Assessment of Rural Water Supply
Management in Selected Rural Areas of
Oyo State, Nigeria

Niyi Gbadegesin
Felix Olorunfemi

ATPS Working Paper Series No. 49

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network, P.O. Box 10081, 00100 General Post
Office, Nairobi, Kenya© 2007 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

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ABOUT THE AFRICAN TECHNOLOGY POLICY STUDIES NETWORKThe African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multi-disciplinary network of researchers,
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Table of Contents

ABBREVIATIONSLIST OF TABLES AND FIGURESEXECUTIVE SUMMARYI

CHAPTER 1:
1.1
1.2
1.3

1
1
3
4

INTRODUCTION, AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
Introduction
Problem statement
Objective of the study

II
III

CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

6CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 The study area
3.2 Data collection and analysis

15
15
17

CHAPTER 4:
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF WATER POLICY FORMULATION IN NIGERIAIntroduction
The National Policy on Environment (NPE)
Water resources management the NPE
Strategies under the NPE
The 2000 National Water and Sanitation Policy
The water and corporation of Oyo State
Oyo State and Sanitation (WATSAN) Project

19
19
19
20
20
21
26
27

CHAPTER 5: SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIMENSTIONS OF WATER PROVISION AND MANAGEMENT
IN THE STUDY AREA
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Socio-demographic characteristics of survey respondents
5.3 Water resources, use and availability
5.4 Water storage techniques

30
30
30
34
39

5.5
5.6

Respondents’ perception of who should provide water in ruralcommunities
41
Willingness to participate in water supply provision and management 42

CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Summary of findings
6.2 Conclusions and policy recommendations

47
47
49

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

52

REFERENCES

53

AbbreviationsATPS
ECOWAS
DDI
DFFRI
FCT
FGDs
FGN
IDI
IK
IKS
LGA
MDGs
NEPAD
NPE
OYSMEWR
RBDA
UNICEF
WATSAN
WCOS

African Technology Policy Studies
Economic Community of West African States
Demand Driven Intervention
Directorate of Food, roads and rural Infrastructure
Federal Capital Territory
Focus Group Discussions
Federal Government of Nigeria
In-Depth Interview
Indigenous Knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge Systems
Local Government Area
Millennium Development Goals
New Partnership for African Development
National Policy on the Environment
Oyo State Ministry of Environment and Water Resources
River Basins Development Authority
United Nations Children and Education Fund
Water and Sanitation Project
Water Corporation of Oyo StateiList of Tables and Figures
List of Tables
Table 2.1:
Table 4.1:
Table 5.1:
Table 5.2:
Table 5.3:
Table 5.4:
Table 5.5:

Financial allocations to water supply in Nigerian Federal Budget (1991-2004)
Distribution of households by access to water supply and sanitation facilities
Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Water use and sources in the sample communities
Local methods of storing water by the respondents
Respondets opinion on who should provide water in the community
Structure of community involvement in water supply

9
25
33
37
40
41
43

List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Financial allocations to water supply in Nigerian Federal Budget (1991-2004)
Figure 4.1: Rural-urban access to water supply in Nigeria (2003)
Figure 5.1: Source of water frequently used by the respondents
Figure 5.2: Household member involved in fetching water
Figure 5.3: Time spent in fetching water
Figure 5.4: Respondents’ perception of who should provide water in the rural commnity
Figure 5.5a: Structure of individual involvement in water supply
Figure 5.5b: Structure of community involvement in water supply

ii

10
26
38
38
39
42
44
44

Executive Summary

Human welfare and economic development generally depend on the use of water. In Nigeria, water
resources management and utilization is crucial to the country’s efforts to reduce poverty, grow theeconomy, ensure food security and maintain the ecological systems. After almost sixty years of watersupply development in Nigeria, it is unfortunate that as many as 43% of the population still lackaccess to safe water. The situation in the rural areas is particularly bad compared to the urban areas.
In recognition of the poor state of water management in the country and its implication for socioeconomic development and environmental sustainability, the present democratically elected
government has prepared a new national policy on water resources development. One of the objectivesof the policy is to provide good potable water for the rural population at an affordable price. To
achieve this objective, there is need to better understand the constraints and challenges of rural
water supply. Apart from addressing the issues of participatory governance, cost recovery andappropriate technology, there is also a need to take into consideration the values, attitude, preferences
and capacities of the different stakeholders in the supply and management of water in rural areas.
The new integrated approach to sustainable water supply requires greater knowledge andunderstanding of the technological, social, economic and ecological dimensions of water resource
management and how they are inter-related. Developing the capacity to engage in integrated
sustainable development planning from the community level to the highest national decision-making
level, remain a major challenge in Nigeria and many other African countries. It is in the light of thisthat this study assesses the extent to which stakeholders are willing and able to adopt and implement
sustainable, cost-effective and environmentally friendly management options for water resources inselected rural areas of Oyo State, Nigeria.
The specific objectives of the work include a review of the changing trend of the national and state
government policy framework for water resource management in relation to the motivation for policy
design, knowledge capacity building, and the degree of compliance with the new principles andapproach; determining the ‘social solidarities’ or the willingness of the stakeholders to adopt and/or
implement government policies and programmes on water resources management in the selectedrural areas of Oyo state, Nigeria; assess the knowledge base of the different stakeholder groups
about the technological, socio-economic and ecological dimensions of water resourcesmanagement, in terms of the availability of data and information, familiarity with the study area, andthe interaction between the stakeholder groups and, lastly, suggest ways of improving the peoples’
indigenous knowledge of water conservation in order to enhance the livelihoods of the rural dwellers
in the state and Nigeria ion general.
iii

The study areas include three rural/semi-urban Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Oyo state. The
three Local Government Areas; are Ibarapa, Afijio and Lagelu. The choice of the three study areas isjustified on the ground that the areas are different in terms of portable water supply problems andmanagement. For instance Ibarapa represents an area where there has been intervention from
Water and Sanitation Project (WATSAN) of Oyo State. On the other hand, Ilora is a semi urban areawith some elements of government intervention while Igbo-Elerin represents an area where there
has never been any intervention in the past.
The study adopted a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodology, including Focus
Group Discussions (FGDs), in-depth interviews (IDIs) with stakeholders as well as structured andsemi-structured questionnaires survey. Relevant policy and programme documents of government
were collected and reviewed. In addition, semi-structured interviews were carried out with somesenior government officials. For the questionnaire survey, 200 questionnaires were administered ineach location while FGDs were held in Igbo Elerin, Eruwa and Ilora to complement the results of thequestionnaire survey. Data analysis involved the use of both qualitative and quantitative statisticaltechniques. The present policy and institutional framework for water resources management, andhow it has changed overtime were described qualitatively.
The existing manpower development programme of government in terms of the level of manpower,
the skills of the manpower, involvement of stakeholders and learning process is virtually non-existent.
For instance, at the Oyo State Ministry of Environment and Water Resources (OYSMEWR), theEnvironment Unit of OYSMEWR, especially the units concerned with clearing of dumpsites andwastes during the monthly ‘environmental sanitation-day’ received more attention by the government
than the Water Resources Unit.
There is still the age-long popular opinion among the rural dwellers that the provision of social
amenities, including water supply, is the sole responsibility of government. There is the need tochange this orientation through grassroots awareness programmes. However, the success story in
Igbo-Oloyin of community water supply and management shows that water supply provision andmanagement can even be more successful and sustainable in the rural areas than in the urban
areas if the community is involved in the planning and execution of such projects especially ifgovernment can provide the initial infrastructure or capital outlay.
The knowledge base of the different stakeholder groups about the technological, socio-economicand ecological dimensions of water resources management is very low. For some communities,
however, the indigenous knowledge in the conservation of traditional water sources (e.g. streams
and rivers) exists but need to be improved upon. Rural populace must be educated properly about
the quality of the water they consume. This is because water that is available in poor quality is far
dangerous than water that is not available at all.

iv

With regard to “social solidarities” or the willingness of the stakeholders to adopt and/or implement
government policies and programmes on water resources management, the outcome of this study
indicates that many people in the study area are not aware of any government policy on water supply
provision and management, either at the Federal or State level. Therefore, the issue of the stakeholders
willing to adopt and/or implement government policies at present does not arise. However, going by
the discussions held at the FGD session and informal interviews held with opinion leaders in thecommunities, there is willingness to embrace and implement any programmes and policies that willaddress water supply problems in rural communities. For instance, in Igbo-Oloyin near Ibadan, thecommunity has effectively managed the borehole provided by a prominent indigene for more than
20years.
Given the enormity of the water supply problem and food insecurity situation, not only in the rural
areas but the urban areas in Nigeria, the existing indigenous knowledge system (IKS) are incapableof meeting the challenges, hence the need for the integration of the indigenous system (IK) with
scientific knowledge. Government and relevant agencies should as a matter of priority conduct andexecute a regional study or set of studies on indigenous water management techniques in order tofill some of the gaps and throw some light on the process of up-scaling and integration of indigenous
knowledge of water management with modern/scientific knowledge. Consequently, deliberate efforts
should be made to ensure that the knowledge integration process would include improvements inpolicies and institutional arrangements.
In conclusion, this study brings out the sustainable technological and ecological policy options for
improved water management within the peculiar socio-economic and institutional context of thestudy area. The results formed a database on ideas and experience of local initiatives which could
be adapted to solve water supply problems in similar rural communities in Nigeria and elsewhere in
the African continent.

v

Chapter One
Introduction, Aim and Objectives of Study
1.1

Introduction

Water is a precious natural resource, vital for life, development and the environment. It can be amatter of life and death, depending on how it occurs and how it is managed. When it is too much or
too little, it can bring destruction, misery or death. Irrespective of how it occurs, if properly managed,
it can be an instrument for economic survival and growth. It can be an instrument for poverty alleviation
lifting people out of the degradation of having to live without access to safe water and sanitation,
while at the same time bringing prosperity to all (UN-WATER/AFRICA, 2004). However, when it isinadequate in either quantity or quality, it can be a limiting factor in poverty alleviation and economic
recovery, resulting in poor health and low productivity, food insecurity and constrained economic
development.
The interdependence between water availability and development is exemplified by the link between
water and poverty. Due to poverty, access to adequate water and sanitation is low in Africa. As a resultof inadequate access to safe water and sanitation, there is a high incidence of communicablediseases that reduce vitality and economic productivity on the continent. Inadequate access to waterand sanitation is thus both a cause and a consequence of poverty. Similarly, inadequate water
resources can become a constraint to improved agricultural development and food security.
Systematic development of water supply and management in Nigeria dates back to the colonial
times. The colonial administration developed domestic water supply as part of overall programme toimprove the level of personal hygiene and environmental sanitation throughout the country, andthereby the health of the people. Unfortunately, as noted by Oyebande (1977), the priority accorded
domestic water supply by the colonial administration had not been sustained by post independence
governments of the country. For example, between 1946 and 1960 the average percentage of thetotal government expenditure on water was 11.4%, whereas between 1962 and 1975, it decreased
to 4.5%. Although there was a steady increase in the percentage of the total government expenditure
spent on water between 1975 and 1992, between 1992 and 1996, there was a 50% decrease in the
total budgetary allocation for water supply (Areola and Akintola, 1997; Falusi and Gbadegesin, 1998).
The implication of this is that between 1992 and 1996, the total water supply for industrial, agriculturaland domestic use increased at a rate of about 1.0% whereas population growth rate was 2.84%(NPC, 1991).

1

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

Apart from the relatively low level of financial commitment to water supply development in general,
successive governments in the country also laid emphasis on urban water supply while rural areas
are almost completely neglected. The federal government, through the River Basin Development
Authorities (RBDAs) the first of which was established in 1976 and the Directorate of Food, Roads
and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI) which was put in place in 1986 attempted to address the problem
of rural water supply in the country. Through the two strategies, a large number of boreholes withmanual and powered pumps were sunk in various parts of the country. Pipe borne water was also
extended to some rural areas, through the state water corporations, but this option was hardly usedbecause of the high cost of laying pipes to rural communities which are generally separated by large
distances (NEST, 1991; Akintola, et. al., 1980). Regrettably, these efforts did not last up to a decade.
Many of the rural communities that were served with boreholes were unable to derive maximum
benefits from them. Some of the problems identified include lack of public participation in the
management of the boreholes, technological problems, ignorance of the people, and corruption(NEST, 1991). This has led to the cancellation of the DFRRI while the focus of the RBDAs has now
been limited to the provision of water for agricultural purposes (Falusi and Gbadegesin, 1998).
After almost sixty years of water supply development in Nigeria, it is regretable that only 60% of the
population has access to safe drinking water, and in rural areas less than 50% of the households
have access to good portable water (National Millennium Development Goals Report, 2005). Rural
people in the country still depend very much on rivers, streams, ponds, and shallow wells for theirwater needs. During the dry season, some of these sources dry up and households have to invest asubstantial amount of their resources to get water of doubtful quality. This has very serious implications
for the economic development and social welfare of the people specifically and the country as awhole. First, there is the tremendous economic waste involved in people spending so much timeand effort in search of water. Secondly, lack of water often means relatively low levels of personal
hygiene and environmental sanitation. Thirdly, because water is needed for most productive activities,
inadequate access to water limits the livelihood options of the people, particularly in rural areas(IDRC, 2002).
In recognition of the poor state of water management in the country and its implication for socioeconomic development and environmental sustainability, the new democratically elected government
prepared the first national policy on water resources development in year 2000. One of the objectivesof the policy is to provide good portable water for the rural population at an affordable price. However,to achieve this objective, there is need to better understand the constraints and challenges of rural
water supply. Apart from addressing the issues of participatory governance, cost recovery andappropriate technology, there is also a need to take into consideration the values, attitude, preferences
and capacities of the different stakeholders in the supply and management of water in rural areas.
Generally, human-water relations date back many generations, hence in many traditional societies,
people have developed cultural values, attitudes and norms of behaviour in relation to water use.

