Chapter One
Introduction
Industrialization in Lesotho has increased exports from the country and has generated considerable
employment for the Basotho people. The government and the private sector have set up several wet
industries (using more than 2000 cu m of water per day) that generate large amounts of wastewater
discharges. Some of this wastewater is discharged either treated or untreated into the environment.
This study aims to investigate the extent and impacts of water pollution by industries on water quality
and health and livelihoods of communities living near the contaminated waterways.
Chakela Q.K (1999) and Mokuku et al (2002) and the National Environment Secretariat (2005)
address the problem of effluents ensuing from the wet industries in Maseru being discharged into
water ways. A study conducted by Pasco Waste & Environmental Consulting in 2005 found ‘highlevels of salts as well as colouring in the water’ (industrial wastewater in Maseru). However, this study
was based on once off sampling of wastewater only.
This research studied the water quality in the three industrialised areas of Lesotho, namely Thetsane
in Maseru district, Ha Nyenye in Leribe district and Mafeteng in Mafeteng district. The effects ofwater pollution on communities living near the waterways were also studied. Areas for further research
have been identified and recommendations made to prevent water pollution.

1.1

Research Problem

AGOA and other incentives have increased industrial investment in Lesotho. However, effluents fromthese industries are released (sometimes untreated) into waterways causing water pollution. Despite
the ensuing pollution, not much has been done to study its impacts on water quality, health andlivelihoods of communities living near the contaminated waterways. This study aims to address thisresearch gap.

1.2

Objectives

The specific objectives of the research were as follows:
1.
To study the water usage pattern of the community near the polluted waterways with anintention of finding the effect of water pollution by industries on the livelihoods and health ofcommunity.

1

2

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 48

2.

To gather data about the state of water quality in industrialised areas of Lesotho and tocompare them with South African standards, in order to know the extent of pollution.
To make recommendations based on findings for measures to prevent water pollution byindustries.

3.

1.3

Research Methodology

The Study Area

Figure 1:

Map of Lesotho showing study areas Maseru, Mafeteng, Ha Nyenye and Butha Buthe

The study covered the industrialized areas of Lesotho, namely Ha Thetsane industrial estate in
Maseru, Ha Nyenye industrial estate in Leribe District and Mafeteng in Mafeteng district. Butha
Buthe which does not have wet industries was taken as a control point. A combination of deskstudies, experimental techniques, focus group discussions and survey methodology were used incollecting both primary and secondary data relevant to this research.
Secondary Research
Secondary research was conducted by reviewing and studying several published and unpublishedliterature and documents, from Lesotho, the region and the world at large. Relevant maps wereWATER POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIES IN LESOTHO

3purchased to identify survey sites. Previous research work in the area was also scrutinized and effort
was taken to seek recent literature.
Socio economic survey
A reconnaissance survey was first carried out in the three study areas namely Ha Thetsane, Ha
Nyenye and Mafeteng for the research team to have an overview of the types of waterways affected byindustrial pollution. A total of 96 respondents were chosen from all the three areas which included
the chiefs and community health workers. Purposive sampling was used to select the respondents.
The questionnaire was designed by the Principal Researcher in consultation with the Research
Assistants. The survey was conducted by research assistants after permission from community
Chiefs. The survey was conducted during the day when the community was observed using thewater. The analysis of data used simple frequency tables and charts and some of the questions
elicited qualitative responses.
Laboratory testing of water samples
Water samples in the waterways both upstream and downstream of the industries were tested in thelaboratory of Department of Water Affairs (DWA) to find out the extent of pollution. Water quality of twocontrol points were taken for comparison, namely Hololo stream in Butha Buthe and Thaba Pechelo
spring in Mafeteng. These water bodies were not affected by industries. Random water samples
were collected for a period of four months from December 2005 and were passed on to the laboratory
at Department of Water Affairs for testing. A minimum of five subsurface grab samples per waterway
were collected from the sampling points. Samples were collected using one litre polyethylene
bottles, mid-stream while avoiding air bubbles getting inside the bottles. All the sampling bottles
were thoroughly washed with water, and rewashed with distilled water before sampling. Someparameters were tested on site using portable water testing equipments, while others were tested in
the laboratory. The DWA laboratory used standard HACH® (1999) procedures of analysis for theparameters tested in their laboratory. For the control water bodies, data was already available from
DWA database of ongoing monitoring. Further, all the water quality data was plotted against South
African standards for comparison.
Discussions with stakeholders
Focus group discussions and interviews were held with officials from relevant institutions. Somevaluable insights were gained from these discussions, which facilitated making recommendations.
The participants for focus group discussions were from:
1. Commission of Water
2. Water And Sewerage Authority
3. National Environment Secretariat
4. Ground Water Consultants
5. Department of Water Affairs
6. Lerotholi Polytechnic
7. Maseru City Council

Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1

AGOA and its impacts

One current asset for Lesotho is the African Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA). Under AGOA,Lesotho and other African countries have been given zero-tariff access to the American market on awide range of export items. This has had an impact on the textile and garment industry that plays a
key role in making use of Lesotho’s main resource – cheap labour. In 2000, exports of clothing to theUnited States were just over US$140 million. They rose sharply to just over US$215 million in 2001
when AGOA was launched in Lesotho. (The Courier, 2002, P 73)
Lesotho's AGOA Exports to the US (million US$)
500.0
450.0
400.0
350.0
300.0
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0

466.9
403.6

393.1

355.5

321.9
215.3
110.8

1999

140.3

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Year

Figure 1:

Lesotho’s AGOA exports to the US 1

Exports from Lesotho to the US have increased notably since 2001, when AGOA was introduced in
the country. According to Bureau of Statistics (Manufacturing in Lesotho, Statistical report, 2005)
number of people employed in manufacture of textiles and clothing (mostly AGOA industries)
increased from 13,133 in year 2000 to 31,292 in 2004. Currently, the number of jobs in the textile andgarment industry is 47,000.( SADC Today, 2006, P 7)

1

Source: AGOA.info accessed on 2 Feb 2007
Note: AGOA was introduced in 2001 in Lesotho. Export data for 2006 was only available from January to November 2006

4

WATER POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIES IN LESOTHO

5

Although industrialization due to AGOA may be regarded a success story in terms of employment
generation for Lesotho, water pollution that has ensued as a result could hardly be a victory.
The broad intention of AGOA is to create sustainable, long term development in Africa by “transforming
the economic landscape… stimulating new trading opportunities for business.. bringing hundredsof millions of dollars of much needed investment into the region.” Under AGOA, Lesotho has become
the largest apparel exporter in Africa to the US. But the long term sustainability of the investment thatAGOA has brought in is questionable. Lesotho’s capital, Maseru where most of the investment has
been introduced, now faces a double challenge to survival and growth:
1. Water is running out. There is barely enough water to supply the industries and people in
Maseru as it stands. Without reform of water policy, growth will be limited.
2. Waste water from various factories is not being adequately treated, therefore producing
levels of pollution that “is against all norms and will become illegal in Lesotho” (Andrew
Gibbs and Tim Gibbs, 2003, P 3)
Gibbs concludes in his article that “Without sustained collective action in the area of water supply
and pollution, it is likely that the AGOA initiative will just perpetuate a footloose pattern of investment
by an international textile industry rather than provide an opportunity for sustained investment andgrowth that lies at the heart of the AGOA vision.” (Gibbs et al, 2003, P 10)

2.2

Disposal of industrial wastewater

In his article, “A Water Supply and Pollution Crisis in Lesotho’s Textile Factories: The Problems ofFootloose Investment”, Gibbs and Gibbs discuss the ineffectiveness of the disposal of waste watercoming from the factories.
“From the factories, wastewater goes three ways. Some is fed into the sewage system to thegovernment run Ratjomose Waste Water Treatment Works (RWWTW). This is designed to copewith normal sewage and brewery effluence (effluents), not effluence (effluents) produced by textile
factories. Other effluence (effluents) goes into factory owned sitting tanks (also called oxidation
tanks), before moving on. More still is put directly into a stream (Mosenyathe). All three processes failto treat the effluence (effluents) effectively which then feeds into the Caledon River. The Caledon
River then follows the Lesotho/South Africa border, before heading into South Africa, in the Orange
Free State.” (Gibbs et al, 2003, P 5)
“Due to the burgeoning population, peri-urban settlements have sprung up throughout Maseru.
Much of this new influx have taken land near the textile industries that we are looking at. At thepresent moment, effluence (effluents) from the factories is passing through the settlements untreated.
Due to the lack of space residents are forced to graze animals in land which is periodically flooded
by these streams, when fibres from the factories build up in them. Residents are forced to unblock
the streams of these fibres by hand to stop the flooding.” (Gibbs et al, 2003, P 6)

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 48

6“Effluent is discharged without treatment into the Caledon. This has led to the Caledon being one of
the most turbid rivers in Southern Africa (readings are in excess of 14 000 NTU). And the current
textiles investment is likely to increase by 20% the proportion of sediment and sludge in the river. Thisis against treaty conventions made with South Africa.” (Gibbs et al, 2003, P 6)
A study funded by Department for International Development was commissioned to understand the
Lesotho garment industry in 2002. The report found lack of treatment facilities for waste water to be
one of the constraints for further development of the garment industry. “The principal environmental
impacts associated with the Garment sector in Lesotho are that of over consumption of water andthe discharging of untreated toxic effluents into watercourses against local legal requirements. The
toxic effluent action poses a serious risk to the industries in this sector as it could result in boycotts of
their products if this knowledge becomes widely known to their consumers.” (Andrew Salm, William
J. Grant, Thuso J. Green, John R. Haycock,Dr. John Raimondo, 2002, P 37).

