ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 8 Number 2

December 2017

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

erdInternational Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development(Accessible from CABI International, EBSCO, Google Scholar, etc.)

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan /Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors:
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation,
Southeast Asia Office / Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Editorial Advisory Board:
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
Dr. Robert J. Farquharson, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Prof. Dr. Keishiro Itagaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Arata Koga, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines
Prof. Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, IAS, Japan
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Editorial Secretariat:
Dr. Shinobu Terauchi, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Contents
Impact of Modernization on Disaster-prone Regions as Factor of Increasing Vulnerability:
Case of Ishinomaki and Kesennuma, Miyagi, Japan
Koji Miwa

1

Efficacy of the Entomopathogenic Fungus Nomuraea rileyi in the Biological Control
of Vegetable Pest Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Patcharin Krutmuang and Malee Thungrabeab

8Competency Level Development in Business Operations of Young Smart A-SMEs
Ponsaran Saranrom, Bumpen Keowan, Benchamas Yooprasert
and Sineenuch Khrutmuang Sanserm

13

Small Scale Farmers’ Perception of Soil and Water Conservation Practices The Case of Budalangi Area, Kenya
Benard Onyango Odhiambo and Machito Mihara

19

Waste Characterization, Quantification and Residents’ Perception towards Solid Waste Managementin Ubay, Bohol
Carol J. Payot and Regucivilla A. Pobar

25

Farmers' Perception on Existing Problems of Soil Fertility Management in Mid -Hills of Nepal
Maskey Sarvesh and Machito Mihara

31

Development of Distance-Learning Curriculum Model on Food Safety and Organic Agriculture
Developed from the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy for the ASEAN Community
Sineenuch Khrutmuang Sanserm, Bumpen Keowan,
Benchamas Yooprasert and Nareerut Seerasarn

37

An Assessment of Village Type Pottery Industry
Regucivilla A. Pobar, Nelson M. Pateña
and Josefina G. Gentallan

42

Group and Network Management: Lessons Learned from the Solar Energy Group of Pesticide Free
Vegetable Growers in Phutthaisong District, Buriram Province
Benchamas Yooprasert, Bumpen Keowan
and Sineenuch Khrutmuang Sanserm

48

Contribution of Organic Agriculture towards Achieving Sustainable Development in Samrong,
Kampong Cham, Cambodia
Mitsuru Uchino and Machito Mihara

54

Synthesis of Graduation Theses in Agricultural Commodity Production Adhering to Government
Designated Standards
Sunan Seesang and Ponsaran Saranrom

60

Evaluation of Participatory Irrigation Management Introduced into Dry Land Agriculture
in Turpan, China
Yamamoto Tadao, Nozaki Akihiro, Shimizu Katsuyuki,
Kume Takashi and Abdisalam Jalaldin

64

Development of the Saturated Ion-Exchangeable Mordenite for Desalinization Technology
in Agricultural Fields
Yukiko Haruta, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Takashi Kumeand Shinsuke Haruta

70

Spatial Assessment of Cultural Ecosystem Services for Urban Forests based on a Multi-point Field
Survey: Case in Nagoya City, Japan
Kiichiro Hayashi and Makoto Ooba

75

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness as an Approach to Pupils’ Academic Achievement
Neil Michael G. Olaivar and Regucivilla A. Pobar

82

Using Vermitechnology in Soil Rehabilitation for Rice Production in Salt-affected Areaof Northeast Thailand
Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Ajcharawadee Kruapukee

88

Dried Porang Industry in Lakewood, Zamboanga Del Sur, Philippines
Lorita P. Andot and Regucivilla A. Pobar

94

Application of Integrated Modeling System to Ecosystem Services Evaluation
Makoto Ooba and Kiichiro Hayashi

100

Model of Chachoengsao Province Network of Growers of Quality Mangoes for Export
Parpitchaya Chintapitaksakul

105

Characteristics of Participants of Non-Formal Education Contributing to Learning Achievement:
A Case Study of Snuol Commune, Kratie Province, Cambodia
Shinobu Yamada, Machito Mihara and Kumiko Kawabe

111

Ready to Drink Milk as a Nutritional Tool for Human Capital Development of Thailand
Anucha Wittayakorn-Puripunpinyoo, Vasina Chandasiri
and Suluck Kongkaew

117

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Research article
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Impact of Modernization on Disaster-prone Regions
as Factor of Increasing Vulnerability:
Case of Ishinomaki and Kesennuma, Miyagi, Japan
KOJI MIWA*
Extension Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: koji.miwa.0104@gmail.com
Received 28 January 2016

Accepted 18 October 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Natural disasters have caused many impacts on the modern society mainly indisaster-prone regions. Although modernization has improved disaster prevention measures
based on science and technology, it has also changed the human lifestyle from the traditional
to the modern way, which may increase the disaster risks. This paper studies the relationshipbetween modernization and its adverse effect on a disaster-prone region from the sociologicaland geo-historical approach to analyze the root cause of disaster. It takes up the case of ruralarea, Ishinomaki and Kesennuma cities, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan - where are historicallyvulnerable to geophysical disasters such as earthquake and tsunami. Both cities weresignificantly damaged by the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011 despite the modernizedsociety. The study is based on the qualitative method which mainly constitutes of literature
analysis. The main conclusion is that the Japanese modernization started since 1868 entailed
increased risks for the society. Modernization has certainly produced effective disasterprevention measures based on advanced science and technology and centralized measures led
by the government and economy-oriented development. However, the modernization whichbrought from the West where natural disasters are not as critical as Japan was not always
prioritized over the political and economic competition. Hence, it caused the disaster-prone
area more vulnerable when a disaster topples the capacity of such modern system byincreasing the exposure to hazards under diplomatic and security issues and economyoriented development.
Keywords natural disasters, modernization, vulnerability, root-cause, historical geography

INTRODUCTION
Modernization or ‘developmentalism’ has been regarded as production of wealth and improvementof living condition under capitalism diffused by the West. However, according to Smith (2004), thetrend of disaster in the modern society is resulted from the exploitation of nature, the rapid population
growth, urbanization, social and economic inequality, climate change, political change, economic
growth, technical innovation, social expectations and global interdependence, as the consequence ofmodernization. Modernization has certainly brought a great improvement in disaster prevention
measures with the advanced science and technology. However, the modernization have also deprived
the societies in disaster-prone regions of the community-based adaptation based on their local
cultures and environment. Therefore, several sociologists and anthropologists have criticized theWestern-centric view of development for such byproducts. These locally adapted measures are
considered more effective prevention measure than transferring the Western technology based on thecentralization and economic development (Smith, 2004).
Although Japan has developed with the world-leading technology, it was not able to prevent
huge earthquake disasters, such as the Great Hanshin Earthquake in 1995 with 6,437 deaths, and theGreat East Japan Earthquake in 2011 with 15,883 deaths and 2,676 missing (Japanese Cabinet Office,2011a). Most of the casualties in the latter case were caused by tsunami disaster despite that theregion is historically prone to tsunami and has been equipped with the world-leading hard measures.
Even the government and researchers had predicted 88 percent of possibility of the occurrence ofⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

great tsunami triggered by a huge earthquake in the Miyagi off-coast by 2023 and they had been
warning the local people and improved evacuation measures (Imamura, 2013, pp. 50). The cause of
the disaster has been attributed to several reasons in the previous studies, such as the failure oftsunami warning system (Japanese Cabinet Office, 2011b), the insufficient evacuation road (Sekiya,2011), the loss of culture of disaster in the society (Sekiya, 2011; Yoshihara, 2013; Tanaka, 2013),
and the loss of the local community ties (Yoshihara, 2013). However, there has been no study whichlooked into the root cause of the disaster. As “human sensitivity to environmental hazards is acombination of physical exposure, or the range of potentially damaging events and their variability
at a particular location” (Smith, 2004, p. 10), it is important to investigate the cause why the society
was developed in the vulnerable locations.
OBJECTIVE
The overall research aim of this paper is to study whether the modernization of the Japanese society
led to increased vulnerability to natural disasters by the time of Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011.
It applies sociological and geo-historical approach to analyze the root cause of the disaster. The
history of modernization in Japan starts in 1868 and entails not only development of economy,
science and technology but also diplomatic or security issues. The study takes up the tsunami disasterand focuses on geographical location of affected areas as the main risk factor in Ishinomaki and
Kesennuma cities, Miyagi Prefecture. To limit the study, the research question puts an emphasis on
why and how the population had located themselves in such vulnerable area in the process ofmodernization by the time of the disaster.
METHODOLOGYThis study applies a qualitative method which constitutes literature and data analysis. In order tounderstand the impact of modernization of Japan in the target areas, it studies their historically andsocially significant phenomena during the modernization. Sources of literature, map and population
census are collected from the official documents and reports published by both city and national
governments and other Japanese authorities as well as the literature about the Japanese history fromboth Japanese and foreign authors for the accuracy and objectivity of historical events. Based on thecollected data, the cause of increased disaster risks by developing along the coastal areas was.
Kesennuma and Ishinomaki cities, Miyagi Prefecture were chosen as case study as they suffered themost and the third largest respectively among all the devastated municipalities in the disaster.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At first, the old maps and the post-disaster maps are compared as seen in Fig. 1 and 2. The old mapof Kesennuma is from 1916 (GSI, 1916) and the one of Ishinomaki from 1929 (GSI, 1929) on theleft side of both figures. In the old maps, the darkened part is mainly populated area inside the circle.
The rest parts are mainly paddy fields or agricultural lands, and few houses for both areas. In the
post-disaster map, red color indicates the limit of tsunami invasion, blue is heavily damaged
residential area created by Tsunami Damage Mapping Team, Association of Japanese Geographers(2011).
As observed from the map comparison, most parts of the heavily damaged area (marked by bluein the post-disaster map) were not neither populated nor developed at all in the initial stage ofmodernization in both cities. They were mainly unused land, paddy fields, agricultural land, or eventhe sea.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Fig. 1 Maps of Kesennuma in 1916 (left) and the post-2011 disaster (right)
Source: The 1916 map of Kesennuma is a scale of 1:50,000 from Geographical Information Authority of Japan(GSI) (1916), and the post-disaster map is “Tsunami Damage Map” from the Tsunami Damage Mapping Team,
Association of Japanese Geographers (2011)

Fig. 2 Maps of Ishinomaki in 1929 (left) and the post-2011 disaster (right)
Source: The 1929 map of Ishinomaki is a scale of 1:50,000 from GSI (1916), and the post-disaster map is“Tsunami Damage Map” from the Tsunami Damage Mapping Team, Association of Japanese Geographers(2011)

Table 1 Population changes in Kesennuma and Ishinomaki from the early modern period
Kesennuma

IshinomakiYear

Total population

Kesennuma Town

Year

Total population

Ishinomaki Town/City

1882

17,411

N/A

1889

N/A

18,573

1920

43,824

9,788

1920

102,953

22,067

1940

63,656

17,973

1940

137,327

36,442Note. Total population for Kesennuma and Ishinomaki contains population of municipalities which had notbeen merged with both cities in these periods but were a part of both cities as of the time of disaster occurrence,
11 March 2011.
Source: Data for population of Kesennuma city in 1882 from Kesennumashi-shi-hensan-iinkai (1990); forpopulation of Ishinomaki city in 1889 from Ishinomakishi-shi-hensan-iinkai (1998); adapted for population of
Kesennuma and Ishinomaki in 1920 and 1940 from the 1920 and 1940 Population Census (Statistics Bureau,
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications of Japan [MIC]), URL: https://www.e-stat.go.jp/en. accessedon 12 October, 2013.

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Table 2 Population changes in Kesennuma and Ishinomaki Cities for the post-1945 period
Kesennuma City

Ishinomaki City

Year

Population

Population density (per km2)

Year

Population

Population density (per km2)

1920
1950
1980
2010

43,82476,391
92,24673,489

131.5
229.5
276.6
220.4

1920
1950
1980
2010

102,953
176,925
186,094
160,826

185.2
318.5
333.5
289.4

Note. Total population for Kesennuma and Ishinomaki from 1920 to 1980 contains population of municipalities
which had not been merged yet with both cities in the periods but were a part of both cities as of the time ofdisaster. Population density in 1920 is calculated by using the area of each city as of 2010.
Source. Adapted from the 1950, 1980, and 2010 Population Census (Statistics Bureau, MIC), URL:
https://www.e- stat.go.jp/en. accessed on 16 October, 2013.

The population increase in both cities occurred since the late nineteenth century throughmodernization as seen in Table 1 and 2. Based on these facts, the vulnerable coastal areas weresignificantly developed and populated, increasing the exposure risk to hazards during the process ofmodernization. Both cities also developed their urban area and increased land development for
housing and commercial use. In Kesennuma, the urban area increased from 3.2km2 in 1975 to 6.4km2
in 2005. In Ishinomaki, the population in the urban district was 61,573 in the district area of 6.60
km2 in 1960. It increased up to 103,518 and 23.40km2 respectively by 1995 and 94,342 people and25.89km2 in 2010 by the time of disaster.
The next section looks into the historical causes of these increased risks. Firstly, it discusses theearly modern period from 1868 to 1945, and then the post-1945 period up to 2011.
The Early Modern Period (1868-1945)
Since modernization started in 1868 in Japan, its economy-oriented development in the country waslaunched under the pressure of the West, especially the U.S. which was seeking for more capital
resources in the East Asia at that time. Although there was a strong domestic resistance to the US
demand for opening the Japanese market to the West in the beginning, the Japanese leaders finallygave in. The main terror was the Western military and armed forces as well as the strong industrial
economy which were too strong for then Japan. By concluding unequal treaties with the West, Japan
undertook modernization quickly, aiming to catch up with the industrialized nations. Political,
economic and cultural modernization occurred hand in hand with militarization and industrialization.
In this way, Japan started modernization following the Western technological model, though the aim
was to abolish the unequal treaties and establish an equal relationship with the West under the sloganof ‘fukoku-kyohei’ (literally rich country, strong country). (Duus, 1998; Cullen, 2003; Kito, 2010)
Under such circumstance, Kensennuma and Ishinomaki which were mere small villages at theinitial stage of modernization were soon included in a part of the national modernism plan andencouraged to increase the fishery activity as a means of capital industrial economy. As well as otherindustries, fishery and its related industries were rapidly modernized by the lead of the central
government. The intention was to resist to the western fishing in the Japanese adjacent waters. As
the West advanced in the Japanese adjacent water, the U.S. and the U.K. were overfishing whales
and Russia was hunting sea otters and fur seals to a significant extent. The then Japanese government
was afraid of drying up of her natural resources by the West. Although the people in the area mainly
produced crops and only engaged in coastal fishery just for a self-sufficient living in the pre-modern
period, they were urged to shift to the pelagic fishery under the governmental plan. In 1897 Pelagic
Fisheries Encouragement Act was issued by the central government to subsidize fishery boats,
fishery tools and crews. The government encouraged economic activity by forming the fisherman’s
union. Fish processing industry became the main industry in the area and a number of factories wereconstructed in both coastal cities. Such industry was also important to supply to the military during
the war period to feed the people in the battle fields. Besides the fishing industry, sericulture industryⒸ ISERD

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developed in both cities and the number of its factories rapidly increased. Because of the Western
demand, silk was the pivotal source of the Japanese exports to them during the time under the unequal
treaties and helped Japanese modernization. In this way by the end of the Meiji era (1868-1912), thewhole town of Kesennuma and Ishinomaki became a place of production. As both cities were
engaged in the primary industry, the development in the coastal area was highly important for theconvenience of transportation. With such changes, the population grew rapidly in both cities as seenin Table 1.
To conclude this period, development and urbanization of both cities were primarily attributed
to the country’s security and diplomatic issues under the threat of the West and the capitalisticcompetition with them. Vulnerability of the area to tsunami disaster seems to have not beenprioritized at all by the then government because the security issue is a more urgent issue for thecountry’s survival than natural disasters. Therefore, even after the case study area experienced the1896 Meiji-Sanriku Earthquake which caused 21,959 deaths, the both cities kept developing.
Post-1945 Period
With the loss in the WWII, Japan launched a policy of ‘economism’ under the US support by the
Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) which stayed at the first position in the parliament for a long timein this period. The country was initially put under the control of the Supreme Commander for the
Allied Powers, the US occupant authority. The occupation aimed to transform Japan into an ally of
the U.S. Although the U.S. aimed to restrain Japan from her economic development as a punishmentof the WW II, they decided to make Japan “the chief factory of Asia” as the Cold War loomed
problematic for them (Duus, 1998, p. 272). Japan aimed to be independent of the US occupation, toreturn to the international community, and to reconstruct the country. For these, the people wereunited and worked hard which led to the rapid reconstruction and high economic growth since 1950s.
With technological improvement, the Japanese farming was mechanized and thus increased its
productivity and efficiency. It led to a substantial decrease of rural population with a labor force
increasing in service industries in cities. However, to secure the parliament seats by collecting more
votes the LDP distributed money to the countryside, main industries and powerful corporations. This
caused excessive land development and promoted industries in the countryside. For the U.S. it was
important to decrease anti-US sentiment to make Japan a good ally under the Cold War. Under the
Eisenhower’s “New Look” and “Atoms for Peace”, the U.S. accelerated nuclear energy productionin Japan with advertisement of good images of the U.S., and economic development with cooperationof Japanese corporations. (Duus, 1998; Cullen, 2003)
Based on the economism, the fishing industry was also promoted to expand its economy further.
Since 1951, “gyokoseibichokikeikaku” (literally, long term project of fishing port arrangement) was
launched as a national policy, and the Kesennuma port was selected as one of the targets. Since thenthe area of the Kesennuma port was developed with a large investment by the government. Since
1969, the national budget was used for the Kesennuma port selected as a port which needs a ‘special
development’. With the development plan, the area around the port became filled with industries andresidential houses and the land was extended by reclamation of the sea. (Kesennumashi-shi-hensaniinkai, 1993)
Ishinomaki fishing port was also selected as a ‘special development’ was needed in 1973. After
the WW II, Ishinomaki also followed a national policy that focuses on the economic growth.
Ishinomaki city planned to develop the Ishinomaki port and offered industries in the hinterlands ofthe ports along the coast, aiming for a ‘marine products city’. The city organized the inter-industrial
relationship for marine products industries and eventually many manufacturing industry and factories
were built in the coastal industrial zone. (Ishinomakishi-shi-hensaniinkai, 1998)
As the result of economism, economic development in the coastal areas, where are vulnerable
to tsunami disaster, was significant in both cities. It led to the population growth and construction offactories or any other economic activities along the coastal area.
To conclude this period, the causes of increased risks in the both cities by developing in thevulnerable area are mainly attributed to the US occupation and their political and economic strategyⒸ ISERD

