Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of
Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial
Substrate Mushroom Cultivation inSouth-Eastern Nigeria
WORKING PAPER SERIES No. 72

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

1

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

2Developing the Capacity and Improving
Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost
Artificial Substrate Mushroom Cultivation inSouth-Eastern Nigeria

Mr. Mkpado, Mmaduabuchukwu
Centre for Rural Development and Cooperatives (CRDC)
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Prof. Igbokwe Edwin MbadiweCentre for Rural Development and Cooperatives (CRDC)
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

	  ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

3This paper should be cited as:
African Technology Policy Studies Network, ATPS 2013: Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria [Mmaduabuchukwu Mkpado, Igbokwe Edwin Mbadiwe], ATPS
WORKING PAPER No. 72© 2013Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-030-59-7

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

4Table of Contents
Acknowledgement							

6Abstract 									

71. Introduction								

82. Literature Review							

103. Methodology								

144. Results and Discussion							

155. Conclusion and Recommendations					

20References								

21ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

5Acknowledgement
This report was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy
Studies Network (ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors
including theMinisterie van Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands and the Rockefeller
Foundation. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during
the implementation of the program. The Authors specially thank Prof. Kevin Chika Urama,
the ATPS Executive Director for his visionary leadership as Program Director; Prof. Atieno
Ndede-Amadi, Program Coordinator; Dr. Nicholas Ozor, Senior Research Officer, ATPS;
Mr. Ernest Nti Acheampong, ATPS Research Officer and the ATPS Team for the technicalsupport during the research process.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

6Abstract
Low cost artificial substrate mushroom production and marketing hold some potential tocreate wealth and reduce poverty among small-scale farmers as well as improve nutritional
status of households’ members. It offers a way to mitigate the effects of climate change on
availability of endangered forest species like mushroom. The study is a capacity building
mentorship to acquire and disseminate low cost artificial substrate mushroom cultivation inSouth Eastern Nigeria. The innovation acquired included major steps of low cost mushroom
production such as: mushroom house construction, art of making a composted substrate,
pasteurization, spawn maintenance, spawn production procedure, spawning, substrate
supplementation, casing to trigger reproductive stage, watering or irrigation, monitoring
the pinning processes to harvesting, harvesting and sorting and marketing. The up-scaling
process involved selection and training of personnel who will continue to transfer the
innovations to their clientele and students as well as training of selected students. Instruction
manual was developed to ease the imparting of the technology to trainees. Workshops
have been conducted to create more awareness and facilitate adoption and consumptionof cultivated mushroom. Post-training evaluation included not only questions and answers
but working on a small project to raise mushroom under supervision of the instructor who
provided the material for the exercise. Results showed that the capacity building project was
successful because the trainees subdivided into groups were able to raise mushroom. The
experience showed that farmers are happy with the innovation. The paper opined among
others that government and non-governmental agencies should invest in capacity building inmushroom cultivation and production to create jobs and improve households’ nutrition.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