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

1.2

3

Problem Statement

Human welfare and economic development generally depend on the use of water. In Nigeria, water
resources management and utilisation is crucial to the country’s efforts to reduce poverty, grow theeconomy, ensure food security and maintain the ecological systems. Nevertheless, the issue ofwater resources management in the country focuses mainly on water supply and it receives only
minimal attention by government. This approach may be attributed partly to the disjointed sectoral
approach to development planning in the country and the idea that water is a public good. It may also
be partly attributed to the fact that the international development community have not given due
attention to water resources until very recently. Falkenmark (1988) for example, criticised the highly
acclaimed Brundtland report (WCED, 1987) for its failure to adequately address the issue of the roleof water in sustainable development. Similarly, Toth (1996) noted that water has received relatively
modest attention in debates about global environmental change and sustainable development as at
the mid 1990s.
In the last decade, particularly in the last half of the decade, the issue of sustainable water resourcesmanagement has attracted the attention of the international community and policy makers in Africa.
The issue of water resources management was for example addressed at the Millennium Summit(2000) which produced the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the World Summit on
Sustainable Development (2002), the 3rd World Water Forum in Kyoto (2003), the Africa Ministerial
Council on Water, and the programmess and actions articulated under the New Partnership for
African Development (NEPAD) framework.
The new emphasis on water resources management in Africa is coming with a shift in the principle
and approach to the management of water resources. It is now recognised that water is a commodityof strategic importance because of increasing demands and rising costs, coupled with diminishingsupplies (Sharma et. al., 1996). Furthermore, it is recognised that it is no longer feasible in a longterm, cost-effective and environment friendly manner, to increase water supply by building additionaldams and conveyance systems, sinking new wells, constructing desalinisation plants, etc. In addition,
it is now recognised that solutions must be found at the user-end of the pipe, that is, improving water
use productivity, reducing conveyance losses, reusing water and optimising allocation (Sanstrom,1997). The underlying principle is that water is a scarce good with dimensions of economic efficiency,social equity and environmental sustainability. Therefore, it has both public and private characteristics,
and hence there is an important role for public and private participation in efficient management anddevelopment of water, particularly communities that use water (Sharma et al., 1996; Karikari, 1996).
The new principle and approach to water resource management has many far reaching implications
for policy design and institutional building as well as policy implementation. For example, the change
in principle may be regarded as a basic ideological shift. Generally, such ideological shift cannot be
imposed on people since it depends on cultural belief and world view of the people (Wildavsky et al.,1994). Consequently, there is need to have a better understanding of the values and ideologicalpreferences of policy makers, bureaucrats and the general public. Secondly, a change from supply

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

4

management approach to demand management approach requires a change in the manpower
and institutional requirements for water resources management. While supply management approachwith emphasis on building and construction of dams, boreholes, conveyance systems, etc, requirepredominantly engineering skills, the new emphasis on demand management with public andprivate sector participation will require expertise in social systems in addition to engineering skills.
Lastly, the new integrated approach requires greater knowledge and understanding of thetechnological, social, economic and ecological dimensions of water resource management andhow they are inter-related. Developing the capacity to engage in integrated sustainable development
planning from the community level to the highest national decision-making level, remains a major
challenge in Nigeria and many other African countries. Sharma et al (1996) for example noted thatin sub-Sahara Africa as a whole, the following institutional capacity problems are rampant: (i) people
are unaware that water is a finite resource with supply constraints, that it has a scarcity value, and that
there is a cost to using it; (ii) lack of understanding of the consequences of deforestation and landdegradation on the quantity and quality of water; (iii) inadequate capacity building and neglect oftraditional knowledge bases as well as gender issues; (iv) management of water resources is highly
fragmented among sectors and institutions and there is excessive reliance on public sector services;and (v) weak institutional and implementation capacities. The implication of the foregoing is that if
the new emphasis on water resources management in Africa and Nigeria in particular is to achieve
meaningful results, there is the need to have a better understanding of the institutional capacity bothin terms of skilled personnel and the available knowledge and understanding of the socio-economic,
technological and ecological issues and problems that are involved.

1.3

Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to examine the extent to which stakeholders are willing and able
to adopt and implement sustainable, cost-effective and environment friendly management options
for water resources in selected rural areas of Oyo state, Nigeria. The study focused on the ‘social
solidarities’ and hence the ideological preferences of the stakeholders, the manpower capacity
building for water resources management, and the knowledge base about the socio-economic,
technological and ecological dimensions of water resources management. The specific objectives
are to:i.
review the changing trend of the national and state government policy framework
for water resources management in relation to the motivation for policy design, knowledge
capacity building, and the degree of compliance with the new principles and approach.
ii.
determine the ‘social solidarities’ or the willingness of the stakeholders to adopt
and/or implement government policies and programmes on water resource managementin the selected rural areas of Oyo state, Nigeria;iii.
assess the knowledge base of the different stakeholder groups about thetechnological, socio-economic and ecological dimensions of water resource management,in terms of the availability of data and information, familiarity with the study area, and theinteraction between the stakeholder groups; andASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

5

iv.
suggest ways of improving the peoples’ indigenous knowledge of water
conservation in order to enhance the livelihoods of the rural dwellers in the state in particular
and Nigeria in general.
It is important to note that the issue of water concerns almost everyone in a community. It is also an
issue that concerns government at the federal, state and local levels as well as the private entrepreneurs
both within and outside a community. Therefore, stakeholders in water supply may literarily mean
everybody in a community. However, since it is not possible to take into consideration everyone or
every group in the study area, the study was preceded by a stakeholder analysis to identify the key
stakeholder groups such as policy makers, relevant government agencies, community development
organisations, traditional rulers, households, private firms or investors, etc.

Chapter Two
Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
The challenge of sustainable water resources management, in line with the new principles andapproaches, may be conceived in terms of some simple policy relevant questions: how muchresources is available and who needs it? Who gets how much? At what cost? And at what price, if
any? (IDRC,2002). However, there are also deeper questions that also need to be addressed: who
decides? By what procedures? What features of governance will most likely produce management
decisions that are fair, effective and environmentally sustainable?
The answers to these questions are by no means trivial and they may vary for different communities
or nations depending on their form of organising socio-cultural and political life. This is particularly
true for the deeper questions: who decides? By what procedure? Douglas(1987) and Thompson etal. (1990) argued that it is possible to discern four fundamental forms of social organisation fromwhich a large variety of ultimate forms of social and cultural life can be derived. Each of the four waysof organising socio-cultural life (usually called ‘ways of life’ or social solidarities), that is fatalism,
egalitarianism, hierarchy and individualism, consists of specific ways of structuring social relations
and a supporting cast of particular beliefs, values, emotions, perceptions and interests (Douglas etal., 2003; Thompson, 2003) as well as specific knowledge systems (Mabawonku, 2003). In theindividualist social setting, actors view nature as benign and resilient – able to recover from any
exploitation – and man as inherently self-seeking and atomistic. The individualist solidarity trust
others until they give them reason not to and then retaliate in kind, and see it as only fair that those
who put the most in get the most out. They think institutions that work with the grain of the market (thatget rid of environmentally harmful subsidies, for instance) are what are needed. There knowledge
system is essentially scientific. In the egalitarian social setting, actors see nature as fragile, intricatelyinterconnected and ephemeral, and man as essentially caring (until corrupted by coercive institutions
such as markets and hierarchies). For the egalitarians, it is not enough that people start off equal,
they must end up equal as well. Trust and levelling go hand in hand, and institutions that distribute
unequally are distrusted, their knowledge system is described as the philosophical.
In the hierarchical social setting the knowledge system is ideological, actors see the world ascontrollable. Nature is stable until pushed beyond discoverable limits, and man is malleable: deeply
flawed but redeemable by firm, long-lasting and trustworthy institutions. Fair distribution is by rank
and station or in the modern context, by need. Within the hierarchical social setting, environmental
management requires certain experts to determine the precise locations of nature’s limit and statutory
regulation to ensure that all economic activity is kept within those limits. Lastly, in the fatalistic social

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ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

7

setting, actors find neither rhyme nor reason in nature, and suppose that man is fickle and untrustworthy.
To the fatalists, fairness is not to be found in this life, and there is no possibility of effecting change forthe better. The knowledge system of the fatalist is described as religious.
Generally, the answers to the deeper questions: who decides? By what procedures? What featuresof governance will most likely produce management decisions that are fair, effective andenvironmentally sustainable?, will determine the answers to the policy questions: how much resources
is available and who needs it? Who gets how much? At what cost? And at what price, if any? We
therefore conceive the water management process as a five stage procedure. The first is thegovernance and decision-making stage. At this stage, the deeper questions are answered by boththe policy makers and the general public. As explained earlier, the answers are determined by the‘ways of life’ of the people, or their knowledge systems, cultural beliefs and values. The second stage
in the water management process is the water balance modelling. It is at this stage that the question:
how much resources are available and who needs it? is answered. It involves the determination of
the volume of water being available over space and time, the present and future water needs as
indicated by population growth, industrialisation and changing habit of use, and the socio-economicand ecological implications of water supply and demand.
Management guideline development is the third stage in the water management process. At thisstage the question, who gets how much? is answered. It involves defining the priorities, goals, rules
and capacity requirements. Specifically, it involves defining the policies, regulations and enabling
environment as well as the mechanism for sharing water resources between competing interests.
The next stage is the implementation stage, and it is the stage that decisions about cost and priceare determined. Other issues such as funding, institutional or capacity building, environmental
sustainability, and public awareness are tackled at this stage. The last stage is the water supply
stage. It involves supplying water for different uses and evaluating the use of water and its implications
such as the human dimensions of water supply, environmental sustainability, trans-boundary conflictof interests, and effects of economic and population growth.
The five stages in the water resources management process are interrelated and interdependent.
Analysis of the management process may either proceed from the last stage to the first or from thefirst to the last. The direction of analysis is not important, but it is important to recognise the link
between the five stages and to take linkages into consideration in the analysis. For example, analysisof the pattern of social solidarity of the key stakeholders or decision makers may be linked to information
about the water balance and management guidelines. Similarly, analysis of the water balance
information and management guidelines may be linked with the implementation process and watersupply. This is the analytical framework used in the study.
According to Olokesusi (1990), water supply situation in Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS) is far from satisfactory. The following seem to be the major factors responsible forthe inability of member states to satisfy the drinking-water needs of their teeming populations. Water
engineers and administrators in ECOWAS have been prone to thinking ‘biggest’, a series of small

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

water schemes is nowhere near as proud an achievement as a massive structure, in other words thewrong scale of technology is being used. Unfortunately, the larger systems tend to carry with them agreater degree of vulnerability, since if they break down more people and more enterprises areadversely affected. In some states that are drought-prone, or do not have the infrastructural
maintenance and repair support, the failure of one large water project can have immensely negativeand sustained consequences. More important, perhaps, is the ‘think big’ syndrome of aid agencies
and consortiums, which has affected the psyche and performance of the water-supply projects.
While acknowledging the existence of the global sector principles for water supply and sanitation of
the WHO, which is already being implemented, it is strongly suggested that there should be a more
integrated approach to the issue of water supply and sanitation. Accordingly, Olokesusi (1990)
suggested some policy guidelines for the future which include:• An integration of the technical, operational, and financial and health issues right from thestart of the planning process would improve results. Participation of the communities in all
project phases, which special attention to the role women play and should play in community
water supply and sanitation, would also contribute to improvements. Local organization ofmaintenance and production should also be encouraged as much as possible.
• More emphases should be placed on the provision of hand pumps and wells, especially inthe rural areas where large segments of the population live.
• Rain harvesting should be encouraged and the appropriate technology for sorting such
water collected should be made available both in urban and rural areas.
• Appropriate technologies such as solar energy and windmills have already been used in
Burkina Faso, Chad and the Niger Republic. They should be well funded and results disseminatedto member states for possible replication.
A study by the Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER) (1982) revealed that at a
general level the urban centres are better served than the rural areas. Also the southern parts of thestate enjoy more water supplies than the north. The situation is not likely to improve in the immediate
future, particularly when it is realized that there has been a steady decrease in volume of watersupplied over the years as against steady increase in the population. This situation is compoundedby the high growth rate 8-9% of the urban population compared with the national average rate of
4.5% (NISER, 1982). The alternative sources of water supply in such deprived areas include rivers,
streams, brooks, wells, rain water and other potentially hazardous sources. The health hazards
associated with such water sources, excluding rain water, are cholera, dysentery, typhoid, guineaworn, schistosomiasis, and other water-borne diseases (WHO, 1970; Postel, 1985; Chandler, 1985).
It is a paradox that the situation has not changed up till now in the country.
The situation of rural water supply in Oyo State tends to be worse because of the large expanse of thestate. According to Olokesusi (1987), when women walk up to three hours to get minimal watersupplies, water becomes too valuable for washing and an important defence against infection is lost.
There is a strong association between water and health in the Oyo State. Experts estimate that asanitary water supply would eliminate half the diarrhea including 90% of all cholera, 80% of sleeping