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as well as the global economic competition, continued from the pre-war period. They were morecritical and certain issues for the Japanese over unpredictable natural disasters. In addition, theeconomic development was important for the Japanese people to recover their confidence after theloss and collapse in the war. It led to the further economic development, losing the local adaptation
skills to natural hazards. The absence of huge natural disasters or tsunami in Japan during the
economic growth period might also promote the people to lose consciousness of the disaster risks.
CONCLUSION
The main driving force that led to the population increase in vulnerable areas in both cities was the
diplomatic and security issues for Japan and economy-oriented development caused by the Western
occupation and the global economy. Under such circumstance, both cities were assigned to develop
the fishery and silk industries for the country’s survival. It led to the population increase and land
reclamation along the coast. Even after the WW II and the modern technology and science developed,
the people kept developing in the vulnerable area under the economism. For the generalization of theresult of this study, because the diplomatic, security and economic issues can be more urgent andcritical than natural disasters for a country’s survival, such pressure can lead a country in disasterprone region to increasing disaster risks, thus vulnerability. Therefore, dispute settlement and peacebuilding are important matters than employment of modern technology or economy to achievesustainable and resilient society. The current global economy standardize the way of living and thecompetitiveness regardless of whether a country is in a disaster-prone region. There is a need forsystem which can prioritize disaster risk reduction and mitigation over profit-maximization.
REFERENCES
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Duus, P. 1998. Modern Japan. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, USA.
GSI. 1916. 57-7-1. 5 Manbun-no-1-zumei: Kesennuma [one 50,000th of Kesennuma]. Geographical
Information Authority of Japan, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
GSI. 1929. 58-10-3. 5 Manbun-no-1-zumei: Ishinomaki [one 50,000th of Ishinomaki]. Geographical
Information Authority of Japan, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
Imamura, F. 2013. Jizen-no-tsunami-kenkyu-to-yobou-taisaku [Pre-disaster's research on tsunami andprecautious measures]. In A. Hirakawa, & F. Imamura, Higashi-nihon-daishinsai-wo-bunseki-suru (Vol. 3,
41-53). Akashishoten, Tokyo, Japan.
Ishinomakishi-shi-hensaniinkai. 1998. Ishinomaki-no-rekishi [History of Ishinomaki] (Vol. 2 Tsushi-hen (Geno-2)). Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
Japanese Cabinet Office. 2011a. Higashi-nihon-daishinsai-ni-okeru-higaigaku-no-suikei-ni-tsuite [About theestimation of the economic loss by the Great East Japan Earthquake]. http://www.bousai.go.jp/2011
daishinsai/pdf/110624-1kisya.pdf (retrieved on 24 April, 2013).
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McDonald, D. 1985. A geography of modern Japan. Paul Norbury Publications, Ashford, Kent, UK.
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Tsunami Damage Mapping Team, Association of Japanese Geographers. 2011. Map of the area hit by thetsunami of 11 March 2011, Northeast Japan. http://www.ajg.or.jp/disaster/201103_Tohoku-eq.html.
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Mineruvashobo, 47-69. Japan.

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Research article
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Efficacy of the Entomopathogenic Fungus Nomuraea rileyi
in the Biological Control of Vegetable Pest Spodoptera litura(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
PATCHARIN KRUTMUANG
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture,
Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand

MALEE THUNGRABEAB*
Agricultural Technology Research Institute, Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna,
Lampang, Thailand
Email: sriwanmal@yahoo.com
Received 22 February 2016

Accepted 18 October 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Eight strains of the entomopathogenic of the fungus Nomuraea rileyi were screened
for control of the common cutworm, Spodoptera litura. The results showed that N. rileyi waspathogenic to S. litura, and that pathogenity significantly varied among the strains. The
mortalities ranged from 2.5 to 92.5% at 7 d after inoculation. The strains tested were classified
into three groups according to mortality percentage. High pathogenicity level was defined asa mortality greater than 75.79%, moderate pathogenicity was a mortality between 75.79 to
49.50%, and low pathogenicity level less than 49.50% mortality. The high pathogenicity levelcontained two strains, BCC 14653 and BCC 14671, which were identified as highly virulent
and used in a secondary bioassay against various larval stages. Nomuraea rileyi could become
an important biopesticide agent in an integrated pest management program for insect pest
control.
Keywords Nomuraea rileyi, Spodoptera litura, Entomopathogenic Fungi,
Biological control

INTRODUCTION
The common cutworm, Spodoptera litura F (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a highly polyphagous
migratory lepidopteran pest species. This insect is also known as the tobacco budworm, oriental
leafworm moth, tropical armyworm, and taro caterpillar. It causes extensive losses in over 120
different plant species including many vegetables, fruits and ornamental crops. Some examples are:asparagus, beets, broccoli, cabbage, carrots, chrysanthemum, corn, cruciferous crops, eggplants,
grapes, lettuce, orchid, potatoes, radish and sunflowers.
Insecticides for control S. litura have become ineffective because of the development ofresistance, and cause toxic residues in the crops.(Rajan and Muthukrishnan, 2009). Insecticide
resistance and the demand for reduced chemical inputs in agriculture have provided an impetus forthe development of alternative methods of pest control. Biological control offers an attractive
alternative or supplement to the use of chemical pesticides. Microbial control agents are naturally
occurring organisms and perceived as being less damaging to the environment. Furthermore, theirgenerally complex mode of action makes it unlikely that resistance could develop to a bio-pesticide.
Biological pest control agents include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. The use of
microorganisms as selective pesticides has had some notable successes (Hong Wan, 2003).
Nomuraea rileyi is an important naturally-occurring, mortality-causing agent of many
lepidopterous pests in a variety of crop ecosystems throughout the world (Vimaladevi et al, 1996).
Natural occurrence of N. rileyi has been widely reported. N. rileyi has occurred in epizootics on
Spodoptera exiqua in black gram, S. litura in tobacco, Tricoplusia ni and Heliothis zeaⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2(Srisukchayakul, 2005). Furthermore, its occurrence has been reported on Helivoverpa armigera intomato and on S. litura in soybean, potato and cabbage (Patill and Abhilash, 2014).
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study was to determine the pathogenicity of Nomuraea rileyi strains on larvaeof Spodoptera litura under laboratory conditions.
METHODOLOGY
Insects
Spodoptera litura populations including egg masses, larvae and adults were collected from
cruciferous vegetable crop plantations in Chiang Mai, Thailand. All stages were maintained underlaboratory conditions. The pupae were kept and used as a stock to build up new colonies. The adults
were reared in cages and fed with a 5% honey solution.
Fungal Preparations and Pathogenicity
Nomuraea rileyi strains from adult insects in the order Lepidoptera collected in natural environmentsof Thailand were obtained from the BIOTEC Culture Collection (BCC), National Center for Genetic
Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), Pathum Thani, Thailand. (Table 1). The fungal strains
were cultured on SMAY (Sabouraud’s maltose agar medium supplemented with 1% yeast extract)in 90 mm Petri dishes and incubated for 12-15 d at 25±1°C (Fig. 1). Conidial suspensions wereprepared by scraping conidia from petri plates into an aqueous solution of 0.002% Tween 80. The
conidial suspension was filtered through several layers of cheesecloth to remove mycelial mats.
Viability of conidia was assessed by germination tests before preparation of suspensions. The
concentration of conidia in the final suspensions was determined using a hemocytometer. The
conidial suspension used for the bioassays was adjusted by diluting conidia with the Tween 80
solution to final concentrations of 6x107, 6x108 and 6x109 conidia/ml. To determine pathogenicity,each of the conidial suspensions were sprayed on larvae of different instars (I-III). Three replications
were used with 10 larvae per replication including a non-treated control. The larval mortality wasrecorded at 7 d after inoculation.
Table 1 Strains of the entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi collected from Thailand
and used in pathogenicity tests against larvae of Spodoptera litura
No

Strain number

TNCC number:

Fungus species

Host insect

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

BCC 14653
BCC 14658
BCC 14659
BCC 14660
BCC 14670
BCC 14671
BCC 14672
BCC 14673

4522
4685
4686
4687
4327
4328
4329
4318

Nomuraea rileyi
Nomuraea rileyi
Nomuraea rileyi
Nomuraea rileyi
Nomuraea rileyi
Nomuraea rileyi
Nomuraea rileyi
Nomuraea rileyi

Lepidoptera - adult
Lepidoptera - adult
Lepidoptera - adult
Lepidoptera - adult
Lepidoptera - adult
Lepidoptera - adult
Lepidoptera - adult
Lepidoptera - adultⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Fig. 1 Colony and conidial characteristics of Nomuraea rileyi
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results showed that N. rileyi was pathogenic to Spodoptera litura; the cumulative mortalities
ranged from 0 to 92.5% at 7 days after inoculation (Table 2). The corrected mortalities significantly
differed (P≤0.05) between strains (Fig. 2).
Table 2 Cumulative mortality of the entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi on each instarof Spodoptera litura at 7 d after inoculation
Nomuraea rileyi(conidia/ml)
Strain 1
Strain 2
Strain 3
Strain 4
Strain 5
Strain 6
Strain 7
Strain 8
Control

6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109

I instar% Mortality
II instar

82.5
85.0
92.5
35.0
30.0
37.5
2.5
2.5
0
7.5
10.0
5.0
47.5
40.0
40.0
87.5
92.5
92.5
47.5
35.0
50.0
7.5
17.5
17.5
0

72.5
77.5
92.5
20.0
30.0
32.5
7.5
2.5
0
10.0
25.0
22.5
30.0
25.0
25.0
77.5
87.5
80.0
32.5
15.0
10.0
17.5
7.5
10.0
0

III instar
72.5
55.0
70.0
20.0
37.5
32.5
7.5
2.5
0
10.0
5.0
2.5
2.5
7.5
25.0
75.0
67.5
82.5
12.5
15.0
10.0
7.5
2.5
12.5
0

In support of the present investigation, Padanad and Krishnaraj, (2009) observed that all ten
isolates of N. rileyi were active against third instars of S. litura, resulting in 85 to 97% mortality.
Patil et al., (2014) stated that early instars were highly susceptible with a mortality of 70.17 percent,which decreased significantly as the age of the larvae advanced. However, there were statistically nosignificant differences among the strains with respect to the pathogenicity levels. The strains tested
could be classified into two groups according to mortality percentage (Table 3). Fungal strains BCCⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

14653 and BCC 1467 were identified as highly pathogenic and were used in the secondary bioassay
against various larval stages. The remaining strains were characterized as having low pathogenicity(Table 4).

% mortality
100

a

a
80

60

b
40

b

b

20

d

b
c

BCC 3

BCC 4

bc

0
BCC 14653

BCC 2

BCC 5

BCC 14671

BCC 7

BCC 8

Fig. 2 Percentages of corrected mortality of Spodoptera litura treated with different strains of
Nomuraea riley at a concentration of 6x108 conidia/ml at 25 ±1oC
Table 3 Pathogenicity levels of different strains of Nomuraea rileyi toward Spodoptera litura as
expressed by percentage mortality
Pathogenicity level

Mortality (%)

Strain No.

High pathogenicity
Moderate pathogenicity
Low pathogenicity>75.7975.79 – 49.50<49.50

BCC 14653, BCC 14671
BCC 14658, BCC 14659, BCC 14660,
BCC 14670, BCC 14672, BCC 14673

Table 4 shows the efficacy of two strains of Beauveria bassiana against various larval stages of
Spodoptera litura. All strains tested were effective against all larval stages of Spodoptera litura, but
the effectiveness varied with larval stage. There were significant differences (P≤ 0.05) among
different larval stages. No significant differences were found among concentrations.
Means in columns with different small letters indicate significant differences among different
concentrations of Nomuraea rileyi (one way ANOVA, P ≤ 0.05; Duncan’s multiple rang test). Meansin the same row followed by the different capital letters indicate significant differences between
instars of Spodoptera litura at P ≤ 0.05 (T- test).
Table 4 Efficacy of two strains of Nomuraea rileyi against various larval stages of Spodoptera
lituraStrains no.
BCC 14653
BCC 14671

Conc.
6x107
6x108
6x109
6x107
6x108
6x109

Corrected mortality of
1st
instar (%±SE)
82.5 ±5.77 bA
85.0±8.81 bA
92.5±3.33 aA
87.5±6.67 bA
92.5±0.00 aA
92.5±5.77 aAⒸ ISERD

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Corrected mortality of
2nd
instar (%±SE)
72.5±3.33 bB
77. ±5.77 5 bB
92.5±5.77 aA
77.5±5.77 bB
87.5±8.81 aAB
80.0±5.77 abB

Corrected mortality of
3rd
instar (%±SE)
72.5±5.77 aB
55.0±8.81 bC
70.0±5.77 aB
75.0±5.77 abB
67.5±13.33 bBC
82.5±5.77 aB

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

CONCLUSION
Research is needed to further characterize the use of Nomuraea rileyi as an effective biocontrol of
Spodoptera litura in vegetable crops. The results presented here suggest that some strains of thisfungus are effective in causing high mortality levels and (at sufficient dosages) could become an
important part of an integrated pest management program. Nomuraea rileyi treatment could be usefulin preventing the development of resistance if used in rotation with other effective therapeutic agents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the BIOTEC Culture Collection (BCC), National
Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC) Thailand for providing Nomuraea
rileyi. This study was supported by the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) and The Commission on
Higher Education (CHE).
REFERENCES
Hong, W. 2003. Molecular biology of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana, Insect-cuticle
degrading enzymes and Development of a new selection marker for fungal transformation. Ph.D.
dissertation, Faculty for the Natural Sciences and for Mathematics of the Ruperto-Carola University of
Heidelberg, Germany.
Padanad, M.S. and Krishnaraj, P.U. 2009. Pathogenicity of native entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi
against Spodoptera litura. Online. Plant Health Progress.
Patill, R.H. and Abhilash, C. 2014. Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson, A bio-pesticide IPM component for the
management of leaf eating caterpillars in soybean ecosystem. International conference on Biological, Civil
and Environmental Engineering (BCEE-2014), Dubai, 131-132.
Patil, R.K., Bhagat, Y.S., Halappa1, B. and Bhat, R.S. 2014. Evaluation of entomopathogenic fungus,
Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) samson for the control of groundnut Spodoptera litura (F.) and its compatibility
with synthetic and botanical pesticides. J. Biopest 7 (Supp.), 106-115.
Rajan, T.S. and Muthukrishnan N. 2009. Pathogenicity of Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson isolates against
Spodoptera litura (Fabricius). J. Biol. Control, 23 (1), 17-20.
Srisukchayakul, P, Wiwat, C. and Pantuwatana, S. 2005. Studies on the pathogenesis of the local isolates of
Nomuraea rileyi against Spodoptera litura. ScienceAsia, 31, 273-276.
Vimaladevi, P.S., Prasad, Y.G., Rajeshwari, B. and Vijaya, B.L. 1996. Epizootics of the entomofungal
pathogen, Nomuraea rileyi on lepidopterous pests of oil seeds. J. Oil Seed Res., 13, 144-148.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Research article
erdCompetency Level Development in Business Operations ofYoung Smart A-SMEs
PONSARAN SARANROM*
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand
Email: ponsaran.sar@stou.ac.th

BUMPEN KEOWAN
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand

BENCHAMAS YOOPRASERT
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand

SINEENUCH KHRUTMUANG SANSERM
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand
Received 25 December 2016

Accepted 18 October 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract There were a large number of young generation farmers in Thailand who were an
agricultural entrepreneur, and needed to develop their competency level in business operation.
The aims of this research were 1) to determine the competency of Young Smart A-SMEs, 2)
to make plans for developing their competency level in business operations, 3) to reinforce anddevelop their competency level in business operations, and 4) to study their opinions on thereinforcement and development of their competency level in business operations. This
investigation was conducted as a research and development study. The sample population was
215 Young Smart A-SMEs. The data were collected by group discussions, training course
procedures and a questionnaire survey. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics and qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis. The findings were as
follows: 1) Most of the Young Smart A-SMEs had bachelor degrees, IT skills and were unitedas 10 groups. 2) Two training course curriculums at national level were required; a curriculumon the development of packaging and label designing, and a curriculum on media technology
for online marketing. Also, 38 curriculums were necessary at provincial level covering eight
issues: (i) self-learning development, (ii) production resource management, (iii) production
management, (iv) product value-added management, (v) product standard management, (vi)marketing and product distribution management, (vii) network group management, and (viii)
coordination and communication management. 3) The training courses achieved the needs ofmembers and adhered to the planned itineraries. 4) Young Smart A-SMEs were, on average,
high satisfied of benefit (Mean = 4.16), with the training courses. Their knowledge before
training was low level (Mean =2.52) but improved to highest level (Mean =4.49) on averageafter training.
Keywords competency level development, business operation, young smart A-SMEs