71. Introduction
Mushroom production has now become popular all over the world. It has been describedas the most versatile and prolific agricultural venture all over the world (Ikeji, 2010). The
total world production of mushroom rose from 4.9 metric tons in 1994 to 7 million metrictons valued at $30 billion in 1997, a phenomenal rise from the 350 metric tons produced in1965 (Chang, 1999; Ikeji, 2010). In Nigerian, mushrooms are widely consumed. Akpaja et al.
(2005) documented that, over ninety percent of the populace consume mushrooms as food,
while 22% use some mushrooms for medicinal purposes in southern Nigeria.
Mushrooms contain many essential amino acids and are thus good sources of protein.
Mushrooms also contain some unsaturated fatty acids, provide several of the B vitamins,
and vitamin D as well as the minerals potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium(FAO, 2000; FIIRO, 2009). Increased recognition of the nutritional value of many species,
coupled with the income generating potential of mushrooms has generated desirable interestin the artificial cultivation of mushrooms. Commercial production of edible mushrooms is also
growing because of its potential contribution to economic growth and as a source of cheap
protein (Onuoha, 2007). There are hundreds of identified species of fungi which have madea significant global contribution to human food and medicine (FAO, 2000).
1.1 Problem statement
Rising temperature and deforestation is reducing forest cover which threatens thenatural habitat of mushroom with consequential impact on mushroom production which iscontributing immensely to the welfare of Nigerians (Idowu, 2004; Kimiywe, 2009; Nnamani,
et al., 2009). Increasing temperature has not favored mushroom production because theygrow in temperatures less than 29oC (Mushworld, 2004).
Efforts to scale up the cultivation of mushroom in Nigeria have been limited capacity of farmers
to adopt innovation. Another impediment to mushroom production is the lack of a reliable
source of spawn, which is very sensitive to temperature changes, prolonged exposure to
sunlight and contamination. Much is unknown about the growth requirements of indigenous
mushrooms to facilitate their cultivation on a commercial scale (Gbolagade, et al, 2006).
1.2 Justification
Low cost artificial substrate mushroom cultivation is emerging as profitable venture withthe prospects of contributing to poverty alleviation in Nigeria (Idowu, 2004; Kimiywe, 2009;
Nnamani et al, 2009). It has been noted that a standard small scale mushroom enterprisewould cost about N400, 000 to establish. It will provide an annual income of about N250, 000
per annum. The rate of return is between 60% and 100% (Allafrica, 2008). Low cost artificial
substrate mushroom cultivation offers the opportunity to grow mushrooms at homesteadwith low cost inputs, instead of searching and collecting mushrooms from forest. With sometraining and technical assistance, mushroom can be produced in commercial quantities in
Nigeria.
1.3
Objectives
This project aims at developing capacity and improving access of small-scale farmers to low
cost artificial substrate mushroom cultivation and marketing techniques in Nigeria through
ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

8effective innovation transfer. Above all, the project will give small-scale farmers a leeway tocope with effects of deforestation and climate change with respect to sustainable mushroom
supply.
The specific objectives;i.
Outline the process of low cost artificial substrate mushroom cultivation for incubation.
ii.
Assess the social-economic status of selected trainees for artificial substrate 		mushroom cultivation technology training
iii.
Identify constraints or challenges envisaged in the cultivation of mushrooms
iv.
Develop and deploy an effective strategy for up scaling the technology.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

92. Literature Review
2.1: Edible mushrooms and their uses
Mushrooms belong to the genus fungi. Mushroom has been widely cultivated since the 1700’s
and presently more than 30 known species are cultivated as foods. In Nigeria, mushrooms
are usually collected in the wild during the early periods of the rainy season. It is a practicemainly engaging women and children. Such mushrooms are used as meat substitute, soldfresh in local markets, or dried for use during the dry seasons when meat becomes very
scarce.
Twelve mushroom species are commonly grown for food and/or medicinal purposes, acrosstropical and temperate zones, including the Common mushroom (Agaricus), Shiitake(Lentinus), Oyster (Pleurotus), Straw (Volvariella), Lion’s Head (Hericium), Ear (Auricularis),
Ganoderma (Reishi), Maitake (Grifola frondosa), Winter (Flammulina), White jelly (Tremella),
Nameko (Pholiota), and Shaggy Mane mushrooms (Coprinus). International mushroom
markets are dominated by Agaricus bisporus, Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus spp, which
represent three quarters of mushrooms cultivated globally (FAO, 2000).
Pleurotus tuberregium (Fr.) Sing is a common mushroom in the southern part of Nigeria andforms large spherical to ovoid, subterranean sclerotia which sometimes measure up to 30 cm
in diameter (Oso, 1975). Found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, P. tuberregium
is the only species of Pleurotus that produces true sclerotium (Oso, 1975; Isikhuemhen et al.,
2000; Isikhuemhen and LeBauer, 2004; Olufokunbi and Chiejina, 2010). The fungus infects
dry wood, where it produces the sclerotium, usually buried within the wood tissues but also
found between the wood and the bark. Both the sclerotium and the mushrooms are eaten
in Nigeria. One of the most common dietary applications of P. tuberregium in Nigeria is asa soup thickener. The white tissue is blended into fine powder and when added to soup, it
swells and adds bulk to the soup (Iwuagwu and Onyekweli, 2002).
Sclerotia are used in various soup and medicinal preparations both for human consumption
and in traditional medical practice in Nigeria (Zoberi, 1973; Oso, 1975; Stamets, 2001; Chen
and Huang, 2004; Okungbowa, 2005). African herbalists have used P. tuberregium sclerotia
to solve a variety of health problems, ranging from skin diseases, inflammation, childhood
malnutrition, headache, stomach problem, cold, asthma, fever, high blood pressure, diabetes
to small pox and even in embalmment of bodies (Oso, 1977; Okhuoya et. al., 1998; Chen &Huang, 2004). Badalyan et al., (2008) reported that the antifungal activity of P. tuberregium
against filamentous fungi is utilized in treating mycoses in mammals. The sclerotia can also
be cut into pieces and buried in the soil, and then watered regularly to produce the sporophore(mushroom) which is consumed. Sclerotia give rise to fruiting bodies in most environments
at high temperatures.
2.2 Mushroom Cultivation
Several discussions and publications have been made on process of mushroom cultivation.
Mkpado and Onuoha (2008) opined that the process includes:a)Selection of a suitable substrate such as wood logs or fiber from processed palm
fruits, maize cobs, maize husks or saw dust,
ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

