African Technology Policy Studies Network

WORKING PAPER SERIES | No. 51
Tracking Effective Indigenous
Adaptation Strategies on Impactsof Climate Variability on Food Security and
Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania
Riziki Silas ShemdoeTracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation
Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on
Food Security and Health of Subsistence
Farmers in Tanzania

Riziki Silas Shemdoe (Ph.D)
Institute of Human Settlements Studies, Ardhi University,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-0-7

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Abstract

5

1.

Introduction

6

2.

Literature Review

7

3.

Methodology

10

4.

Findings

125.

Conclusions & Recommendations

27

References

29

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 3

Acknowledgement
This paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy Studies Network(ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the Ministerie van
Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst others. The authors hereby
thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during the implementation of the program. The
Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and theProgram Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua (ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Owusu Essegbey (Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas Ozor
(ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS) for their technical support during the research process.

4 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Abstract
Both long and short term changes in climate disproportionately affect regions in both the semi-arid and arid
parts of the globe and the more humid tropics. Within these areas, effects of climate change vary acrossregions, farming and food systems, households and individuals. As smallholder farmers have been staying
in these areas and that the climate variability has been affecting them, farmers through experimentation overtime, have developed different traditional technologies in order to cope with the climate change vulnerability.
In the case study areas of Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts, little has been done in tracking indigenous
adaptation strategies developed to address impacts of climate variability on food security and health ofsubsistence farmers. This paper therefore provides a highlight of the existing indigenous and other related
technologies that farmers in the respective districts in Tanzania are employing to counteract to the impactsof climate change and climate variability. Data were collected through key informants interviews, focus
group discussions and in-depth interviews using a structured questionnaire that was administered to 400
household heads in eight villages from two agro-ecological zones namely humid (Lushoto district) andsemi-arid (Mpwapwa district) zones. In this paper, from community perspectives, indigenous andemerging technologies and innovations for climate change adaptation, ways communities behavior havechanged towards climate change adaptation measures at individual and institutional levels; impacts ofclimate variability on food production and on health of farmers; both short and long term adaptation
strategies developed by different rural communities are elucidated; policy recommendations for building
climate change resilience at local and national levels in Tanzania are proposed. Based on the findings fromthis study a framework to support policy decisions in crop/livestock production and human health systems
in Tanzania is recommended.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 5

1. Introduction
Climate changes have a significant impact on livelihoods and living conditions of the poor in developing
countries. Long-term changes in climate will disproportionately affect regions in both semi-arid and arid
parts of the globe and the more humid tropics. Within these areas, the effects of climate change vary acrossregions, farming and food systems, households and individuals. Already there is some evidence thatclimate change has altered hydrological cycles and weather patterns, raised sea levels and increased theintensity and frequency of extreme weather conditions all of which have a significant impact on the
livelihoods and living conditions of the poor in developing countries. Climate change and climate variability
have been affecting smallholder farmers and livestock keepers in different ways. In the absence of effective
adaptation, food insecurity and ill-health will deepen poverty and affect livelihoods, assets, infrastructure,environmental resources and economic growth thereby slowing poverty reduction and sustainable
development strategies. As smallholder farmers are staying in these areas and that the climate variability
has been affecting them, farmers through experimentation over time, have developed different traditional
technologies in order to cope with the climate change vulnerability. These technologies need to be tracked,
studied, documented, and harmonized with similar scientific-based knowledge.
1.1

Objectives

1.1.1
Main objective
The main objective of the present study was to track effective indigenous adaptation strategies developed
to address impacts of climate variability on food security and health of subsistence farmers in Tanzania.
1.1.2
Specific objectives> Identify and document effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climatechange adaptation;> Identify and document behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual
and institutional levels;> Assess capacities building strategies to the farming communities in the study areas to adapt to climatechange impacts;> Assess the impacts of climate variability on food production and health of subsistence farmers> Determine short and long term adaptation strategies developed by different rural communities;> Make policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at the state and national levels in
Tanzania.
> Develop robust framework to support policy decisions in crop/livestock production and human healthsystems in Tanzania.
6 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