INTRODUCTION
Thai farmers tended to decrease in numbers and most of them were elderly. However, many of theyoung generation educated at bachelor degree level switched their careers from office jobs to be an
agricultural entrepreneur. They were known as “Young Smart A-SMEs” (Young Smart Agricultural
Small and Medium Enterprises). These people mostly had high competency in creativity,Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

communication technology and social networking, so they could be easily developed to be a farmers’leader who played a great role in pushing agricultural SMEs in the future. Furthermore, most had
experienced in business operations and understood the aspects of production, marketing, andfarmer’s uniting. They mostly had new ideas in production and marketing which differed from theoutdated methods of elderly farmers. Importantly, they were motivated to succeed in business toincrease production through marketing plans and to unite as one network. However, to develop theircompetency levels in business operations and network linking procedures, their competency should
be reinforced to compete in the production management and product/packaging development.
Therefore, this research on “Competency Level Development in Business Operations of Young
Smart A-SMEs” was conducted to develop competency in production procedures, value added toagricultural products, marketing development, and finally, to develop network management skills.
OBJECTIVES
The purposes of this research were as follows: 1) to determine personal state of Young Smart ASMEs, 2) to make plans to develop the competency level in the business operations, 3) to reinforce
and develop the competency level in business operations, and 4) to study the opinions on thereinforcement and development of their competency level in business operations.
METHODOLOGY
Research design: This investigation was conducted as a research and development study.
Population/sample: The sample population was young generation farmers aged under 45 years
around Thailand. The sample size was specified and 215 samples were selected by using purposive
sampling methodology by an application form. The qualification prerequisites were as follows: 1)
being an agricultural SME entrepreneur and a registered community enterprise member, and 2)
having the intention to develop their enterprise systematically and become a professional
entrepreneur in the future.
Research instruments: The research instruments were selected to achieve the objectives as follows:- Studying the personal state of Young Smart A-SMEs through group discussions- Formulating plans to develop competency levels in business operations through group discussions- Reinforcing and developing competency levels in business operations though several method basedon plan setting- Studying opinions on the reinforcement through a questionnaire survey
Data analysis: Content analysis followed objectives 1-3. Descriptive statistics were used in
objectives 4 to analyze mean, percentage, maximum value, minimum value, and standard deviation
data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Personal State of Young Smart A-SMEs
The personal competency of Young Smart A-SMEs was identified for three issues as follows:
1.1 Fundamental Personal Competency of Young Smart A-SMEs
1) Most of the entrepreneurs had bachelor degrees to master degree level. 2) They had a continuousand stable income. They mostly had their own asset such as land and agricultural equipment. They
also united to be 10 groups adhering to the region of their agricultural area. 3) They farmed several
agricultural products including organic rice, mushrooms, hydroponic/local vegetables, strawberries,
fruits, bamboo, bananas, seedless grapes, melons, mulberries, limes, garlic, chilies, passion fruits,
avocados, organic papayas, earthworms, fish, cattle, processed food (bananas/mushrooms), andbiological/organic fertilizer. 4) Farming was integrated/mixed/organic/safety adhering to SufficiencyⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Economy Philosophy, and 5) the quality/standard of their products was guaranteed by GAP Standard,
and organic farming standards.
1.2 Entrepreneurial skills
Young Smart A-SMEs had entrepreneurial skills as follows: 1) IT usage, 2) understanding theprinciple and guidelines on self-development, 3) understanding group procedures and methods for
improving production, 4) knowledge of community enterprise operations and adherence to theCommunity Enterprise Reinforcement Act of 2005.
1.3 Management skills
Young Smart A-SMEs had management skills as follows: 1) uniting as 10 groups representing theregions of their area, 2) coordinating their network and alliances, 3) setting rotating meetings atregional level every two months, or setting meetings within their province/area, and 4) making plans
to learn and exchange knowledge and new ideas with each other regularly.
To make a discussion, Young Smart A-SMEs had their own assets such as land and agriculturalequipment, and united to be 10 groups adhering to the region of their agricultural area consistent with
Sawatdiphab Keeratiya (2011) who stated that 81.25% of young generation farmers had their own
occupied agricultural area, and 75.00% of them were a member of a farmer group. The findings ofthis research showed that the farmers would be more confident and feel secured if they had their own
land. Being a farmer group member made them develop their competency level to compete withothers, exchange their knowledge and new ideas, and properly practice based on the innovations.
2. Making Plans to Develop the Competency Level in the Business Operations ofYoung Smart A-SMEs
Young Smart A-SMEs made competency development plans for eight issues and curriculums todevelop their members. The curriculums were divided into national and provincial network levels
with the responsibility of academics/proficient persons in each subject. Several methods were used
for knowledge transfer such as lectures and field studies.
2.1 The competency development included eight issues as follows: self-learning development,
production resource management, production management, product value-added management,
product standard management, marketing and product distribution management, network groupmanagement, and coordination and communication management.
2.2 Curriculums to develop the members were divided into two levels as follows:
2.2.1 Curriculums at national level: These covered the development of 1) packaging and label design,2) media technology for online marketing.
2.2.2 Curriculums at provincial level: Young Smart A-SMEs designed these “curriculums adheringto their members’ needs and set the training courses accordingly. The curriculums were correlatedwith the plans to develop the network of Young Smart A-SMEs in the eight issues mentioned
previously.”
To discuss, Young Smart A-SMEs designed the training course curriculums taken responsibility
by academics/proficient persons in each subject. They used several methods for transferring theknowledge such as lecturing and field studying consistent with Pongkarunyaphat Krtisada (2007)
who studied “Need for Farmer and Proper Syllabus Design for Future Farmer in Phrae Province” andfound that young generation farmers needed proficient academics in universities who had knowledge
and experience to lecture and gave them a chance to have field studies and real practice. Thesefindings could be discussed that effective strategy to transfer knowledge for Young Smart A-SMEs
should be conducted from proficient academics. Also, the method should be selected and based on
Young Smart A-SMEs decision which helped the training be more effective.
Young Smart A-SMEs needed to be trained on media making for communicating with
consumers and online marketing which were curriculums at national level. This finding could be
discussed that Young Smart A-SMEs needed to communicate their products directly to the consumers
using online media as marketing channels. Considering the findings of this study on general state ofYoung Smart A-SMEs, it was found that most of them had skillful use of IT consistent with Schroer(2016) who stated that Generation Y were the people who were born during 1977-1994 whileⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

technology was progressing. It implied that Young Smart A-SMEs which were in Generation Y,
tended to use IT to run their business operations. Furthermore, the researchers realized that online
marketing would be used in business operations successfully if Young Smart A-SMEs communicatedtheir marketing via IT to the young generation consumers consistent with Srisroi Mayvadee (2011)
who studied “The Effect of Online Advertising on the Perception of Marketing Information ofWorking People”, found that technology factor affected the perception of marketing information ofyoung generation people at 0.05 statistical significance.
3. Reinforcing and Developing the Competency Level in Business Operations
Young Smart A-SMEs set the training courses according to the designed curriculums as follows:
3.1 Curriculums at National Level
3.1.1 The Curriculum on the Development of Packaging and Label Designing
Young Smart A-SMEs produced practical packages, developing and designing 23 labels for 23
agricultural products to attract the attention of consumers. Some samples of the labels developed forthe agricultural products were shown in Table 1.
3.1.2 The Curriculum on Media Technology for Online Marketing
After development, the Young Smart A-SMEs accrued knowledge regarding communication with
consumers and online marketing. They could develop media technology for themselves andcommunicate directly with consumers through online channels. This greatly increased publicawareness of their products through advertising.
3.1.3 Curriculums at Provincial Network Level
Young Smart A-SMEs set schedules for the training courses adhering to the 38 curriculums at
provincial network level and operated their training courses as planned.
Table 1 Output of the Training Course on Packaging Development and Original Label
Designing for Agricultural Products
Products

Before development

After development

Development details

Three-flavor
dried tomato

Labels were developed to bewaterproof and attractive tocustomers with more
information regarding the
products. Packages weretransparent, sealed for productvisibility and had longer life
which added value to the
products. The packages werealso reusable to reduce waste.

Fresh Mangoes

The new packages were
designed with a handle to
make them portable andsuitable as a gift/souvenir.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

4. Studying the Opinions on the Reinforcement and Development of their Competency Level
in Business Operations
4.1 The Outcome of benefit level evaluation Young Smart A-SMEs evaluated each development
curriculum at provincial network level together with the benefit level in the eight aspects of selflearning development, production resource management, production management, product valueadded management, product standard management, marketing and product distribution management,
network group management, and coordination and communication management. Results showed thatthe average benefit level was high (Mean = 4.16). The highest benefit level was achieved in the four
aspects of production resource management, production management, product value-added
management, and marketing and product distribution management.
4.2 The outcome of knowledge level evaluation Young Smart A-SMEs evaluated their knowledge
levels before and after development in eight aspects. Knowledge levels before development were ata low level (Mean = 2.52). After development, knowledge levels were highest in all aspects (Mean= 4.49), except for marketing and product distribution management.
These positive findings from the outcomes of benefit level and knowledge level evaluation
regarding the development of the competency of Young Smart A-SMEs in business operations could
be discussed that allowing members of Young Smart A-SMEs groups to design curriculums to train
themselves was an effective strategy. This made them realize the benefit/advantages of the training
courses. The pattern of training courses also gave them the opportunity to discuss issues with eachother and exchange knowledge to increase their competency in business operations. These results
were consistent with Maiese Michelle (2005) who stated that discussing with each other would
reinforce the information and experience exchange, network uniting and able to enhance competency.
Furthermore, to develop competency level must be covered all aspects of competency; knowledge,
skills, and attribution (McClelland, D.C.,1973). This pattern of training courses could claim thatcompetency level were developed at all aspects of competency. The aspect of knowledge weredeveloped by curriculums at national level, and provincial network level. The aspect of skills werevisibly noticed by packaging, labeling and IT media made. Lastly, the aspect of attribution could beseen from their evaluating the benefit and knowledge.
CONCLUSION
The competency level development in business operations for Young Smart A-SMEs allowed themto design the curriculums they needed for training. These were divided into national and provincial
network levels. There were two curriculums at national level on the development of packaging andlabel designing, and the curriculum on media technology for online marketing, and 38 curriculums
at provincial network level. The evaluation of benefit/advantage was generally at a high level. The
evaluation of knowledge level before development was low; however, after development this was at
the highest level.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The researchers are extremely grateful to the Capacity Building and Study Center for Community
Based Resources Management (CRC), Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU), theDepartment of Agricultural Extension, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, and the Officeof Small and Medium Enterprise Promotion their assistance.
REFERENCES
McClelland, D.C. 1973. Testing for competence rather than intelligence. American Psychologist, USA.
Michelle, M. 2005. Networking. The beyond intractability project, The conflict information consortium, Universityof Colorado. http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/networking (retrieved in June).

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Pongkarunyaphat Krtisada. 2007. Need for farmer and proper syllabus design for future farmer in Phrae Province,
Maejo University, Thailand.
Sawatdiphap Keeratiya. 2011. Factors influencing the expectation in self-reliant agricultural development of the newgeneration farmer. Thesis, Social Development, Kasetsart University, Thailand
Schroer, W.J. 2016. Generations x, y and z and the others. WJ Schroer Company. http://socialmarketing.org/
archives/generations-xy-z-and-the-others/ (retrieved in November).
Srisroi Mayvadee. 2011. The effect of online advertising on the perception of marketing information of working
people. Thesis, Faculty of Business Administration Graduate School, Rangsit University, Thailand.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Research article
erd

Small Scale Farmers’ Perception of Soil and Water
Conservation Practices -The Case of Budalangi Area, Kenya
BENARD ONYANGO ODHIAMBO
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: benaxodhis@yahoo.com

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
E-mail:m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 15 December 2016

Accepted 29 October 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Soil and water conservation; a process of minimizing the effects of land degradation,is necessary for sustainability of food production aimed at feeding the rapidly increasing
global population. Soil erosion and subsequent transfer of the eroded particles have been seen
as a major cause of land degradation. Budalangi area in Kenya is mainly flat with poor
drainage and alluvial or black cotton soil with minimal tree cover. Flooding in the study area
is believed to be as a result of sediments accumulating in the bed of River Nzoia over theyears, making the river course channel to be above the general level of flood plain, resulting
to overbank flow across the dykes. The study is to discuss the understanding of small scale
farmers and their motivation on soil and water conservation practices. Qualitative andquantitative methods were used. Data collection was mainly through questionnaire survey,
both formal and informal interviews together with field visits. The sample was selected bysimple random sampling technique from the entire study area. From the general outcome,majority of farmers could attribute the condition of their farm fertility to deposition of top
soil from upstream. Respondents also related low productivity to floods and unreliable
rainfall pattern in the area. The results showed that about 74.3% of the farmers in the study
area are familiar with soil and water conservation with 42.6% of them putting to practice atleast one measure to conserve soil and water. About 68.5% of the farmers are not practicing
any soil and water conservation measures. Hence, there is need to strengthen small scale
farmers` knowledge and adoption of soil and water conservation such as rainwater harvesting
to augment overreliance on direct rain for production and sustainable agriculture.
Keywords soil erosion, deposition, soil fertility, farmer perception, and soil and water
conservation

INTRODUCTION
In many developing countries, programs to mitigate land degradation have been initiated but withminimal success due to poor user adoption and lack of adequate technology transfer, (Aklilu and Jan,
2007). According to McDonald and Brown, (2000), technical interventions brought to farmers byexternal agencies are always not sustainable unless attention is paid to both socio-economic andcultural aspects of the community in question. Therefore, in order to enhance sustainability of
projects meant to intervene in a particular problem in a community, full community participation isnecessary. This way, technology transfer will be meaningful and sustainable.
Decision by farmers to practice or adopt soil and water conservation (SWC) strategies is heavily
influenced by personal, socio-economics and technological factors among others. Personal factors ofage and level of education determines a farmer`s ability to relate problems associated with erosion
to their consequences on productivity, (Woldeamlak, 2007). Inherent land properties such as slope
and soil type determine vulnerability of soil to agents of erosion. Land tenure system, family size aswell as level of income can be categorized as socioeconomic factors influencing adoption andpractice of SWC measures.
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Kessler, (2006) reported that in order to understand what motivates human beings to behave ina given way in relation to adoption process, there is need to put into consideration the logics behindthe motivating factor which can either be self-driven through personal interests or externally driven
by an expected reward or outcome. For SWC activities, self-motivation is important due to their longterm nature of payback.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to discuss the understanding of small scale farmers and their motivation
on soil and water conservation practices in Budalangi area, Busia County, Kenya.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
The study area lies between longitudes N 0° 7′ 0″ to N 0° 9′ 0″ and latitudes E 34° 1′ 30″ to E 34° 3′30″. The research was conducted within Budalangi area, Busia County, which forms part of the lower
catchment of river Nzoia watershed. Budalangi area is mainly flat with poor drainage, alluvial or
black cotton soils with minimal tree cover and thus vulnerable to floods, (Alfred, 2013). The area
receives mean annual rainfall amount of about 600 mm. Despite this manageable rainfall amount,
the area is prone to floods during rainy seasons and suffers severe water scarcity during other seasons.
To address these extreme challenges of excess water and water scarcity, there was need to study theunderstanding of small scale farmers and their motivation on soil and water conservation practices.

Fig. 1 Map showing location and slope of study area
Methods Applied
A total of 35 household representative farmers were randomly selected as the key informants forinterviewing with the assistance of area extension officer. Randomization was to get a good
representation of socio-economic characteristics of the target group. The data was collected in August
2016, which corresponded to land preparation period in the study area. Data collection was mainly
through questionnaire survey, both formal and informal interviews together with field visits. TheⒸ ISERD

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questionnaire was designed consisting of both closed and open ended questions in order not to limit
or restrict the response in a given way; this was meant to allow full expression among the respondents
and the researchers to understand the respondents` perceptions relating to the mentioned issues.
Land tenure systems, past and present practices on the farms, yield per season, theirunderstanding of soil fertility, erosion and conservation strategies were some of the issues includedin the questionnaire. Questions relating to soil fertility changes, soil erosion perception and soil andwater conservation strategies were open ended in structure to enable respondents to identify various
visual indicators and give possible reasons for their observations.
Descriptive statistics especially tabulation and simple graphics were used to summarize the data.
To determine the factors that influenced decline in agricultural production and influencing SWC
practices, average ranking for each of the ranked causes was used to determine the most influential
factors using the formula;
Average rank 𝑃𝑎 =𝑋1 𝑃1 +𝑋2 𝑃2 +𝑋3 𝑃3 +⋯+𝑋𝑛 𝑃𝑛(1)𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡

Where Xi is the response count for each choice and Pi is the ranked position.
Table 1 Contents of the questionnaire sheet
Category
Basic information of
respondent
Topography
Security of tenure

Related question
General information

Cultivated crops andproduction levels
Land degradation

Type of crop , yield

Farm position in relation to hillside
Land tenure system

Soil erosion severity, soil and water
conservation measure

DetailsName, age, gender, level of
education, occupation
Location, slope
Type of land ownership, previous
land use
Maize, beans, potatoes, groundnuts,
cassava and millet
Level of damage and perceived
causes, knowledge of SWC
measures, adoption level of SWC
measures.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Land Tenure System and Preparation
Security of tenure is an important factor in determining whether a farmer is willing to practice soil
and water conservation measures on their farmland, (Asrat et al., 2004). If the land belongs to thefarmer and he/she is sure of using it for a long period of time, say, lifetime, the farmer has
expectations of deriving benefits from the farm for a longer time and hence, he/she is most likely toinvest in soil and water conservation measures on the farmland.
Unlike, when the farmer is not certain about the security of tenure, i.e. when the farm is leasedor hired for a short period of time, the farmer may not be willing to invest in soil and water
conservation measures.
Table 2 Farmers’ responses on land ownershipLand tenure system

Number of respondents in percentage (%)

Individually owned (inherited/given/bought)

80.0

Communally owned

11.4

Others (leased or hired)

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From the results on Table 2, majority of respondents either owned their farms through buying
or inherited from the family lineage. Minority leased or hired their farms for a short period of time.
This could mean there is relatively a higher security in terms of land ownership among the farmers
in the study area and hence, a positive willingness to adopt and practice soil and water conservation
strategies. This finding is also in agreement with Desalew and Aklilu, 2017, who observed thatamong other factors, plot ownership type had a significant influence on farmer’s perception on soil
and water conservation.
Farm Fertility Status
Proper soil and water conservation measures are important in maintaining and improving soil fertility.
Deposition especially during heavy rains and flash floods from upstream was identified by the
respondents as a possible cause of soil fertility in the area. Most farmers do not use either organic or
inorganic fertilizer on their farms; probably due to deposition of top soil and other organic materials
on some farms and high cost of farm inputs making it impossible for most small scale farmers toafford. As shown in Fig. 2, 40% of the farmers perceived deposition from upstream as a cause of
their farm fertility status.
Farmers’ Perception of Soil Erosion and its Severity
The concept of soil erosion is not a new term among the farmers in the study area. Majority of the
respondents were able to identify the effects of soil erosion with its magnitude.
Not sure
17%

40
Percentage of farmers (%)

Constant
ploughing
20%

Fallowinglengths
3%

30
20
10

Drought
11%
Naturalsoil
condition
9%

Deposition
40%

0
None

Slightly Moderate Severe
Degree of soil erosion

Fig. 2 Perceived cause of soil fertility status
magnitude

VerysevereFig. 3 Perceived soil erosion

Results on Fig. 3 shows 34.3% of the respondents considered soil erosion magnitude as being
moderate with 17.1% and 8.6% mentioning severe and very severe respectively.
On the effect of erosion on soil fertility status, 48.6% confirmed it affected it negatively with28.6% observing no relationship between erosion and soil fertility. This perception is in agreementwith finding by Lal, 2003 that erosion has negative impacts on the environment as it reduces soil
fertility of arable lands. The 22.8% observed positive effects of erosion; probably as a result of
deposition from upstream.
Farmers Understanding of Causes of Decline in Production
From the results, all respondents were able to identify a decline in level of production and recognized
possible causes in order of rank from 1 to 6. Where; 1 represented the most likely cause of decline
and 6 the least likely contributor to the decline.
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As in Table 3; flooding, income levels and water scarcity were identified as the major causes ofdecline in agricultural production in the area as most of the respondents were ranking them from firstto second as shown in their average rank. Thus, the perception of causes leading to decline inproduction is important in determining the possible levels of adoption of any conservation strategy
to be recommended in addressing challenges facing crop production and sustainable agriculture
wholesomely. According to Enyew et al., 2013, soil and water conservation leads to improved crop
productivity. Their study focused mainly on terraced fields for teff, barley and maize production.
Each field showed a significant increase in yield per hectare.
Table 3 Crop production decline and prioritized causes
Cause
1st
31.4
54.2
68.6
25.7
60.0
28.6