10

b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Allow the substrate to ferment; subsequently pasteurize it
Sterilize the substrate; sterilization can be done by suspending the substrates in		
jute bags above drums of water such that only steam from the boiling water 		
can sterilize the substrate
Steaming can last for 3-6 hours, and then allow to cool with enough ventilation 		and little light. However, some mushrooms prefer the dark with no ventilation for 		colonization of the mycelia.
The cooled substrate is introduced into the room and the desired mushroom spores
are introduced on the substrates.
Water regularly to sustain the growth of inoculated materials harvesting can last up
to six weeks
Harvested mushroom is better packed in paper, which absorbs water and allows air
to pass through. 1-1.5kg of mushroom can be packed in a box/basket which allows
ventilation.

Chiejina and Olufokunbi, (2010) investigated the effects of seven substrates for the cultivation,yield and protein content of Pleurotus tuberregium (Fries) using a complete randomized
design (CRD) of 7 treatments and 10 replicates. The highest fresh weight yield was obtained
from mushrooms grown in river sand and sawdust mixture (T6) while the least was fromthose grown in top soil mixed with sawdust (T4). Oil palm fruit fibre substrate (T3) produced
no fruit bodies at all. Protein analysis of the mushrooms revealed that those grown in riversand alone (T1) had the highest protein content while fruit bodies harvested from sawdust
substrate alone (T2) had the least protein content. They, therefore recommended river sandplus sawdust substrate (T6) as the best substrate for the production of P. tuberregium inview of the fact that it produced the highest fruit body weight and its protein content was not
significantly lower than that of river sand alone (T2).
Cultivation of the mushroom on different nitrogen sources namely, lima bean extract, soya
bean (Glycine max) and vigna species (brown beans) showed that soya bean (Glycine max)
gave the highest mycelia yield while lima bean gave the lowest yield. Optimum mycelia yield
was also achieved at pH 6.5. This study shows that given the right substrate and optimal
environmental conditions, oyster mushroom can be mass-produced to meet the nutritional
requirement of the Nigerian populace.
Okhuoya and Okogbo (1990) attempted to cultivate mushroom (Pleurotus tuber-regium) on
various farm wastes. They noted that mushroom cultivation was still in its infancy in Nigeria,
and many species that might be cultivated for food are known only in the wild state. Sclerotia
used for this study were obtained from logs in the savanna area of Ekpoma in the Okpebho
Local Government Area of Bendel State of Nigeria. They were taken to the laboratory andstored for 4-5 days at room temperature before use. The following waste products wereused: cassava (Manihot sp.) peelings collected fresh from a cassava mill, corn (Zea sp.)
straw collected from the University of Benin farm, oil palm fruit fiber from the oil mill of the
Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR) near Benin City, rice (Oryza sp.) straw
from a private farm in Benin and wild grass (Pennisetum sp.) collected after land preparationfrom the University farm. The cassava and yam peelings were sun-dried for 10 days andcrushed to coarse sizes (3cm) with a mortar and pestle. Corn, rice, and wild grass straws
were separately cut into small pieces (3cm) and the large cylinders of straw were split into
3-4 slices.
Oil palm fruit fibers were also sun-dried for 10 days before use. The substrates wereseparately bulked and treated with 5% bleach (v/v) with a moisture content maintained at70%. Two hundred grams of each of the substrates were loaded into plastic trays (30 trays),
60cm x 60cm x 15cm. Controls were trays filled with 200g of white river sand. Each tray wasseeded with 50 g of fresh sclerotia, at three different equidistant points on the tray. Trays(uncovered) were then placed in a greenhouse (25 ± 3 °C) for observation of fungal growth.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