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

9

sickness and 100% of guinea worm infestation, as well as smaller fractions of several other serious
tropical diseases. It can therefore be justifiably concluded that Oyo State faces very critical water
inadequacy in both rural and urban areas thereby affecting all uses-domestic, personal, industrial,and commercial; with severe socio-economic consequences; which are hereby highlighted
Although public sector expenditure on provision of water supplies has been increasing in absoluteamount, it has been decreasing in comparative terms in view of rising population, costs, inflation andother technical considerations. Revenue for the Water Corporation of Oyo State (WCOS), (the watersupply agency), comes from annual subsidies and grants from he state government as well as water
rates and charges. Since 1982, The state subsidies and grants to the water agency has continued to
decline, a reflection of the nation’s dwindling income, since the Federal grants and statutory allocations
to the state have been equally falling. A cursory look at Table 2.1 reveals that financial allocation towater supply sector has always been small when compared to other sectors of the economy (seealso Figure 2.1).
Table 2.1: Financial allocations to water supply in Nigerian Federal Budget (1991-2004)
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004

Capital Allocation to
Water (million naira)
83.8
71.7
63.3
197.5
0.0
2,195.1
2,786.2
3,843.4
14,388.0
64,761.7
31,942.2
31,942.2
31,942.2

Percentage of Total
Capital Expenditure
0.02
0.01
0.12
0.6
0.0
14.9
1.5
1.5
2.2
7.2
4.8
4.8
4.8

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

10

70000

60000

Amount (Million Naira)

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Year

Fig.2.1: Financial Allocations to Water Supply in Nigerian Federal

Figure 2.1: Financial allocations to water supply in Nigerian Federal Budget (1991-2004)
According to Faniran and Akintola (1997), the laws establishing the state water agencies list several
functions that include the duty toa) control and manage all urban and semi-urban water supplies;b) establish, control, manage, extend and develop such new or existing water supplies as may
be considered necessary for the purpose of meeting the requirements of the general public,
agriculture, trade and industry;c) ensure that water is supplied to consumers thereof at reasonable charges and in potable
quality and quantity;d) organize the conduct of comprehensive research for utilization in the formulation of policy
relating to the to the supply and usage of water in the state; ande) examine surface and ground water for the purpose of detecting any pollution and its causes.
There is a dearth of high level management and professional/managerial staff; in most cases thiscadre constitutes less than 4% of the total staff strength (Faniran and Akintola, 1997). The dismal
manpower situation of the state water agencies is manifest in the very small proportion of personnel
with tertiary level technical and engineering qualification. The number of professionally qualifies
high level personnel, particularly, qualified engineers, is very small in all the state water agencies
with the possible exception of Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT)ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

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Research has shown that rural water supplies in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly those relying on
hand pumps, often demonstrate low levels of sustainability. The key causes for this include
inappropriate policy or legislation; insufficient institutional support; unsustainable financing
mechanisms; ineffective management systems; and lack of technical backstopping. The problem
will only be solved by adopting a holistic approach to planning and implementation rather thanfocusing on one issue (such as community management or spare parts supply) in isolation (DFID,
2004).
The provision and maintenance of village water supplies is usually the weakest link in the technologicalprocess, mainly for organizational reasons. Thus, to improve the situation, devolution of authority
from the state to the local level and effective co-ordination with other agencies is needed. The use of
locally made handpumps, and the training of ‘barefoot water technicians’ for maintenance purposes
is usually recommended for rural water supply in Africa.
Of necessity is the integration of public participatory process in water supplies in the state. The
public could help in many ways. For example with proper organizational arrangement, citizens canhelp in deciding where water facilities should be located and be responsible for their maintenance,
repair and fault reporting. They can also be involved in installing pumping station, building public
wells and financial contributions. Nevertheless, they still require logistical and technical support
from the three tiers of governments. The contributions of community associations, co-operatives
and charity organizations should also be explored judiciously.
According to Okorie et al (2001) in a study in Swaziland, a major factor attributed to the unsustainabilityof many rural water supply schemes to imposition of inappropriate technologies, unavailability ofspare parts, lack of local maintenance and operational capacity, lack of local community educationand participation, ineffective community demand, and lack of co-ordination of sector agencies.
Thus, sustainable interventions in rural water supply and sanitation depend on finding solutions to
the problems. The community’s willingness to commit their time and money to the projects is criticalto their sustainability.
With reference to Swaziland, Okorie et a (2001) are of the opinion that the development of a national
technology policy for funding and accelerated rural water supply and sanitation sector and forsustainability should be guided by the following elements• investment and development programming;• prioritization of maintenance operations;• community-agencies cost-sharing policy;• systematic co-ordination mechanism;• institutional development and capacity building;• community education and participation;• community-based water and environmental health committees;• water quality and environmental health monitoring and treatment;• information management system; and• rural water supply and sanitation research agenda.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

These core elements are aimed at cost reduction, improved funding, increased efficiency in fundutilization, scheme operation, and service delivery, which would culminate in enhanced schemes’sustainability. The importance of each of the elements is outlined below.
In rural areas of Nigeria, water is traditionally, managed for two major purposes namely agriculture
and domestic consumption, although this distinction is blurred sometimes. Sources of such waters
vary from direct rainfall to waters from runoffs, rivers, streams, creek flows and seepage. Undergroundwater resources are also harnessed. The water so collected have been used to meet domestic
needs in addition to requirements for watering livestock, for runoff farming and irrigation. Rainwatercollection (harvesting) is extensively practiced for the purposes of domestic consumption using
indigenous knowledge methods for rainwater collection, purification and storage. However, part of
the harvested water is being used to provide water for backyard gardens (farms), and domestic
livestock. The two major techniques of water harvesting are micro-catchments and roof collection(Olokesusi, 2004)
With reference to roof collection techniques, until the advent of western containers such as plastics
and metal, Africans typically collected rainwater from roof-tops with the aid of calabashes and earthen
pots. These objects are merely placed below the roof eaves and the water drops into them. Anothertraditional collection technique involved the construction of sliced bamboo gutters along the roof
eaves, through which the water flows into calabashes and earthen pots. The water would then be
taken into homes and other areas for consumption purposes.
On the other hand, in several parts of Africa, water meant for drinking is subjected to one form oftreatment or the other. Whenever surface water has been collected, it is allowed to stand for somehours before it is decanted into earthen pots for storage. The precipitated materials are discarded.
In most households water hygiene is a top priority. For example in many African societies the household
prohibits any body from using his/her own cup (calabash usually) to fetch water from the communal
water pot. Rather there is a container (a calabash in southern Nigeria) fastened to the pot, which all
members of the household are expected to use for collecting water into their own containers fordrinking. Earthen pots are often buried in compounds rather than inside rooms in the hot arid andsemi-arid areas so that the water temperature could be moderated. In the wetter parts such as partsof Yorubaland in south-west Nigeria, such earthen pots are placed inside the home for the same
purpose. In rural Ibadan in the south-western part of Nigeria, Adenopus breviflorus or Tagiri (inYoruba)
is usually placed beside the household earthen pot in the dry season so as to wade off evil spirits and“germs” causing measles (Olokesusi, 2004). In addition, empirical investigations by the researchers
also revealed that there are several other innovative indigenous technologies for rural water supply
management in different parts of Nigeria. Some of these IKs include pot chlorination, solar disinfection,
simple sand filters, nylon filters, harvesting of groundwater and recharging of groundwater, among
others.

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The harvesting of rainwater from roofs maximizes the efficiency of runoff collection. This is because
the characteristic pattern is a scatter of small rainwater catchments, each serving an individual farm,
homestead or hamlet. This type of development is much more environmentally friendly because it
offers very good technical advantage in terms of the conservation of the scarce water resource.
Moreover, the technique fits quite well into the settlement pattern.
An innovative method of rainwater harvesting is that spotted by the researchers in Ekpoma, a semiurban community in Edo State, Nigeria. It is a good example of the use of IK knowledge in rain
harvesting was seen in Ekpoma, a town in Edo State, Nigeria where large surface or undergroundreservoir are constructed with concrete and a water hose is connected from the roof top so thatrainwater collected from the roof top drains directly into the reservoir. To ensure that water going into
the reservoir is free of, at least, sediments, a net is placed at the end of the hose where it enters thereservoir. Examples of this method are shown in Plates 1 and 2.
The use of this method guarantees that there will be availability of water for use in the community
throughout the year, especially during the dry season. Similar technologies are also commonly usedin Imo and Anambra States.
From the foregoing, a major positive impact of these water management and coping mechanisms
apart from ensuring availability of water for domestic uses, is improved agricultural production,
which enhances poverty reduction. Ready access to water also contributes to reliving both time andconstraints which are both critical in rural communities. To some extent there would be improvementsin personal and environmental hygiene. These developments widen livelihood options. The
implication of all these is environmental improvement due to the recursive relationship between
poverty and environmental degradation.
Pot chlorination is an indigenous technology that has also been recommended for use in rural areas
because of its affordability and flexibility in usage. According to Cairncross and Feachem (1993),
one method of chlorination can be used in village wells. It involves a pot containing a mixture ofcoarse sand and bleaching powder, which is hung underwater in a well. The double pot is suitable
for a well serving up to twenty people, and needs to be refilled with 1 kg of bleach and 2 kg of sandevery two weeks. The trouble with these pots is that they tend to make the water taste unpleasant for
the first few days after refilling. There is no point at all in using a water disinfection process if it drives
people to use water of worse quality, or if it is not reliably operated. Nevertheless, chlorination of arural water source may be a worthwhile temporary measure during an epidemic which is suspected
to be a water-borne.
Another example of a good approach to rural water supply is the “Water Provision and Conservation
System in Umuocham, Imo State, Nigeria”. This water provision and conservation system wasdesigned by Mr. Ako Amadi. Ako’s overall objective is to help communities design and implement
environmental initiatives which are ecologically sound and which are suited to the needs of poor
rural and semi-rural communities. Since lack of adequate water supplies is a constant and criticalproblem in most parts of Nigeria, Ako has most recently concentrated on designing a system that

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

dramatically improves the water supply of the thirteen communities in which he works. His first step
was to conduct a feasibility study. The result of this study led him to design a water provision andconservation system that closely matched local needs. Ako’s next step was to get the community
interested in the idea and willing to participate. He held several meetings with the community leaders,
who, though initially hesitant, eventually became convinced of the project’s potential, and agreed tosupport the effort. To strengthen their commitment, Ako set up a local governing committee, which
included local leaders, to manage and monitor the system after Ako has moved on to othercommunities. The project is thus designed to be managed by local communities. For harvesting thewet season’s rainwater, a network of cement lined gutters is constructed. The gutters slope andempty into an open cement cistern in which water hyacinths and lilies are planted on a gravel bed for
microfiltration. Over this, bamboo or metal sheets channel collected water into a closed tank, while
excess drainage runs into the cistern. Separate taps are attached to each cistern for the watersupplies for agricultural and domestic purposes, respectively. The system is designed to be village
property and open to everyone without a fee. In addition to providing a safe domestic public water
source and water for agriculture and commercial use, the initiative simultaneously provides a training
program for young people in the field of water resource management. Ako plans to spread his idea
by implementing it in all thirteen communities in which he presently works. He has already received
a substantial Ford grant for his water project pilot and several other projects his organization is
involved in, and he is confident that with the success of this pilot, he will be able to get funding to
spread the idea.
An important lesson from Ako’s project is that the principle of co-management should guide water
resources development and management. The “top-down” governance of science and technology
should yield to this reality. This implies that local beneficiaries and “outside experts” work together
giving equal weight to both knowledge types. This approach would produce more positive outcomes
if the process of project development and acquisition of traditional knowledge are carried out in aparticipatory manner, rather than consultation.

Chapter Three
Research Methodology
3.1

The Study Area

The study areas include three rural/semi-urban Local Government Areas of Oyo state. The three
Local Government Areas; are Ibarapa, Afijio and Lagelu. The choice of Ibarapa as one of the study
areas is due to the fact that it is a predominantly rural area with over 1,200 communities or localities(State Valuation Office, 2004) that are grouped around fourteen large communities that are classified
as semi-urban towns. Administratively, the area is organised into three local government areas(Ibarapa east, Ibarapa central and Ibarapa north) and it forms part of the Oyo South Senatorial
District which has nine local governments in all. Oyo state as a whole is organised into three Senatorial
districts and thirty three local governments.
The people of Ibarapa in Ibarapa Local Government Area (LGA) are predominantly farmers. Althoughfarming activities in the area is largely subsistence in nature, in the last few years, there has been an
upsurge in the number of large commercial farms in the area. This implies that water demand in thearea is essentially for agricultural and domestic purposes. Agricultural production in the area depends
largely on rainfall; therefore aggregate water demand in the area depends on population which isestimated to be 227,754 (NPC, 1991). Apart from population growth, infrastructural development andlifestyle changes due to infrastructural development and socio-economic growth are other possible
determinants of water demand in the area.
Ibarapa covers about 2317 Km2 of rolling derived savannah country to the west of Ibadan, between
approximately Latitude 30 and 30 20’ and Longitude 70 and 70 50’ The Ogun and Oyan rivers form its
eastern and western boundaries respectively. Generally, the topography consists of broad undulating
plains dotted with isolated or massed inselbengs and occasionally, with long wooded ridges. The
river valleys are very broad and shallow, while the rocks are mostly impermeable granite gneisseswith quartz hands and are very poor aquifers. Underground water is limited to a few isolated weatheringbasins. Wells, rivers and streams in the area are filled by inflow only during the rainy season from April
to October. Therefore, during the dry season, water shortage is a very serious problem in the area.
Meanwhile, rainfall is highly seasonal and more serious is the fact that the beginning and end of therainy season fluctuate very much from year to year though the area is within a rainfall zone of 1000 –1200 mm per annum.