Soil erosion
Water scarcity
Flooding
Size of farmland
Income levels
Wild animals

2nd
28.6
25.7
25.7
2.9
22.9
17.1

Rank by respondent (%)
3rd
4th
5th
5.7
34.2
8.6
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
22.9
34.2
17.1
5.7
20.1
17.1

Average rank
6th
8.6
11.4

2.8
1.8
1.4
3.6
1.6
3.1

Soil and Water Conservation Strategies
SWC measures are normally put in place to control surface runoff and harvest rainwater. From thesurvey, it showed that about 74.3% of the respondents were familiar with SWC measures with about
42.6% doing something towards SWC in their farms. As in Fig. 4, out of 42.6% respondents who
were able to identify some problems of surface runoff and water ponding, 51.4% and 31.4% used
trenches and waterways as conservation measures, respectively in an attempt to control water
movement within their farms. Figure 5 shows some of the soil and water conservation practices
within the study area.
Some farmers were unable to respond to whether they practice SWC measures on their farms
or not. According to Kessler, (2006), farmers may decide not to adopt any SWC measure even after
perceiving a given problem and have an idea on how to solve it. This is due to various constraints toadoption, ranging from personal factors to technological aspects. From the survey, flooding
especially during heavy downpour and water scarcity during dry seasons was identified as top
constraints to production.
Therefore, there is need to bridge these extremes through rainwater harvesting and storage during
heavy rains for use in dry seasons. To attain this, a deeper understanding of factors influencing
farmers’ perception and willingness to adopt any sustainable SWC measures is important (Derajew
et al., 2013).
Proportion of farmers
adopting (%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Trenches Waterways Soil bunds

Treeplanting

Grassstrips

Stone
bunds

Fig. 4 Adoption levels of each SWC measureⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Trash line

Water harvesting pond

Trench/ditch

Fig. 5 Soil and water conservation practices in the study area
CONCLUSION
This study aimed at discussing the understanding of small scale farmers on soil and water
conservation practices in Budalangi area of Busia County, Kenya. From the results of the survey, it
is demonstrated that majority of small scale farmers in the study area are aware of soil and water
conservation measures and practices. About 74.3% are familiar with soil and water conservation with42.6% of them putting to practice at least one measure to conserve soil and water. It is clear therefore
that 68.5% of farmers, despite having the information, they are not putting to practice any soil andwater conservation measure in their farmlands. Hence, there is need to strengthen small scale
farmers` knowledge and adoption of soil and water conservation through training and extension
services in order to realize a more sustainable land and water management practices and subsequently,
sustainable agriculture.
REFERENCES
Aklilu, A. and Graaff, J.D. 2007. Determinants of adoption and continued use of stone terraces for soil andwater conservation in an Ethiopian highland watershed. Ecological Economics, 61, 294-302.
Alfred, O. 2013. Geo-environmental resources and hazards. (Floods in Kenya). Developments in Earth Surface
Processes, 16, 315-330.
Asrat, P., Belay, K. and Hamito, D. 2004. Determinants of farmers` willingness to pay for soil conservation
practices in the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia. Land Degradation and Development, 15, 423-438.
Derajew, F., Bekabil, F. and Wagayehu, B. 2013. Determinants of the use of soil conservation technologies bysmallholder farmers, The case of Hulet Eju Enesie District, East Gojjam zone, Ethiopia. Asian Journal of
Agriculture and Food Sciences, 1, 119-138.
Desalew, M.M. and Aklilu, A.T. 2017. Determinants of farmers’ perception to invest in soil and water
conservation technologies in the North-Western Highlands of Ethiopia. International Soil and Water
Conservation Research, 5, 56-61.
Enyew, A., Akalu, T. and Bancy, M. 2013. Impacts of long-term soil and water conservation on agricultural
productivity, The case of Anjenie watershed, Ethiopia. Agricultural Water Management, 117, 55-61.
Kessler, C.A. 2006. Decisive key-factors influencing farm households’ soil and water conservation investments.
Applied Geography, 26, 40-60.
Lal, R. 2003. Soil erosion and the global carbon budget. Environment International, 29, 437-450.
McDonald, M. and Brown, K. 2000. Soil and water conservation projects and rural livelihoods, Options fordesign and research to enhance adoption and adaptation. Land Degradation and Development, 11, 343361.
Woldeamlak, B. 2007. Soil and water conservation intervention with conventional technologies innorthwestern highlands of Ethiopia, Acceptance and adoption by farmers. Land Use Policy, 24, 404-416.

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Research article
erd

Waste Characterization, Quantification and Residents’
Perception towards Solid Waste Management in Ubay,
Bohol
CAROL J. PAYOT*Bood Elementary School, Ubay, Bohol, Philippines
Email: carolyneteodoro@yahoo.com

REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines
Received 1 January 2017

Accepted 29 October 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study aimed to determine the percentage composition of the waste generated,
the per capita waste generated per day, perception towards solid waste management practicesof the residents of Ubay and the problems encountered in implementing the Solid Waste
Management during the year 2015. This study employed descriptive-survey methods indetermining the perception of the residents towards solid waste management and the
problems encountered. As to the percentage composition, the researcher conducted
documentary analysis from the data generated by the Solid Waste Management Office of the
Local Government Unit (LGU) of Ubay, Bohol. A first-income class municipality in theisland province of Bohol, Philippines. It is in the northeast of the province, and has an areaof 335.06 square kilometers (129.37 sq. mi.) with 61 km (38 mi.) of coastline. It has 44
barangays. The Local Government Unit (LGU) of Ubay. One of the mandates of thegovernment is to take care of the environment and protect the residents from various risks ofenvironmental degradation. Findings showed that over fifty percent (50%) of the waste
generated were biodegradable (organic) materials. The per capita waste generation was 0.065
kg. Residents had a moderately positive attitude towards solid waste management. The
researches recommended that the LGU-Ubay, together with the barangay units, schools,
NGO’s and other responsible persons, may find more effective and efficient ways of
increasing residents’ participation level in solid waste management. The Solid Waste
Management Board of Ubay may prioritize in strengthening the area of education and training
to increase awareness of the residents regarding solid waste management. Further studies
may be conducted formulating models that will show the solid waste flow of Ubay, Bohol(or other municipalities). An impact analysis of the strategies employed by municipalities inaddressing problems of solid waste may be included.
Keywords attitude, biodegradable waste, Per Capita Waste Generation, perception,
waste characterization, waste quantification

INTRODUCTION
In the midst of rapid development and industrialization, proper solid waste management practices
play a vital role in maintaining the ecological balance of the country. Solid waste constitutes a major
problem in most developing countries. Garbage is becoming a big problem in many places of theworld and Ubay is no exception. Ubay, the research locale of this study, is a first-income classmunicipality in the island province of Bohol, Philippines. It is in the northeast of the province, andhas an area of 335.06 square kilometers (129.37 sq. mi.) with 61 km (38 mi.) of coastline. It has 44
barangays. Local Government Unit (LGU) of Ubay. One of the mandates of the government is totake care of the environment and protect the residents from various risks of environmental
degradation.

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Waste management is one of the most intractable barrier in which administrators andenvironmental agencies are facing today. Ogwueleka (2009) reported that solid waste management
is by far one of the greatest challenges that the country is facing. Human activities generate wastes,
and the way these wastes are handled, stored, collected and disposed off can pose risks to theenvironment and to public health. Problems and issues of Municipal Solid Waste Management(MSWM) are of immediate importance. Ogunyanwo, (2014). This has been acknowledged by most
governments, however rapid population growth overwhelms the capacity of most municipal
authorities to provide even the most basic services Zurbrugg (2000). Due to their busy schedule, they
just want to dispose their waste out the house. Unfortunately, public agents and urban authorities do
not have adequate capacity to handle the increasing solid wastes mainly due to limited public budgets.
A consequence of failure to remove solid waste are healthy hazards like tetanus, water contamination,
sanitary and environmental problems such as pollution. In most developed countries, solid waste isdisposed off in sanitary landfills. The buffering capacity of soil makes it possible for landfills to holdwaste and prevent pollution of surrounding environment Carlson (1976); as cited by Kaluli (2011).It
was provided in Article 11 of the Philippine Constitution, that the State shall protect and advance theright of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of
nature. Thus, the Philippine government takes into consideration the promulgation of various
Presidential Decrees and the enactment of several Republic Acts which took direct action on solid
waste management.
The most recent act is the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003) which
was signed into law on January 26, 2001. The law mandates all, and specifically the local government
units (LGUs) “to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological SWM program”. RA 9003 adopts
a community-based approach. As an alternative, sanitary landfills should be developed as a final
disposal site but they should be operated in accordance with the guidelines presented in the act
Bernardo (2013).
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to assess the solid waste management practices of the residents of Ubay, Bohol,
Philippines, in the aspect of waste quantification and characterization, as well as their perception
towards their attitude in solid waste management practices during the year 2015.
METHODOLOGYThis study employed descriptive-survey method in determining the perception of the residents
towards solid waste management in terms of attitude, and the problems encountered. As to thepercentage composition, the researcher conducted documentary analysis from the data generated by
Local Government Unit of Ubay, Bohol, Philippines.
The instrument of this study is fivefold which consist the following aspects, namely: Percentage
Composition of Waste Generated, Per Capita Waste Generation per Day, Strategies in Reducing Solid
Waste, Attitude of the residents towards waste management, and Problems Encountered During the
Implementation of Solid Waste Management. This study was conducted in Ubay, Bohol, Philippines.
This is a first- class municipality in the northeast of the province of Bohol with an area of 335.06
square kilometers (129.37 sq. mi.) and 61 km (38 mi.) of coastline with 44 barangays.
There were the three hundred sixty four (364) randomly selected respondents who were official
residents of nineteen (19) randomly selected barangays of Ubay, Bohol. This number was the result
after using Slovin’s formula in determining the appropriate sample size.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the percentage composition of waste generated per day. It discloses that among thefour (4) classifications of solid waste, biodegradable materials generated got the highest weightⒸ ISERD

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composition of 214.29 kg or 52.77%. This is marginally higher than the country’s average percentage
composition of organic waste (bio-degradable) which 50% (Gapuz, 2011). These wastes include
food/kitchen waste (vegetable and fruit residues, fish cleanings and animal carcasses) yard wastes(grass, twigs, and leaves) and agricultural waste.
Table 1 Percentage Composition of Waste Generated Per Day
Classification ofwaste
Biodegradable

Weight composition (kg)214.29Percentage
composition
52.77

Recyclable

82.07

20.21

Residual

60.99

15.02

Special

48.73

12.00

Total

406.08100.00%Samplesize

Per capita
waste

6,258

0.065

The least generated waste was the special waste with 48.73 kg or 12 %. This waste refers tohousehold hazardous wastes. This includes empty cans/containers of paints and thinners, household
batteries, spray canisters and the like. Wastes may be hazardous wastes if they exhibit any of the fourcharacteristics of a hazardous waste (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity) as defined in
Article 3 of Chapter 11 of the hazardous waste regulations (Sections 66261.21 to 66261.24). Thesefour characteristics are: Ignitability – Ignitable wastes can create fires under certain conditions,
undergo spontaneous combustion, or have a flash point less than 60°C (140°F). Examples include
waste oil and used solvents. The characteristic of ignitability is defined in section 66261.21 of thehazardous waste (Gyambrahg, 2016).
This agrees to the study of Oluwaleye (2012) that hazardous wastes which can stem from anyof the above sources. Therefore it will not be taken as a part of the classification of wastes by source,
rather as a cross-cutting character for all these wastes (UNESCAP, 1993). Moreover, the amount ofwaste generated in either developed or developing countries depends on the population, degree ofurbanization and industrialization, and intensity of agricultural activities.
Typical hazardous waste routinely generated at offshore facilities include waste oil, oilcontaminated rags, hydraulic fluids, used batteries, empty paint cans, waste chemicals and usedchemical containers, used filters, fluorescent tubes, medical waste and among others. All operatorsof fixed and mobile units must submit a Waste Management Plan (WMP) showing roles andresponsibilities, a list of expected waste streams generated and a Waste Location. (Gyambrahg, 2016)
Recycle/ Compost Recycling is a process to convert waste materials into reusable material to prevent
waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy
usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing theneed for "conventional" waste disposal and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to plastic
production.
Table 2 Per Capita Waste Generation per Day of Ubay, Bohol
Total waste composition (kg)

Sample size

406.086,258

Per capita waste
0.065

Table 2 reflects the per capita waste generation per day of Ubay, Bohol. The per capita waste
generation per day was based on the total weight composition (in kilograms) divided by the six
thousand two hundred fifty eight (6,258) sample size of the solid waste characterization conductedby the Solid Waste Management Office of the Local Government Unit (LGU) of Ubay, Bohol. As
shown in Table 2, total waste composition is 406.08 kg with 6,258 sample size, the per capita waste
generated is 0.065. It is below the average waste generation which is 0.3 kg per person per day in therural areas (Atienza, 2011).
Table 3 manifests the residents’ perception towards solid waste management practices. It canbe noted that Item number 2 or “Environmental education should be taught in schools” ranked firstⒸ ISERD

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among the items. This means that the residents still need to be educated about the environment andhow to take care of it.
Table 3 Residents’ Perception on their Attitude towards
Solid Waste Management Practices (n=364)
Statements

WM

DV

Rank

1. I play an important role in the management of garbage in my community.
2. Environmental education should be taught in schools.
3. The purchase decisions that I make can increase or decrease the amount ofgarbage.
4. I’m concerned that burning garbage can be bad for my health and…others.
5. People who throw garbage on the streets and in the drains and gullies lackwillingness.
6. The government is doing enough to fix the garbage problems.
7. Correct garbage management should be taught in schools.
8. Other personal issues (like crime, unemployment, and cost of living) are
more important to me than a garbage-free community.
9. Regular collection of garbage is not the only solution to garbage problems.
10. Picking up garbage around my community is my responsibility as a citizen.
11. Public education about proper garbage management is one way to fix thegarbage crisis.
12. It is very important that the government of Philippines put recycling laws
and programs in place.
Composite Mean

5.30
5.57

STA
STA

4
1

4.87

MA

9

5.10

MA

7

4.14

SLA

12

4.27
5.12

SLA
MA

11
5.5

4.32

SLA

10

4.99
5.12

MA
MA

8
5.5

5.34

STA

3

5.37

STA

2

4.96

MA

Legend:Range
DV
5.16 – 6.00 - Strongly Agree (STA)
4.33 – 5.15 - Moderately Agree (MA)
3.50 – 4.32 - Slightly Agree (SLA)
2.67 – 3.49 - Slightly Disagree (SLD)
1.84 – 2.66 - Moderately Disagree (MD)1.00 – 1.83 - Strongly Disagree (STD)

Level of Attitude
Highly Positive
Moderately Positive
Slightly Positive
Slightly Negative
Moderately Negative
Highly Negative

Item number 5 “People throw garbage on the streets and in the drains and gullies because oflack of education regarding proper solid waste management practices” obtained the lowest weighted
mean of 4.14 (slightly agree). In the absence of a basic facility of collection of waste from source,
citizens are prone to dumping waste on the streets, open spaces, drains, and water bodies in thevicinity creating unsanitary conditions (Kumar and Nandini, 2013). This mind set is primarily
responsible for the unscientific systems of waste management in the country. The relevance of thestudy has direct relation to the present environmental issues. There is a global awakening on the issue
by the world leaders. Most often the present efforts are disproportionate because all the stakeholders
want others to control the contamination.
Citizens assume that waste thrown on the streets would be picked up by the municipality throughstreet sweeping. In this wise, individual’s perception will influence the cultural values, responses,
and success of the solid waste management system.
Table 4 shows a composite mean of 3.28 that implies very serious problem encountered during
the implementation of SWM. In particular, item number 12 “Health problems (presence of dengue)”got the highest weighted mean of 3.54 (very serious). Meaning, there is considerable potential for
health hazardous exposure that occurred during the implementation of solid waste management.
Therefore, the implementation of SWM takes into consideration through rigid process, monitoringand evaluation in order to lessen uneasiness about the potential health effects of waste management
processes, particularly within communities living in the proximity to relevant sites.

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On the other hand, item number 7 “Lack of trained personnel” obtained the lowest weighted
mean of 3.08 (serious). Without adequately trained personnel for solid waste policy making andimplementation, sustainable solid waste management planning and implementation is not realizable.
Table 4 Problems Encountered in the Implementation of Waste Management (N=364)
Statements

WM

DV

Rank

1. Public indifference (public don’t care)
2. Inefficient collection of garbage
3. Lack of financial resources
4. Lack of authority to make financial decision

3.22
3.25
3.19
3.19

S
S
S
S

9
8
11.5
11.5

5. Non-operation of good disposal
6. Lack of trained personnel
7. Lack of enforcement measure and capability
8. Foul odor of the dumpsites…
9. Lack of awareness among the people….
10. Lack of training on proper….
11. Health problems (presence of dengue)
12. Lack of collecting vehicle….
13. Open burning
14. Lack of leadership and commitment….
15. Lack of training and non-existence of SWM ….