2. Literature Review
2.1
Climate change in the Tanzanian Policies
Although the impact of climate change on social and economic sectors in Tanzania started to be felt as far
back as in the early 1980s, the gravity of the impacts began to be recognized just over the recent years.
Apparently this state of affairs is attributed to the fact that the country lacked scientific evidence that would be
the justification for any concern and response to the impacts of climate change. In a recent study on
mainstreaming climate change to policy and governance, (Shemdoe, 2010), it is reported that Tanzania
has no stand alone policy for climate change, and indeed this is the same for many other developing
countries; hence there is no legislation on climate change per se which may be used to guide
implementation of the policy. The only existing document available on climate change is the National
Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA, 2009) which is designed to provide an opportunity to look at thecountry's climate change related vulnerabilities in various sectors that are important for the economy. As
reported in Shemdoe (2010) there are however, several sectoral policies which touch on issues of climatechange haphazardly. The policies that have showed a link with climate change issues in Tanzania include:
National Environmental Policy, National Energy Policy of Tanzania, National Water Policy (NAWAPO),
National Livestock Policy, National Forest Policy and National Wildlife Policy of Tanzania. In these policies,
issues that are highlighted which have a direct link to climate variability and climate change include: landdegradation; environmental pollution; as well as deforestation. Others include minimization of wood fuelconsumption through the development of alternative energy sources and ensure efficient utilization of wood
fuel; promotion of sustainable renewable energy resources; develop and utilize forest and agriculturalresidues for power and cooking energy production. On agricultural aspect, the policies highlights theimpacts of agricultural practices have contribution on climate change through slash and burn practices;extension of cultivation to the sensitive and marginal lands such as wetlands hence contributing to climatechange as more carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere. Based on ecosystem goods and services, thepolicies have highlighted ecosystem stability through conservation of forest biodiversity, water catchments
and soil fertility should be ensured; and encroachment, wildfires, illegal logging and poaching in thereserved forests to have contributed to the deterioration of wildlife population. Moreover, the policies havealso highlighted water issues and specifically that water is a fundamental for various social – economic
development activities hence the need to conserve water sources; and that there is a need for integrated
water resource management (IWRM) to ensure that water does not become a constraint to national
development.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 7

2.2

Smallholder farmers' based indigenous technological adaptation
strategies to the impacts of climate variability in different agroecological zones of Tanzania
Tanzania has about seven agro ecological zones whereby different crops under different farming systems
are produced. In all these zones, climate variability and climate change can have impacts. The agroecological zones in Tanzania include: Coast, Arid lands, Semi-arid lands, Plateaus, Southern and Western
Highlands, Northern highlands and alluvial plains. In this paper, the agro-ecological zones have been
divided into two main categories; these are the highland agro-ecological zone, and the arid and semiarid
zones. Smallholder farmers residing in these agro-ecological zones have developed a number ofindigenous techniques and practices that are used by smallholder farmers in their farming systems. Someof the most frequently used technologies and their link to farming systems are described in the subsequent
section.
2.3
Indigenous technologies in highland agro-ecological zone
Farmers in the Matengo areas in Ruvuma region apply Ntambo as one of the indigenous strategy in crop
production. “Ntambo” as described in Matee, (2000) and Kato (2001) is a unit of land that is boarded bysmall (river) valleys and is normally located on mountain slopes. It is a suitable area that is used in raisingcrops during low rain seasons, thus community use these areas as a coping strategy to counteract drought
as one of the impacts of climate variability in Tanzania. Another matengo indigenous farming
system/technology is ingolu or ngolo. As described in Matee (2000) and Kato (2001) ingolu ischaracterized by a combination of anti-erosion and soil fertility maintenance techniques of pits and ridges
on steep slopes. This technique evolved among the matengo over 100 years ago (Pike, 1938 in Matee
2000). This indigenous technique has been effective in controlling soil erosion, maintaining soil fertility andincreasing crop yields produced in very steep slopes (Kato 2001).
In the Sukumaland, Shinyanga region, farmers are used to and exercise Ngitiri system. Ngitiri system refers
to a system of 'bush fallow' management used by the Sukuma people. They are actually areas of grazing
land, which have been 'closed' to livestock, by the village council, or a private landowner, and they are an
example of an indigenous silvopastoral technology for land rehabilitation. Studies by Kamwenda (1999)
indicate that the ngitiri has the potential of improving the ecology of the site where trees enrich the soil
surface through decomposition and mineralization of their litters (i.e. leaves flowers, twigs and branches).
The extensive ground cover of shrubs, grasses, herbs and forbs also help prevent soil erosion and facilitate
water infiltration and percolation by reducing surface runoff and increasing soil water storage (Kamwenda,
1999). There is an increasing body of evidence that ngitiri is a widespread and very popular system in use
since 1920's among the Wasukuma people of Shinyanga region, which comprises of six districts. The
primary importance of the Ngitiri system is in fodder production, with some authorities estimating fodder
production of up to 4 t DM/ha for the traditional Ngitiri and 8 t DM/ha for the improved systems (Kitalyi et al.
2004) in Jama and Zeila (2005). The interesting aspect about the Ngitiri system is that it is a farmer-led andfarmer-managed initiative that has evolved after years of traditional grazing management.
Farmers in the northern Tanzania have also developed their indigenous intensive crop management
systems that they refer to as iraqw system by the Iraqw tribe (Shetto, 1998). The iraqw systems are preparedin the hilly areas, where the crop residues in the field and manure from stall fed cattle is incorporated into
cultivated ridges. Terraces are made to control soil erosion, and fodder is cropped on the edges of theterraces for the cattle, being supplemented by grass from fallow fields. Trash lines and cut off drains are also
used to slow down surface runoff and to increase infiltration (Shetto, 1998).
8 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

