
,FKLUR2]DZD¶VERRN38ZDVWKH¿UVWV\QWKHWLFYLVLRQRIQHROLEHUDOLVP39 although it includes huge public
XQGHUWDNLQJVVXFKDVSODQVIRUFRQVWUXFWLQJ1DWLRQDO1HWZRUNRI([SUHVVZD\VRUWKH3URMHFWHG6KLQNDQVHQ/LQH3ODQERWKRIZKLFKZHUHLQKHULWHGIURPWKHIRUPHU/LEHUDO'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\,WZRXOGEHULJKWWRVD\WKDWIXOOÀHGJHGQHROLEHUDOLVPLQ-DSDQZLWKUHGXFWLRQRISXEOLFXQGHUWDNLQJVVWDUWHGGXULQJWKH
+DVKLPRWRDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ -DQXDU\±1RYHPEHU DQGWKHVXEVHTXHQW2EXFKLDGPLQLVWUDWLRQalthough public expenditure was raised temporarily afterwards (since the mid-1990s, the collapse ofJapanese-style business management has also become a focus).
36 Ibid., 413.
37 Ibid., 414.
38,FKLUR2]DZDNihon Kaizokeikaku [A Plan for Reconstructing Japan@ 7RN\R.RGDQVKD 39 Chikanobu Michiba, Teiko no Dojidaishi: Gunjika to Neolibealism nikoushite [A Contemporary History of

Encounter: Against Militarization and Neoliberalism@ .\RWR-LQEXQVKRLQ 

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The third and similar view perceives neoliberalism in the light of the crisis in capital accumuODWLRQ H[KDXVWLRQRISUR¿WRSSRUWXQLWLHV SURSRVHGE\.DUO0DU[DQGKLVVXFFHVVRUV$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVWKHRU\WKHVWDUWLQJSRLQWRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLQ-DSDQZRXOGEHLQWKHPLGVDVZHOO2VDPX:DWDQDEH
LQKLVLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKH-DSDQHVHWUDQVODWLRQRI'DYLG+DUYH\¶VA Brief History of Neoliberalism (origiQDOLQWUDQVODWLRQLQ GHVFULEHVLWDVIROORZV:KHQZHDSSO\+DUYH\¶VGH¿QLWLRQRIQHROLEHUalism, the starting point was in 1993 when the bubble economy burst under the Hosokawa administration$XJXVW±$SULO DQGQHROLEHUDOLVPEHFDPHIXOO\GHYHORSHGLQXQGHUWKH.RL]XPLDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ$FFRUGLQJWR+DUYH\¶VWKHRU\WKHUHPXVW¿UVWEHDFULVLVLQFDSLWDODFFXPXODWLRQDQGLQ
response, a new class power is formed to cope with this crisis, only then will a relatively stable regimeof neoliberalism start. Under this theoretical framework, Watanabe thinks that Japan did not experience
any crisis in capital accumulation in the 1980s and therefore did not reach the stage of neoliberalism until
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developmentalism (i.e., economic integration based on bureaucratic regulation and pork barrel politics)
and not the welfare state per se,QRWKHUZRUGV³SROLWLFDOUHIRUP´DJDLQVWLQLWLDWLYHVWDNHQE\EXUHDXFUDWVZDVWKH¿UVWDQGIRUHPRVWVXEMHFWRIQHROLEHUDOLVP40+RZHYHUWKHUHLVDQRWKHUFRQÀLFWLQJYLHZRIWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQWRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLQ-DSDQ$WVXVKL+\RGRTXHVWLRQV:DWDQDEH¶VXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIQHROLEHUDOLVP³LVLWULJKWWRVD\WKDWWKHUHZDVQRFODVVFRPSURPLVHEHWZHHQODERUDQGFDSLWDOZKLFKKDGWREHRYHUFRPHE\QHROLEHUDOLVPLQ-DSDQ"´,Q+\RGR¶VRSLQLRQWKH-DSDQHVHHFRQRP\KDV³IDFHGDµIXOOÀHGJHGFULVLVRIDFFXPXODWLRQ¶VLQFHWKHV´41+RZHYHUWKHJRYHUQPHQWVHWIRUWKWR³DJJUHJDWHGHPDQGFRQWUROSROLF\´DQGWKH-DSDQ)HGHUDWLRQRI
Iron and Steel Workers’ Union expressed its decision to follow the guidelines of the Japan Federation
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cooperation policy.
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privatization of public corporations and reduction of public welfare. For example, the Ministry of Welfare
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40³>,Q-DSDQ@,WZDVµSROLWLFDOUHIRUP¶WKDWFRUUHVSRQGHGWRUDGLFDOUDWLRQDOL]DWLRQDQGFORVXUHRIFRDOPLQHVWKDWthe Thatcher administration in the United Kingdom dared to take on in 1984 … and the attack on the labor union
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41$WVXVKL+\RGR³1LKRQQLRNHUX6KLQML\XVKXJLQR.LWHQQLNDQVXUX.RVDWVX&KLNXVHNL.LNLWR.DLN\X.HQU\RNXZRPHJXUX*LURQZRWHJDNDULQL>6WXG\RQWKH6WDUWLQJ3RLQWRI1HROLEHUDOLVPLQ-DSDQ$UJXPHQWRQ$FFXPXODWLRQ&ULVLVDQG&ODVV3RZHUDVD&OXH@´LQShinjiyushugi to Rodo [Neoliberalism and Labor], eds. Hosei University
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government documents in the form of a memorandum to the congress discussing basic issues on public
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6HYHQ\HDU3ODQIRU(FRQRPLF6RFLHW\´DSSURYHGE\WKHFDELQHWFRXQFLO7KLVYLVLRQZDVD¿QDOUHQXQFLDWLRQRIWKHZHOIDUHVWDWHSROLFLHVGHFODUHGLQWKH³¿UVW\HDURIWKHZHOIDUHHUD´LQ42