3.18
3.08
3.16
3.36
3.37
3.34
3.54
3.31
3.35
3.26
3.21

S
S
S
VS
VS
VS
VS
VS
VS
VS
S

13
15
14
3
2
5
1
6
4
7
10

Composite Mean

3.28

VS

Legend:Range
3.26 – 4.00
2.51 – 3.25
1.76 – 2.50
1.00 – 1.75-

DV/Level of Seriousness
Very Serious(VS)
Serious(S)
Not so Serious(NS)
Not a Problem(NB)

CONCLUSION
There is an increased organic materials generated, with less per capita waste a day. This means that
residents had moderately positive attitude towards solid waste management. As the result community
awareness and mobilization is important in addressing problem and appropriate plan of action to
direct the goal on solid waste management.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that the local government unit (LGU), together with the barangay units, schools,
NGO’s and other responsible persons, may find more effective and efficient ways of increasing
residents’ participation level in solid waste management. Individual household in barangay level andall other sources such as markets, commercial buildings, institution, schools, hospitals andagricultural industry must implement multi-stream waste-sorting and collection of garbage. The
Solid Waste Management Board may prioritize in strengthening the area of education and training
to increase awareness of the residents regarding solid waste management. The community shallcontinue designing and implementing strategies to reduce the generation of waste and to promoteawareness among people.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researchers would like to express their thanks to the administration of BISU for the approval toconduct the study, the local government units of Ubay for allowing them to conduct the study in theirlocality, to the administrators of three districts of Ubay for giving the researchers enough time tofinish the study, to the respondents for honestly answering the questionnaires, to all who helped
them in this study, they would like to thank for the support given to them, for without them thisresearch study would have been in vain.
REFERENCES
Atienza, V. 2011. Review of the waste management system in the Philippines, Initiatives to promote waste
segregation and recycling through good governance. In M. Kojima, and E. Michida, Economic Integration
and Recycling in Asia, An Interim Report (65-97), Institute of Developing Economies.
Carlson, C. 1976. Land application of waste material. Soil Conservation Society of America.
Ebikapade Amasuomo, 2015 (Corresponding author) SEBE, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens
Road, G4 0BA Glasgow, UK. Analysis of Public Participation in Sustainable Waste Management Practicein Abuja, Nigeria Environmental Management and Sustainable Development, ISSN 2164-7682 2015, Vol.
4, No. 1.
Gapuz, E. 2011. Workshop on waste plastics management in developing countries. AIST Tsukuba. Director,
Environment Management Office, Center for Sustainable Human Development. Development Academy of
the Philippines.
Gyambrah, R. 2016. Disaster and risk management, hazardous waste management in Ghana, University ofCape Coast, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Geography and Egional Planning, MISQEM, IOSH,MIIRSM, IRCA, Jan 27, 2016.
Kaluli, W., Mwangi, H., and Sira F.N. 2011. Sustainable solide waste management strategies in Juja, Kenya.
Department of Biomechanical and Environmental Engineering. Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture
and Technology, Nairobi.
Kumar, M. and Nandini, N. 2013. Community attitude, perception and willingness towards solid waste
management in Bangalore city. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 4 (1), Department ofEnvironmental Science, Bangalore University, Jnanabharathi campus, Bangalore-560 056, Karnataka,
India.
Ogunyanwo, O.O. and Soyingbe, A.A. 2014. Determinants of solid waste collection and disposal, Differentials
of high and low density areas of Sango-Ota Metropolis, International Journal of Development Research, 4(10), 2005-2009.
Ogwueleka, T.C. 2009. Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria. Iranian Journal ofEnvironmental Health Science & Engineering, 6 (3), 173-180.
Zurbrugg, C. and Ahmed, R. 2000. Enhancing community motivation and participation in solid waste
management. SANDEC News, No. 4, Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries(SANDEC) at the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (EAWAG).

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Research article
erd

Farmers' Perception on Existing Problems of Soil Fertility
Management in Mid-Hills of Nepal
MASKEY SARVESH
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: 45516008@nodai.ac.jp

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 15 December 2016

Accepted 29 October 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Maintaining soil fertility is essential for prosperity and sustainability of any
agricultural system. Nepal is facing major issues in maintaining soil fertility in agriculture
sector mainly in mid-hills. Mid-hills, which accounts for more than 37% of total agriculture
land has upland terrace farming system, which is intensively cultivated, with high labor input
and high degree of subsistence. With the rise in population and increase in food demand soil
fertility management is essential. The farmers are engaged in traditional farming practices
which has evolved into complex system where livestock, husbandry, crop production,
forestry are practiced together. The undulating topography, climatic condition, unavailabilityof fertilizer is some of the key factors causing land degradation and low productivity.
Accordingly, the objective of this study is to identify farmers’ perception on existing
problems of soil fertility in mid-hills of Nepal. This study was conducted on the basis ofquestionnaire surveys and field visits. Questionnaire surveys were conducted amonghouseholds in eastern mid-hill region of Dhankuta District, Nepal. The results showed that
farmers possessed indigenous knowledge for identifying and characterizing fertility of soils.
Farmyard manure was used widely in maintaining soil fertility. Generally, farmers responded
that soil erosion and low fertility was major problems faced in agriculture. Lack of resources
and proper soil and management strategies was the main cause of the problem resulting insoil degradation and thus nutrient loss and decrease in productivity. To overcome suchproblems scientific approach on understanding the physical and chemical characteristics ofsoil should be applied to propose suitable sustainable conservation practices.
Keywords Nepal, mid-hills, soil fertility management, soil erosion, land degradation

INTRODUCTION
Soil fertility is the ability of soil to receive, store and transmit energy to support plant growth. It is
important component for overall development of plants and crop productivity. For an agrarian
economy maintaining soil fertility is very important to sustain agriculture.
Nepal is a small agrarian country, which lies in South Asia and is divided into 3 major
physiographic regions, mountains, mid-hills and the lowlands. The mid-hills region of Nepal consistsof 37% of total land area with rugged mountain topography and the altitude can vary considerablywith a short horizontal distance. Thus, the mid-hills include deep river valleys well below 1000 m,
and the nearby ridges can rise to more than 3000 m. Accordingly, climate and vegetation shows great
vegetation over a very short distance, and give rise to great ecological diversity and complexity. In
general, farming is rain-fed which is traditionally practiced in innumerable terraces. The terraced
farms are not properly maintained and are extensively cultivated. Farming in mid hills is a complex
system characterized by crop production, livestock, and forestry; where forests provides bedding
material and fodder for livestock, which in turn provides with draft-power and manure. Depletion ofsoil nutrients, water shortage and soil erosion are some the main cause for land degradation. Due tothe topography and economic conditions of the farmers access to chemical fertilizers and otherⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

technologies are very limited. Soil fertility is largely maintained through the application of compost
and manure but in recent years a decline in soil fertility has been reported (Shrestha et. al., 2000).
Even though over the years, research in enhancement of soil fertility and conservation has been done
(Keatinge et al., 1999; Acharya et. al., 2000) and in addition significant amount of relevant
indigenous knowledge has been recorded (Thapa et. al., 1997), there has been decrease in soil fertility
and is a major concern for the farmers (Turton et. al., 1995). There has also been limitation of farmers
in adoption of new techniques by farmers (Shrestha et. al., 2000).
Therefore, the objective of this study is to discuss the understanding of farmers’ perception on
soil fertility, soil management and conservation strategies in the research site.
METHODOLOGY
Site Description
This study was conducted from September to November 2016 in 5 different VDC (Village
Development Committees) of Dhankuta district. The five VDC were Dandabazar, Budhimorang,
Pakhribas, Hattikarkha and Batah. These VDC were chose on the basis of agricultural land area,
population engaged in agriculture and agricultural productivity importance The topography of
Dhankuta district is hilly with minimum elevation at 120 m to highest at 2702 m. Dhankuta district
is a major agricultural region with more than 83.45% of people engaged in agriculture whereas thenational average is 65.6%. The agricultural land has been categorized into khetland (irrigatedlowlands) and bariland (upland) and the district’s major crops are maize, paddy, wheat, potato, millet,
legumes, ginger, tea, cardamom, sugarcane, vegetables, orange etc. depending on the type of land.
Livestock forms an important part of agriculture with different animals like cows, buffalo, pigs, goat,
sheep, chicken etc. been reared. Livestock is an important income source and makes significant
contribution to GNP in agricultural sector. The soil of the district is defined as the alluvial, residualand clay mixed sandy soil according to the elevation as well as the topographic physiology.

Fig. 1 District map of study area

Fig. 2 Topography map of study area

Table 1 Topography distribution of study area
Elevation (m)0-500

500-1,000

1,000-1,500

1,500-2,000

2,000-2,500

2,500-2,693

Area (ha)

11823

30998

29002

13915

13.31

78

Area (%)

13.31

34.91

32.66

15.67

3.36

0.09

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Household Interviews
Interviews were conducted in five VDC of Dhankuta district. Total of 35 farmer representatives of
5 villages were selected for the interview. To minimize the errors due to possible lack of knowledge
in managing the fields, only those farmers who owned the field were interviewed excluding farmers
working in rented fields. Questionnaire was designed to understand farmers` perception on fertilityof soil, soil fertility management and problems faced in agriculture and conservation practices.
In this study descriptive statistics, graphic analysis and simple tabulation were used tosummarize the data observed.
Table 2 Questions in the questionnaire sheet
Category
Basic information ofhousehold
Farmers’ perception of soil
fertility
Crop cultivatedRelated questions

DetailsName, Age, Gender, Numbers of family members
and Address-General information-Degree of soil fertility

Physical characteristics (color, hardness etc.)-Types of crop

Rice, wheat, maize, tubers, vegetables

Water resources-Source of irrigation water

Soil fertility practice-Kinds of practiceRainwater, river, springs, groundwater
Fertilizer, farmyard manure, compost, green
manure etc.
Decrease in land productivity, nutrient loss,
sediment yield

Soil degradation
Soil erosion management-Soil erosion effect-Severity-Erosion management practices
and conservation measures

Terracing, buffer strip, mulching etc.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Problem of Soil Erosion and Soil Erosion Management Practices
According to Turton et. al., (1997) soil erosion is one of the major causes that threaten soil
sustainability in Nepal. Also, soil loss through surface erosion from hilly agricultural land varies
from less than two tons per hectare per year to a high soil loss of 105 tons per hectare (Acharya et.
al., 2007). Due to mountainous physiography, poorly managed sloppy terraces, and degradedrangelands, erosion on these lands are highest. Interviews with the farmer shows different problems
faced in agriculture in the research site (Fig. 3). 45% and 25% of respondent answered that soil
erosion and low fertility respectively were the major problem faced. Other problems such as,
landslide, disease and pest were also observed. Annual loss of soil from soil erosion in Nepal isestimated to range between 182 to 708 ton/year (MOEST, 2006). The forest area has been converted
into degraded lands and the vegetation cover is extremely low in some areas. Also, landslides arecommon phenomena in the geologically fragile hills thereby increasing the area of degraded lands.
50

Respondent %

40
30
20
10
0
Low fertility

Soil erosion

Landslide

Disease and pest

Fig. 3 Different kinds of problems faced
Figure. 4 show farmers perception on the severity of soil erosion in the research site. The results
show that severity of erosion is not alarming. But, the study of Turton et. al., (1997) suggested that
although farmers responded unchanged or increased soil fertility, soil analysis showed critical levelⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

of soil fertility. Therefore, there is need to know the amount of erosion and the factors contributing
to it so that required conservation strategies could be applied. Most of the respondent answered thatsoil erosion led to decrease in productivity followed by soil degradation, nutrient loss and sedimentyield (Figure. 5)
4070

Respondent %Respondent %

60

30
20
10

50
40
30
20
10

0

0

Very low

Low

NormalHigh

Low productivity Soil degradation

Fig. 4 Severity of soil erosion

Nutrient loss

Sediment yeild

Fig. 5 Effects of soil erosion

High soil erosion and low fertility can be result of soil conservation and soil fertility
management practices. Farmers did have the concept and understanding of soil erosion and practiced
various soil erosion management practices (Fig. 6). Due to topography, 69% of the farmers repliedthat they were practicing terrace farming where steep slopes were converted into terraces. These
slopes were not properly made and managed which further increases the possibility of soil erosion.
Mulch
6%

Gabion5%

Not at all
12%

Buffer strip
20%

Terracing
69%

0-25%
88%

Fig. 6 Soil erosion conservation practices

Fig. 7 Land area under conservation

Farmers also practiced the construction of buffer strips to minimize the soil erosion and loss ofnutrients. Mulching using crop residues were also observed. Most of the farmers understood theimportance of conservation of their fields, but only small part of their fields was under conservation.
88% of farmers replied that they have some kinds of conservation strategies applied in 25% of theirland area, whereas 12% replied that they did not had any conservation methods applied (Fig. 7).
The reason for low conservation practices can be related to weak economic conditions, lack ofknowledge and training in conservation strategies among the farmers. When asked, only 23% of the
farmers had any or some kind of training participation in conservation strategies.
Dependence on Rainwater
Water is an essential factor in maintaining soil fertility and increasing the productivity. Nepal is richin water resources with series of rivers and streams flowing down from the mountains, but due tolack of infrastructures farmers have to depend on rainwater for agriculture. 60% of farmers repliedthat they were dependent on rainwater for irrigation (Fig. 8). Dhankuta district receives an avg.
rainfall of 2100 mm with rains at peak between the month of June and July (Fig. 9). Apart from therainy season there is scarcity of water. Erratic pattern of rainfall is also a concern for the farmers.
Water conservation strategies should be adopted for supply of water during the dry seasons.
Ⓒ ISERD

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70

300

60

250
Rainfall (mm)Respondent %IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

50
40
30
20

200
150
100
50

10

0

0
River

Pond

Tapwater Ground
water

Ja
nu
Fe ary
br
ua
ry
M
ar
ch
A
pr
il
M
ay
Ju
ne
Ju
l
A y
u
Se g u
pt st
em
b
O er
c
N tobeov
em r
D
ec ber
em
be
r

Rain
water

Fig. 8 Different sources of irrigation water

Fig. 9 Average annual rainfall(1989-2016, DHM)

Soil Fertility Management Practices
Farmers indicated using conjunction of farmyard manure (FYM) and chemical fertilizer as a major
supplement for managing soil fertility. Other practices, such as green manure, legumes were also
used (Fig. 10). Farmers for making farmyard manure used indigenous method. Table 3 shows theamount of FYM applied, application frequency and preparation period of FYM. Farmers used leaves,
shrubs, and other organic material together with crop residues and bedding material to make farmyard
manure. Manure from cows, buffaloes, pigs, goat, poultry were widely used. Due to deforestationand lack of fodder for the livestock, the quality and the quantity of farmyard manure have decreased.
Also, the amount of farmyard manure applied was directly related to the number of livestock owned.
The improper handling and making of farmyard manure has resulted in loss of nutrients. Shrestha et.
al., (2009) suggested that soil fertility is largely maintained through the application of compost andmanure but in recent years a decline in soil fertility has been reported. Also, improper handling ofmanure can lead to environmental and health problems through surface runoff and leaching of
nutrients and pathogenic microorganism (Ishikawa et. al., 2012).
The most common form of chemical fertilizers used were urea and DAP (Di-Ammonium
phosphate). Although farmers considered chemical fertilizers easy to transport, store and use, costand availability was a major concern. Farmers were unaware of appropriate timing and amount of
fertilizers applied.
FYM
3%Green manure
13%

Legumes
16%

FYM+ chemicalfertilizer
68%

Fig. 10 Different soil fertilizer application
Table 3 Respondent % for application amount, frequency and preparation period of FYM
FYM (ton/ha)
Less than 1 ton/ha 55%
1-2 ton/ha
18%
2-3 ton/ha20%
Not available
7%

Application of FYM
1 time/year
2 times/year
3 times/year
4 times/yearⒸ ISERD

35(times/year)

Preparation period

20%
60%
17%
13%

3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months

10%
61%
19%
10%

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

CONCLUSIONS
Soil erosion was a major problem faced by farmers, which led to depletion of nutrients, thus decreasein productivity. Farmers used various kinds of soil management practices with farmyard manure themost dominant kind. Improper handling in preparation, storing and application resulted in low
productivity. Farmers were also using chemical fertilizers, but it was restricted to availability andeconomic condition of farmers. Landslides, sediment yields diseases and pests were other problems,
which existed. Soil conservation strategies were performed, but in very small portion of the field.
Lack of irrigation facilities and dependence in rainwater was major concern. All this conditions had
effect on the productivity. To better understand and overcome such problems scientific approachshould be applied and suitable sustainable conservation practices should be proposed.
REFERENCES
Acharya, G.P., Tripathi, B.P., Shrestha and S.P. and Gregory, P.J. 2000. Nutrient management in maize, finger
millet systems in the hills of Nepal. Lumle Seminar Paper, No. 8.
Ishikawa, Y. and Mihara M., 2012. Changes in Escherichia coli efflux from farmland by surface runoff andpercolation under different application methods of manure. International Journal of Environmental and
Rural Development, IJERD, 3 (2), 188-192.
Keatinge J.D.H., Qui, A., Wheeler, T.R., Subedi, M., Shah, P.B., Ellis, R.H. and Summerfield, R.J. 1999.
Annual legume species as green manures/cover crops in low income farming systems of Nepal. MountainRes. Develop. 19, 325-332.
MOEST. 2006. Nepal: Third National Report on the Implementation of the UN Convention to Combat
Desertification. Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Pilbeam J.C., Mathema B.S., Gregory J.P. and Shakya B.P. 2005. Soil fertility management in the mid-hills of
Nepal, Practices and perceptions. Agriculture and Human Values, 22 (1), 243-258.
Shrestha, B. 2000. Soil fertility management, Farmers practices and perceptions in the hills of Nepal. Lumle
Technical Paper No. 4.
Thapa, B., Walker, D.H. and Sinclair, F.L. 1997. Indigenous knowledge of the feeding value of tree fodder.
Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 67, 97-114.
Turton, C., Vaidya, A., Tuladhar, J.K. and Joshi, K.D. 1995. Towards sustainable soil fertility Management in
the hills of Nepal. NRI/LARC Project, Chatham Maritime, UK.