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Lack of good portable water has always been a major problem in Ibarapa area and government at
different levels has been interested in the problem. In the 1970s, a dam was constructed in Eruwa by
the state government for the purpose of providing pipe-borne water to the major towns in the area
(Akintola et. al, 1979). It was then not possible to connect the rural communities to the pipe-borne
supply network because of the low population density of the rural areas. Rural water supply isprovided through the state Water and Sanitation Project (WATSAN) which was established in 1992
with the support of UNICEF. Boreholes and deep-wells were sunk by WATSAN in rural areas acrossthe state including in Ibarapa. The agency was also involved in the mobilisation and enlightenmentof communities on WATSAN activities so as to reduce the ‘government owned’ syndrome thereby,
having sustainable programme. Furthermore, the agency also encourages maintenance culture for
infrastructure provided by the WATSAN project.
After almost three decades of pipe-borne water supply and over one decade of rural water supply by
the state WATSAN project, the water needs of the people are yet to be adequately met. An indicationof the poor water supply situation in the area is the upsurge in guinea-worm infection in the rural
areas of Ibarapa in the last five years (personnal interview with WATSAN official) . Because of thesocio-economic and political implications of the health impact of inadequate water supply situationin Ibarapa area, both the state government through the state Water Corporation and the federal
government through the WATSAN project and financial support from Japan Grant Aid Programme
are implementing a new water supply development agenda in Ibarapa. The question that policy
researchers and analysts are now asking is: why did past efforts aimed at providing water for domestic
purposes in Ibarapa area unable to meet the water needs of the people? and how effective andefficient are the new rural water supply development programmes and to what extent are theysustainable?
Afijio LGA is located towards the northern part of Ibadan, the capital of Oyo state. The LGA is madeup of about 6 communities, Akinmorin, Fidti, Ilora, Jobele, Imini and Olorunda with the headquarters
at Jobele. Among the 6 communities, Ilora is selected for the current study because of its nearness
and the influence of Oyo town on its development. Ilora is a typical semi-urban community where
government’s presence especially in the provision of pipe-borne water could be easily seen. The
choice of Ilora assisted the researchers in the comparative analysis of government initiatives inwater supply with that of the other two LGAs where NGOs and people’s initiatives predominate.
Igbo-Elerin community is located in the Lagelu LGA of the state. This LGA is located towards thenorth eastern part of Ibadan, the capital of Oyo state. The community is made up of smaller
communities such as Olode, Apatere, Oyedeji, Elesu and Osuna Jiboro. Igbo-Elerin community is atypical rural community in Oyo state. The community has a population of less than 10,000 according
to the 1991 population census. The major sources of water supply in the town are the local streams,
a few hand dug wells and a borehole donated by an indigene of the community some years ago.
Water supply in the community is usually from streams and harvested rain water during the rainy

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

17

season. However, during the dry season the members of the community depend solely on the few
hand dug wells, local springs and brooks and the borehole.
The choice of the three study areas is justified on the ground that the areas are different in terms of
portable water supply problems and management. For instance, Ibarapa represents an area where
there has been intervention from Water and Sanitation Project (WATSAN) of Oyo State. The study,
therefore, evaluates how effective this intervention has been. On the other hand, Ilora is a semi urban
area with some elements of government intervention while Igbo Elerin represents an area where
there has never been any intervention in the past. The question of how the communities in the threeareas have been able to cope is addressed in the study. The three areas selected for the study arecompared in terms of the willingness of the stakeholders to participate in water supply management,
the impact of previous government intervention and indigenous knowledge based system in water
management.

3.2

Data Collection and Analysis

There is an increasing recognition in the literature on field methods in development studies that
judicious combination of qualitative and quantitative methods can help solve problems that areassociated with each type of methods taken separately (Kanbur, 2001; White, 2002). Therefore, thestudy adopted a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodology, including Focus Group
Discussions (FGDs), in-depth interviews (IDIs) with stakeholders as well as structured and semistructured questionnaires survey.
3.2.1 Data Collection: Types and Sources
Data collection activities followed directly from the objective of the study. Relevant policy andprogramme documents of government were collected and reviewed. In addition semi-structured
interviews were carried out with some top-government officials.
In order to determine the ‘Social Solidarities’ or the willingness of the stakeholders to adopt and/or
implement government policies and programme on water resources management in the study
area, focus group discussion with different stakeholders groups as well as structured questionnaireadministration to all the stakeholders were carried out.
For the remaining objectives of the study, structured and semi-structured questionnaires were used
to collect data from stakeholders, relevant government agencies and top government agencies. For
the questionnaire survey, 200 questionnaires were administered in each location thus making a totalof 600 questionnaires while FGDs were held in Igbo Elerin, Eruwa and Ilora to complement theresults of the questionnaire survey. The questionnaires were administered to head of households ortheir representatives where they were not available after two repeat visits by field enumerators.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

3.2.2 Data Analysis
Data analysis involved the use of both qualitative and quantitative statistical techniques. The present
policy and institutional framework for water resources management, and how it has changed overtime
was described qualitatively. Out of the 600 questionnaires administered, only 487 were good enoughfor analysis.
The questionnaires had several closed ended questions with appropriate rating scales hence,
SPSS software was used in the analysis. Simple frequencies and percentages generated from theanalysis were presented in tables and figures to discuss data and information on various issues
addressed by the study objectives. Furthermore, the FGDs and IDIs were carefully content analysed
and the results used to complement the quantitative data.

Chapter FourHistorical Antecedents of Water Policy Formulationin Nigeria
4.1

Introduction

Nigeria has abundant water resources although they are unevenly distributed over the country. The
highest annual precipitation of about 3,000 mm occurs in the Niger delta and mangrove swamp
areas of the south-east, where rain falls for more than eight months a year. There is a progressive
reduction in precipitation northwards with the most arid north-eastern Sahelian region receiving as
little as 500 mm a-1 precipitation for about 3-4 months of rainfall. Widespread flooding occurs in thesouthern parts of the country, while the northern parts experience chronic water shortages during thedry season when rain fed springs, streams and boreholes dry up.
The problems associated with the lack of adequate portable water supply in the country threaten toplace the health of about 40 million people at risk. According to the World Bank (1990), it would costin excess of US$10 million a year to correct such problems if ground and surface water contamination
goes unchecked. The people most affected tend to be the urban and landless poor. In the long-term,
the present level of environmental degradation could create health problems from water-borne
diseases from most of this population. Many people are already affected by having to consume
unsafe drinking water. Water contamination also places other resources at risk; fisheries and land
resources, for example, have already been affected significantly. Most of the environmental pollution
problems arise from anthropogenic sources, mainly from domestic and industrial activities.
It is based on the realisation of this fact and the importance the Federal Government of Nigeria(FGN) attached to adequate water supply that water resources management has always being partand parcel of the National Policy on Environment.

4.2

The National Policy on Environment (NPE)The National Policy on the Environment (NPE) was launched by the then Head of State, General
Babangida in Abuja on 27 November 1989 (FEPA, 1989). The goal of that policy was to achievesustainable development in Nigeria and, in particular to:• Secure for all Nigerians a quality environment adequate for their health and well-being.
• Conserve and use the environment and natural resources for the benefit of present andfuture generations.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

20• Restores, maintain and enhance ecosystems and ecological processes essential for thefunctioning of the biosphere and for the preservation of biological diversity and to adopt the
principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems.
• Co-operate in good faith with other countries, international organizations and agencies toachieve optimal use of transboundary natural resources and effective prevention or abatementof tranboundary environmental pollution.
As outlined above, although no specific mention of water resources management is contained in thepolicy, on environment as launched by the Federal Government include all natural resources including
water.

4.3

Water Resources Management the NPE

The turning point for water resources development and management in Nigeria could be traced as
for back as 1960 after the severe drought of the 1960s. The Government’s response to the catastrophe
was the initiation of strategies for co-ordinated and effective water resources development,
culminating in the creation of the Federal Ministry of Water Resources and the River Basin
Development Authorities in the mid-1970s. The activities of these institutions were further strengthenedin 1981 by the establishment of the National Committee on Water Resources, and by the Water
Boards at the state level. These bodies were charged with taking an inventory, and ensuring rationaland systematic planned management and conservation, of the country’s water resources.

4.4

Strategies under the NPE

Implementation of the Nigerian National Policy on Environment depends on specific action directed
towards major sectors and towards problem areas of the environment (FEPA, 1989). The management
approach adopted in the policy is based on an integrated, holistic and systemic view of environmental
issues. The programme activities of this policy are expected to establish and strengthen legal,
institutional, regulatory, research, monitoring, evaluation, public information, and other relevantmechanisms for ensuring the attainment of the specific goals and targets of the policy. It will also
encourage environmental assessment of proposed activities which may affect the environment or
the use of natural resources prior to their commencement. The strategies put forward for effective
water resources management in the policy include:• Promulgation of a national water resources law to co-ordinate water resources development.
• Formulation of a water resources master plan.
• Improvement of water use efficiency for sustainable development.
• Implementation of water conservation measures including inter-basin water transfer.
• Establishment and enforcement of national water quality and emission standards to protect
human health and aquatic ecosystems and species.

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

21• Establishment of environmental monitoring stations or networks to locate and monitor
sources of environmental pollutants and to determine their actual or potential danger to humanhealth and the environment.
• Continuous data collection for resources monitoring and management.
• Introduction of economic incentives.
Programmes to assess the available water resources of the country were strengthened to provide,
among other things, data on:• Hydrological features affecting surface water resources.
• The location of groundwater resources and their characteristics in terms of depths, yields,
permeabilities, storage and recharge.
• Per capita water use and requirements.
• Changes in hydrological regimes resulting from human activities, such as water use or
extraction, pollution and the effects of mining and lumbering.
• The management of small and large dams.
• Irrigation problems with regard to crop water requirements, salinity, drainage and pollution
from fertilizers, pesticides and cultivation activities.
• Existing freshwater living resources.
As part of the strategies for the implementation of the National Policy on Environment in the watersector, a comprehensive national water resources master plan has now been drawn up with support,
from the Government of Japan, through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). For the
first time, a decree on water resources protection and management has been promulgated (FGN,
1993), with the purpose of:• Promoting the optimum planning, development and use of the Nigeria’s water resources.
• Ensuring the co-ordination of such activities as are likely to influence the quality, quantity,
distribution, use and management of water.
• Ensuring the application of appropriate standards and techniques for the investigation, use
control, protection, management and administration of water resources.
• Facilitating technical assistance and rehabilitation for water supplies.

4.5

The 2000 National Water and Sanitation Policy

During the Water and Sanitation Decade of the 1980’s a number of lessons were learnt.
a) The most important one was that the sustainability of rural water and sanitation investments
is dependent on the degree to which communities are involved in the decision making, funding
and operation of the facilities. Rural water schemes are usually the responsibility of the State
Water Agencies which in the past have provided fuel, operators, watchmen and repair services,
but which increasingly are relying on the beneficiary communities to supply these. Tariffs forsuch schemes normally are not charged because the cost of revenue collection is generally
overwhelming. Since these rural systems cannot be operated on a commercial basis, watersupply agencies minimize their financial losses by limiting their services.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49
b. The problems experienced in achieving adequacy in the rural areas prompted the Federal
Government to commence a decentralization programme designed to make LGAs moreautonomous and responsive to local needs, and technically and financially capable of providing
services. The programme is intended to end dependency on the central government and “topdown” planning. This is being achieved by giving the country’s 774 LGAs primary responsibility
for planning and administration of their own development programme, increasing their budget
allocations, and requiring communities to take the lead in decision making and implementing
development projects based on their particular needs.

In year 2000, therefore, the Federal Government formulated a new National Water Supply andSanitation Policy which was not subsumed under the National Policy on the Environment. This
policy states inter alia ‘the center-piece of Nigeria’s water supply and sanitation policy shall be theprovision of sufficient portable water and adequate sanitation to all Nigerians in an affordable andsustainable way through participatory investment by the three tiers of government, the private sector
and the beneficiaries.’ The policy document goes further to set water supply improvement standard
for urban, semi-urban and rural policy objectives. The new broad policy objectives for water resources
development and management in the country have been redefined to include formulation of acomprehensive and integrated policy for sustainable development of the nation’s water resources.
The new policy would institutionalize multisectoral and integrated water resources management
approaches that would promote national utilization and conservation of the resources based onequitable allocation and ensuring the protection of the ecosystem. Promotion and support for theprovision of water and sanitation to guarantee adequate supply of portable water for all needs are
given prominence in the policy.
Also the policy is designed to enhance the preparation of adequate regulations and legal frameworkthat would guarantee full protection of the resources from pollution, and over exploitation. It would
foster bilateral and multilateral cooperation to facilitate the equitable and rational development andexploitation of transboundary water resources.
The development of appropriate technical and managerial capacities and institutions that could
support and sustain integrated water resources development in the country and the institutionalizationof principle of stakeholder participation, decentralization, the participation of women, equity andeconomic values are also incorporated in the new policy.
There are also political challenges in the area of appropriate pricing, equitable allocation of waterand sometime policy implementation are extremely linked to political pressures and dictates. Other
challenges relate to institutional issues, and international issues, like proper definition of roles at alllevels of government, which is still vague and which encourages duplication of efforts and multiplicity
of agencies across sector.