11

Their spawn trial result showed that oil palm fruit fiber supported extensive growth and wastested as a spawning material. The spawn was prepared by stuffing three polyethylene bags
(75cm x 60cm) with oil palm fruit fiber treated with 5% bleach (v/v) and inoculated withsclerotial pieces (25g each), 10 of such bag, was incubated at room temperature. After 20days, extensive and compact mycelium (mushroom “seed”) had developed on the oil palm
fruit fiber. The bags were opened, and the mushroom seed were divided into 15-g portions
and used to inoculate the different substrates. Fifteen days after “seeding,” 10 trays casedwith garden top soil. Fresh mushroom yield per tray was recorded 20 days after casing. Eachtray was watered once per day with 40 ml of sterile distilled water.
Higher yields were produced on substrates inoculated with sclerotia than for those inoculatedwith spawn. Sclerotia grow directly into sporophores and mycelium. This is not the case with
spawn, which has to develop extensive mycelium before fruiting, and the more the mycelium
developed, the greater the yield. Hence, the better developed mycelium on oil palm fruit fiber
supported the highest sporophore production. Although the substrates were not analyzed
for nutrients, the extensive mycelial development on oil palm fiber indicates that it is a richmedium for the growth of the mushroom. Higher yields were recorded on substrates cased
than those without casing. This was best illustrated with oil palm fiber spawn- treatments,
which produced mainly vegetative mycelia with little or no yield from uncased substrates.
Onuoha’s (2007) work on cultivation of the mushroom involved the use of substrates suchas: Sawdust = T0, Topsoil = T1, Poultry droppings and topsoil = T2, Sawdust and topsoil =T3, Poultry dropping = T4. The fruit bodies produced on topsoil were comparatively higher
than the mean height of those produced on sawdust, (T0) and a mixture of sawdust andtopsoil (T3). The study observed a significant difference between the height of the fruit bodies
produced on a mixture of sawdust and topsoil (T3) and sawdust (T0) at 0.05%. The study
concluded that the fruit bodies produced on topsoil (T1) and a mixture of topsoil and poultry
droppings (T2) had higher dry weight than those produced on sawdust and a mixture of
sawdust and topsoil. There was significant difference between the dry weights of the fruit
bodies produced on all the substrates. Though there was a significant difference between
the mean fresh weight of fruit bodies produced on all the substrates, those produced on
the mixture of topsoil and poultry dropping weighed higher than the mean weight of those
produced on the other substrates, while the use of poultry dropping alone gave the poorest
result.
2.3 Enabling Conditions for Low Cost Mushroom Cultivation
According to Aroye et al, (2005), prevailing climatic condition in Nigeria (apparently before theadvent of climate change and high deforestation,) favors the natural growth of mushrooms. In
the southern part of Nigeria, the rainfall was high, and this region was predominantly coveredby the rainforest ecosystem that made it favorable for mushrooms to thrive. Gbolagade etal., (2006) noted that environmental factors count in mushroom cultivation. In South-western
Nigeria, mushroom grows naturally during the early and late raining season (April–June and
September–November). The fruit bodies of P. florida develop in large number as a group or
turfs on fallen tree logs and at the base of dead wood or poles. The pileus (cap) ranges from
1.5 to 8.5cm in diameter while the stipe (stem) is very short and ranges from 0.1-0.5cm inlength. This mushroom, which possesses a weak odour of edible mushroom lack annulus
and spore print, is creamy white.
Mushrooms are best cultivated indoors in a dark, cool and sterilized and enclosed building.
This enables the growing conditions to be maintained most suitable for mushrooms, interms of temperature, humidity, uniform ventilation and substrate moisture levels. Unwanted
contaminants, moulds and sunlight can also be kept away from the crop. Any small roomwith ventilation and a cement floor can be used, and it should be possible to close off theroom to the outside by shutting ventilation and doors. The interior should be arranged sothat it is easy to clean at the end of each cropping cycle. The mushroom house should be
ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