2.3

Towards cleaner and greener industries

It has been argued that establishment of policies and legislations have been ineffective in controlling
pollution. There is need to provide incentives for industries to develop a culture of environmental
compliance. “The success of environmental regulations also depends on a culture of compliancethat is a result of a country’s legal traditions, the maturity of its institutions, the available resources,
and the capacity and support of citizens and the private sector. Compliance does not automatically
happen when requirements are legislated and issued; rather, it is achieved as a result of targeted
efforts that encourage behavioural changes on the part of polluters.” (Pollution Prevention and
Abatement Handbook, 1998, P 120)
Some methods for encouraging environmental compliance have been elucidated in the Pollution
Prevention and Abatement Handbook (1998, P 120-122) as; preparation of pollution inventories,
dissemination of environmental information of enterprises, conduct studies on cleaner production
techniques etc.
Mainstreaming environmental concerns is the way to sustainable development, as mentioned in thesame publication; “the challenge is to find ways to integrate pollution prevention and abatement into
the ways that cities are run, enterprises are managed, and people lead their daily lives.” (P 10)
Communities can put pressure on enterprises and governments to encourage cleaner and greener
production. Niamh Garvey and Peter Newell in their article “Corporate accountability to the poor?
Assessing the effectiveness of community-based strategies”( Development in Practice, Volume 15,
Numbers 3 & 4, June 2005, P 396) cites one such example. “Residents of Yellow Creek in the US
state of Kentucky suspected that Middlesboro Tanning Company was polluting a local river, thereby
affecting their health. The residents carried out their own health survey, which served to draw publicWATER POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIES IN LESOTHO

7

attention to the issue. The survey also provided the community with information it had not had before,
providing a potential platform for future campaigning.”
A study by Vinish Kathuria in the Journal of Ecological Economics, (Informal regulation of pollution ina developing country: Evidence from India, 2006) talks about how “the press can function as an
informal regulator if there is sustained interest in news about pollution.”(P1). “However, the effect of
informal regulation on polluting behaviour is not immediate. Only sustained publicity about polluting
activities of industrial units appears to lead to a significant fall in pollution generation.” The author
explains, “Our analysis suggests that lobbying efforts through the media by environmental activists
and NGOs may be quite effective in influencing industry behaviour.”(P 13)

Chapter Three
Research Results and Discussion
Secondary research revealed different sources of water pollution in Lesotho including from industrial
wastewater. According to the State of Environment Report (2002), the possible sources of surface
water pollution in Lesotho are:
1. Urban storm water drainage system,
2. Overflowing septic tanks and broken sewage reticulation system,
3. Industries such as canneries, pharmaceutical companies, brewing, ice cream factories,
flour mills and clothing manufacturers,
4. Dipping and spraying free-range livestock using insecticides
5. High sediment yield from the watershed and6. Slurry from mining activities
The possible sources of pollution for underground water in Lesotho are:
1. Leaching of substances – pesticides, herbicides, organo-phosphates into the water table.
2. Filtering through of latrine water,
3. Leaching from landfill sites.
4. Uncontrolled urban drainage systems and5. Possible leachates from cemeteries.
(Second Sate of Environment Report, 2002)
This study focuses on water pollution in industrial areas only, most of the industries there came to
Lesotho due to AGOA and other incentives. Lesotho became eligible for AGOA in 2001. The country
needs to have met certain criteria for becoming eligible under AGOA. Countries need to “haveestablished, or are making continual progress toward establishing the following: market-based
economies; the rule of law and political pluralism; elimination of barriers to U.S. trade and investment;
protection of intellectual property; efforts to combat corruption; policies to reduce poverty, increasing
availability of health care and educational opportunities; protection of human rights and worker
rights; and elimination of certain child labour practices”. (www.AGOA.info, 2005)
However, environmental protection is not mentioned as a mandatory requirement under this act forindustries.

8

WATER POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIES IN LESOTHO

3.1

9

Socio Economic Survey Data and Analysis

The Socio Economic Survey was conducted at Ha Thetsane, Ha Nyenye and Mafeteng during themonths of August and September 2005. Most of the people surveyed were of lower income category
and a sample size of ninety six in total was taken using purposive sampling. The questionnaire
included questions pertaining to water usage pattern and effect of pollution on health and livelihoodsof communities living near the contaminated waterways. Table 1 describes the Socio Economic
Characteristics of the people surveyed.
Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics

Min

Mean

Age
Max

Sd

N

Ha Thetsane 18
Mafeteng
18
Ha Nyenye 18

35.65
32.93
34.90

70
6
56

14.82
15.00
12.03

32
32
32

Study Area

< M500
M2000
19
26
27

%

IncomeM500- %

60
81
84

13
6
5

>
M2000
0
0
0

40
19
16

Min = minimum; Mean = average, Max = maximum, Sd = Standard deviation; N = sample size