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Research article
erd

Development of Distance-Learning Curriculum Model on
Food Safety and Organic Agriculture Developed from theSufficiency Economy Philosophy for the ASEAN
Community
SINEENUCH KHRUTMUANG SANSERM*
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand
Email: tukstou@hotmail.com

BUMPEN KEOWAN
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand

BENCHAMAS YOOPRASERT
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand

NAREERUT SEERASARN
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand
Received 28 December 2016

Accepted 29 Oct 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The Distance-Learning Model on Food Safety and Organic Agriculture Developed
from the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy for the ASEAN Community was designed by
selecting relevant topical video recordings and translating the contents into nine languages
mostly used in the ASEAN region. Which used to educate the farmers regarding food safety,
supply chain, and organic farming, and to promote the implementation of sufficiency
economy into the ASEAN region. The aims of this research were: 1) to develop a distancelearning curriculum model on food safety and organic agriculture following the sufficiency
economy philosophy for the ASEAN community, 2) to develop learning materials toaccompany the program, and 3) to evaluate the benefits and success of the learning program.
Research, development and evaluation were all administered. Both qualitative andquantitative data were collected. Seminars were organized to garner information from 10
qualified experts in model development processes and procedures. A questionnaire survey
was used to gather data from 70 participants of different nationalities to evaluate the learning
program. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and qualitative data
were evaluated using content analysis. The findings were as follows: 1) one remarkablefeature of a distance-learning curriculum was the use of video recordings as a major tool in
the learning process, and learning by doing through group study by people living in adjacentcommunities, 2) the learning materials accompanying the program were available in nine
ASEAN languages (Thai, Lao, Cambodian, Vietnamese, Malay, Indonesian, Burmese,
Chinese and English), and consisted of: (i) instructional videos covering 15 subjects including
Sufficiency Economy Philosophy, Paradigm Shifts, Food Security, The Way of Organic
Farming, Household Budget and Information Management for Planning, Knowledge
Management, Soil and Water Management, Genetics Management, Alternative Energy,
Safety and Organic Food Production, Food Safety Assurance, Packaging Design, GroupManagement, Distribution Management, and Edutainment, (ii) curriculum documents,
handbooks and a list of selected media, and 3) the designated learning program was perceived
to be of the “highest” value. The learning materials were rated “highly” appropriate but withthe “highest” usefulness, and the designated learning program was perceived by the group to
be at a “high” level.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Keywords model development of distance-learning curriculum, distance-learning
curriculum, food safety, organic agriculture, sufficiency economy philosophy,
ASEAN community

INTRODUCTION
Data retrieved from the AEC Information Center (2015) indicated that most people in the ASEAN
region earn their living through agriculture. Gardening, farming, and fishery are the main occupationsof Malaysians while plantation, forestry, fishery, and animal farming are followed among
Indonesians. Eighty percent of Vietnamese people earn their livelihood from agriculture. In Laos,
Myanmar, and the Philippines agriculture is also the main occupation. However, workers in the
agricultural sector are facing health problems and marketing constraints resulting from inappropriate
production methods involving the overuse of pesticides. The chemical contamination is transmitted
from the crops to the farm workers and thence to the consumers. To resolve these problems, several
countries have implemented national policies to promote safety awareness in agriculture. In Thailand,
the government has attempted to control pesticide imports and the use of non-standard paraquats.
The system of chemical substance registration has been revised, and many hazardous substances are
now banned or have restricted use in several countries. The Thai Government has also controlled
advertising and selling which contravenes the ethically responsible dictates of the Food andAgriculture Organization. The use of organic substances has been promoted to improve the safety ofagricultural producers and consumers. However, unsafe crop practices are still widespread (Officeof Agricultural Economics, 2012).
Government sectors have implemented policies promoting learning to farmers; however, thecurriculum management seemed to fulfill the aims of organizations rather than the needs of learners.
In other words, the learning lacked integration regarding the contents and management. The
curriculum was often organized for short time periods of 3 - 4 days and this was not sufficient for
the learners to achieve meaningful results. In addition, there was no communication between thelearners, or networking to develop and sustain change within the community and society.
Therefore, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU) initiated the Center of DistanceLearning for Sufficiency Economy (2010) to provide community services by inculcating theSufficiency Economy Philosophy or SEP into real-life practices. SEP stresses the importance ofhuman development at all levels and value the need to strengthen community’s capacity to assure abalanced way of life and resilience, with the respect for environment. In 2014, the model of distancelearning on harmless and organic agricultural practices was developed following the sufficiency
economy ideals. The management at the center focuses specifically on learning, allowing learners to
study by themselves. Furthermore, the distance-learning can be accessed by learners with diverse
backgrounds. The learning program is safe and can be used to increase learner knowledge regardlessof their previous educational levels (Keowan et al., 2015).
STOU realized that agriculture is the spine of the ASEAN region, and its people desperately
want to learn from each other to prepare for being a part of the ASEAN community and cooperate
regarding agricultural safety. The university, therefore initiated The Distance-Learning Model on
Food Safety and Organic Agriculture Developed from the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy for the
ASEAN Community by selecting relevant topical video recordings and translating the contents intonine languages mostly used in the ASEAN region: Thai, Lao, Cambodian, Vietnamese, Indonesian,
Malay, Burmese, Chinese, and English. Moreover, the distance-learning model will be used toeducate Thai farmers and also farmers in neighboring countries with the knowledge and efficiencyof Thailand regarding food safety, supply, and organic farming, and to promote the implementationof economy sufficiency into the ASEAN region.
OBJECTIVES
The purposes of this research were as follows: 1) to develop a distance-learning curriculum model
on food safety and organic agriculture, following the sufficiency economy philosophy for theⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

ASEAN community, 2) to develop learning materials to accompany the program, and 3) to evaluate
the benefits and success of the learning program.
METHODOLOGY
Research, curriculum development, and curriculum evaluation were utilized for this research project.
Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected throughout three stages as follows:
1. Curricular Model Development Processes(1) collect, analyze, and synthesize the body of knowledge,(2) design the core structure of the curriculum, courses, and learning management, and(3) organize seminars to collate the information on model development procedure from 10 qualified
experts.
2. Learning Materials Development Processes Accompanying the Learning Program(1) produce and translate the contents of the video recordings into nine languages with 15 topics
available for each language, and(2) produce a set of curricular learning documents in each target language consisting of thecurriculum papers, teaching handbooks for management, and a list of the selected media.
3. Curricular Evaluation Processes
Data were collected from 70 research participants from diverse countries to evaluate theachievements of the designed curriculum model of the Distance-Learning Project on Food Safety
and Organic Agriculture Developed from the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy for the ASEAN
Community. A questionnaire was circulated and a seminar was organized for 10 qualified experts toassess the learning achievements of the curriculum. The experts aired their opinions on the working
processes both within and outside the countries regarding production procedure and curriculardevelopment.
The quantitative data was analyzed using percentage, mean, and standard deviation. Qualitative
data was assessed using content analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The model development of the distance-learning curriculum on food safety and organic agriculture
developed from the sufficiency economy philosophy was developed base on the notions of various
scholars. For instance, the ideas of Saylor, Alexander and Lewis (1981: 28-29) were as follows: (1)model development should initially determine goals, objectives, and domains of the curriculum, (2)curriculum design, (3) curriculum implementation, and (4) curriculum evaluation. The notions of
Chompoolong (2002: 53) on local curricular development consisted of (1) analyze basic information,(2) create a curricular draft, (3) examine the curricular draft, (4) implement curriculum sampling, (5)evaluate the curriculum sampling, and (6) improve and revise the curriculum. The notions of
Wongyai (1990: 19) on integrated curriculum development consisted of (1) drafting a curriculum,(2) curriculum implementation, and (3) curriculum evaluation. This research followed three stagesof model curriculum development as follows.
1. Model Development Processes of a Distance-Learning Curriculum on Food Safety andOrganic Agriculture Developed from the Sufficiency Economy PhilosophyⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

1.1 Analyze and synthesize the body of knowledge: The body of knowledge was analyzed andsynthesized by organizing a meeting of the curriculum development committee and experts to define
and determine the aspects of the curriculum. The model development of this distance- learning
curriculum on food safety and organic agriculture developed from the sufficiency economy
philosophy was different from other typical formal educational programs. The differences were as
follows.
1) Videos were used as a major tool in creating the learning process which proceeded within budget
and achieved high levels of learning advancement. This success was because learners were able tolearn from the real-life experiences of individual models, groups, communities, and networks
regarding their agricultural practices. The villagers did not have to spend time on traveling, with theflexibility of managing and adapting their own learning schedules to their individual lifestyles andoccupations. In addition, the villagers were able to learn continually and gained knowledge inpacking. This was important and necessary for agriculturalists to solve their problems following thephilosophy and ideas of management, objectives, learning standards, and learning systems. Timemanagement for learning, evaluation, and achievement relied on the qualifications of both learners
and learning facilitators.
2) Focus on self-learning concentrated on gathering local people together to share their problems on
individual, family, and community scales to discover solutions through doing projects. These
learning practices allowed learners to learn with happiness.
1.2 Design and draft the curriculum: The curricular structure and implementation of the learning
process were achieved by organizing meetings between the local committees and the experts.
Teaching documents were created. The first two documents created were (1) curriculum papers
comprising details such as curricular name, certificate name, responsible organization, philosophy
and notions in the learning process implementation, learning schedule, learning system, learning time
allotment, evaluation of learning achievement, learning facilitators, places and learning materials,
resources and budgets, expectation from the curriculum, and learning curriculum, and (2) a handbook
for learning management and a list of the selected media included in the learning system and learning
allotment, evaluation and aims of learning, places and learning materials, learning facilitators, rolesof learning facilitators, implementation of learning facilitators, learning management plans, plans ofgroup seminars, memos of learning facilitators, facilitator’s opinions on the process of learning, anda list of selected media and evaluation of curricular achievements.
1.3 Organize a seminar for learning model development: A seminar for learning model
development was organized with the committees and the 10 experts. Based on the meeting, the draft
curriculum was approved together with 15 subjects including Sufficiency Economy Philosophy,
Paradigm Shifts, Food Security, The Way of Organic Farming, Household Budget and Information
Management for Planning, Knowledge Management, Soil and Water Management, Genetics
Management, Alternative Energy, Safety and Organic Food Production, Food Safety Assurance,
Packaging Design, Group Management, Distribution Management, and Edutainment.
2. Learning Materials Development Accompanying the Learning Program

The curriculum development committee created learning materials comprising (1) instructional
videos covering the 15 subjects and video recording for learning orientation of the curriculum, and(2) curricular documents including curricular papers, handbooks for teaching management, and a listof selected educational media. These curricular documents were originally written in Thai and latertranslated by the native language experts into the nine languages Thai, Lao, Cambodian, Vietnamese,
Malay, Indonesian, Burmese, Chinese, and English.
3. Curricular Evaluation
Once the learning materials were created in each target language, the committee administered thematerials to 70 participants and then evaluated the curriculum of food safety and organic agriculture
developed from the sufficiency economy philosophy for the ASEAN community. For of the researchⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

participants, 62.9 percent were male with average age 35.91 years. The participants evaluated thecurricular structure in the following areas.
3.1 The appropriateness of the designed curriculum: The participants perceived that the
curriculum was at the highest appropriate level (mean = 4.28).
3.2 The appropriateness of the learning materials: The participants perceived that the designed
learning materials were at the high appropriate level (mean = 4.24).
3.3 The usefulness of the learning materials: The participants rated the usefulness of the designed
materials at the highest level (mean= 4.24).
3.4 The satisfaction of students toward learning through the designed curriculum: The
participants were satisfied with the learning through the designed curriculum as a group at a highlevel (mean= 3.64).
CONCLUSION
The process of model development of distance-learning curriculum on food safety and organic
agriculture for the ASEAN community followed three stages as follows: (i) curricular model
development, including the analysis procedure, synthesize the body of knowledge, design and draft
the curriculum, and organize a meeting to develop the curricular model, (ii) learning materials
development accompanying the learning program, the committee developed the learningmaterials into nine languages, and (iii) curricular evaluation, the designed curriculum wasadministered to the participants from the determined countries. They perceived that the designatedlearning program was very highly appropriate and highly useful. They were satisfied with thelearning procedure during the designated learning program as a group at a high level.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research team would like to thank Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University for the grants thatenabled the development of the model of distance-learning curriculum on food safety and organic
agriculture developed from the sufficiency economy philosophy for the ASEAN community. Thanks
are also due to the relevant personnel who assisted and associated with the research including thecurriculum development committee, members of the organization, translators of all the languages,
and participants in the curriculum evaluation who ensured that the working procedures operated
smoothly.
REFERENCES
AEC Information Center. 2015. ASEAN Countries. http://www.thai-aec.com (retrieved).
Chompoolong, N. 2002. Procedures for school curricular development for local. Apichat Printed,
Mahasarakham, Thailand.
Keowan, B., Yooprasert, B., Thienhirua, P., Wechakit, D., Banchongsiri, S., Sanserm, S.K., Wattanawiggit, W.
and Potavanich, S. 2015. Model development of safety and organic agriculture upheld the sufficiency
economy courses through distance education. Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Nonthaburi,
Thailand.
Office of Agricultural Economics. 2012. Thailand economic indicators for the year 2012. http://www.oae.go.th/download/prcai/Economicindicators55.pdf (retrieved).
Saylor, J.G., Alexander, W.M. and Lewis, A.J. 1981. Curriculum planning for better teaching and learning. 4thed., Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, USA.
Wongyai, W. 1990. Integrated curriculum development. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

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Research article
erd

An Assessment of Village Type Pottery Industry
REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR*
Bohol Island State University Main Campus, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines
Email: regupobar@gmail.com

NELSON M. PATEÑA
Bohol Island State University Main Campus, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, PhilippinesJOSEFINA G. GENTALLAN
Bohol Island State University Main Campus, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines
Received 1 January 2017

Accepted 30 Oct 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract A village type pottery industry was operating in a village of Talibon, in northern
Bohol, Philippines which existed for quite sometime and was observed to be very slow in its
improvement in terms of number and design of products, number of workers and the facilities
remained obsolete. This study was conducted to determine the features of the village typepottery industry in terms of the beginnings of industry, the management structure, howpottery craft was learned, the process followed to produce a product, the source of raw
materials, facilities and equipment used, designs of the products, the customers and theworkers of the pottery. This was also conducted to determine the contribution of the industry
to the local community. Further, the study was conducted to identify the level of satisfactionof the customers in terms of the product quality, quantity and timeliness of delivery of the
product and to recognize the problems met by the industry. This study used descriptive survey
method utilizing questionnaire, interview and actual observation. The result shows that thisindustry started in 1970s by the great grandparents of the present proprietors, the products
were only limited to cooking pots, flower pots, and stove. Presently, this industry is managed
by a couple, the husband as the manager and the wife as assistant manager. It has 5 workers
in the production area, 3 males and 2 females who are daughters of the couple managing it.
There were additional 2 workers, one helped in getting raw materials and the other one inselling the product. The result also shows that the raw materials were taken from the area
near the pottery. It can be noted that improvised facilities and equipment were used in thispottery industry. Their customers were composed of walk-in customers and wholesalers. The
result in the level of satisfaction on the products in terms of quantity, quality and timelinessin product delivery, revealed that the customers were Satisfied and Very Satisfied. The top
three problems experienced were lack of capital, obsolete technology and lack ofdiversification. These results challenged the state university in Bohol and gave it theopportunity to use their capacity of helping this pottery industry in those aforementioned
problems.
Keywords pottery, local community, pot designs, improved facilities

INTRODUCTION
Pottery is a ceramic material which makes up potterywares that include earthenware, stoneware andporcelain (Dinsdale, 1986). It is also defined as a clay that is modelled, dried, and fired, usually witha glazed or finished into a vessel or decorative object. The term "clay" refers to a naturally occurring
material composed primarily of fine-grained minerals, which is generally plastic at appropriate watercontents and will harden with dried or fired. Although clay usually contains phyllosilicates, it may
contain other materials that impart plasticity and harden when dried or fired.
Pottery in Bohol utilized clay found in the locality where the pottery operated. It is unique
because the clay was first stamped by the workers using their feet to make it fine, it was also mouldedⒸ ISERD

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by the hands of the workers without the aid of any tool or moulder except for hollow blocks and firebricks. It was observed that it existed for quite sometime but was noticed to be very slow in its
improvement in terms of the operation, number of products and product quality. It is in this context
that the researchers were encouraged to conduct an assessment about this industry.
OBJECTIVE
This study was conducted specifically to determine the features of the village type pottery industry
in terms of the beginnings of industry, the management structure, how pottery craft was learned, thesources of raw material, the process followed to produce a product, facilities and equipment used,
and the designs of the products. This study was also conducted to determine the contribution of theindustry to the local community. Further, the study was conducted to identify the level of satisfactionof the customers in terms of the product quality, quantity and timeliness of delivery of the productand to recognize the problems met by the industry.
METHODOLOGYThis is qualitative and quantitative study using descriptive survey method utilizing questionnaire andreinforced by interview and observation during the actual pottery operation. There were 42
respondents of the study broken down as follows; 2 owners (husband and wife), 5 workers, 25
customers and 10 wholesalers. The researchers used both convenient sampling and snowballtechniques in identifying the 25 customers and ten wholesalers. This study was conducted in Talibon,
the northern part of Bohol, Philippines.

Fig. 1 Map of the Philippines and Bohol
The responses of the walk-in customers and the wholesalers on the satisfaction level used thescale of 1 to 5, 5 as the highest level of satisfaction/ highest gravity of the problem and 1 as the lowest.
For analysis of the data, the following ranges were used 4.24 - 5.00 Very Satisfied/ Very Serious
problem, 3.43 - 4.23 Satisfied/ Serious Problem, 2.62 - 3.42 Moderately Satisfied/ Moderately
Serious Problem and 1.00 - 1.80 Dissatisfied/ A Problem but did not greatly affect the operation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For the profile of the village-type pottery industry, the result of the interview shows that the pottery
started in operation in 1970s by the great grandparents of the present owner, when their children werestill young. During that time they only used a piece of wood like a paddle in de-airing and kneading
the raw materials, they only used their hands in making pots, flower pots and cooking stoves. It wasⒸ ISERD

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only his grandmother who made the products, travelled to different towns during scheduled market
days to sell them. They discovered that pot making helped much in their livelihood.
In the present time, it is managed by the grandson of the previous owner and his wife, they have
only five workers, which include their two daughters, and three male workers who were also theirclose relatives. The males are between 20 to 40 years of age. They learned the craft throughexperience without proper training. As of the present time nothing much was changed althoughchanges in the operation was noticeable. In the interview with the workers, they said, they still got
the raw material near the place where the pottery house was erected. It can be observed that several
holes were already made which shows that they got the raw materials in these areas.
The village type pottery industry adopted the some steps in the making of pots. It started withthe gathering of raw materials from the main source just in the vicinity of the building, then de-airing
followed which was done only by using their feet or stepping on the raw materials done several times.
It was followed by kneading using their hands. These steps only indicated that they still need facilities
for de-airing and kneading. When the raw materials were already ready, these were placed near the
potter’s wheel ready for the mass production.
For facilities and equipment, they already have the potter’s wheel, which made their work a biteasier. They also have improvised moulders for fire bricks and hollow blocks, ovens small and big
were also available. The small oven can bake 600 products fired in 6 hours, while the big one canbake 2000 products in 18 to 24 hours. Small oven was only used when there was an emergency orderwhile the big was used in the normal operation. The ovens were fed with firewood, ordinary firewood
with dried leaves of coconut to start the fire. There was also a building made of native and lightmaterials used to air dry the products before baking and which also served as their display area before
delivering the products to the customers or while waiting for the customers to pick them up.
As observed in the actual visit to the village type pottery industry, the designs of the products
had already improved. In addition to the usual cooking pots, flower pots and cooking stoves,additional products were already produced such as the new designs of pots, flower pots of different
sizes, vases with stand, haron jar, water jar, montabana, plant stand, bonsai pots, fire bricks andhollow blocks. But when the workers were interviewed, they said, that they wanted to learn moredesigns and more techniques in pot making.
In the result of the interview with the proprietor, he said that the village-type pottery industry
became their means of livelihood until the present time. This is also where their workers earned aliving. The community was also benefited because of the taxes they paid to the government.
For the satisfaction level of the customers in terms of quantity, quality of the products and thetimeliness of product delivery, Table 1 shows, the products that ranked first in the level of satisfactionin quantity were the Fowls’ Feeders with a weighted mean of 4.92 or Very Satisfied. It was followedby flower pots with the weighted mean of 4.85 and 4.385, Very Satisfied for cooking pots. It meansthat these products were always available in the display area. The customers said they can
immediately buy these products anytime with the quantity they need. However, hollow blocks, firebricks and flower vase with stand were the last three products in the rank as to quantity with a ratingof 2.61 or “Moderately Dissatisfied” for hollow blocks, and 2.63 and 3.11” Moderately Satisfied”
for both fire bricks and flower vase with stand respectively. These are made-to-order products, so
nobody can just go to the pottery and buy the product but they need to put an order because thesestocks were not always available. The potters will only manufacture these products when there areorders, so customers have to wait if they need the products.
Table 1 also manifests the respondents’ satisfaction level as to the quality of the products. It
shows that the top three products which the respondents rated “Very Satisfied” with a rating of 4.91,
4.88 and 4.8 were Fowl Feeders, Cooking pots, and Flower Pots respectively. The workers or the
potters were already experts in producing fowl feeders, cooking pots and flower pots because thesewere the first products they produced since the beginning of the pottery operation. On the other hand,
the last three products in the rank were Bonsai Pots, Plants Stand and Hollow Blocks. These products
were rated 3.97 Satisfied, 4.32, Very Satisfied, and 4.54 Very Satisfied respectively. When thecustomers were asked further why they ranked these products in the lowest three ranks, they said
they oftentimes saw cracks in the products, although the potters can also remedy the cracks by puttingⒸ ISERD