12well insulated (by using, for example, fiber glass wool or expanded polystyrene) to maintaina steady temperature, and concrete or clay tiles are preferable over corrugated metal for
roofing.
Many of the facilities required for mushroom cultivation are not exclusive items, but rather
assets which help meet livelihood needs in general, including transport and communication
infrastructure, clean water, a source of energy, and buildings for shelter and storage. For
instance, energy is required to refrigerate mushroom spores. The more developed theinfrastructure, the easier it is to establish and undertake mushroom cultivation. Transportation
is of importance when market mushroom products outside due to their perishable nature.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

13

3. Methodology
3.1 Methods
The criterion for the selection was guided by the need to have many trainees and develop
plans for its up-scaling and sustainability. The selection of trainees included the students andfarmers as well as other instructors who will continue to impact the knowledge to others. The
students were mainly selected from the Faculty of Agriculture. Selection was based on theirmotivation and contents of application they submitted in line with achieving the objectives ofthe project. Farmers and instructors were selected from the Agricultural Development Projects(ADP). The Centre for Entrepreneurship and Development Research (CEDR) nominated five
instructors who will continue to impact the knowledge to its students. Five ADP staffs wereselected for the training of trainers programme.
Table 1: Distribution of selected trainees from the various participating institutions
Number of trainees
Faculty of Agriculture

24

ADP

21

CEDR

8

Total
Source: Survey, 2011

53

Information was sought from trainees on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics
such as sex, age, marital status and occupation as well as knowledge of mushroom
cultivation. Structured questionnaires were distributed among selected trainees. The
questionnaires contained questions with available options and also open-ended questions
requiring participants to supply the answers. Oral Interview was also used to elicit responses
from the trainees. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics.
Following the workshops, the trainees were regrouped into 3 categories namely (A) the
subject matter specialists of ADP and their contact farmers, (B) the 4th year students andtheir supervisor and (C) the other lecturers/instructors in the faculty of agriculture and CEDR.
The mentors provided materials for running pilot mushroom farms. Groups (A) and (B)prepared and monitored the experiments for mushroom cultivation under the supervision of
the mentors; while group (C) had access to the experiments to further enrich their knowledge.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

144. Results and Discussion
Through an internship program at the National Biotechnology Development Agency, theproject outlines some processes involved in the cultivation on mushrooms. The small scale
farmers and other trainees were taken through this process to equip themselves with therequisite skills for low cost artificial substrate mushroom cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria.
The process of low cost artificial substrate mushroom cultivation includes:• Low cost housing for artificial mushroom cultivation, ventilation requirements andimprovising of dark room equipment: a small hut roofed with local mat or thatch/grasses,
netted with wire gauze, wooden cardboard and black cellophane.
• Making a substrate: Many agricultural by-products/wastes such as rice bran, maize
leaves, shredded cobs, saw dust, banana leaves wheat straw and palm kernel cake orpalm fibers are used to make mushroom substrate. Water is used to moisten the mixture
selected and stirred. Nitrogen supplements and gypsum can be added to enrich thesubstrate mixture and thoroughly mixed in a mixer or a clean big basin (use maize cob,
saw dust, palm kernel cake and lime in the ratio of 5:3:2:1). Put small parts of the mixture
in colorless cellophane, you may allow it to ferment for about 2 weeks.
• Sterilization: use big pot or drum, use big stones to prepare tripod stand, place drumor pot on it, put small tripod stand in the pot, add enough water, use hard material tosuspend the material in cellophane on the small tripod stand, heat the pot such that only
steam touch the material in cellophane for 6-8 hours, after 2 days put the substrate inplastic containers and compress, then spawn.
• Spawning: This is the process of introducing the spawn on prepared medium for growth.
It can be by broadcasting over the surface of the substrate in containers which are firmed
by compacting. This compacting helps to reduce the air in the substrate and enable
incubation of the spawn.
• Spawn Maintenance: The desired mycelial culture should be pure and free fromcontaminants. Contaminants include dirty water, other fungi, bacteria, or insects growing
on or infesting the culture media along with the desired mycelial culture. Spawn must be
procured from reliable sources such as research institutes avoid open market trading on
spawn. Storage is usually by refrigeration.
• Spawn production procedure: Small pieces of pure-culture mycelium are placed in small
batches on the choice grain- wheat, ‘Cajanus cajan’, millet or sorghum. The choice grain
is prepared by soaking for 2 days, air drying for about 24-29 hours and autoclave for 24hours along with the small container with cover for storing the spawn. Put the spawn
into the container and cover it. Once the small batch is fully colonized, it is used toinoculate several larger batches/portions of grain. This multiplying of the inoculated grain
continues until the commercial-size containers—usually plastic bags with breathable
filter patches—are inoculated. During the colonization of each batch, the containers areshaken every few days to distribute actively growing mycelia around the bag or bottle.
During the process, temperatures are maintained at 74 ºF –76ºF (23 ºC –24ºC).
• Casing to trigger reproductive stage: Casing is the method of forcing mushroom mycelia
to change from the vegetative phase to a reproductive state. This can be achieved byapplying a cover of a suitable material on the mycelia growth.
• In watering or irrigation care must be exercised to avoid water logging the substrate.
• Monitoring the pinning processes to harvesting: Mushroom rhizomorph grows andexpand into structures called primordial or pins. The pins grow larger through a preATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