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

23

The Need for a Better Policy
The inadequacies outlined above in the Nigerian Water Supply and Sanitation industry call for a wellarticulated approach to water supply and sanitation towards a systematic development of the industry
over a defined period of time. The approach therefore should define an acceptable National Policythat will set up a planning process, research and manpower development, institutional structure,legal framework and financing strategy that will meet the socio-economic requirements of the country.
The major provisions of the policy are as follows:
Policy Objectives:
The centre-piece of Nigeria’s water supply and sanitation policy, shall be the provision of sufficient
potable water and adequate sanitation to all Nigerians in an affordable and sustainable way throughparticipatory investment by the three tiers of government, the private sector and the beneficiary.
Targeti) The initial target is to meet the national economic target of improving service coverage
from 40% to 60% by the year 2003.
ii) Extension of service coverage to 80% of the population by the year 2007.
iii) Extension of service coverage to 100% of the population in the year 2011iv) Sustain 100% full coverage of water supply and wastewater services for the growing
population beyond the year 2011.

Consumption Standard
Separate water supply and sanitation considerations are made to match the three socio-economic
profiles of the population as follows:§ Rural water supply guaranteed minimum level of service of 30 liters per capita per day
within 250 meters of the community of 150 to 5,000 people serving about 250-500persons
per water point.
§ Semi-urban (small towns) water supply represent settlements with population of between
5,000-20,000 with a fair measure of social infrastructure and some level of economic
activity with minimum supply standard of 60 liters per capital per day with reticulation andlimited of full house connections as determined by the beneficiaries/government.
§ Urban water supply 120 liters per capital per day for urban areas with population greaterthan 20,000 inhabitants to be served by full reticulation and consumer premises connection.
Components of the Policy Objectives
The elements of the policy objectives include but are not limited to the following.
i. Increase service coverage for water supply and sanitation nationwide to meet the level ofsocio-economic demand of the nation in the sector.
ii. Ensure good water quality standards are maintained by water supply undertakings.
iii. Ensure affordability of water supply and sanitation services for the citizens.

24

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49
iv. Guarantee affordable access for the poor o basic human need level of water supply andsanitation services.
v. Enhance national capacity in the operation and management of water supply and sanitation
undertaking.
vi. Privatize water supply and wastewater services (where feasible) with adequate protection
for the poor.
vii. Monitor the performance of the sector for sound policy adjustment and development forwater supply and sanitation.
viii. Legislations, regulations and standards for water supply and sanitation.
ix. Reform of the water supply and sanitation sector to attain and maintain internationallyacceptable standards.

Policy Strategies
In order to achieve the policy objectives, the following strategies are enumerated relative to each of
the elements of the policy objective.
Increase service coverage for water supply and sanitation nationwide to meet the level of the socioeconomic demand of the nation on the sector.
i. Undertake water supply and sanitation feasibility survey for all the states and the FCT toacquire baseline data for proper investment planning.
ii. Rehabilitation and modernization of existing water supply works to restore them to theiroptimum operational capacity.
iii. Expansion of existing urban water supply works to enhance capacities to meet over grown
demand.
iv. Distribution network repair and renewal for all urban water supply schemes.
v. Comprehensive metering of all water supply schemes from abstraction through distribution
to consumer connections.
The water policy also proposed important reform issues in water supply provision in the country. Oneof the reform issues is that water should be managed at the lowest appropriate level (appropriate
being key and a function of the specific conditions in the concerned areas and communities). This
principle promotes consumer appreciation for the value of water and sanitation investments. If local
conditions and demand are taken into account in the planning, financing, implementing and operationof water supply and sanitation systems, the sense of ownership and willingness of communities toshare in the cost and operations and maintenance will be greatly enhanced, thereby increasing thesustainability of the systems.
Although the 2000 National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy stated that government shall sponsor
capital investments for rural water supply, the level of provision of water in the rural areas is still very
low. For instance as shown in Table 4.1, the rural areas in Nigeria lagged behind in various sourcesof drinking water available to households, except the open public well, rivers/streams and rain waterin which they have higher percentages compares to the urban areas in 2003 (see Figure 1). This is
not surprising considering the fact that, unlike in the urban areas, rural dwellers rely more on water

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

25

from rivers, streams and ponds. Also, rain water is a major source of water for domestic use, especiallyfor drinking in the rural areas. Among the geo-political zones, the south-west zone in which the study
is based ranked low in terms of supply of piped water into dwelling yard, protected well in dwellingyard, protected public well and the use of rain water as sources of water supply. In the Western zone,
it takes about 9 minutes from dwelling houses to major sources of water.
Table 4.1: Distribution of households by access to water supply and sanitation facilities (2003)(%)
Household Characteristics

Source of drinking water:
Piped into dwelling/yard/plot
Public tap
Open well in dwelling/yard/plot
Open public well
Protected well in dwelling/yard/plot
Protected public well
Rivers/stream/spring/pond
Rain water
Tanker truck
Other
Total
Time to water source
Percentage 25 minutes
Median time to source
Sanitation Facility
Flush toilet
Traditional pit toilet
Ventilated improved pit (vip)LatrineBush/Field
River
Others
Total
Persons per sleeping room

ResidenceGeo-political zone
Urban
Rural North North North South South South Total
CentralEast West East South West
14.4
18.5
9.4
6.7

2.3
6.2
14.2
21.2

7.8
8.1
12.6
9.4

4.6
9.7
15.1
30.8

10.2
11.8
22.9
25.0

8.3
11.3
1.8
1.5

3.2
4.6
3.3
5.2

4.6
18.8
9.2
12.7

6.6
10.6
12.5
16.0

6.7
24.4
8.1
0.5
5.9
5.2
100.0

3.7
16.3
29.9
2.1
1.9
2.0
98.8

5.5
11.5
38.1
0.1
5.9
0.6
99.6

1.8
5.3
19.4
0.0
4.4
8.9
100.0

3.3
12.1
11.3
0.0
0.6
2.9
100.1

10.8
33.1
16.7
6.7
7.3
1.8
99.8

7.0
35.8
34.8
4.3
1.4
0.5
100.1

3.5
25.6
16.8
0.5
4.2
4.1
100.0

4.8
19.2
22.1
1.5
3.3
3.2
99.8

64.9
4.6

51.4
9.9

51.1
10.0

58.2
9.4

62.1
6.5

59.4
4.9

45.8
14.8

59.4
9.2

56.3
9.4

28.7
55.6

6.7
56.9

9.6
50.1

4.5
74.6

4.5
74.3

41.3
39.8

21.2
42.3

23.4
39.1

14.6
56.5

5.5
9.7
0.3
0.1
100.0
2.9

1.9
31.6
2.7
0.0
100.0
3.6

1.9
38.0
0.4
0.0
100.0
4.0

0.5
20.1
0.3
0.0
100.0
3.7

1.6
19.2
0.3
0.1
100.0
3.3

0.9
17.6
0.1
0.0
100.0
3.0

8.5
19.7
8.2
0.0
100.0
3.6

5.5
30.7
1.2
0.1
100.0
2.2

3.2
23.7
1.9
0.0
100.0
3.3

Note: percentages may not add to 100 due to missing cases

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

27

It could be noted from the above that the policy emphasis for the provision and distribution of waterin the country generally and the state in particular is the assurance of portable quality as well as
adequate quantity to all groups of people irrespective of structure or geographical scale.
Given the above scenario, there is a formidable lack of policy dynamism with the changing trends inthe society. The subsisting document on water remains the patchy 29-year-old edict of the stateestablishing its water boards even when the Nigerian society has witnessed enormous changes in
its social, economic, political and the overall institutional sector during the period. For instance, thecountry has transited, within the period from a prosperous oil boom to an austere oil doom, as well asfrom unpopular military government to a broad based participatory democratic government. All thesechanges possess implications for infrastructural and service provision such as water and waste
management. Yet the existing water edict was not built to accommodate such changes. This lack ofpolicy dynamism especially in the water supply sector has continued to affect water supply provisionin the state, the rural areas been worse hit.

4.7

Oyo State Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) Project

The Oyo State UNICEF-Assisted Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) Project is the agency responsible
for rural water supply and sanitation in the state. The ‘WATSAN’ project as it is often referred to comeinto being early 1992 with the software components (community mobilsation/hygiene education,
sanitation etc) in the Ministry of Health and later moved to the Governor’s Office. The hardware
components are geophysical survey, drilling operation, platform construction, pump installation, andlatrine construction.
The objectives of Oyo State WATSAN Project are to:a) increase access to portable water supply by provision of boreholes with durable handpumps and eventually eradicate faecal and water related diseases in the rural areas of the stateb) improve standard of living and productivity in rural areasc) increase access to proper waste disposal through promotion, construction, use andmaintenance of low cost “sanplat” (sanitation platform) latrinesd) promote behavioural changes with respect to water use, personal hygiene and efficientmeans of excreta disposal; ande) enable participating communities to operate and maintain their own installation throughspecially designed training and cost recovery schemes.
For the realization of these objectives, the WATSAN Project consists of various units including,planning, monitoring and evaluation, community mobilization/hygiene education, sanitation, watersupply, workshop, administration and finance.
Financing of the WATSAN project is a joint effort of the UNICEF, state government, local governments
and participating communities.

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

28a) The UNICEF provides the heavy/light equipment rigs, compressors, vehicles, workshop
machines, workshop tools etc.
b) The state government is responsible for providing drilling materialsc) The local government is responsible for provision of some drilling materials, staff
accommodation and field allowanced) The participating communities on their own are responsible for the operation andmaintenance as well as the provision of security for the facilities provided to prevent vandalisation.
The WATSAN project was designed to have 6 units
1. Administration and Finance
2. Water Supply Unit
3. Sanitation Unit
4. Community Mobilization/Hygiene Education Unit
5. Project Monitoring and Evaluation
6. Workshop/Maintenance Unit
The water supply unit, which is the project’s core unit, is further divided into sub-units comprising thedrilling, geophysical, pump installation/platform base and alternative water supply units. The
alternative water supply unit promotes the exploitation of alternative water supply e.g. hand-dug well,rain harvest, pond water up grading as well as spring water upgrading/development. The various
units are interrelated and have one form of intervention or the other in the community where boreholes
are constructed.
For water supply projects executed by WATSAN to be sustainable, emphasis is now on demand
driven intervention (DDI). According to an official of WATSAN., past experience in project execution
showed that many communities where the project are executed do not usually appreciate the factthat project belongs to them. As a result, the projects are not well utilized and maintained.
DDI is an expression on the part of the communities that they need the project and signals thewillingness on the part of the affected communities to be part of the project by making their intention
known to the local government which in turn will contact the state office of WATSAN. The community
should be able to prove that they are willing to contribute monetarily or through labour input for
example during the casting of concrete platform, scooping of available sand within community to bemixed with cement for casting. It is at this moment that WATSAN will sit and deliberate with theaffected community. Usually, the level of financial involvement is shared in the following proportion:state (50%), local government (40%), and community (10%). This level of involvement, especially on
the part of the community is expected to give them a sense of belonging and ownership of the projectso that they will not be indifferent to or neglect the facility.
In executing a project in any community, the first intervention is from project monitoring and evaluation
unit (PME). The PME finds out if there is any existing water source in the community, particularly
drinkable water sources. The PME goes to take statistics and collect data such as total populationASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

29

of the community, number of women and children since UNICEF lay emphasis on women andchildren. Data are also collected on existing infrastructures in the community such as access roads,
schools, etc. It is based on this that the appropriate water technology for any community is chosen.
Usually, any community that is made up of less than 200 people is provided with hand-dug well/rain
harvest system. If the community has a pond or spring, it is upgraded. For a community that has
between 200-500 people, it is provided with hand operated borehole. A community that has morethan 500 people, is provided with motorized borehole or multiple boreholes in a situation where
there is no electricity. Apart from project implementation, the PME again re-intervene to monitor the
impact of the facility on the community.
The community mobilization/hygiene unit engages in advocacy aimed at educating the public about
the intention of government to provide target community with portable water supply. It is during theinteractive session with the community that the role the community wants to play during the projectwill be spelt out. Thereafter, WATSAN will inaugurate committee comprising 10 members made up
of artisans (because of their technical skills), opinion leaders and some officials of WATSAN project.
From inception, WATSAN has dug about 800 boreholes in not less than 28 out of the 33 local
government areas in the state. WATSAN maintains a good database of their activities especiallyinformation about communities and borehole records. Two of the 3 LGAs used for this study i.e.
Ibarapa and Lagelu are among the 28 LGAs that have benefited from WATSAN provided boreholes.
WATSAN has recorded some measure of success in the provision of water for rural areas in Oyo
State. However, the major problem with many of the boreholes provided is that no sooner than theboreholes are provided that they break down, mostly due to lack of maintenance of the facility on thepart of the community. Of the three boreholes provide by WATSAN in Eruwa, only one is still functioning.
Hence the present arrangement for the WATSAN provided boreholes is not sustainable. For example
in Oloode village in Lagelu LGA, two boreholes were constructed by WATSAN, the first using motorizedpump was not completed because the local government and the community could not fulfill theirown parts of the agreement; that is, the 40% involvement by the LGA and the 10% by the community.
One the other hand, the hand pump constructed more than 8 years ago is still functioning but grossly
inadequate for the population of the village. According to some of the inhabitants, it takes up to 25
minutes queuing and waiting to fetch a bucket of water. Hence, more than 50% of the inhabitants
depend on streams, brooks and springs as their major sources of water supply especially during thedry season. On the other hand, the motorized pump bore-hole constructed by WATSAN in Apatere,
Lagelu LGA worked for a few months only. The problem again has to do with the non fulfillment on thepart of the local government authority and the community especially as far as the maintenance of the
facility is concerned.