In the Usambara Mountains as reported in Sokoni and Shechambo (2005), smallholder farmers have beenusing Ndiwa which is an indigenous traditional irrigation system that has been in operation in Usambara
Mountains for several decades since 1940s. Sokoni and Shechambo (2005), describe Ndiwa as anovernight reservoir or farm pond. Ndiwa is often dug on mountain slopes and is fed by springs. Spring
channels are dammed; the water is allowed to accumulate for 12 to 24 hours and then released for irrigation.
Sometimes a dam is constructed beside a spring or a stream channel. Ndiwa has been useful in crop
production in the mountainous areas during dry seasons and are one of the suitable indigenous
technologies that can be used as an adaptation strategy to the impact of climate variability.
2.4
Indigenous technologies in arid and semi arid agro-ecology
For years now farmers in semi arid central Tanzania have been applying different soil and water conservation
methods in order to improve crop production. Hatibu and Mahoo, (1999) mention pitting, as a traditional
system of sowing to have been used by farmers to collect runoff during the early growing stages of thecrops in the area. Hillside sheet and runoff utilization which exploits valley bottoms and plains where runoff
collects, have been widely used by farmers for growing high water demand crops such as maize in the area
(Hatibu and Mahoo, 1999). Shemdoe et al (2008; 2009b) report some farmers in semiarid central Tanzania
to have used traditional terraces (matuta) and mulching from the crop residues left from the preceding
season to conserve soil moisture and to increase soil water availability to plants hence improve crop
production.
In most of the Tanzanian arid and semi-arid areas, other local-based coping strategies with droughts haveincluded remittances from migrant household members, collecting wild fruits, switching to non-farmactivities or, in extreme cases, selling assets. Eriksen et al. (2005) give an example of farmers in Same
District, one of the semiarid districts in Tanzania to have resorted to casual labor, brick making, handicraft,collecting honey and charcoal burning during droughts, allowing household to make money to purchasefood and to obtain other necessities.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 9

3. Methodology
3.1
Study area
This study was carried out in two different districts with two different distinctive characteristics. These
districts are Mpwapwa district in Dodoma Region Tanzania which is semi-arid and Lushoto found in Tanga
region with humid environment.
Mpwapwa District is characterized by a semi-arid ecological zone, with un-imodal rainfall, which isunreliable, and varies between 350 to 800 mm per year, concentrated between December and April. The
main economic activities for the majority of people in the district are crop production and livestock keeping(URT, 2001). The main food crop in the case study villages is sorghum (Sorghum bicolour), though a few
farmers plant maize (Zea mays) intercropped with groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea) in some fields. On theother hand, Arachis hypogaea is the main cash crop of the area; other cash crops include vegetables suchas onions (Allium cepa), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), andAmaranthus tricolor which are grown in the valleys (Shemdoe and Mwanyoka, 2006).
Lushoto district, West Usambara, northeastern Tanzania lies between 38° 10' and 38° 36' E and 4° 24' and 5°
00' S with altitudes ranging from 800 to 2300 m a.s.l. The population density ranges from 68 to 400 persons
per square km. The area falls under rainforest vegetation type and soils are generally latosols. Rainfall is inbimodal pattern; short rains from October to December and long rains from March to June. The rainfall
ranges from 600 to more than 1200mm. The existing land use pattern is divided into four categories,
namely; dry land farming contributing to 58%, tree crops and irrigated area (11%), forest reserve (16%) andgrazing area (15%).
3.2
Data collection method
Data collection included key informants interviews and focus group discussions during the pilot study,
literature reviews and detailed surveys that involved the use of in-depth interviews using a structured
questionnaire whereby a total of 400 heads of households, 200 from each district were interviewed.
3.2.1
Key Informant and Focus Group Discussions
For the pilot study (PS), Lushoto District was selected and key informants interviews and focus group
discussions were carried out. During this phase, a visit to the district was scheduled and meetings with theDistrict Executive Director (DED), District Agricultural and Livestock Officer (DALDO) and the District Soil andWater Conservation Officer were held. After the meetings with the district officials, a visit to the villages was
10 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