When asked about the water usage pattern of the community, their responses were as given in Table
2. Although the communities surveyed do not use water from the sources for drinking or cooking, they
indicated that if the water was cleaner they would like to use it for drinking and cooking. Presently,
they have to purchase water from public taps for drinking and cooking purposes.
Table 2: Uses of water from the waterbodies
Location

Drinking/ Bathing/
Cooking Swimming
No % No %Ha Thetsane 0
0% 2
6%Mafeteng 0
0% 0
0%Ha Nyenye 0
0% 1
3%
Total
0
3

Washing
No
12
17
14
43

Livestock

% No
38% 4
53% 6
44% 2
12

Building

%
No
13% 1
19% 0
6% 2
3

%
3%
0%
6%

CarwashIrrigation

No
0
1
2
3

No
0
0
4
4

%
0%
3%
6%

Fishing

%
No
0% 0
3% 0
13% 4
4

Do not use% No
0 % 17
0 % 1413% 8
39The community was asked about what they found offensive about the waterways and their
responses were tabulated under Table 3.

%
53%
44%
25%

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 48

10

Table 3: Public Perception of water quality impacts
Odour
Study area
Ha Thetsane
Mafeteng
Ha Nyenye
Total

No
24
16
21
61

Colour
%
75%
50%
68%

No
23
0
8
31

%
72%
0%
26%

Suspended
solids
No
%
11
35%
31
100%
5
16%
47

sewage
No
9
4
17
30

%
28%
15%
55%

Community reported increased livestock mortality, increased skin irritations, increased staining ofclothes and increased fish mortality after using the waterways subsequent to the arrival of industries.
25.3% households stopped using water from these sources due to pollution. They are now forced tobuy water from public standpipes spending about M30 ($5) per month and taking between 10 to 30
minutes everyday to fetch the water. It must be emphasised here that those who cannot afford to buy
water are forced to consume the waterways under study.

3.2

Water Quality Analysis

Water samples were collected at random during different times of the day from waterways at thethree industrialised areas, Thetsane, Mafeteng and Ha Nyenye over a period of four months beginning
December 2005. Data of water quality at Hololo stream, Butha Buthe and Thaba Pechelo spring,
Mafeteng were obtained from Department of Water Affairs. The department has been monitoringthese water sources as part of their ongoing monitoring of freshwater quality across the country.
Table 4 below indicates the location of the sampling points with regard to their proximity fromindustries.
Table 4: Location of sampling points
No.

Location

1
2
3
4

Name and type ofwater body
Kelekeqe Stream
Kelekeqe stream
Mohokare, river
Mohokare river

5
6
7
8

Khohlo ea Masiu spring
Thaba Pechela spring
Moselinyane, Dam
Hololo stream

Mafeteng
Mafeteng
Ha Nyenye
Butha Buthe

Ha Thetsane
Ha thetsane
Ha thetsane
Ha Ratjommose

Location fromindustry
Upstream
Downstream
Upstream
Downstream leading
to South Africa
Downstream
No industries nearby
Opposite factories
No industries nearby

Affected by pollution
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No (Control)Yes
No (Control)

The water quality of upstream water samples were compared with downstream samples. Statisticalanalysis ( t - test for significance) was done to find out the parameters which had increased significantly
from upstream values. The results of this statistical test are given in Table 5.

WATER POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIES IN LESOTHO

11

Table 5: Upstream and Downstream impacts
Parameters

Conductivity
Chromium(VI)
CopperNitrates
pH
TDS
Aluminium
Calcium
Chloride
Iron
Manganese
Phosphates
Sulphates
Suspended
SolidsHardness
Turbidity

Upstream

Downstream

Impact of Test ofIndustries meandifference

MeanMedian

Stdev

Mean

MedianStdev(% change T-statin quality)

409.72
0.02

372.5
0.015

93.27
0.005

855.84
0.125

740.5
0.01

245.720.015

117.07668.02

2.94**
12.61***

0.485
3.845
6.36
196.77
1.175
107
0.455
21.565
0.59
0.355
30
15.75

0.315
3.875
6.825
180
1.175
110.5
0.305
19.015
0.175
0.265
28.5
8.25

0.445
3.545
1.625
40.82
1.625
37.8750.53
25.2250.955
0.285
26.40520.875

0.32
3.66
7.245
526.670.945
156.17
0.09
41.29
0.39
1.315
53.12544.875

0.125
3.45
7.01
539.5
0.945
160.5
0.09
48.495
0.295
1.525
60.5
57.5

0.31
3.445
0.805
54.3951.335
14.495
0.085
31.53
0.465
0.725
34.025
29.81

77.58
-4.71
24.89
172.74-59.3560.65-13.11
4.09
286.99307.61
245.69182.27

0.69
0.09
1.09
8.40***
0.15
2.1**
1.35
0.97
0.37
2.43**
1.07
1.6

112.2512.27

90
11.27567.8956.43

135.5
124.64142116.0143.21
105.6841.69
1036.55

0.57
2.12**

Significant at 10% p value ** Significant at 5% p value, *** Significant at 1% p value