Chapter Five
Socio-Economic Dimensions of Water Provision andManagement in the Study Area
5.1

Introduction

This chapter examines the socio-economic dimensions of rural water supply and management in
the areas covered by this research. Using the results of the survey questionnaires and the FGDs heldin three different communities, issues of availability of water supply, sources, storage techniques,
willingness to pay for improved water supply, indigenous technology in water sourcing and storage,
among others, are discussed.

5.2

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Survey Respondents

5.2.1 Sex of Respondents
A total of 487 respondents were interviewed in the three study areas. About 50.5% were male while
the remaining were females. There is a deliberate attempt to represent the sexes almost equally
because of the universality of water and the higher influence of women in decisions relating tofetching and using water. Often in the developing world, particularly in both its rural and traditional
urban settings, decisions about household water use fall directly on women who are expected tosimply get water by whichever means while the male goes to farm or for other economic activities forhousehold livelihood. The result of this analysis is presented in Table 5.1.
5.2.2 Marital Status
There are three marital characteristics among the respondents in the sample communities. These
are the singles, the married and the others. About 41% of all respondents were single while about
58% were married. The remaining 1% was among others including the widows and divorced or the
separated. More often, the quantity of water used is related to the household size, hence the marriedhouseholds are likely to be high consumers of water. The interest of this group is therefore notsurprising. It must be noted that household water fetching exerts a lot of pressure on large households
in the rural areas where almost all adult members are expected to partake in the production process.
5.2.3 Age of Respondents
More than three quarters of those interviewed were above 20 years of age. The result consistently
shows that the highest proportion of the total number of respondents falls between the ages of 20-40

30

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

31

years. This result is not surprising considering the fact that these age cohorts are the most active
when it comes to fetching water. On the other hand, the decision to fetch and use water in thehousehold, in most cases, rests squarely on this age group. The major implication of this result isthat since substantial amount of time is spent in fetching water in rural areas (see Table 5.1), it thenmeans that there is substantial human hour loss because this age group is the most active working
group. It should be noted that most rural informal income generating activities are labour intensive.
Therefore, the productivity of labour is drastically reduced in the course of fetching water, and low
productivity deepens poverty.
5.2.4 Education of respondents
It is a well known fact that the literacy level in rural Nigeria is generally low. The result obtained fromthis analysis, therefore, is not much different from what is expected. The highest education attainmentof more than 75% of the respondents is secondary school. This result is even a little improvement
when compared with literacy level in many other parts of Nigeria. This is because of the high level ofinteractions between these communities and Ibadan metropolis, the Oyo State capital and economic
nerve centre. The number of respondents with tertiary education is highest in Eruwa. This is becauseof the presence of a tertiary institution (The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Eruwa Campus) in the community.
It is the only community among others surveyed that has a tertiary institution. Literacy level has some
implications on quantity and quality characteristics of water use by households as well as the
management of the existing water sources, especially in the rural areas.
5.2.5 Income of Respondents
Income of rural dwellers in Nigeria is often generally low. In the study areas, the situation is not quite
different. The result of analysis shows that close to two-third of the total number of respondents earn
less than N10,000 monthly (approximately US$77.5 a month)’. Oral interviews conducted with the
respondents revealed that majority of them earn even far less than the stated amount. Infact, about
15.6% of the respondents were not willing to disclose the amount they earn, claiming that since they
don’t have regular income, there is great variation in the amount of money that comes their way fromtime to time, sometimes earning per month could be near zero naira. Low income earnings in therural areas have implication for willingness to pay for provision of water supply in the communities.
It will also affect their willingness to contribute to the management of the existing water supply
infrastructure especially boreholes, which is the only source of safe portable water supply in most ofthese communities (Table 5.1).
5.2.6 Occupation of Respondents
The distribution of respondents among the various occupation groups in the communities studied
show that there are more traders (26.9%) than any other group. Farming accounts for about 18% of
the respondents. This distribution is interesting because it shows, among other implications, that inrural areas, the non-farm informal sector is growing. Moreover, there is also the gender perspectiveof this distribution, most women are usually in the distributive trade sector and constitute a substantial
part of the sampled respondents in the communities. In all the communities, the influence of theurban settlements is visible and increasing. This scenario possesses implication for water sourcing

32

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

among the household in the communities. Farming ranks as the second major occupation in thearea and this may also on the long run have implications for the degradation of major sources ofwater such as rivers and streams etc. Furthermore, the two major occupations in the focus
communities – trading and farming – are activities that require long human hour daily. Hence, if thesame set of people that are expected to fetch water are also expected to be in the market or farm,then the implications of water fetching for human hour loss to water fetching would be glaring. This
statement is supported by the findings of Akintola et al (1980). According to them ‘none of thehousewives goes to fetch water less than four times daily … thus a sizeable proportion of the rurallabour force is engaged in fetching water daily. Indeed during the dry season many farmers often joinin the search for water’. It must be emphasized that the ‘other’ in Table 5.1 has a surprisingly larger
proportion than most other occupation groups. This could be attributed to the influence of students
in the communities studied. There is a campus of the Polytechnic at Eruwa, which partly explains
the greater proportion (18.9%) of this group among sampled respondents in the community.
5.2.7 Household Size
Most rural households in Nigeria are large because of the kinship structure and the extended familysystem. It is not surprising therefore that almost half (47.4%) of the total number of the respondents
have between 6 and 10 members in their households. Furthermore, another 22.2% have above 11
members in their household. Household size has implication for quantity of water consumed in thehousehold. Considering the existing low level of water provision in the rural areas, it then means thatless water is available per person in the household. It also means that households would fetch water
more frequently and from a variety of sources with varying quantities. According to Akintola et al(1980), many rural inhabitants have no choice but to make use of whatever sources of water that isavailable no matter the quality.
5.2.8 Length of Stay in the Community
The lengths of stay in the sampled communities varied between 1 year to more than 20 years. Morethan 29% of the respondents in the three communities have stayed between 1-5 years. However,majority of this group (56.6%) are respondents from Eruwa where the satellite campus of the Ibadan
Polytechnic is located. This is suggesting that most of the respondents who have stayed between 1
year and 5 years are likely to be students. Apart from this group, more than 30% of all respondents inall communities have stayed in their respective communities for upwards of 20 years. The implicationsof this include a generally highly awareness of water related issues in their communities. Over time,these groups of people have been familiar with water supply and demand interactions; and may also
be able to establish changing trends in this interaction and the management of the situation.

(Footnotes)’
Based on the official exchange rate ofN
129 to US$1 in May, 2006.

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

33

Table 5.1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Location/Socio-eco
Igbo-Elerin
nomic characteristics No
%

Ilora
No

%

Eruwa
No

%

Total
No

%

Male
FemaleTotal
Marital Status

81
84
165

16.6
17.2
33.9

76
64
140

15.6
13.1
28.7

89
93
182

18.3
19.1
37.4

246
241
487

50.5
49.5
100.0

SingleMarried
Others
Total

25
140
165

5.1
28.7
33.9

70
70
140

14.4
14.4
28.7

104
73
5
182

21.4
15.0
1.0
37.4

199
28
35
487

40.9
58.1
1.0
100.0

<20 years
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
Total

7
32
39
29
35
23
165

1.4
6.6
8.0
6.0
7.2
4.3
33.9

38
40
42
13
6
1
140

7.8
8.2
8.6
2.7
1.2
0.2
28.7

22
89
40
23
6
2
182

4.5
18.3
8.2
4.7
1.2
0.4
37.4

67
161
121
65
47
26
487

13.8
33.1
24.8
13.3
9.7
5.3
100.0

Education
No formal
Primary
Secondary
Vocational
Tertiary
No response
Total

84
27
46
8
165

17.2
5.5
9.4
1.6
33.9

7
21
55
16
38
3
140

1.4
4.3
11.3
3.3
7.8
0.6
28.7

12
9
48
17
88
8
182

2.5
1.8
9.9
3.5
18.1
1.6
37.4

103
57
149
33
134
11
487

21.1
11.7
30.6
6.8
27.5
2.3
100.0

Occupation
Farming
Artisan/Craft
Public servant
Self-employed
Trading
OthersNo response
Total

64
7
4
13
51
20
6
165

13.1
1.4
0.8
2.7
10.5
4.1
1.2
33.9

16
23
12
36
50
3
140

3.3
4.7
2.5
7.4
10.3
0.6
28.7

6
6
18
22
30
92
8
182

1.2
1.2
3.7
3.5
6.2
18.9
2.9
37.4

86
30
34
71
131
112
23
487

17.7
6.2
7.0
14.6
26.9
23.0
4.7
100.0

Income<N10,000
142
N10,001-20,000 5
N20,001-30,000 4
No response
14
Total
165

29.2
1.0
0.8
2.9
33.9

100
9
5
6
140

20.5
6.0
1.0
1.2
28.7

86
37
3
56
182

17.7
7.6
0.6
11.5
37.4

328
71
12
76
487

67.4
14.6
2.5
15.6
100.0

Length of Stay in the Community
1-5 years38
7.8
6-10 years
27
5.5
11-15 years
4
0.8
16-20 years
7
1.4
Above 20 yrs 86
17.7
No response
3
0.6
Total
165
33.9

24
31
15
31
30
9
140

4.9
6.4
3.1
6.4
6.2
1.8
28.7

81
29
7
21
31
13
182

16.6
6.0
1.4
4.3
6.4
2.7
37.4

143
87
26
59
147
25
487

29.4
17.9
5.3
12.1
30.2

Sex

Age

100.0

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

34

Household size
1-5
6-10
11-15
16 and above
No response
Total

29
105
19
12
165

6.0
21.6
3.9
2.5
33.9

32
59
18
26
51
140

6.6
12.1
3.7
5.3
1.0
28.7

67
67
31
2
15
182

13.8
13.8
6.4
0.4
3.1
37.4

128
231
68
40
20
487

26.3
47.4
14.0
8.2
4.1
100.0

Source: Survey Data, 2005

5.3

Water Sources, Use and Availability

This section discuses water use, sources, as well as problems households confront in obtaining
water for domestic uses. Critical problems confronting household in obtaining water for domestic
uses including time and distance are discussed with specific reference to their variations in the
study areas.
5.3.1 Sources of Water
Rural areas in Nigeria are endowed with several sources of water. The sources vary from natural
sources like rivers, streams, ponds, rainwater, and human made sources like wells, boreholes andin few cases, pipe borne water. These rural communities, by force of circumstances, therefore
depend on many sources of water supply because no one source is capable of supplying all thewater needs throughout the year.
In the communities, more than half of the total respondents indicated borehole/well as the source ofwater they used most frequently, while rainwater is the least frequently used (0.6%). However, in
Ibadan rural communities, river/stream is the commonest and most available source of water theyuse. It is used by about 17% of the total respondents in this area.
The reasons for the above distribution may have to do with the fact that most of the sources of waterin the areas are seasonal and are incapable of all year round provision of water. There seems to bea special focus of the state and Ibarapa local government on Eruwa as regards to water provisionbecause of the presence of a higher institution with students’ population that may influence agitation
for improved water provision in the area. Hence, there is a visible failure of tap water supply to thecommunity, while majority of the respondents (24.8%) indicated that borehole and well are sourcesof water frequently used.
The reasons given in the survey for the four water sources the respondents used frequently include‘always available’, ‘cheaper’, ‘convenient to get’, and ‘high quality’. Some 31% respondents in all thecommunities did not indicate any reason. It is important to note also that some respondents indicate
more than one reason suggesting that such reasons as cost, availability, convenience as well as
quality may concurrently inform the decision to use a water source. In all, 33.5% of the total respondent
used their source frequently because it is always available while another 27.3% used their source

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

35

because of its cheap cost. Quality consideration formed only 12.4% of the reason for why respondents’sources of water were frequently used. This finding also supports the inferences drawn for thereasons for the preference of water sources by the respondents.
5.3.2 Preferred Water Source
In order to assess appropriate intervention strategy on the development of sources of water in the
study areas, the respondents were asked to indicate the source(s) of water they would ordinarily
prefer to use not minding the present level of availability. The preference was highest for borehole inall the sample communities followed by tap water. There are two implications of this finding. First, itshows that as against the results discussed in section 5.2.1, the rural dwellers are also aware ofwater quality and hence their preference for sources with greater quality. Secondly, it also shows thatin most communities, the source they used frequently was not the source they would have preferred.
The reasons for their preference include availability, cost, convenience and quality.
In all cases, the quality of the source ranked as the major reason why respondents preferred theirwater source. For instance, about 32% of the respondents indicated that the reason for the preference
for their water source is because of its high quality; while about 24% choose the preferred source
because it was convenient to get. About 19.6% indicated they preferred water sources that are bothcheap and always available.
A major inference from the distribution is that although about 32% choose their source because of its
quality, further investigation reveals that on the whole, quality consideration is not a priority of rural
water supply at least in the perception of the users. This has implication for quality improvement ofrural water because although the users may accept it when it comes, they on their own may notinitiate efforts to improve quality but only those efforts that serve to simultaneously reduce cost andavailability at the convenience of the rural populace may likely attract the attention of rural dwellers.
Infact as highlighted during the FGD discussion at Igbo-Elerin a participant noted: “Once the borehole
breaks down or residents refuse to contribute money to buy fuel to operate the borehole, we shift toour ever-reliable streams. It is God’s gift”.
5.3.3 Household Member Involved in Fetching Water
On the aggregate, women and children form the major groups (60%) involved in fetching water in allcases. This shows that water fetching is the primary responsibility of women and the children. The
proportion of men fetching water in the three communities of focus is generally low representing only
about 2.7% of the total respondents. In a typical African community, there is a near strict division oflabour in households in relation to water fetching, cooking and farming activities. The first two isalmost exclusively reserved for women while the last is for men. This has implication for planning forwater supply. A meaningful water supply strategy in the rural areas must therefore involve more
women than men because these are the group that is more conversant with the existing water
problems and coping strategies in their communities.