done and interviews with the village officials (Village chairpersons and Village Executive Officers) as key
informants were carried out. The key informants schedule was used to capture key informants' insights on
the objectives. Focus group discussions with village representatives was arranged and carried out. Thesemeetings were carried out where by village representatives were invited. The pretesting of the questionnaire
was not deeply carried out due to shortage of time but adequate information to improve the questionnaire
was collected in this general focus group discussion meeting which was subsequently followed by ageneral session to discuss the questionnaire and the issues therein.
3.2.2
Literature surveys
Literature survey included review of effective indigenous technological adaptation strategies employed by
farmers in different agro-ecological zones in Tanzania. In the review we started by highlighting historical
trends of climate change issues as highlighted in different Tanzanian policies, through a review of different
policies that have addressed climate change issues whether directly and /or indirect. This helped to show
how the implementation of the policies could take into consideration smallholder farmers' technologies andindigenous adaptation to climate change impacts in different areas in the country.
3.2.3
Questionnaire survey
In each of the two districts where the study was carried out, four villages were selected whereby a total of fifty
respondents were interviewed using the questionnaire in each village. In-depth interviews with heads ofhouseholds using a structured questionnaire with both open- and close-ended questions were conductedin July and August 2010. In the two districts a total of 400 heads of households were interviewed. Issues thatwere included in the questionnaire include climate change and copping strategies by communities in thecase study areas, copping strategies to the impacts of climate variability, behavioral changes towards
climate change adaptation measures at individual and institutional levels in the study area, and behavioral
changes towards climate change adaptation strategies instituted by the local government to thecommunities' district level. Others include communities' preferences on the local government strategies
towards influencing communities to adapt to climate change, capacity building to the communities on
climate change issues and information, effects of climate change on food security, effects of climatechange on human health and livestock, and measures taken to reduce the impacts of human diseases
linked to climate change. The information was useful in developing a framework to support policy decisions
in crop/livestock production and human health systems in Tanzania.
Most of the qualitative data collected were analyzed using content analysis (Mayring 2000). Descriptive
statistics were also used in analyzing quantitative information collected during in-depth interviews from thestructured questionnaire.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 11

4. Findings
This chapter contains findings from the field research on tracking effective indigenous adaptation strategies
on impacts of climate variability on food security and health of subsistence farmers in Tanzania. The study
was carried out in two case study agro-ecological zones i.e. semi- arid and humid zones. The chapter aims
at providing answers to the questions derived from the key specific objectives. The questions/issues thatare addressed in this chapter are as follows:> Characteristics of the communities in the case study areas> The effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climate change adaptation in
the study area;> Behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual and institutional levelsin the study area;> Impacts of climate variability on food production;> Impact of climate variability on health of farmers and food security;> Adaptation strategies developed by different rural communities.
4.1
Respondents' Characteristics
Characteristics of the respondents involved in the study from the two different agro-ecosystems were
determined. This was done purposely to determine capacity of communities with different characteristics inorder to understand the climate variability and its associated impacts to their production systems and theirlivelihoods at large. The characteristics of the respondents included age, sex and education. Others
included originality in the area of residence as well as occupations.
4.2
Age, sex and education levels of the respondents
Respondents interviewed in this study were from 18 to above 60 years old. Respondents were grouped into
three different age categories notably between 18-35, 36-60 years and those above 60 years. In the two
agro-ecosystems, there was a slight difference in numbers of respondents interviewed in those agegroups. Mpwapwa district had a large number of respondents within the 18-35 years age categorycompared to Lushoto district. Whereas Mpwapwa district has a good number of respondents in a
productive age that can invest their labour power in different economic activities, Lushoto district has a large
number of respondents aged above 60 years which indicate high dependency ratio (Fig.1).

12 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Figure 1: Age of respondents in the two case study areas
With regards to the sex of the respondents, in the two agro-ecosystems, majority of respondents were male(Fig. 2). In this study, female representatives were 26.5% in highland ago-ecosystem (The Lushoto district)and 35% in the semi-arid agro-ecosystem (The Mpwapwa district). The trend is normal for male dominatedsystems where males tend to be the ones with a mandate to stand and speak for their household issues
than females. Nevertheless, the interviewed female representatives have given their understanding on theissues of climate variability and how it affects them and the way it contributes to changes in gender roles andgoals in the respective societies in the two agro-ecological zones.

Figure 2: Sex of respondents
The majority of respondents in the two different agro-ecological zones studied have some formal
education. About 85% of the interviewed respondents in Lushoto and 83% in Mpwapwa district haveacquired primary education with the majority having one to seven years of primary school education. Just
6.5% in Lushoto and 2.5% in Mpwapwa have acquired secondary education (Fig.3). This observation is
supported by Jörgensen (2002) mentioning land-using persons in tropical and sub-tropical regions to havea limited education and in this case the primary education for Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts. Low level of
education in the respective areas is also reported in Shemdoe et al, 2009a; and Ngware et al 2006).
Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 13

Undoubtedly, low levels of education in these areas make people depend much on the subsistence
agriculture and livestock keeping which are the sectors highly impacted by climate variability and climatechange and as a result communities in these areas are compelled to have their own coping strategies
which are being tracked in this study.

Figure 3: Respondents levels of education
4.3
Respondents original place of birth and occupations
Residence status of the respondent's interviewed in the area was also assessed. This was deemed
important in determining communities coping strategies to the impact of climate change and climate
variability in the respective areas. It was observed that most of the respondents in Lushoto district were born
within the villages; only 4% migrated into the area. This is contrary to the respondents in Mpwapwa district
where about 16% of the respondents migrated into the area (Fig 4). This attests that the migration of people
in arid and semi-arid areas is high probably due to the high negative impacts of climate variability andclimate change in this agro-ecological zone. Of the 16% who migrated from other areas in Mpwapwa
district, 12% were from within the district but moved from one village to the other, 2% out of the district and 2%
out of the region. The reasons for migrating from one village to another to search areas for cultivation due tochanges in rainfall and poor quality of soils in the places they were residing.