It is clear that Chromium (IV) , TDS, Conductivity, Calcium, Phosphates and turbidity have increased
significantly in downstream water samples. When t test was done to find significant differences inwater quality of all treatment samples compared with all control samples, many parameters were
found to have significantly increased, such as Copper, Nitrates, TDS, Calcium, Hardness, Turbidity,
conductivity, phosphates and suspended solids. (Refer to Table 6)

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 48

12

Table 6:

Control vs treatment impacts

Parameters

Control

Conductivity
Chromium
CopperNitrates
pH
TDS
Aluminium
Calcium
Chloride
Iron
Manganese
Phosphates
Sulphates
Suspended
SolidsHardness
Turbidity

Treatment

Impact of Test of mean
Industries difference(% change T-statin quality)

Mean

Median

Stdev

Mean

MedianStdev

169.84
0.005
0.02
0.895
7.26
83.875
0.275
43
0.3
0.465
0.915
0.565
19.5
7.875

141.225
0.005
0.015
0.67
7.01
83.2
0.275
39.5
0.125
0.48
0.325
0.625
19
6

89.415
0.005
0.015
0.685
0.415
2.28
0.21
14.08
0.41
0.315
1.42
0.31
6.055
7.995

322.165
0.065
1.145
9.575
7.54
135.5650.155
126.665
0.605
0.59
0.095
1.01
16.37566.75

338.325
0.075
1.175
8.77
7.875
141
0.155
105
0.705
0.7
0.085
1.1
16.75
46.75

116.87
0.05
0.19
5.085
1.065
16.82
0.31
41.485
0.37
0.36
0.085
0.53
6.92
75.65

108.391326.6712990
1520.71
4.01
61.19-17.21
196.14424.58126.8-17.77250.03-11.874961.55

2.07**
2.48***
11.88***
3.38***
0.54
5.26***
0.79
3.30***
1.09
0.52
1.15
1.44*
0.67
1.55*

63
6.75

64.75
5.75

14.3
7.51

99
106.005

105.7577.885

19.77
64.14

58.55
6998.48

2.95***
3.07**** Significant at 10% p value, ** Significant at 5% p value, *** Significant at 1% p value

From Table 5 and Table 6 it is evident that water quality has worsened when upstream water quality
is compared to downstream and when control compared with treatment, indicative of the effects ofindustrial effluents being released into them. Water quality was further compared with South African
water quality guidelines for fitness of use for livestock, irrigation, domestic and recreational use; thefindings were as shown in Table 7.

WATER POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIES IN LESOTHO

13

Table 7: Fitness of water for the above uses in the waterways sampled
Parameters

All control
samplesmean

All treatment Livestock
samples(L)
mean
Standard

Irrigation(I)
Standard

Domestic(D)
Standard

Aluminium(mg/l)
Calcium(mg/l)
Chloride(mg/l)
Chromium IV(mg/l)
Conductivity(µs/cm)Copper(mg/l)
Iron (mg/l)
Manganese(mg/l)
Nitrates(mg/l)
pH
Hardness
Phosphates
Sulphates(mg/l)
Suspended
Solids (mg/l)
TDS (mg/l)
Turbidity
(NTU)

0.725

0.55

d” 5.0d” 0.15DD

75

141.4175 d” 1000

d” 32

D

D

0.37750.3475d” 1500d” 100d” 1000.01250.1

d” 1

d” 0.1d” 0.05

I,D

289.78589.00d” 400d” 700

L ,I

0.25

0.73

d” 0.5d” 0.2

d” 1

I

L, I

11.0150.752520.94
0.2425

d” 10
d” 10

d” 0.2d” 0.02d” 0.1d” 0.05

L,I,D
I, D

L,I,D
I, D

2.37

6.6175d” 100

d” 5

d” 6

6.81
87.6250.46
24.75

7.3925117.25
1.162534.75

6.5 - 8.5

6.5 - 8.4

6–9
50-1000.02
d” 20011.812555.8125d” 50

140.3225 331.1175 d” 1000
9.51
115.3225d” 260d” 5d” 1000

Recreation Control
Impact of(R)(standards Industries
Standard
exceeded) Treatment

D, I
6.5 - 8.5
D
D

D
D,

I

d” 1

d” 5

D,R

I
D,R

Control water quality has exceeded international standards in some parameters, however water
quality of treatment samples showed parameters in excess of more standards and worsening theparameters which had already exceeded standards.Thus making the water unfit for certain uses.
Table 8 illustrates the possible impacts of using the water for livestock, irrigation, domestic andrecreational uses, when the parameters exceed standards for fitness of use (due to industrial effluents).