36

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

5.3.4 Time Spent in Fetching Water
A great deal of time and energy is spent fetching water in the rural areas in Nigeria. The result
obtained from this study reveals that there is variation in time spent fetching water among thecommunities sampled. While, on the whole, more than half of the total number of respondents spend
less than one hour fetching water daily, the highest proportion of respondents spending more than 3
hours daily in fetching water are from Eruwa. This is because Eruwa is one of the largest ruralcommunities in Oyo state in terms of population and land area. There is therefore a lot of pressure
on the few boreholes that are provided in the community. The length of time spent in fetching water
also varies from season to season, being highest during dry season. It is not surprising then thatsimilar to other studies (e.g Akintola et al, 1980), in people’s estimation of the benefits of rural watersupply improvement schemes, the considerations of obtaining water of improved quality are only
secondary to those of reducing the time and energy expended in fetching water (Table 5.2).
5.3.5 Distance of Main Sources of Water Supply from Respondents’ Residence
One of the reasons why a great deal of time and energy is spent fetching water in rural areas isbecause many of the sources are of considerable distance from the settlements especially during
the dry season. Though the distance from the source of water supply to majority of the respondents(24.2%) is less than 1 kilometer, the highest proportion of the total number of respondents (39%)
could not estimate the distance to the main source of water they use. Again another high proportionof the respondents claimed that the distance to main water source is more than 5km above. This
response is highest among respondents in Ilora and Eruwa. This result is not surprising considering
for example, the fact that Eruwa is a linear settlement. The distance between the two ends of thecommunity is about 7 kilometers. Apart from this fact, many respondents actually obtain their waterfrom rivers/streams which are located far away in the bush (See Table 5.2 and Box 1).
Box 1: Perception of use and problems of rivers/streams in the study area
Oyo state is highly dissected by rivers and streams. Among the major rivers include Ogun and Ona rivers.
Water from rivers and streams is an important source of water supply in many rural communities. For instance,in this study all the communities surveyed, depend largely on rivers and stream for their water supply. The
major problems with the use of water from rivers/ streams include doubtful quality and the distance of thesestreams from the communities. A visit to some of these streams by the researchers revealed that, on the
average, the walking time to these steams is 15 minutes. On the other hand, the researchers found that thestream (Ogere) visited in Igbo Oloyin contained a lot of sediments giving the water a brownish colour.
The people believed that the streams are a blessing to them since they have considerably reduced the
problems of water scarcity in the area. The water scarcity peaks during the dry season and eases during therainy season. As a result, people have to spend longer time at the stream. According to many of the respondents
in Eruwa, people do sleep overnight at the stream at the peak of dry season. Because of this, some male
household heads are compelled to help in fetching water from the stream with the use of bicycle or motorbike.
The water from most streams in Eruwa is often not drinkable. Therefore whenever the existing WATSAN
provided borehole is not functional, women and children often keep the night waiting for their turn to fetch at
hand-dug wells at the streams. Thus, the issues of distance and time spent at water source have combined
effects of making water collection a tedious, laborious and time wasting exercise.

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA
Table 5.2: Water use and sources in the sample communities
LocationIgbo-Elerin
No
%

Ilora
No

%

Eruwa
No

%

59
19
12
0
1
3
46
140

12.1
3.9
2.5
0.0
0.2
0.6
9.4
28.7

121
12
29
3
0
0
17
182

24.8
2.5
6.0
0.6
0.0
0.0
3.5
37.4

Reasons for the Source Frequently Used
Always Available
126
28.5
Cheaper135
30.5
Convenient to get
111
25.1
High Quality
56
12.7
None of the above
14
3.2
Total
442
100

65
61
55
23
15
216

28.7
28.2
25.5
10.6
6.9
100

90
31
26
24
2
173

52.0
17.9
15.0
13.9
1.1
100

Water source preferred
Harvest rain
2
Borehole
149
River/stream
10
Tap
3
No response
5
Total
165

1.2
88.2
5.8
1.8
3.0
100.0

42
66
13
9
24
154

27.4
42.9
8.5
5.6
15.6
100.0

16
83
13
55
20
187

8.6
44.4
7.0
29.0
10.3
100.0

Reasons for the Source Preferred
Always Available
144
24.6
Cheaper139
23.8
Convenient to get
152
26.0High Quality145
24.8
None of the above
5
0.85
Total
585
100

17
27
35
68
24
171

10.0
15.8
20.5
39.8
14.0
100

22
17
37
84
20
180

12.2
9.4
20.6
46.7
11.1
100

Reasons For Not Using the Preferred Water Source
Not Always Available 89
47.0
46
Expensive
78
41.2
42
Difficulty to Get
20
10.6
28
Low Quality
00.0
10
Not Available at All
2
1.0
10
Total
189
100
136

33.8
30.9
20.6
7.4
7.4
100

88
15
41
4
6
154

57.1
9.7
26.6
2.6
3.9
100

Household member involved in fetching water
Women
17
3.5
24
Men
2
0.4
11
Children
15
3.1
38
Women & Children
131
26.9
60
Others0
0.0
2
No response
0
0.0
5
Total
165
33.9
140

4.9
2.3
7.8
12.3
0.4
1.0
28.7

15
0
37
101
20
9
182

3.1
0.0
7.6
20.7
4.1
1.8
37.4

Source of water frequently used
Borehole/well
64
Rainwater
11River/stream
81
Borehole/rainwater
1
Borehole/river3
Rainwater/river0
No response
5
Total
165

13.1
2.3
16.6
0.2
0.6
0.0
1.0
33.9

37

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

40

The commonest methods of storing water that respondents currently used in the three study areas
include buckets (21.8%) and local pots (21.2%). Only about 8.5% use surface tanks in all thecommunities. Use of kegs/jerry cans and drums are not too common as only 17.8 % of the sampled
respondents used each of the methods.
Table 5.3: Local Methods of Storing Water by the Respondents

Methods ofstoring water

Methods
respondents
currently use

Inside drum
Kegs/jerry can
Plastic bowl
Buckets
Local pots
Surface tanks
Total
Inside drum
Kegs/jerry can
Plastic bowl
Buckets
Local pots
Surface tanks
Total

LocationIgbo-Elerin
No
%
17
8.9
18
9.4
8
4.2
56
29.3
86
45.0
6
3.1
191
100
13
8.3
7
4.5
7
4.5
50
32.1
61
39.1
18
11.5
156
100

Ilora
No
33
34
29
37
35
15
183
19
19
18
27
19
8
110

%
18.0
18.6
15.9
20.2
19.1
8.2
100
17.2
17.2
16.4
24.5
17.2
7.2
100

Eruwa
No
80
72
42
44
37
44
319
48
54
33
21
15
12
183

%
25.1
22.6
13.2
13.8
11.6
13.8
100
26.2
29.5
18.0
11.5
8.2
6.6
100

Source: Survey Data, 2005

The FGD sessions held in Ilora revealed that traditional ways of storing, preserving and storing waterin most rural areas is fast giving way to modern methods. For instance, one of the participants statedthat “in the olden days, our people stored water in earthen pots. Nowadays, we store water in plastic
containers. In addition, we also purify water from doubtful sources using alum. It is used mainly formuddy water. Since public taps were constructed in the late 1960s, I doubt if anybody uses pots
again”. Another participant stated that“it was easy to detect from which streams water was fetched by theirtastes; each stream has its own peculiar taste. Then, water-borne
diseases were common. Now most people are educated and theselling of sachet water has eradicated some of these diseases.
However there is typhoid these days that were not common then”
Rain harvesting is another important area where indigenous knowledge has been applied to increaseavailable water for domestic uses especially for drinking purposes in rural areas of Nigeria. The
study area is not an exemption. However, the existing methods of rain harvesting from roof tops andstorage cannot guarantee large quantities of water for domestic use over a long period of time. In

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

41

other words, only small quantity of water can be harvested and stored which may not last an average
household for more than three to five days.
Though rain harvesting is a good means of ensuring access to potable water, at least for a shortperiod of time in the study area, nevertheless, some of the technology challenges in this borders on
how to preserve the water so collected for a long period of time and how to make it safe for drinking.

5.5
Respondents’ Perception of who should Provide Water in the Rural
Communities
In Nigeria, there are institutional arrangements that ‘put’ the responsibility for water supply on thethree tiers of government namely, local, state and federal tiers of government. However, the failure ofthis arrangement with resultant acute water supply has led to the growth of private operatives in the
supply of water to communities. In the study areas, the three tiers of government claimed to be
involved in the provision of water. According to the respondents, the government, the community andthe public/private involvement (NGOs, and religious associations or collaboration between
government and community are the most common). The believe of about 97% respondents in therural area of Ibadan is that provision of water is the responsibility of government; the remaining 3%
believe that water could be provided by the community. As shown in Table 5.4, 77.4% of the
respondents see water provision as the responsibility of government while 11% each sees it as thatof community and public/private responsibility. The result of this analysis is presented in Figure 5.5.
That 97% and 84% of the respondents in Ibadan and Eruwa areas believe government should
provide water for communities is a reflection of the political dominance of the Ibadan/Ibarapa
senatorial district in Oyo state. On the other hand, residents of Ilora with little or no potential patronage
by successive governments had for a very long time depended on self-help and other private initiatives
in the supply of water.
Table 5.4: Respondents Opinion on Who Should provide water in the community

Government
Community
Public/private
Total
Source: Survey Data, 2005

Location
Ibadan Rural
No
%
159
97
5
3
0
0
164
100

Ilora
No
76
41
39
156

%
48.7
26.3
25
100

Eruwa
No
155
12
17
184

%
84.2
6.5
9.2
100

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

43

in Ibadan rural and Ilora. This is indicative of the low disposable income of the people in rural areas.
Other ways the respondents are willing to be involved in water supply and management include
provision of skilled labour, membership of community management committee for water facilities
and payment of water rates. The results are depicted in Figure 5.6a.
For those who are unwilling to b e involved in water supply provision and management, the main
reasons given include lack of money and the fact that the responsibility of providing potable water for
people is that of government. However, many of the respondents who are not willing to be involved inwater supply provision and management were found to be non-indigenes. This reason was given
mostly by respondents in Eruwa where a large proportion of respondents that gave this reason are
the tertiary institution students in the community. It should be noted that since the institution is nonresidential, the students live among the indigenes in the community. The consistently lowest
percentage that payment of water rate accounted for is indicative of that fact that there is no pipe
borne water supply to respondents’ houses. Most of the existing water supply provision is the few
boreholes in the communities from where the households have to go and queue to obtain water.
Asked which ways the respondents think the community could be involved in water supply provisionand management, again financial contribution and maintenance of facilities accounted for thehighest proportion of responses in Ibadan rural and Eruwa (34.2% and 33.5% respectively). Other
ways suggested by respondents include provision of skilled labour, and payment of water rates.
On whether the respondents who are not presently involved in the provision of water supply andmanagement will be willing to do so in the future, more than half (61.6%) of the respondents said no.
The analysis reveals that those who said no are consistently high in all the three locations. Again,
financial contribution and maintenance of facilities are the major ways they will be willing to be
involved water supply provision and management in the future. The outcome of the focus group
discussions held in Igbo-Oloyin with a cross section of the people is presented in Box 2.
Table 5.5: Structure of Community Involvement in Water Supply
Location
Structure of Financial
individual
Provision of skilled labour
Involvement Payment of water rates
Maintenance of facilities
Membership of community mangt.
Total
Structure of Financial
community Provision of skilled labour
Involvement Payment of water rates
Maintenance of facilities
Membership of community mangt.
Total
Source: Survey Data, 2005

Ibadan Rural
No
%
50
31.6
33
20.9
8
5.0
54
34.2
13
8.2
158
100
59
27.6
43
20.1
24
11.2
68
31.8
20
9.3
214
100

Ilora
No
38
31
29
48
44
190
56
42
29
51
43
221

%
20.0
16.3
15.3
25.3
23.2
100
25.3
19.0
13.1
23.1
19.5
100

Eruwa
No
58
18
27
53
17
173
72
29
31
49
37
218

%
33.5
10.4
15.6
30.6
9.8
100
33.0
13.3
14.2
22.5
17.0
100

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA45

Box 2: Good Practice of Rural Water Supply Management: A Case Study of Igbo-Oloyin
The major sources of water supply in Igbo Oloyin are boreholes and stream. The members of the community
prefer the water from the borehole because it’s cleaner and more accessible than the stream. The borehole,which was provided by a prominent indigene, is about 20 years old. When the borehole was first provided, it
was powered by a diesel generator provided by the donor. However members of the community are responsible
for contributing money to buy the diesel used in powering the generator. It was revealed during the Focus
Group Discussion that women are more active than men in contributing money to buy diesel for the generator.
Government electricity supply under the rural electrification Supply Scheme is occasionally used to power theborehole, but as claimed by most participants it is very unreliable. Therefore, fetching water from the streams
remains the most reliable.
Even though the water is not as pure as the water from the borehole, the people have formed the habit of
purifying the water with the use of alum. Members of the community are educated on the use of alum.
The biggest problem with the use of stream is that it dries up during the dry season. The Akinyele Local
Government dug a well beside the stream to ensure availability of water during dry season. The well became
blocked after some time.
The prominent indigene that provided the borehole again came to the aid of the community by dredging a
portion of the stream. This now guarantees all year round availability of water in the stream.
Even though community members are willing to be involved in the provision and management of water supply,
the population is mostly aged and their income is low, however, the community repaired a recently damaged
pipe. The community has never contacted the government or the politicians to assist in water provision. The
main reason for this is that their prominent indigenes have always come to their aid in the provision of
infrastructure and social amenities.
The good practice in rural water supply management in this community includes the fact that women contributemoney regularly for the purchase of diesel and therefore hardly rely on Government electricity supply. The
contribution is collected at the household level and the head of the household takes the money to the ‘Baale’ “thevillage head). This practice has been on for almost 20 years and the borehole is still functioning. The only sad
incidence recorded was when the generator was stolen in the mid-1980s. Thank God, the donor came to therescue again by donating another one.
The provision of water in Igbo-Oloyin through community maintenance of the borehole suggests that once theinitial capital outlay is provided, rural communities could be willing to go an extra kilometer to ensure continuous
provision of safe portable water. However, the big question remains whether the same type of strategy could
be replicated in other areas.