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additional clay on the cracks but the more it made the product not presentable anymore because thecracks were still evident.
The customers further commented that there were products which need glazing which theworkers had no knowledge yet on how to do it. The workers started painting some products like theMontabana and Haron Jar but these products will look much better if these will be glazed according
to the customers in the interview. The customers suggested that these workers be educated/ trained
further on some techniques to produce better products.
Table 1 Respondents’ Satisfaction level on the Quantity, Quality and Timeliness of the
Delivery of the Products
Products
Cooking Pots /Stoves
Flower Pots
Flower Vase with Stand
Haron Jar
Water Jar
Montabana
Plant Stand
Bonsai Pots
Fire Bricks
Hollow Blocks
Fowl Feeders

NR
4.85
4.85
3.11
3.83
4.69
3.41
3.82
3.97
2.63
2.61
4.92

Quantity
DR
VS
VS
MS
S
VS
S
S
S
MS
MD
VS

R
3
2
9
6
4
8
7
5
10
11
1

NR
4.88
4.80
4.60
4.61
4.69
4.55
4.32
3.97
4.68
4.54
4.91

Quality
DR R
VS
2
VS
3
VS
7
VS
6
VS
4
VS
8
VS 10
S
11
VS
5
VS
9
VS
1

TimelinessNR
DR
R
4.85 VS3
4.93 VS
2
3.46
S
9
3.84
S
6
4.72 VS
4
3.43
S
11
3.84
S
7
4.03
S
5
3.45
S
10
3.47
S
8
4.97 VS
1

Ave.
WM
4.85
4.86
3.72
4.09
4.7
3.79
3.99
3.99
3.57
3.54
4.93

DR

R

VS
VS
S
S
VS
S
S
S
S
S
VS

3
2
9
5
4
8
6.5
6.5
10
11
1

In terms of the satisfaction level on the timeliness of the delivery of products, it was also
included in this study because it can affect the operation if the products were not delivered on time.
The result shows that all items to be delivered were rated from Satisfactory to Very Satisfactory. On
the same table, it clearly discloses that the first three items in quantity and quality were also the first
three in the timeliness of delivery. It was obvious that since these items were readily available then,it can be delivered on time. However, hollow blocks, flower vase with stand, fire bricks andMontabana were the last in terms of timeliness in the delivery since these were made- to- orderproducts. The potters will only manufacture these products when there are orders. So it took time forthe potter to deliver and customers have to wait after making the order.
Per observation, the researchers noticed that this pottery industry has problems just like anyother endeavours and so they included these in the study to find out the seriousness of the problems
they meet in running the pottery industry. Three groups were asked to answer the questionnaires on
the seriousness of the problems; the proprietors, the workers based on their experience; and thecustomers based on their perception and observation in the operation.
The proprietors’ top three problems in managing the pottery were marketing mechanism which
they rated 4.8 “Very Serious” Shortage of working capital with a rating of 4.24 “Very Serious” andLack of Diversification 4.20 “Serious”. It can be gleaned that marketing mechanism was really
important to make the industry more productive. The two problems on shortage of working capitaland the lack of diversification were interrelated because any industry can have the difficulty ofdiversifying the products if there is shortage of capital which usually lead to lesser productivity. The
findings are in consonance with what Kasemi (2014) stated, that lack of diversification of the productalso accounts for slow growth of the pottery sector.

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Table 2 Problems Experienced by the Proprietors and Workers and as Perceived by the
Customers
Problems
Shortage of working
capitalLow investment in
fixed capital
Obsolete Technology
Lack of diversification
Competition of otherpottery industries
Management Problem
Lack of Research andDevelopment Effort
Marketing Mechanism

NR

Proprietor
DR
R

NR

Workers
DR R

NR

Customers
DR
R

Ave.
WM

DR

R

4.24

VS

2

4.8

VS

2

4.24

VS

6

4.43

VS

2

3.44

S

7.5

4.24

VS

4

4.4

VS

4.5

4.03

S

5

4.0

S

4

5.0

VS

1

5.0

VS

1.5

4.67

VS

1

4.20

S

3

4.6

VS

3

4.8

VS

3

4.5

VS

3

3.46

S

6

3.48

S

6

4.0

S

7.5

3.65

S

8

3.48

S

5

4.0

S

5

4.0

S

7.5

3.83

S

7

3.44

S

7.5

3.48

S

8

5.0

VS

1.5

3.97

S

6

4.8

VS

1

3.46

VS

8

4.4

VS

4.5

4.22

S

4

On the other hand, on the workers’ part, their first three problems were obsolete technology
which they rated 5.0, Shortage of Working Capital, 4.8 and lack of diversification, 4.6 all were ofdescriptive rating “Very Serious”. Since the workers were the front liner of production, they reallyfelt that the facilities used were already obsolete, in the interview they said, they can have better
product and improved productivity if the new facilities will be given to them. It can be understoodthat the problem on the obsolescence of the facilities can be attributed to shortage of working capitalwhich also affected the diversification of the products.
On the part of the customers, they really felt that the industry were having that problem on
obsolete technology which got a tie in rating with lack of research and development efforts, both got
a rating of 5.0 or Very Serious. Through research and development effort, the lack of diversification
problem can be addressed which they also rated as the third problem of the industry.
For the overall rating, it shows that the first problem was the obsolete technology, followed byshortage of working capital, lack of diversification; marketing mechanism followed closely then low
investment on fixed capital. The last three among the identified problems were the lack of researchand development effort, management problems and competition among pottery industry. It showsthat though the pottery industry felt there were competitors in the business, they did not consider it
as a very serious problem that could greatly affect the operation.
CONCLUSION
The village type pottery industry despite being run by family members who lacked proper training
with limited experience and resources and using obsolete facilities, was able to survive for many
years in operation. The industry slowly improved its operation, the product quantity and quality andmost of all on how to satisfy the needs of the customers.
RECOMMENDATION
It is recommended that the LGU of the village may consider looking for financial institutions which
can provide additional capital because if the pottery can have additional capital other problems canbe solved. The state university through its extension mandate, has to work closely for the
improvement of the product quality, teach additional designs and techniques for diversification andadvancement and help produce better facilities and equipment of the pottery in the villageⒸ ISERD

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researchers would like to express their appreciation and gratitude to Bohol Island State
University for the support given to the researchers, to the proprietors, workers, customers of theVillage-Type Pottery Industry in Talibon, Bohol, Philippines for answering the questionnaires aswell as the interview and for allowing the researchers to have an actual observation in the operation.
They would also like to express their thanks to the OIC President of BISU for allowing them to use
all available resources of the university to complete this piece of work.
REFERENCES
Dinsdale, A. 1986. Pottery science, Materials, process and products. Ellis Horwood Limited.
Kasemi, N. 2014. Problems of pottery industry and policies for development, Case study of koch Bihar districtin West Bengal, India. http://www.garph.co.uk/ijarmss/july2014/20.pdf (retrieved on October 25, 2016).
Martini, J., Obille, V.P., Apigo, A., Gongora, C., Labsan, R., Navalta, M. and Oringo, F. 2016. Historicalbackground of the pottery industry in Taboc, San Juan, La Union. http://www.dlsu.edu.ph/conferences/dlsu-research-congress-proceedings/2016/LCS/LCCS-I-01.pdf (retrieved on December 17, 2016).
The Clay Minerals Society. 1995. http://www.clays.org/journal/archive/volume%2043/43-2-255.pdf (retrievedon September 22, 2013).
The Dolni Vestonice Ceramics. Uh.edu. 1989-11-24. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery (retrieved on
November 23, 2016).

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Research article
erdGroup and Network Management: Lessons Learned
from the Solar Energy Group of Pesticide Free
Vegetable Growers in Phutthaisong District, Buriram
Province
BENCHAMAS YOOPRASERT*
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi, Thailand
Email: yoobench@hotmail.com

BUMPEN KEOWAN
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi, Thailand

SINEENUCH KHRUTMUANG SANSERM
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi, Thailand
Received 16 December 2016

Accepted 31 October 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The Solar Energy Group of Pesticide Free Vegetable Growers was organized tocollaboratively solve problems and manage a water-sharing system using solar energy andland management to grow pesticide free vegetables. The achievements of the administrationof the group and network were truly astounding. Therefore, a study was undertaken toinvestigate the following: 1) the group and network management, 2) the factors contributing
to the success of the group, and 3) the lessons learned and recommendations made formanaging groups and networks. Qualitative data were collected from the group chairman,
group committees, and 40 group members during an organized forum. Additional data werecollected from the group chairman and three committees using in-depth interviews and thiswas analyzed for content. The results of the study were as follows: 1) The administrative
structure of the group was based on community enterprise. The group planned theiroperations, especially activities in an appropriate production system and special rules forvegetable planting activities to control safety standards. They also followed regulations forwater-sharing in vegetable production and met regularly once a month to discuss problem
issues and group planning. They raised money from their members to establish funds for theoperations and coordinated with other groups and agencies regarding support and joint
activities. 2) Factors contributing to the success of the group were: (i) the unity of themembers, (ii) the moral of the members, (iii) the self-sacrifice of the group with a patient,knowledgeable, and strong leader, (iv) the facility of joint production, land and water use
management, (v) producing vegetables together which created a sense of pride and ownership,and (vi) operating a network and coordinating with outside agencies for support, especially
to fill knowledge gaps. 3) The lessons learned and recommendations were seamlessly
integrated and assimilated through group management using both informal and formal
mechanisms. Knowledge network with information sharing among members derived fromdirect learning or real experiences through practical problem solving.
Keywords group management, network management, lessons learned, pesticide freevegetable growers, pesticide free vegetable, Buriram provinceⒸ ISERD

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INTRODUCTION
Due to the critical water shortages which restricted agricultural activities, Phutthaisong Sub-district
Administrative Organization collaborated with the Energy Office of Buriram to establish the Solar
Energy Group of Pesticide Free Vegetable Growers. The necessity of social learning development
was considered with the aim of mobilizing activities to empower negotiability and widen visions andworldviews through the exchange of knowledge, abilities, and experiences to solve problems anddevelop the effectiveness of the group (Phuttakosa, 2011). The Solar Energy Group of Pesticide Free
Vegetable Growers was organized to collaboratively solve problems and manage a water-sharing
system using solar energy and land management to grow pesticide free vegetables. The group was
adopted by several sectors including government, private sectors, private development organizations,and the interested general public. Once a week, various sectors made study trips to observe the group
activities. In addition, the success in overcoming the critical drought experienced by the community
became a water management model for others to follow. The collaboration among the groupmembers resulted in several advantages including strengthening the resolve of the people, to build astrong community culture and improving the standard of living and health with safe food to consume
in a secure environment without toxic contamination.
The achievements of the administration of the group and network were truly astounding.
Therefore, a study was undertaken to examine the process of group administration of the Solar
Energy Group of Pesticide Free Vegetable Growers, especially regarding group and network
management factors to generate a model for the safe production of pesticide free vegetables. Lessons
learned and recommendations for group management and networks were made to promote water
management in drought areas through the administration of local agricultural groups.
OBJECTIVESThis research investigated the following issues: 1) the group and network management, 2) the factors
contributing to the success of the group, and 3) the lessons learned and recommendations for
managing groups and networks.
METHODOLOGY
Research approach: An evaluation research was administered in the case study.
Population / Sample of the research: The research population consisted of the group chairman,
committees, and 40 members of the Solar Energy Group of Pesticide Free Vegetable Growers in
Phutthaisong District, Buriram Province.
Data collection: The data collection was conducted as follows.
1) Forums were organized to assemble the qualitative data from the group chairman, the group
committees, and 40 group members.
2) Semi-structured in-depth interviews to collect data were conducted with key informants involvedin group and network management, including the group chairman and three committees.
Data analysis: The data were evaluated using content analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Background of the Case Study
A brief history1) Lack of water: The group of pesticide free vegetable growers was organized because of theshortage of water. People in the area require water for daily consumption and little remained for
agricultural purposes. Therefore, the Buriram Office of Energy selected Phutthaisong Subdistrict
Administrative Organization as a group to join the alternative energy project to propose solutions toⒸ ISERD

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the water problem and increase the income of the people. With support from the Buriram Office ofEnergy, a project to produce vegetables was initiated using solar energy. The project began with therecruitment of volunteers and 40 interested people. The volunteers held a meeting and formulated aplan for project operations. Initially, 20 rais of wasteland in the community was set aside forvegetable planting. In Phutthaisong, vegetable plantation areas were small and most used a lot ofpesticides. Members of the group agreed to plant pesticide free vegetables in the wasteland.
2) Collective investment on groundwater system with solar energy: The project did not have an
operating budget so conditions for members to join were established. Members were required toinvest some money and become seriously involved in the management processes as well as accepting
the risks of loss. As a result, 40 members decided to initiate sustainability of living in this drought
area, and they applied for an agriculture credit loan of 20,000 baht for each household to use in theoperations of the project from the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC). The
40 members who invested the money were given ½ rai (1.600 Sqm.) of plantation with enoughamount of water delivered. The groundwater supply system was operated using solar energy fromthe available budget. The process began by drilling large boreholes and installing the solar poweredsystem, pumping machinery, water supply network, and a pressure-controlled tank to supply water
to the vegetable plot.
3) Formation of the group planting pesticide free vegetables using solar power: The membersof the group had planted vegetables since 2011. The project group was supported by many sectors
including government, private sectors, private development organizations, and many other interested
people. Every week, study trips were organized to observe activities within the project.
Group and network management
The group and network management of the Solar Energy Group of Pesticide Free Vegetable Growers
were operated as follows:
1) Specify the structure of administration: The group followed administrative management in theform of a community joint enterprise. The chairman played an important role in group organization.
Fourteen group representatives were chosen from 40 households and given responsibility for various
jobs such as secretary, treasurer, and assistant treasurer. The remaining committee members were
responsible for other jobs within the group.
2) Plan the working process system: The group operated a systematic plan following land
management, water management, human resource management, and administration of the production.
The group initially set guidelines and prepared an effective production system. They agreed to plantpesticide free vegetables and produce safe food for their community which was harmless toconsumers and the environment, and also made their vegetable products unique.
3) Determine the regulations of the group: The group identified the regulations of the project asfollows.
3-1) Regulations for vegetable plantation: To control the safety standards and product quality of thegroup the use of hazardous chemicals and insecticides was prohibited. However, chemical manure
could be mixed with farmyard manure. If insects and worms were found in the vegetable plots, thenthe insects and worms had to be removed as quickly as possible.
3-2) Regulations for water-sharing in vegetable production: Because of the limitation of water, themembers could not produce enough vegetable products to satisfy the market needs. Therefore,
regulations were set out to control water use through proper equipment maintenance by individuals
or the groups. Soil management followed safety standards which prohibited the use of hazardous
substances or planting vegetables that required excessive water (i.e., lotus, water mimosa, etc.).
Every group member respected the rules and followed them seriously. For example, a timetable ofwater use for each vegetable plot was set in advance. As a result, there was no problem regarding
water sharing.
Data obtained from interviews also revealed that since the first year when the group wasestablished, none of the members had broken the rules. This was because everybody aimed to
improve their standards of living and did not want other problems to hinder their community
development.
4) Organize the group activities: The group regularly organized meetings. An official meeting washeld once a month to discuss any problems and formulate future group planning.
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The group members learned together about pesticide free agricultural practices through study
visits and training sessions operated by several organizations. The group made organic substances
for soil improvement from local commodities, sought and shared seeds, and communally planned the
production process so that a variety of vegetables could be sold to suit market needs.
The mixed production of the group consisted of over 70 varieties of vegetables. Before planting,a survey was conducted so that each household grew different kinds of vegetables. The group planted
seasonal vegetables which took 14 days to mature. They achieved income of approximately 18,000
baht for each household. During the rainy season there were floods in other areas and the groupgained higher incomes. Moreover, the group also collected local vegetable seeds such as Pak Choi
Cilantro and local vegetables.
5) Financial management of the group: The group raised money from the members to fund theoperations. Each member invested 20,000 baht for installing the groundwater system and solar
energy panels. This cooperative management enabled the members to gain advantages with low risks.
A study by Kaewpan (2015) regarding the financial analysis of the project showed that investment
in solar energy for vegetable production in an area of 20 rais was a low level risk.
6) Networking: The networking is constituted internal and external group networks as follows.
6-1) Internal group network: The group regularly organized monthly meetings as a tool to strengthen
relationships. The members also frequently exchanged knowledge socially at the vegetable garden.
In other words, this kind of networking allowed the members to learn and do activities together.
6-2) External group network: The group made contact with external organizations related to the fieldsuch as the Office of Energy of Buriram, the Phutthaisong Subdistrict Administrative Organizationand the Population and Community Development Association of Phutthaisong to ask for help or
support in their operations. Also, the group engaged in networking for learning with the Somboon
Agriculturist Group, Tamiang, Phanom Dong Rak, Surin, and the Baan Rong Laew Border Patrol
Police School, Lahansai, Lahansai, Buriram.
Factors Contributing to the Success of the Group
Factors contributing to the success of the group were as follows.
Internal factors
1) The unity of members: The members cooperated in solving problems.
2) The moral of members: As mentioned earlier, none of the members broke the rules or regulations.
This was because every member desired passionately to develop their standard of living.
3) Having a patient, knowledgeable and strong leader
4) Having joint production, land and water use management
5) Working together which created a sense of pride and ownership of the group
6) The members produced products based on their experiences through exchanging knowledge at thevegetable garden.
Group factors
1) Obvious goals: The group members set goals as follows:1-1) to learn and exchange experiences between members in terms of production, administration,
review and analysis of previous problems and solutions,
1-2) to empower negotiability of the group and network with others in production, marketing,bargaining and buying the products,1-3) to be the center of development for the members and networks, and to promote the members’
capacities through organized study trips and meetings to provide and exchange ideas.
2) Upstream, midstream, and downstream management: The group collaboratively managed the land,
water resources, production plan for the whole year, and inexpensive innovations for production by
volunteers. The group also had a systematic marketing plan, collecting enough crop products forcustomers’ needs, and operating green marketing management by monitoring members’ selling
following the regulations of the group.
Networking factors
1) Having a network and coordinating with agencies for support and especially for knowledge.
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2) Depending on each other to help and solve problems, such as collecting standard products to sellin the market as a community joint enterprise related to customer requirements. Moreover, theirinternal management controlled the standard of products, process, and qualifications.
3) Having an effective coordinating center. The group had space for discussion and coordinators who
effectively offered knowledge or clarified the processes and problems of operations.
Lessons Learned and Recommendations
Lessons learned and recommendations generated from this group management and network ofpesticide free vegetable growers using solar energy were as follows.
Natural and formal mechanisms employed
Both informal and formal mechanisms were compatibly employed in group management. Informal
mechanisms included chatting in the vegetable gardens and visiting. This allowed members tomonitor each other’s products and also to discuss problems encountered during work, leading tobetter of ways management. Formal organized meetings were conducted once a month. Thesemechanisms empowered the group to succeed.
Sharing the same problems through cooperation of the group and network
The drought crisis obstructed the development of the community and reduced their standard of living.
Thus, the members cooperated to solve these problems. Cooperation led to achieving many goodthings, including establishing a group and network system in the community for healthier lifestyles.
More importantly, the community now enjoyed a better standard of living, with healthy food and asafe environment free from toxic contamination. Moreover, the water management of the groupbecame the model for other areas facing drought crises. This concept agreed with the ideas of the
Health Education Division (2013) that working in a network significantly led the group to achieve
its goals through communication techniques and strategies to exchange knowledge and experiences,and cooperate together to increase negotiating power. Networking was not only important for groupmembers to share interests and ideas; it also established interrelationships among groups, bringing
the members together to do activities and accomplish team goals.
Knowledge network
The members planted vegetables regularly and had a chance to talk and exchange knowledge andideas in the vegetable gardens. This led to a knowledge network with information sharing among
members derived from direct learning or real experiences through practical problem solving. The
members shared knowledge, skills, and experiences to discover correct, feasible and reasonable
solutions to their problems (Chareonwongsak, 2015).
Organizing activities among groups and networks to respond to needs and solve problems
The activities were organized concretely and completely to respond to the needs of the members by
employing the appropriate technology; this was a major factor leading to group success. Activities
within the group were appropriate, and responded to the members’ needs, thereby allowing
management within the organization without dependence on external factors (Phuttakosa, 2011).
CONCLUSIONThe Solar Energy Group of Pesticide Free Vegetable Growers was organized to solve the problems
experienced by drought. The administration of the group management and network used bothinformal and formal mechanisms. The administrative structure of the group was based on acommunity enterprise. The group planned its operations, especially activities related to appropriate
production systems and selected individual members to produce safe food. The group set regulations
for vegetable plantations to control and monitor safety standards and the quality of the products.
They also followed regulations for water-sharing in vegetable production. The group met regularly
once a month to discuss problem issues and group planning. They raised money from members toestablish funds for the operations. The group coordinated with various external organizations andagencies for support and organized learning activities through networking.