Figure 4: Respondents areas of origin
14 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Respondents' occupation status for the two districts does not differ much. The study observed that, most of
the respondents in the case study areas practice both subsistence farming and traditional livestock
keeping which is dominated by free range systems as listed in figure 5. Of the 200 respondents in each
district, 60% in Lushoto and 66% in Mpwapwa district practice both subsistence farming and livestock
keeping while those who practices subsistence farming only are 34% for Lushoto and 27.5% for Mpwapwa
district (Fig 5). This information implies that, livelihoods of most of the people in these two districts depend
much on subsistence farming and livestock keeping which are currently reported by the interviewed
representatives to have been affected significantly by the unpredictable amount of and rainfall patterns in
the respective areas. Other studies such as Shemdoe et al, (2009) and Ngware et al,( 2006) confirms
subsistence farming and livestock keeping to be highly affected by rainfall patterns and amount within these
two agro-ecological zones.

Figure 5: Respondents occupation
4.4

Climate change and copping strategies by communities in the casestudy areas
In the case study areas, existence of unpredictable rainfall pattern and amount as well as prolonged
droughts has been referred to as the main indication of climate change. All of the 400 (100%) respondents
involved in this study in Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts, confirmed climate change to be a reality in theirareas. Several indicators of climate change in the two agro-ecological zones reported by the communities
include prolonged drought, unpredictable rainfall, pattern of rainfall, food shortage, poor pastureregeneration, and human and animal emerging diseases. Drought was the frequently mentioned indicator
for climate change in both districts. Of the 200 respondents in each district, 46% in Lushoto and 44% in
Mpwapwa mentioned drought as the main indicator which contributes to food shortages and reduced
pastures (Fig.6) in the respective areas.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 15

Figure 6: Indicators of existence of climate variability and climate changereported by communities in the case study areas
4.4.1
Copping strategies to the impacts of climate variability in the case study areas
In these areas, as a way to counteract the impact of climate variability and climate change, local
communities have developed a range of strategies. Such measures include traditional terracing (matuta),
destocking, tree planting, traditional food preservation methods, drilling traditional wells, construction of
locally based water reservoirs (Nkunisa), mixed cropping and crop diversification. Tree planting was foundto be more practiced in both case study areas. Of the 200 respondents interviewed in each district, 46%
and 39% of respondents in Lushoto and Mpwapwa district respectively, indicated tree planting as an
adaptation strategy to the impact of climate variability as well as to climate change. Another locally based
technology that is used by local communities in both agro-ecological zones is traditional terracing (Matuta)that was reported by 40% of the respondents in Mpwapwa and 18% of respondents in Lushoto district. This
practice increases soil water holding capacity when applied in the field as reported in Shemdoe at el(2009b).
Respondents in Lushoto district practice drilling traditional wells and traditional water reservoirs (Nkunisa)
and practicing mixed cropping as adaptation measures to climate change. These techniques are notpracticed in Mpwapwa most likely due to the fact that the area is drier and there is no spring water which
could be used as a source of water for traditional irrigation. In Mpwapwa the traditional technology that
farmers apply most is the traditional food preservation method which is practiced by the majority of the
respondents in Mpwapwa district than in Lushoto district (Tab. 1).

16 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Table 1: Copping strategies to the impacts of climate variability

LushotoAdaptation Measures

Frequency % response

Mpwapwa
Frequency % response

Traditional terracing (Matuta)

36

18

80

40

Destocking

16

8

25

13

Tree planting

91

46

78

39

Traditional food storage methods (vihenge)

2

1

17

8

Drilling traditional water wells and

37

18

0

0

Crop diversification

13

7

0

0

Family planning

5

2

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

construction of traditional water reservoirs(Nkunisa)

Adaptation measures to the effects of climate change and variability in the study areas are found to befeasible solutions. The majority, (90.5% and 98%) of the respondents in Lushoto and Mpwapwa district
respectively (Fig 7) commended some of the indicated adaptation measures to be feasible in overcoming
the effects of climate change and variability as they have helped them to survive over the years.