15•button stage and enlarge to mature mushrooms. Harvesting begins 17–24 days aftercasing, which is normally 15–20 days after flushing and 8–9 weeks after broadcasting.
Harvesting and sorting: Mushrooms are harvested over a 2–3 or 4 day. Mushroom isharvested when its fruits have developed into a well blown cone. Harvesting of mushroom
is by hand picking, care must be exercised to harvest the mushroom cap with its stemand some root. The harvested mushrooms are cleaned and kept in cartons or baskets.
They are sorted according to sizes and weighed for sale.

4.1 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of trainees
Overall, 53 people ranging from students to small scale farmers were trained on the processof establishing low cost artificial substrate mushroom farms. The composition of the groupentailed 67.9% of males while females accounted for 32.1% which was fairly a good gender
representation (Table 2). Generally, the majority of the trainees were in their productive period
within the age range of 21-50 years, with less than 6 percent in their 60’s.
Table 2: Gender and age group of selected trainees
Sex

Frequency

Percent

Male

36

67.9

Female

17

32.1

Total

53

100.0

21-30

24

45.3

31-40

4

7.5

41-50

13

24.5

51-60

9

17.0

Greater than 60

9

5.7

Total

53

100.0

Age

Source: Survey, 2011

Among this group, only about 2 percent of the trainees did not possess first school leaving
certificate (FSLC). Majority of the trainees possessed West African senior school certificate
provide a decent level of ability to understand and apply the techniques to be acquired fromthe training. Some trainees had very high educational qualification which provides the ability
to act as instructors and subject master specialist to further train other students and clientele
in mushroom cultivation. This particular group forms the pillar for up-scaling and sustainabilityof the project (Tables 3).

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

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Table 3: Educational qualifications of selected trainees
Educational level

Frequency

Percentage (%)

No primary school certificate (no FSLC)

1

1.9First School leaving Certificate (FSLC)

5

9.4

West African Senior School Certificate
Examination, (WASSCE) / General Certificate of Education (GCE)

22

41.5

Ordinary National Diploma (OND) /3

National Certificate of Education (NCE)

5.7

Higher National Diploma (HND)

1

1.9

Bachelor of Science (BSc) / Bachelor of
Agriculture (B. Agric)

13

24.5

Master of Science (MSc)

5

9.4

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

3

5.7

Total

53

100.0

Source: Survey, 2011

With the exception of the students, most of the trainees were engaged in public services or
farming. Other secondary activities include honey production, trading, poultry keeping andhair dressing. Mushroom cultivation was a new venture to all the trainees. Table 4 and 5
entail the various occupational activities of trainees.
Table 4: Primary occupation of trainees
Occupation