Thus, in Hyodo’s opinion, although a new class struggle was avoided by the capital-labor cooperation under the condition of the crisis of capital accumulation, both the government and the capitalclass did in fact suppress a labor movement in 1975. In addition, the radical reforms in the public health
FDUHV\VWHPLQLWLDWHGLQFDQEHUHJDUGHGDVDVWDUWLQJSRLQWRIQHROLEHUDOLVP$FFRUGLQJWR+\RGR'DYLG+DUYH\¶VYLHZRIWKH-DSDQHVHFDVHRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLVPLVWDNHQ43 While Harvey believes Japan
achieved economic success without any process of neoliberal reforms, Hyodo sees that the starting pointof neoliberalism in Japan can be traced to the 1970s, at about the same time as in the United Kingdom.
We have examined the issue of the starting point of neoliberalism in Japan. The answer would
depend on what we consider to be the most important characteristic of neoliberalism. From a perspectiveof defending the conventional welfare state, the most important characteristic of neoliberalism would
be deregulation of social policies, since social policies are essential to economic liberalism. From aperspective of radical criticism of capitalism, such an inclusive policy idea would also be regarded ascompensation for a neoliberal society.
Concluding Remarks
In this paper, I examined recent discourses on neoliberalism, in particular, in connection withearthquake disaster reconstruction, Keynesianism, politics, national surveys, psychoanalysis, alternative
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turned out to be broad, and includes developmentalism and Keynesianism, which may not have been
included in the original meaning of neoliberalism. Recent versions of neoliberalism have absorbed critLFLVPV E\ IXUWKHU EURDGHQLQJ LWV GH¿QLWLRQ VR WKDW ZH QHHG WR UHFRQVLGHU RXU VWDQGSRLQW DW ZKLFK ZH
VXSSRUWRUUHMHFWWKLVLGHRORJ\
7KHUHDVRQIRUWKHEURDGHQLQJRIWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIQHROLEHUDOLVPZRXOGEHH[SODLQHGDVIROORZV$OWKRXJKWKHUHDUHPDQ\IHDWXUHVRIQRQQHROLEHUDOHOHPHQWVLQFRQWHPSRUDU\-DSDQHVHVRFLHW\FULWLFVtend to understand neoliberalism as the ideology of the dominant regime of Japan. In its background,
there seems to be an empty situation of alternative ideologies for expressing the political and economic
42,ELG±
43 Ibid., 18.

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regime of Japan in place of neoliberalism under globalization. This situation of empty alternatives would
also raise a question whether our ideological resources from peripheral perspectives might become poor.

119