Figure 7: Usefulness of locally based adaptation measures towards impacts ofclimate variability in the case study areas

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 17

4.4.2Behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual
and institutional levels in the study area
Climate change and variability has impact on communities' social well being. Community representatives
interviewed indicated that majority of the people in the respective areas have changed their living andworking behaviors. Issues that have been indicated to have changed include reduced grazing of cattle
around water sources, reduced free grazing on farms, single meal to double meals per day from the usual
three meals, eating one type of food, growing drought resistant crops, mixed cropping and crop
diversification. This behavioral change is attributed to poor harvests leading to more people changing
eating habit by having a single meal per day, which has been reported by 32% in Lushoto and 50% of
respondents in Mpwapwa district. The prolonged drought periods experienced in the study areas havebeen indicated to result into poor pasture regeneration for livestock and subsequently more livestock are
now grazed through zero grazing where fodder are collected from areas around water sources and from thecollected crop residues. In other cases it was reported that due to poor regeneration some livestock
keepers have hugely reduced size of their cattle. Of the 200 respondents in each district, 35% in Lushotoand 23% in Mpwapwa district (Tab.2) mentioned to have reduced a number of livestock being grazed
around water sources. Food insecurity has been indicated to affect more people in Mpwapwa district than in
Lushoto. This was mentioned by the respondents reported to have changed their eating habit due tounavailability of food caused by poor harvest that has been linked with changes in climate.
Representatives' interviewed in this study proposed a number of technological behavioral changes thatshould be instituted by communities in the respective areas. These include practices that will help to restore
water sources including land use planning, education and awareness raising on food storage,
environmental education, research on crop diseases, destocking, enforcement of environmental by laws
and improvement of traditional irrigation systems. In the two study areas, teaching environmental education
was found to be given highest priority. About 53% of the respondents in Lushoto district and 52% in
Mpwapwa district proposed for extensive and effective awareness creation. Other suggested interventions
is water sources conservation whereby 12% of the respondents in Lushoto and 19% of the respondents in
Mpwapwa district proposed it as one of the interventions to be done as a way to counteract to impacts ofclimate change and climate variability.

18 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Table 2: Behavioral changes as a copping strategy to climate change adaptation

LushotoBehavior

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Reduced grazing around water sources

69

35

46

23

Free grazing on farms

3

1

40

20

Single meal per day

64

32

100

50

Double meals per day

20

10

0

0

Eating one type of food

26

13

0

0

Growing drought resistant crops

10

5

10

5

Mixed cropping and crop diversification

8

4

4

2

Total

200

100

200

100

Community representatives interviewed indicated a number of strategies that have been instituted by local
government in their respective districts (see table 3). Such strategies include awareness creation onconservation of water sources, proper land use planning, environmental education, food storage, researchon crop diseases, and awareness on the need to reduce livestock heard (destocking), enforcement ofvillage environmental bylaws as well as improvement of traditional irrigation systems (table 3). As suchthese strategies if well applied by communities may result in proper use of natural resources in therespective agro-ecosystems where the climate variability and climate change has a lot of negative impacts.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 19

Table 3: Behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation strategies
instituted by the local government to the communities' district level

Lushoto
Awareness strategy

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Water sources conservation

25

12

37

19

Land use planning

5

3

14

7

Food storage

6

3

26

13

environmental education

105

53

105

52

Research on crops diseases

6

3

18

9

Destocking

15

7

0

0

Enforcement of Village environmental by laws

18

9

0

0

Improving traditional water streams

20

10

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

4.4.3

Communities' preferences on the local government strategies towards influencing
communities to adapt to climate change
Respondents in both districts were asked to rank local government strategies towards influencing
communities to adapt to climate change instituted by their respective local government in their respective
districts. In Lushoto District as presented in table 4, the ranks were environmental education, environmental
bylaws, improvement of traditional water systems, water source conservation and the last was destocking.
In Mpwapwa districts (Tab. 4) the ranks were biased to environmental education, water source conservation
research on crop diseases, land use planning and food storage. Apart from environmental education thatwas ranked first in both agro-ecological zones, other strategies were ranked based on the needs of therespective community in respective particular agro-ecological zone.

20 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Table 4: Communities' preferences on the local government strategies towards
influencing communities to adapt to climate change

Rank

LushotoMpwapwa1

Teaching environmental education

Teaching environmental education

2

Enact environmental by-laws

Water source conservation

3

Improving traditional water streams

Research on crops diseases

4

Water sources conservation

Land use planning

5

Destocking

Food storage awareness

4.4.4
Capacity building to the communities on climate change issues and information
In this study, different approaches used in building capacity to the communities on climate change issues in
the respective districts were elucidated. Community representatives interviewed in the case study areas
indicated a number of climate change related information dissemination approaches as a capacity building
strategy to the communities to include mass media (radio and television), traditional groups, village
meetings, artist works, seminars and teaching environmental education in primary schools (Tab. 5). Village
meetings seem to be the most feasible dissemination strategy in both districts as mentioned by 28% and
49% of the respondents in Lushoto and Mpwapwa district respectively.
Table 5: Approaches used in climate change information dissemination
LushotoMpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Radio