Some of the key factors that have brought about the success story in community provision andmanagement of rural water supply in Igbo-Oloyin as discussed in Box 2 are at present absent in otherrural areas studied. However, the same success story could be recorded if these communities are
given the same leverage. In the absence of community donors, government can empower thecommunities in form of providing the initial capital outlay and technicians to handle power supply
projects. A semblance of this is that provided by WATSAN, but the projects are often not entrusted tothe community after their completion. As a result, the people still see the projects as basically

46

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

government projects and are treated as such. For instance, communities where WATSAN has
provided boreholes have to notify WATSAN for repairs anytime there is breakdown. This often takes
time before any repairs are effected because the involvement of the stakeholders as stated in section
4.7 is expected to be 50:40:10 between the state government, the local government and thecommunities respectively.
The sustainability of public water supply system in most rural areas of the state, just as in other rural
areas in the country, is a major problem with the current water supply schemes. For instance, during
the FGDs held in Ilora, some of the major issues that came up border on dry taps. According to oneof the participants, Mrs Adunbi,“before the regime of the former Military President, General Babangida, there wasno problem of water supply in Ilora. However, the situation has been very bad
since 1986 (commencement of the Structural Adjustment Programme) especiallyduring the dry season. Most of the public pipe-borne water is now dry and residents
usually obtain water from different sources including (i) Wells (ii) Streams (iii) Brooks
etc. Most houses have wells. All the wells were constructed through individual
efforts. Prior to 1999, government dug about 3 boreholes in the town but we
obtained water from the boreholes only within 72 hours of its commission. Yet, we
continue obtaining water from our own wells because we know there is water
underground. Most of us doubt whether government actually carried out any
feasibility study before locating the site for the boreholes”

To date there has been no provision of WATSAN boreholes in Ilora, despite the relatively highpopulation of the community. This was also a major source of agitation during the FGD in Ilora. Oneof the participants had this to say “So far, no WATSAN borehole in Ilora. This assertion is reallycontestable because of political maneuvering in Oyo State. It is now difficult to differentiate between
WATSAN and state government project because WATSAN is directly under the control of thegovernment of the state. However, if any one is provided by any tier of government, we are ready torally round government. After all it is for our benefit. We can support such projects byprotecting the borehole from being vandalized
contributing money at community level/household level to maintain it. For example, buying
generator/diesel to pump water and carrying out minor repairs .
women and adolescent females in particular are ready to assist because it will reduce thelong trek in search of water during the dry season
given the level of community co-operation all the above can be easily achieved. You know
people “in small communities co-operate better than those in big towns”.

Chapter Six
Summary, Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
6.1

Summary of Findings

Water supply management in Nigeria and Oyo State, in particular, is faced with a lot of problems
which slowed down the development of the resource. Some of these problems as highlighted in thewater policies reviewed include.
•
The deficiency of the resource itself;•
Unnecessary duplication and overlap in organizations, structures and functions of the relevantbodies;•
The ill-defined and uncoordinated roles of the Federal, State and Local Government
agencies responsible for water resources development;•
Failure to recognize the inter-relationship between surface and ground waters, and between
water resources and land use; and•Lack of effective water and environmental protection laws, and the means to enforce thealready existing laws.
Although the 2000 National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy stated that government shall sponsor
capital investments for rural water supply, the level of provision of water in the rural areas is still very
low. Existing data shows that the rural areas in Nigeria lagged behind urban areas in various sourcesof drinking water available to households, except the open public well, rivers/streams and rain waterin which they have higher percentages compares to the urban. This is not surprising considering thefact that, unlike in the urban areas, the water from rivers, streams and ponds are more readily
available to rural dwellers.
Given the above scenario, there is a formidable lack of policy dynamism with the changing trends inthe society. This lack of policy dynamism especially in the water supply sector has continued toaffect water supply provision in the state, the rural areas been worse hit.
However, new broad policy objectives for water resources development and management in the
country have been redefined to include formulation of a comprehensive and integrated policy forsustainable development of the nation’s water resources. The new policy would institutionalize
multisectoral and integrated water resources management approaches that would promote national
utilization and conservation of the resources based on equitable allocation and ensuring the protection

47

48

ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

of the ecosystem. It would promote and support the provision of water and sanitation to guarantee
adequate supply of portable water for all needs both in the urban and rural areas.
It is designed to enhance the preparation of adequate regulations and legal framework that would
guarantee full protection of the resources from pollution, and over exploitation. It would foster bilateraland multilateral cooperation to facilitate the equitable and rational development and exploitation oftransboundary water resources.
The development of appropriate technical and managerial capacities and institutions that could
support and sustain integrated water resources development in the country and the institutionalizationof principle of stakeholder participation, decentralization, the participation of women, equity andeconomic values are also incorporated in the new policy.
There are also political challenges in the area of appropriate pricing, equitable allocation of waterand sometime policy implementation are extremely linked to political pressures and dictates. Other
challenges relate to institutional issues, and international issues, like proper definition of roles at alllevels of government, which is still vague and which encourages duplication of effort and multiplicity
of agencies across sector.
In particular, the provision of water to the rural populace in the country by all the tiers of governmenthas been bedeviled by the problems of availability and quality of the resource. However, the findings
from this study indicate that the respondents are not too concerned about the quality of water as they
are of the availability of the resource.
It is important to note that even though the policies are in place, especially at the federal level, thestructures to implement it are either in place but non-functional or completely absent. Most genuine
efforts by successive regimes to improve water supply situation in the rural areas are bogged down
by bureaucracy in the Oyo State Ministry of Environment Water Resources and the State’s Water
Corporation to the extent that highly placed officials in the Ministry and the Corporation are not awareof the existence of any water policy at the state or at the federal level.
With regard to “social solidarities” or the willingness of the stakeholders to adopt and/or implement
government policies and programmes on water resources management, the outcome of this study
indicates that the many people in the study area are not aware of any government policy on watersupply provision and management, either at the Federal or State level. Therefore, the issue of the
stakeholders willing to adopt and/or implement government policies at present does not arise.
However, going by the discussions held at the FGD sessions and informal interviews held with
opinion leaders in the communities, there is willingness to embrace and implement programmes
and policies that will address water supply problems in the communities. For instance, in IgboOloyin near Ibadan, the community has effectively managed the borehole provided by a prominent
indigene. The efforts of the United Nations Children and Education Fund (UNICEF) and the Japanese
government assisted Oyo State Water and Sanitation Project (WATSAN) is however yielding significant

ASSESSEMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

49

results in the provision of portable water for the rural areas of the state especially in the Ibarapa areaof the State. For example, in some of the rural communities studied, WATSAN is synonymous withborehole. However, findings and on-site assessment shows that the maintenance of the borehole isstill a major problem. The feedback mechanisms between communities and WATSAN therefore
need to be improved in order to enhance the efficient functioning and management of the boreholes.
The existing manpower development programme of government in terms of the level of manpower,
the skills of the manpower, involvement of stakeholders and learning process is virtually non-existent.
For instance, in the Oyo State Ministry of Environment and Water Resources, the Environment Unit,
and the unit concerned with clearing of dumpsites and wastes during ‘environmental sanitation-day’received more attention by the ministry than the Water Resources Unit. This is because water supply
and management are the prerogative of the Water Corporation of Oyo State which is an autonomous
government parastatal. Currently, the main focus of the corporation is the provision of pipe-borne
water in Ibadan metropolis and other major urban centres in the state. The few projects for watersupply in the State are still at the design stage. These include water projects for all local government
headquarters in the State.

6.2

Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

The existing policy to supply water through boreholes especially in situations where there is no
regular electricity supply to power the machines, as currently obtained in the rural areas studied, iscounter productive. Given the fact that women and children are the ones mostly involved in fetchingwater, there is need to devise technologies for water supply which are women and children friendly.
A challenge to the state’s water agency, therefore, is the capability to develop and install appropriatetechnologies to meet the basic water supply and sanitation needs of the millions of citizens who now
lack them. The Water Corporation should purchase and install electric power generators in all its
waterworks and booster stations. Also, the corporation should ensure regular servicing andmaintenance of all their equipment and machinery. It is therefore obvious that more manpowershould be recruited into the technical divisions of the corporation.
Rain water is a major source of water in all the rural communities studied. But the technology forstoring and preserving the water is still very poor. There is the need to design appropriate water
storage devices for use in the rural areas in order to make water available for the people throughout
the year. Considering the fact that most of these rural communities are small, centrally placed
storage devices that the whole community can use ensure easy accessibility to everyone in thecommunity. The example of rain harvesting method in use in Ekpoma, Edo State even though good
is affordable to few households. It is suggested that government can provide some assistance to thepeople in terms of materials used in harvesting the rain water e.g the corrugated iron sheets, cement
and blocks used in constructing the reservoir. The Ekpoma success story can be replicated in mostrural areas of Oyo State and Nigeria in general. However, there is the need to improve on the qualityof materials used in order to preserve the quality of the water being stored.

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ATPS WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 49

The use of underground storage tanks poses a technological challenge to policy makers for thepeople of Eruwa, and indeed other communities in Nigeria, if some of the issues raised in thenational water policies for rural areas are to be achieved. The questions have to do with the designingof storage tanks that can sustain the dry season period and at the same time preserve the quality of
the water stored.
The knowledge base of the different stakeholder groups about the technological, socio-economicand ecological dimensions of water resources management is very low. For some communities,
however, the indigenous knowledge in the conservation of traditional water sources (e.g. streams
and rivers) exists but need to be improved. Rural populace must be educated properly about thequality implication of the water they consume. This is because water that is available in poor quality
is far dangerous than water that is not available at all.
There is still the age-long popular opinion among the rural dwellers that the provision of social
amenities, including water provision, is the sole responsibility of government. There is the need tochange this orientation through grassroots awareness programmes. Infact, the success story in
Igbo-Oloyin of community water supply and management shows that water supply provision andmanagement can even be more successful and sustainable in the rural areas than in the urban
areas if the community is involved in the planning and execution of such projects especially ifgovernment can provide the initial infrastructure or capital outlay.
Empirical studies have revealed that there are various types of innovative (indigenous) technologies
for rural water supply in different parts of Nigeria. There is need to document these IKS in order toenhance concerted efforts not only at developing them by local engineers and technicians but also
for government to fund research and development of these technologies. Some of these indigenous
technologies include pot chlorination, solar disinfection, simple sand filters, nylon filters, taggiri,
harvesting of groundwater and recharging of groundwater, among others.
A challenge to local engineers and technicians is to develop simple machines and tools that will beaffordable to households in rural communities e.g. the simple sand filters or to the community atlarge e.g. solar disinfection. There is also the need for awareness campaign in rural areas on theuse of these different methods. There is need for government to make this method available to poor
households by providing money for them to put up the harvesting apparatus in their houses.
As part of the appropriate technology strategy which should be emphasized in these austere times,
the use of locally produced handpumps, PVC pipes, protected well and mandatory rain-harvesting isstrongly suggested. Rain water could easily be harvested if properly owners are mandated to provide
gutters along building roof-eaves which should then be diverted into a covered concrete metalreservoir. Rain water harvesting has been practiced since early history, and it is suitable I both urban
and rural areas; and the quality of water collected is generally within the recommended limits fordrinking water. The maximum yield possible for a rainwater catchment system is differently
proportional to the catchment surface (roof) area. Similarly, the Ako Amadi’s experience for the 2500

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51

Umuocham inhabitants of Imo State is an example of a Good Practice that could be emulated inmost rural parts of Nigeria and elsewhere.
Given the enormity of the water supply problem the rural areas studied, the existing IKS are incapableof meeting the challenges, hence the acute necessity for integration with new knowledge. ATPS
should therefore, as a matter of priority conduct and execute a regional study or set of studies on
indigenous water management in order to fill some of the gaps and throw some light on the processof integration of indigenous knowledge of water management with modern/scientific knowledge.
Consequently, deliberate efforts should be made to ensure that the knowledge integration process
would include improvements in policies and institutional arrangements.

Acknowledgment

This paper is based on research carried out under the auspices of the African Technology Policy
Studies Network’s (ATPS) Water and Environment Programme funded by the Royal Dutch Government– Activity no: 10385-DCO0020791. The authors thank Dr. Kevin Chika Urama of the Macaulay
Institute, Aberdeen, UK for his contributions to the study in his capacity as the ATPS Lead Resource
Person for the W&E programme. His review comments and support during the writing-up stages ofthe project is appreciated. The authors also thank the ATPS Communications and Outreach
Department for their editorial support.

52

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