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 48

14

Table 8: Effects of parameters worsening on water use for livestock, irrigation, domestic andrecreational uses 2
Parameters
exceedingstandards due
to industrial
pollution

Possible negative effects due to standards exceeding

Livestock use
Conductivity – L,I Palatability

Chromium IV– I ,D

Irrigation use
Reduction in crop yield water
evaporates it leaves an impermeable
crusty layer on the soil this leads tooverall soil structure damage
Yellowing of leaves
Crop yield affected by crop sensitivity
to chromium uptake through plant roots
Crop quality as determined bychromium toxicity to consumers

Copper – I, L

Diarrhoea, liver
damageGastrointestinal
irritation, nausea

Methaemoglobinemia
Palatability
Gastroenteritis
Irritation of mucous membrane

Suspended Solids

Clogging of drip irrigation emitters
Crop yield affected (suspended
solids reduce photosynhetic activity,
marketability affected due to deposits)
Reduction in infiltration rate or
seedling emergence due to soil
surface crust deposition
Clarity of water

Hardness – D
Calcium- D

2

Carcinogenic Skin irritation,
chrome ulcers
retarded foetal development
and embryo- and foetotoxic
effects including reduced foetal
weight, reduced number offoetuses (live and dead) , andhigher incidences of stillbirths

Crop yield affected
Copper toxicity in plant species

Nitrates - D

Iron- L,I,D,R

Domestic and recreational use

Liver andpancreas damage,Diarrhoea,
Toxicity fromhigh concentrations

Crop yield affected by iron deposits
Iron precipitation clogs irrigationequipment(source: South African Water Quality Guidelines,1996)
D – Domestic use, L – Livestock watering, I – irrigation use, R – Recreational use

Lathering of soap, Palatability,
Scaling
Palatability, Scaling problems,
Lathering of soap
Palatability
Slimy coatings –plumbing

WATER POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIES IN LESOTHO
Manganese

Livestock–lethargy,
decreased feedintake, Loss ofcoordination,
diarrhoea

Phosphorous –D

15
Staining, palatability

kidney damage and osteoporosis

The water quality analysis clearly indicates significant worsening of parameters downstream ofindustries and in treatment samples as compared to upstream and control water samples. This canbe inferred to the effects of industrial effluents being released into the environment and the water
bodies.

3.3

Areas of further research

The major limitation of this research has been that it focussed only on the chemical characteristics
of water quality. Chemical monitoring only gives the water quality at that moment in time, however
biological monitoring gives conditions over an extended period of time.
The following areas have been identified for further research
1.
Ongoing Environmental Monitoring: the type of effluents being released into the waterways
differ on a day to day basis depending on the type of orders of clothing the industries process. Hence
there is need for ongoing monitoring, especially due to current lack of proper datasets. Monitoring ofpollution may include parameters not covered in this research which are:
• Biological monitoring• Toxic components such as arsenic, lead, cadmium and other heavy metals.
• Fertilizers and pesticides• COD, BOD• Faecal coliform count2.
Groundwater quality assessment in industrialized areas: Industrial and agricultural chemicals
and organic pollutants are significant sources of groundwater pollution, which is an area of further
research
3.
Epidemiological studies that examine effects of pollution on human health. Relationshipbetween long-term exposure to contaminated water and incidence of cancer , skin ailments andother diseases may be looked into. Follow up studies on health impacts of pollution need to done onpriority considering the possible implications of some of the pollutants (especially ones which arecarcinogenic).
4.
Cost-benefit analysis of industrialization versus environmental degradation and negative
impact on health and livelihoods.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 48

16

3.4

Limitations of study

This study has the following limitations
1. Chemical analysis of water quality was done, however biological analysis was not done.
Chemical analysis gives the status of the water at that point in time, but biological monitoring
gives the status of water over a period of time and is a better indicator of extent of pollution
2. Exact economic implications of pollution for the community and the country at large were
not done. Only the cost of purchasing additional water was recorded.
3. Sample size of water samples was limited due to budgetary and time constraints. Water
samples were taken after the rains.

Chapter Four
Conclusions and Recommendations
It may be concluded that water quality in the waterways of Lesotho have been affected by industrial
effluents being released into them. Community members of lower income category living near thesewaterways have been affected by the pollution and it has altered their water usage pattern as well as
livelihoods for some. Water quality analysis has found some parameters in excess of international
standards which may have negative effects if used for livestock, irrigation, domestic use andrecreational use.
It is recommended that development Acts such as AGOA should integrate environmental complianceas a mandatory requirement when industries come to host countries such as Lesotho.
It is further recommended that industries with pollution mitigation measures, be given incentives fortheir efforts for cleaner and greener production.
Health impacts of pollution has been identified as a follow up study to this research which needs tobe conducted as a matter of priority.