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Student

22

41.5

Civil /public servant

15

28.3

Farming only

14

26.4

Total
Source: Survey, 2011

51

96.2

Table 5: Secondary occupation of trainees
Secondary occupation

Frequency

Percentage (%)

None

11

20.8

Honey production

2

3.8

Trading13

24.5

Poultry keeping

8

15.1

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

17

Hair dressing

1

1.9

Crop farming

18

34.0

Total

53

100.0

Source: survey 2011

Constraints/ Challenges in Mushroom Cultivation
The trainees through the experience with the process of mushroom cultivation enumerated
some challenges envisaged in the cultivation and production of mushrooms. These included:
cultural barriers, lack of skills/technical know-how, capital constraints and marketing problems(See Table 6).
Table 6: Trainees response on constraints envisaged in mushroom cultivation
Constraints

Frequency

Percentage

It is not cultural

14

26.4

No skill27

50.9

low capital

5

9.4

Marketing risk/acceptance

7

13.2

Total

53

100.0

Source: survey 2011

Issues related to culture and practice
Culturally, there is an existing practice of mushroom collection from the forest. This collection
is seasonal with collection of different mushrooms at particular season. About 26 percent of
the trainees viewed the homestead mushroom cultivation as un-cultural. Many development
processes are not cultural. However, the important thing is explaining why the change isnecessary. The change is necessary because it will lead to saving of time, increased accessto mushroom and creation of wealth. The practice of mushroom collection from the forest
is time consuming as people wonder in the forest from morning to evening in search ofmushroom. Dangers associated with such search include snake bit, sustaining wounds fromthe forest and lately little ‘catch’ as forest resources resources are getting depleted as s
result alternation of environment due to climate change. The low cost mushroom production
can be managed as enterprises which will generate income and ensure steady supply of
mushroom.
Lack of skills-technical know-how
Over 50 percent of trainees reported that lack of Technical knowhow for cultivation ofmushroom is a major challenge in mushroom cultivation
Capital constraints
Interestingly, only 9.4 percent were of the view that lack of capital constitutes their major
challenge. Financial constraints can be compounded if there is no substitute for the materials
to be purchased. But in low cost artificial mushroom cultivation, farmers can use local
substitutes generated from their farm, thus reducing the effects of cost of production.
Market (demand) and social acceptance of cultivated mushroom
Marketing and acceptance of cultivated mushroom is a serious issue due to the fact thatsome mushrooms are poisonous and the cultivation process is exotic.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

18Plans for up-scaling the innovation
Figure 1 is an illustration of the model adopted for up-scaling of the innovation. Effectively, suchmodel of innovation/technology transfer allows the coordinating institution to continuously
seek collaborations for continuous up-scaling of the innovation. It allows for at least two way
communications among the coordinating institution and other stake holders.

	
  FUNDINGAGENCYSOCIALMOBILIZATIONAND OTHERSUPPORTING
INSTITUTIONSCOORDINATING INSTITUTIONTECHNICALFOR INNOVATION/

FACILITATINGTECHNOLOGY TRANSFERINSTITUTIONSUP SCALING THE INNOVATION/ TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

TRAIN THE
TRAINERSTRAIN THE END
USERS

NEGOTIATING OTHER AFFILIATIONSTO SUPPORT INNOVATION ANDTECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Figure 1: Model for Effective strategy for up scaling innovation/technology transfer(Source: Adapted from Eboh et al., 1995)
The training was successful owing to enthusiasm and commitment of the trainees. The
3 groups namely (A) the subject matter specialists of ADP and their contact farmers, (B)
the 4th year students and their supervisor and (C) the other lecturers/instructors in thefaculty of agriculture and CEDR recorded successes in their experiments. The groups wereencouraged to engage in the cultivation of mushroom and to seek assistance of the mentors
whose phone number and contact addresses were given to all. Some of the student trainees
were examining the possibility of engaging in an aspect of mushroom cultivation as their final
year project. It was expected that before the end of October, the 2nd phase of the capacity
building would have been completed. This include empowering the students who want tocultivate mushroom in their final year project and supply of inoculum material to ADP, andthe selected contact farmers to continue the adoption as well as engagement of other stakeholders such as policy makers and journalist.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