23

11

24

12

Television

13

6

25

13

Traditional groups

16

9

44

21

Village meetings

56

28

98

49

Artists works

22

11

9

5

Seminars

60

30

0

0

primary school

10

5

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

Dissemination approaches

Environmental education in

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 21

4.4.5
Effects of climate change on food security
Currently, food security is a global concern because majority of the people in different communities are
starving particularly in Africa. In this study, communities indicated effects of climate change on food security
as increased frequency of crop pests and diseases and poor crop harvests caused by poor rainfall andreduced soil fertility. Respondents in the two districts indicated pests and diseases to have more effects onfood availability. About 42% and 80% of the interviewed respondents in Lushoto and Mpwapwa respectively
indicated pests and diseases to negatively affect food availability in the district (Fig 8)
Poor crop harvest which is caused by poor rainfall and reduced soil fertility was indicated by 58% and 20% in
Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts respectively (Fig.8) as one of the negative effects caused by climate
variability to food security in the respective districts and agro-ecological zones at large.

Figure 8: Effects of climate change on food security
n the case study areas, communities have developed some strategies to address the problem associatedwith the pests and diseases and those from poor crop harvest. Such strategies include: spraying
pesticides, application of fertilizers, destocking, growing drought resistant crops, irrigation farming andshifting to non-farming business. All these measures have cost implications and therefore add moreburdens to the already poor and marginalized communities.
As indicated in table 6, a fairly good number of respondents (38% in Lushoto and 37% in Mpwapwa)
indicated the growing of drought resistant crops as the most useful strategies in the case study areas. The
crops mentioned include millet, sun-flower, cassava and cereal crops. These crops are reported in
Shemdoe et al, (2009a & b) to be the main crops planted by farmers in different areas in central Tanzania asa strategy to counteract impacts of drought. Short term growing crops such as African egg plant (ngogwe)
has been introduced in the vegetable production in Lushoto district. Due to prolonged drought periods thecommunities shifted from depending only on rain-fed agriculture to irrigation agriculture especially in thoseareas having access to water sources. This was reported to be practiced by more farmers in Lushoto
district than in Mpwapwa district (Table 6) this is due to the fact that the topography in Lushoto is suitable foreasy flow of water downstream as reported by Ngware et al, (2006).

22 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Table 6: Climate change adaptation measures for food security

LushotoStrategy

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Spray pesticides

14

7

70

35

Application of Fertilizers

16

8

28

14

Destocking

11

5

0

0

Growing drought resistant crops

77

38

74

37

Irrigation farming

44

23

28

14

Shifting to off-farm activities

38

19

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

4.4.6 Effects of climate change on human health and livestock
As it has been stated in a number of literatures (FAO, 2007), climate change has effects on human healthand livestock in different areas. In the two agro ecological systems in Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts thelarge majority 99.5% and 98% of respondents respectively acknowledged to have experience of the effects
of climate change on human health and livestock. Climate change is linked to death of livestock due toshortage of drinking water, pests and diseases; and drought causing poor pasture availability. Pests anddiseases were mentioned to have high effects on human health and livestock (Table 7).
Table 7: Effects of climate change on health and livestock

LushotoEffects

Frequency % response

Mpwapwa
Frequency% response

Poor pasture regeneration

34

17

17

9

Pests and diseases outbreaks

79

40

108

54

Food shortage

71

35

58

28

Death of livestock

16

8

17

9

Total

200

100

200

100

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 23

4.4.7
Effects of climate change on human healthIn the case study areas, respondents linked change in climate variability to have resulted into several
diseases. The diseases mentioned include skin, stomach, cancer, malaria, and malnutrition diseases. In
both case study areas, Malaria was indicated to be in the increase as reported by 44% of the respondents in
Lushoto and 53% of respondents in Mpwapwa districts (Tab. 8). Results from this study is supported byParry (1990), reported that the increase in temperature may extend the geographic range of some insect
pests currently limited by temperature to thrive in a particular area. Also FAO (2007) reported that, changing
temperatures and rainfall in drought prone areas are likely to shift populations of insect pests and othervector borne diseases in both human and crops.
Table 8: Human diseases linked to climate change

LushotoDiseaseMpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Skin diseases

17

8

7

4

Stomach diseases

54

27

36

18

Cancer

19

10

23

11

Malaria

87

44

106

53

Malnutrition

23

11

28

14

Total

200

100

200

100

4.4.8
Livestock diseases linked to climate variability
From the responses given by the representative of the communities interviewed in the two case study
areas, livestock are also affected by diseases that are said to have emerged due to climate variability. Suchdiseases according to the respondents are the following: Ndigana, East Coast fever, Anthrax, Rift valley
fever, Kono, Sotoka and Kideri. Ndigana and East Coast fever are the most diseases affecting livestock inboth areas agro-ecological zones (Tab.9).
The names given in a local language (Kono, Sotoka, Ndigana and Kideri) were not translated to common
names as the characteristics described by the respondents did not match the common names of these
diseases in the literature.