17

Acknowledgment

This paper is based on research carried out under the auspices of the African Technology Policy
Studies Network’s (ATPS) Water and Environment Programme funded by the Royal Dutch Government– Activity no: 10385-DCO0020791. The authors thank Dr. Kevin Chika Urama of the Macaulay
Institute, Aberdeen, UK for his contributions to the study in his capacity as the ATPS Lead Resource
Person for the W&E programme. His review comments and support during the writing-up stages ofthe project is appreciated. The authors also thank the ATPS Communications and Outreach
Department for their editorial support.

18

References

Chakela, Q.K.(Ed) The State of the Environment in Lesotho 1997, 1999, National Environment
Secretariat, Lesotho,P 138.
Garvey, N., Newell, P., Corporate accountability to the poor? Assessing the effectiveness of communitybased strategies, Development in Practice, Volume 15, Numbers 3 & 4, 2005, P 396.
Gibbs, A., Gibbs, T., A Water Supply and Pollution Crisis in Lesotho’s Textile Factories: The Problemsof Footloose Investment, University of Natal, South Africa, 2003,P 3-10.
Kathuria Vinish, Informal regulation of pollution in a developing country: Evidence from India, Journalof Ecological Economics, 2006.
Lesotho Government Online, cited from SADC Today, Vol. 9, No.3, August 2006, P 7.
Manufacturing in Lesotho, Statistical report, Bureau of Statistics, Lesotho, 2005, P 6.
Mokuku, C., Lepono, T., Mokhothu, M., Khasipe, T., Mokuku, T., Second State of the Environment
Report, National Environmnt Secretariat, 2002, Lesotho.
National Environment Secretariat. Maseru City Environment Outlook Report for 2005. 2005. National
Environment Secratariat.Lesotho. P 61.
Pasco Waste & Environmental Consulting, Feasibility Study on Waste Management in Lesotho withrespect to the Textile Industries in the Thetsane Industrial Estate, Lesotho National Development
Corporation, 2005, P 101.
Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, 1998 : towards cleaner production, World Bank
Group, 1998, P 120.
Salm, A., Grant, W.J., Green, T.J., Haycock, J.R. and Raimondo, J, Lesotho Garment Industry
Subsector Study for the Government of Lesotho DFID: London, 2002, P 37.
South African Water Quality guidelines, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Volumes 1,3,4 and
5, South Africa, 1996.
The Courier, No.194, European Commission, Brussels, September- October 2002, P 73.
www.AGOA.info, accessed 12 june 2005 and 2 feb 2007.

19

Deepa Pullanikatil is a lecturer at Lerotholi Polytechnic, Maseru, Lesotho.

ATPS Working Paper SeriesATPS Working Paper Series
No.
1
2
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
22
23
24
25
26
27

Title and Author(s) of Publication
The Effect of Economic Reform on Technological Capability by T. Adeboye, M. S. D. Bafachwa, O. A.
BamiroMethodological Issues in Science and Technology Policy Research by T. Adeboye, N. Clark
Rehabilitation in the Manufacturing Sector in Tanzania by S. M. Wangwe
Agricultural Policy and Technology in Sierra Leone by C. Squire
Effectiveness of Agricultural Research Extension in Sierra Leone by A. K. Lakoh
Generation and Utilization of Industrial Innovation in Nigeria by O. Oyeyinka, G. O. A. Laditan, A. O.
Esubiyi
Irrigation in the Tuli Block, Botswana Water Conservation Techniques of Optimal Strategies by I. N.
MasondeEndogenous Technology Capacity and Capability under Conditions of Economic Policies of Stabilizationand Structural Adjustment by S. E. Chambua
Technology and Female-Owned Business in the Urban Informal Sector of South-West Nigeria by R. O.
SoetanTechnology Innovations Used to Overcome the Problem of Resource Scarcity in Small Scale Enterprises
by C. W. Ngahu
Financing of Science and Technology Institutions in Kenya during Periods of Structural Adjustment by M.
Mwamadzingo
Impact of Economic Liberization on Technologies in Enterprises Processing Agricultural Produce by P.
MadayaTechnology and Institutions for Private Small and Medium Firms by B. Oyeyinka
Institutiona Reform, Price Deregulation and Technological Change in Smallholder Agriculture by E. C.
Eboh
Adoption of Agricultural Technologies by Rural Women under the Women-in-Agriculture Program in
Nigeriaby D. S. Ugwu
Electrical Power Utilities and Technological Capacity Building in Sub-Saharan Africa by Brew-Hammond
Investigation into Factors that Influence the Diffusion and Adoption of Intentions and Innovations from
Research Institutes and Universities in Kenya by Bwisa, H. M. and A. Gacuhi
The effects of Economic Reforms on the Quality on the Quality of Technological Manpower Development
in Nigeria by H. E. Nnebe
Issues in Yam Minisett Technology Transfer to Farmer in Southern Nigeria by Michael C. Madukwe,
Damain Ayichi, Ernest C. Okoli
Technological Response to Telecommunication Development: A Study of Firms and Institutions in Nigeria
by Adeyinka F. Modupe
Technological Respone to Telecommunication Development: A Study of Firms and Instituions in Nigeria by
Adeyinka F. Modupe
Gender Differences in Small Scale Rice Farmers’ Access to Technological Inputs in Enugu State of Nigeria
by David Nwoye Ezeh
Adoption of Sustainable Palm Oil Mini-Processing Technology in Nigeria by Nkechi Mbanefoh
Domestic Energy Situation in Nigeria: Technological Implications and Policy Alternatives by Olabisi I. Aina
Technological Capability in the Nigerian Leather Industry: A Firm-Level Case Study by Uka Enenwe,Enwere Dike, Anthony Ihuoma, Mike Duru
Agricultural Research and Delivery in the South-Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia: A Case Study of the SG-