195. Conclusion and Recommendations
The capacity building programme help to improve awareness and cultivation of edible
mushroom which currently is limited in Africa and in its early stage in Nigeria. It has beenreported that edible mushrooms are highly nutritious than egg, milk and meat. Mushroom
is imported into Nigeria but with some training and technical assistance of the locals, it
can be produced in commercial quantity in Nigeria. Low cost artificial substrate mushroom
cultivation can help reduce vulnerability to poverty and strengthen livelihoods through thegeneration of a fast yielding and nutritious source of food and a reliable source of income
amidst environmental challenges posed by climate change. Since it does not require muchaccess to land, mushroom cultivation is a viable and attractive activity for both rural farmers
and peri-urban dwellers. Small-scale mushroom growing does not require any significant
capital investment; mushroom substrate can be prepared from certain common and clean
agricultural waste. Constraints to artificial substrate mushroom cultivation include lowawareness, cultural beliefs, fear of food poisoning and financial constraints besides technicalknow-how and poor infrastructure. These constraints in the area of the study were handled
by organizing a workshop to sensitize the people with facts about the technology and trend
in global mushroom production, consumption and marketing/trade in which Nigeria is an
importer.
It is recommended that the media should feature mushroom cultivation as a lucrative
business to create more awareness on artificial substrate mushroom cultivation andgovernment and non-government should invest in this capacity building exercise to create
jobs and improve households’ nutrition. Efforts should be intensified by governments andnon-government organization to provide enabling environment for mushroom cultivation.
Such enabling environment includes good road network, electricity and refrigerators as wellas proper funding of research institutions. In-service training can be extended to a number of
researchers to acquire the skills of cultivating mushroom.
Local mushroom producers should effectively collaborate with prospective buyers in theirlocality during their planting to make arrangement for marketing and sales. Such include
hotels and fast food centers. They can also take advantage of markets beside major road
networks where they can find many different individuals who can purchase the mushroom.
Public centers such as the church, hospitals, and local government headquarters can serve
as good markets for mushroom, because of the variety of people they can reach. The use ofwell known edible mushroom and use of substrates from edible materials will help to remove
the fear of food poising through mushroom cultivation.

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

20

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Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

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ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

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3. Methodology
Study Area
The study area of this research is situated in the upper Blue Nile catchment of Ethiopia.
It is located approximately between coordinate 10033’06’’ to 10050’24’’ North latitude and37042’36’’ to 37058’24’’ East longitude. It covers a total estimated area of 58122.94 hectares
and with the total population of about 132069. Topographically, the area lies in the altitudes
range of 878m to 4000m.a.s.l (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Location of the study area (Source: Choke Mountain Initiative project
document, 2010)

As a result of this the area is characterized by three distinct agro-ecological zones- Dega,
Weynadega, and Kola. According to the traditional classification system, which mainly relies
on altitude and temperature for classification, Ethiopia has five climatic zones (Table 1).
The information which is obtained in Weredas’ Agricultural Offices revealed that the rainfall
amount and temperature of the area ranges from 385 -1300mm, and 10- 26oC respectively.
The area gets monomodal type of rain fall (that is Kirmt rain fall regime). The soil types wereidentified based on their colors (red, brown, black and grey); on the average percentage,
about 60 %, 39 %, 36% and 2.5% are brown, red, black and grey soil respectively. The
cultivated land covers a total area of 34161.93 ha of the area. The major annual crops
cultivated in the catchment are barley, Avena species (Ingedo), wheat, beans, peas, potato,maize, and sorghum. The common domestic animals in the area are cattle, sheep, goats,horses, mules, donkeys, and poultry.
Table 1: Traditional climatic zones and their physical characteristics
Zone

Altitude(meters)

Rainfall(mm/year)

Average temperature(Co)

Wurch(upper highland)

3200 plus

900- 2,200>11.5

Dega(highlands)

2,300- 3,200

900- 1,200

17.1/16.0- 11.5

ISBN: 978-9966-030-59-7

ATPS (2013): Developing the Capacity and Improving Access of Small-scale Farmers to Low Cost Artificial Substrate
Mushroom Cultivation in South-Eastern Nigeria. ATPS Working Paper No. 72

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