24 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Table 9: Livestock diseases linked to climate variability

LushotoMpwapwa

DiseaseFrequency% response

Frequency% response

Ndigana

54

26.8

55

28

East Coast fever

1

0.3

75

37

Anthrax (Kimeta)

25

12.7

52

26

Rift valley fever

2

0.9

18

9

Kono

52

26.0

0

0

Sotoka

17

8.8

0

0

Kideri

49

24.5

0

0

Total

200

100.0

200

100

4.4.9
Measures taken to reduce the impacts of human diseases linked to climate change
Due to the existence of diseases linked to climate change that affect human and livestock health, ruralcommunities have different measures of overcoming them. For human health, the indicated measures
include destruction of mosquito breeding sites, use of mosquito nets and use of traditional medicines(Tab.10).
Table 10: Measures taken to reduce impacts of human diseases linked withclimate change

LushotoMeasures taken

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Cleaning environment surrounding homes

86

43

41

20

Use of mosquito nets and Hospital Treatment

69

34.5

159

80

Traditional medicine

45

22.5

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 25

Due to the existence of livestock diseases in the study area, rural communities have developed different
strategies, some have been introduced in these areas and some are community based strategies. As
shown in Figure 9, majority of the respondents indicated that people in the case study areas use introduced
technologies as measures to combat livestock diseases associated with climate change. These measures
include vaccination and dipping.

Figure 9: Strategies employed to control livestock diseases.

26 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

5. Conclusions & Recommendations.

5.1.
Conclusions
As in most cases, communities are found to complain and link failure of their expectations to climate change
and climate variability in many areas of the developing countries, results from this study that are supportedby the data obtained from both the field and the literature, have indicated that there exists impacts of thesechanges and variability to the communities. These impacts have forced communities to device strategies toallow them survive in such changing environment. In the two agro-ecological zones where this study was
conducted, there exists a number of indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climatechange adaptation that are working better as a way to counteract to the impacts of climate change andclimate variability. Communities in the case study areas have changed their behavior due to the impacts ofclimate change and climate variability. Some of the changes are positive to the environment and should bescaled up to more people in other areas with similar conditions in Tanzania. It has been observed during thewhole course of the study and also reported by the community representative interviewed that, there exist
impacts of climate variability on food production and on health of farmers in the two agro-ecological zones
which forced communities to develop a number of short and long term adaptation strategies.
From the findings obtained in this study, to aid decision making on ensuring that the impacts of climatechange and climate variability is reduced to the communities, a framework (adapted from Descheemaeker,
et al 2009) with two entry points that should have a mutual interactions is recommended.
The first entry point of the framework is through strengthening local communities' effective copying
strategies that has been indicated to work better and that the communities in the respective agro-ecologicalsystems have indicated to work better. This will help in improving the resilience of the ecosystem towards
climate variability. Practices such as traditional terracing, destocking, tree planting, traditional food storage,
drilling of traditional wells and constriction and maintaining of traditional water reservoirs as well as crop
diversification will help the communities in different agro-ecological systems to cope with the impacts ofclimate variability and climate change and this will also reduce vulnerability to different societies in different
ecosystems.
The second entry point of the framework is on the interventions geared to influence policy and institutions
that are dealing either direct or indirectly with the impact of climate change and climate variability be
improved. Main issues such as providing evidence based scenarios of the impact of climate change to thepolicy makers, developing a harmonized unit to work on issues related to climate change, lobbying forincreased budget to the climate change impacted sectors, i.e. agriculture, forestry and health, enhancing
Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 27

awareness creation to the societies, stabilizing and lowering the prices of alternative energy sources,
provision of alternative income generation to the communities in different agro-ecological zones, exploring
current opportunities such as the Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and carbon market through theReduced Emission from Degradation and Deforestation (REDD) will help communities in different agroecological systems to reduce degradation hence improving the quality of ecosystems which will have
impacts to the reduced impacts of climate change to the livelihoods of the communities in different agroecological zones of the country.
5.2
>
>

>

>

>

Policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at local and national
levelsIntegration of indigenous technologies that communities in the respective areas are applying in different
local plans and national developmental plans.
Formation of a platform for different stakeholders dealing with issues related to climate change tofacilitate wider circulation of the effective technologies that farmers and livestock keepers haveindicated to work better. Moreover, the platform will also assist in lobbying for more research to improvethe effective traditional technologies and integrate them with the modern technologies that will help
farmers and livestock keepers cope with the impact of climate change and climate variability in different
ecosystems in the country.
Local institutions should be strengthened or formed where such institutions are not available to workwith farmers in the respective agro-ecological zones to build capacity to farmers and livestock keeper todevelop robust are resilient strategies that will help the respective communities towards coping with theimpacts of climate change in the country.
Developing suitable alternative income generating activities in these communities in order for thecommunity members to cope with the impacts of climate variability and climate change in therespective agro-ecological zones.
At the national level, there has to be special efforts to develop a systematic longer term climate change
adaptation strategies that should be integrated in the national plans that will help the state to help its
people to cope with the impacts of climate change and climate variability.

28 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

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