28
29
30
31
32
33
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.
42.
43.

44.

45.
46.
47.

2000 Approach in Hitosa District by G. Yiemene
Impact of Computer Technology Adoption on Banking Operations in Nigeria by A. I. Odebiyi
Agricultural Technology Adoption on Small-Holder Farmers: Policy Policy Options for Nigeria byJ. O. Olusi
Donor Funding and Sustainability of Rural Water Supply andSanitation Technologies in Swaziland by U. AjaOkorie and Aja Okorie, M. Mabuza
Promotion of Production and Utilization of Ceramic Roofing Materials in the Informal Housing Industry in Sierra
Leone by Tamba Jamiru
Technology Transfer and Acquisition in the Oil Sector and Government Policy in Nigeria by R.I.Chima, E.A.,
Owioduoki,R.I. Ogoh
Acquisition of Technological Capability in Africa: A Case Study of Indigenous Building Materials Firms in
Nigeria by Yomi Oruwari, Margaret Jev,Opuene Owei
Analysis of Indigenous Knowledge in Swaziland: Implications for Sustainable Agricultural Development byMusa A. Dube, Patricia Musi
Analysis and Comparison of the Agricultural Development Programme and University Agricultural Technol
ogy Transfer Systems in Nigeria by M.C. Madukwe, E.C. Okoli, S.O. Eze
Extension Services and Enterprise Development: Study of Technology Extension Services to Small nd
Medium Size Manufacturing Firms in by Frederick U. Ngesa, Justus M., Ombati, Milcah Mutuku
Women and Engineering in Nigeria: Towards Improved Policy Initiatives and Increased Female Participation
by A.J. Badekale
The Gender Variable in Agricultural Technology: A Case of Rural Farmers in Machakos District-Eastern
Kenya by Esther Njiro
The Impact of Information Technology on the Nigerian Economy: A Study of Manufacturing and Services
Sectors in the South Western and South Eastern Zones of Nigeria by David Ola Kajogbola
Socio-Economic Consequences of Technological Change on the Rural Non-Farm Igbo Women Entrepren
eurs of South-Eastern Nigeria: Implications for Farm and Non-Farm Linkages by Jonathan O. Alimba,
Justina, Uzoma Mgbada
The Role of Development Financial Institutions in the Acquisition of Technological Capabilities by Small andMedium Enterprises in Kenya by G.S. Namusonge
Engineering Education for Industrial Development: Case Studies of Nigeria, Ghana and Zimbabwe
by A.A. Afonja, K. Sraku-Lartey and S.A. Oni
Socio-Economic and Environmental Consequences of Agricultural Technology: A Comparative Study of
Small Scale Surface Irrigation Technology in Nigeria and Swaziland by Kevin Urama and EmmanuelMwendera
An Assessment of the Effects of Technology Transfer on Gender Roles within a Community: the development
tea and coffee production among smallholder farmers in Kiambu District, central province Kenya by Winifred
N. Karugu
Assessment of Community Water and Sanitation in Ghana by Roseemma Mamaa Entsua-Mensah, George
Essegbey, Godfred Frempong and Charlotte Engmann
Small Scale Rainwater Harvesting for Combating Water Deprivation at Orphan Care Centres in Peri-Urban
Areas of Lilongwe, Malawi by H.R. Mloza-Banda, A. Chikuni and D.D. Singa
Ecological Sanitation as a Water and Environmental Conservation Technology Option: The case of slum
communities in Kampala by James Kakooza, Dave Khayangayanga, J. Karundu and D. Nalubega

For more information this series and ATPS Contact:

The Director
The African Technology Policy Studies Network
3rd Floor, The Chancery, Valley Road
P.O. Box 10081 00100 General Post Office
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254-20-2714092/168/498
Fax: +254-20-2714028
Email: info@atpsnet.org
Website: http://www.atpsnet.org