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REFERENCES
Chareonwongsak, K. 2015. Innovation for learning in multicultural contexts. Handouts presented at Raikhing
Temple, Faculty of Education, Silpakorn University on 22nd August 2015.
Health Education Division. 2013. Networking and involvement in behaviors adjustment of community.
Bangkok, Thailand.
Kaewpan, K. 2015. The analysis of financial returns of solar water pumping systems for the nontoxic vegetableproduction of farmer groups in Phutthaisong district, Buriram province. Journal of the Association of
Researchers, 20 (2).
Phuttakosa, K. 2011. Handbook for community learning development. Bangkok. National Research Councilof Thailand, Thailand.

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Research article
erd

Contribution of Organic Agriculture towards Achieving
Sustainable Development in Samrong, Kampong Cham,
Cambodia
MITSURU UCHINO
Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: mitsuru.yu@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 16 December 2016

Accepted 5 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Sustainable development is one of the most important achievements in developing
countries. Organic agriculture is one of the factors contribute to achieve sustainable
development. However, implementation rates of organic agriculture are low in South East
Asia. Several international organizations have been intervening in the agricultural sector in
Cambodia. Interventions conducted by non-profit organization play a key role in theimplementation of organic agriculture by farmers. However, previous studies have notthoroughly described the economic contribution of these interventions regarding organic
agriculture in Cambodia. In Samrong Commune, Kampong Cham Province, a five-year
longitudinal project was conducted to reduce financial losses in agriculture throughinterventions including implementation of organic agriculture and improving the agricultural
skills of farmers. This study is aimed to determine the economic contribution of theinterventions. Sample data from 64 farmers were collected through a questionnaire survey
during the harvest season. Moreover, the amount of E. coli, which is an environmental
indicator, was measured in compost boxes and vegetables in a farmland. The results showeda significant correlation (P<0.05) between the interventions and household income. This
study provides evidence that the implementing of organic agriculture resulted in increased
rural household income. However, E. coli from immature compost was found in 90% overtheir compost boxes and farmland. It implies that knowledge and proper techniques forincreasing quality of organic fertilizer are needed to be emphasized.
Keywords sustainable development, sustainable agriculture, organic agriculture, householdincomeINTRODUCTION
With regard to food supply and economic growth, sustainable development will be a major global
concern in the coming decades (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL, 2016). Organic
agriculture is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as a production management
system for promoting and enhancing agro-ecosystem health through the reduction of chemical inputs
and modified seeds (FAOa, 2016). Organic agriculture is necessary to achieve sustainable
development in the agricultural sector and can benefit both developed and developing countries(Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL, 2016). Studies have indicated that organic
agriculture has positive environmental effects, and its implementation has therefore become anurgent task (Pimentel et.al.2005). Furthermore, organic agriculture reduces expenditure costs ofagriculture (i.e. fuel cost, chemical fertilizer, etc.) in local households (FAOb, 2001; United Nations,2009). It also contributes to an increased profit margin for farmers (Kilcher, 2007). However,
implementation rates of organic agriculture are low in Asia, especially in some developing countries
in Southeast Asia (Will & Yussefi, 2004). On the situation, nonprofit organizations (NPOs) or otherⒸ ISERD

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international organizations play an important role in introducing organic agriculture to local farmers(Bebbington, 2004). For example, in Cambodia, international organizations have been intervening
more in the agricultural sector than in any other sector (Chanrith, 2002). Limited studies focusing on
the relationship between organic agriculture and local household income have been carried out, while
many studies focusing only on the relationship between organic agriculture and their effect on theenvironment in Cambodia (Bunthan & Siriwattananon, 2009, Vathana et.al.,2002). Therefore, thisstudy aims to determine the economic contribution of organic agriculture in Cambodia.
OBJECTIVE
The objective was to determine of the relationship between organic agriculture and farmer’shousehold income. In Cambodia, non-profit organizations (NPOs) encourage farmers to conductorganic agriculture and improving agriculture skills. In this study, the intervention of one NPO was
focused on.
METHODOLOGY
Study Site and Characteristics
This study was conducted in October 2016 in Samrong Commune, Prey Chhor District, Kampong
Cham Province (Fig. 1). Prey Chhor district is located around 90 km from Phnom Penh, the capitalof Cambodia. Rainy season in Kampong Cham starts from April to November. The average rainfall
was 22.1mm. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures were 23 and 30 degree Celsius
respectively. The total population is 1,673,390 in 2011, according to economic census (Statistics
Japan).

0
0

10000
0km

Fig. 1 Location of Kampong Cham Province (left) and Prey Chhor District (right)
Intervention Methods
The NPO conducted a five-year project supported by the Japan International Cooperative Agency(JICA) from April 2011 to March 2016. The goal of this project was to persuade local farmers inProvince to practice sustainable, recycling-based agriculture. The project area conducted in 11
villages in Prey Chhor District, Samrong Commune. The five-year long interventions involved theimplementation of organic agriculture and the impartment of agricultural knowledge related to theuse of organic fertilizer such as compost, recommendation of seeds, etc. (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2 The interventions of NPO (left: compost box, right: liquid fertilizer)
Qualitative Survey (Questionnaire Survey and E. coli Survey)
A Questionnaire survey was conducted in Khmer (Cambodia’s official language) by Cambodian staff
working at the Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conversation (ERECON) as shown in
Fig. 3. The data were collected from 64 participants in intervention and non-intervention groups (Fig.
4). Most of the participants were men, as Cambodian women tend to be involved in other activities(Meinzen-Dick et. al., 2011). The objective was to ascertain whether farmers perceived an increased
income over the course of five years. The questionnaire was based on a publication in the
Independent Evaluation Group of the World Bank (2011). The indexes of the questionnaire included
basic demographic information (sex, age, and location), agricultural style (labor involved, crop type,and number of crops), and participant income. Moreover, the conditions of organic materials(compost box) were checked directly. Organic agriculture should have the advantage of environment(Meinzen-Dick et. al., 2011). However the making organic compost requires proper way (Taiwo,2011). In this study, organic compost in the compost box was target for the measurement of organic
agriculture. Subsequently, Petan Check 25 was applied in compost boxes, and on the farmland andcrops of the participants to help detect and measure E. coli, an indicator of prevailing environmental
conditions.

Fig. 3 Questionnaire survey
Data Analysis
A generalized linear model (GLM) was used to examine the measurements organic agriculture
contributes to the increased household income. In the analysis, the response variable was whether
farmer felt that there was increased income in five years. The accurate income was difficult to bemeasured because of the answers are all approximations made by the farmers. The criteria of P value
were under 0.05. The explanatory variables were shown as Table 1. All statistical analysis was doneusing R (R project 3.2.3).
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2●: sample

Fig. 4 Black dots as the location of respondent with Google Earth
Table 1 Index of questionnaire
Index
Response variable

Whether you perceived an increased income over the course of five years

Explanatory variables

Are you a member of the intervention group
Personal information (age)Is your family working only in agriculture
What kind and how many amount of vegetable for sell
Do you use organic fertilizers and how many times in one term
How large is your land (total, rice, vegetable)
How many cattle do you have
How many people support your work
How much is your income (total, only agriculture, non-agriculture)
Do you talk about ERECON in daily conversation

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of the Respondents
In this study, 41 or respondents are men (64%) and 23 are women (36%). The numbers of participantfrom treatment group are 40 (62.5%) and from non-treatment group are 24 (37.5%). Minimum age
is 29, and maximum age is 70. Subsequently, median age is 52. Total annual income is 170 USD as
minimum, 6000 USD as maximum. Median income is 875 USD. Average income is 1137 USD.
Before this intervention, the average income was 943 USD from baseline data.
Result of a Generalized Linear Model
A generalized linear model (GLM) analysis is shown as Table 2. The relation between ERECON’s
interventions and their increased income in five years has significant. Moreover, the relation between
the number of crops in a year and their increased income in five years has significant. According to
the GLM, the co-efficient of ERECON’s interventions and the number of crops is positive. It meansthat people will feel there will be increased income when people involve in the intervention groupand have a opportunity to cultivate more the number of crops as before. Recommendation of seeds
for cultivation and sell is one of the interventions conducted in five long years projects. From thatintervention, farmers know the type of vegetables that have market demand.

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Table 2 GLM of whether farmers perceived an increased income over the course of five years
Coefficient

P value-0.238600

0.662390

0.563400
0.000113
0.023630
0.193900-0.000024
0.382900
0.032080-2.392000
2.407000
1.906000
0.059860-0.003814-0.005797
0.005408
0.005939-0.867400
0.571800

0.01309*
0.984330
0.881900
0.00552*
0.367320
0.153380
0.773790
0.619190
0.617430
0.681770
0.084020
0.136000
0.071710
0.076660
0.068400
0.056620
0.237480

Intercept (whether farmers perceived an increased income over the courseof five years)
Are you a member of the intervention group
Personal information (age)Is your family working only in agriculture
What kind of vegetable for sell
How many amount vegetables for sell
Do you use organic fertilizers
How many times do you use organic fertilizers in one term
How large is your land (Total)
How large is your land (Rice)How large is your land (Vegetables)
How many cattle do you have
How many people support your work
How much is your income (Total)
How much is your income (only agriculture)
How much is your income (non-agriculture)
Do you talk about ERECON in daily conversation
Are you a member of the intervention group×talk about ERECON* P<0.05

Quality of the Compost
From the investigation, E. coli exists in 39 compost boxes and farmer’s land belong to treatmentgroup (n=40). The detection using Petan Check 25 is shown (Fig. 5). E. coli is green colony foundon the medium. If farmers make compost properly, E. coli will not be found in compost box and land.
However, a result of Petan Check 25 is shown farmers do not conduct proper method to makecompost.

Fig. 5 Detection using Petan Check 25
DISCUSSIONSThis study confirmed the economic contribution of organic agriculture in Cambodia, which can tohelp toward the sustainable development. The results showed that both the interventions and the typeof vegetables have the contribution of farmer’s household income. However, according to a reportof the independent evaluation group of World Bank (2011), the number of labors and cultivatedacreage, and some indexes have the relationship with farmer’s household income (Taiwo, 2011).
These variables did not have significant in this study. Given the possibility that the number of thecollecting data was quit few, as there were only 64 respondents in this study. Therefore, theseⒸ ISERD

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variables did not have significant. Moreover, the other interventions were not confirmed whether it
have positive effect. The results of quality check of the compost box showed that farmers did not
clearly replicate the proper way to make organic compost. Because of this, next intervention should
focus on the long term education of making organic compost.
CONCLUSION
This study finds there is the economic contribution of organic agriculture in Cambodia. From thisfinding, organic agriculture have the advantages both environmental (Bunthan & Siriwattananon,
2009, Vathana et.al.,2002) and economic aspects (Ibrahim, 2008). In conclusion, organic agriculture
achieves sustainable development in Cambodia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank the Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conversation (ERECON) for
supporting to conduct this study.
REFERENCES
Adewale, M.T. 2011. Composting as a sustainable waste management technique in developing countries.
Journal of Environmental Science and Technology.
Bebbington, A. 2004. NGOs and uneven development: geographies of development intervention. Progress in
Human Geography, 28 (6), 725-745.
Bunthan, N. and Siriwattananon, L. 2009. Suitable timing of application of pelletized compost and farmers’
acceptance in Cambodia. Journal of ISSAAS, 15 (1), 91-100.
Chanrith, N. 2002. A study on organizational building of Cambodian development-Oriented NGOs, A focus
on determinants of capacity-building and project success.
Food and Agriculture Organization (a). http://www.fao.org/organicag/oa-faq/oa-faq1/en/. FAO, (retrieved on
14 Dec., 2016).
Food and Agriculture Organization (b). 2001. The economics of conservation agriculture. FAO Publishing andMultimedia Service, Information Division, FAO, Viale Delle Terme Di Caracalla, 73, Italy.
Independent Evaluation Group of World Bank. 2011. Impact evaluations in agriculture impact evaluations inagriculture. World Bank.
Lukas, K. 2007. How organic agriclture contributes to sustainable development. University of Kassel atWitzenhausen JARTS, Supplement, 89, 31-49.
Meinzen-Dick, R., Johnson, N., Quisumbing, A.R., Njuki, J., Behrman, J.A., Rubin, D. and Waitanji, E. 2011.
Gender, assets, and agricultural development programs. CAPRi Working Paper, 99.
Muhammad, I., Anwar-ul, H., Muhammad, I. and Ehsan, V. 2008. Response of wheat growth and yield tovariouslevels of compost and organic manure. Pak. J. Bot, 40 (5), 2135-2141.
Pimentel, D., Hepperly, P., Hanson, J., Douds, D. and Seidel, R. 2005. Environmental, energetic and economic
comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems. BioScience, 55 (7), 573.
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL, I. 2016. The World of Organic Agriculture.
Statistics Japan. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/info/meetings/cambodia/e11f_re1.htm. (retrieved on 07 March,
2018).
United Nations. 2009. The contribution of sustainable agriculture and land management to sustainable
development. 7.
Will, H., and Yussefi, M. 2004. The world of organic agriculture statistics and emerging trends. Bonn:
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements.

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Research article
erd

Synthesis of Graduation Theses in Agricultural Commodity
Production Adhering to Government Designated Standards
SUNAN SEESANG*
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand
Email: sseesang@hotmail.com

PONSARAN SARANROM
School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand
Received 16 December 2016

Accepted 5 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objectives were to analyze 1) the research methodology of graduation theses,2) the result of graduation theses, 3) problems on commodity production adhering togovernment designated standards, and 4) synthesis of guidelines on the development ofcommodity production adhering to government designated standards. The sample population
was 58 graduation theses agricultural extension and development in agricultural commodity
production adhering to government designed standards. Twenty-six samplings were
determined using purposive sampling methodology.The findings were as follows: 1) All the
research methodology of the graduation theses followed quantitative research. Seventy
percent studied by determining the sampling, and all the theses followed sampling
methodology using Taro Yamane formula. Ninety-five percent selected sampling using thesimple random sampling methodology. 2) Fifty percent of the theses were completed during
the academic years 2001-2005, 34% were completed during years 2006-2010, and 16% werecompleted during years 2011-2015. Ninety-two percent studied good agricultural practice(GAP). Regarding agricultural commodities, 38.5% studied the production standards of fruit
plants, 26.9% vegetables, 15.4% cattle, 11.5% rice and corn, and 7.7% flowering plants. In
the academic aspect of agricultural extension and development, 38% studied the usage of
agricultural production standards, 30% studied the adoption process, and 15% studied thelearning process. 3) Regarding problems, most were at low level with agricultural commodity
production adhering to the designated standards, and 4) To syntheses guidelines, related
sectors should transfer knowledge and examine production regularly to comply withdesignated standards and reinforced them to create brand recognition and increase market
opportunities.
Keywords synthesis of graduation theses, agricultural products production, standards

INTRODUCTION
Agricultural Extension and Development course opened for Graduate School in the year 2000.
Graduate research relating to agricultural commodities production adhering to government
designated standards such as GAP (Good Agricultural Practice) and export standards has been
published in national and international documents and accepted worldwide. Further, research results
were beneficial for agricultural extension, learning management and curriculum development andimprovement.
However, the research results have never been categorized or synthesized to determine thedirection of the results, the background of the theories, the categories and variables, variable
definitions and research methodology. Therefore, the researcher was interested in analyzing andsynthesizing graduation theses in agricultural commodity production adhering to standards thatwould be of use in advising students and scholars interested in research on agricultural development.
Moreover, the results will comprise a database for teachers and a reference source for students.
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OBJECTIVES
The purposes of this research were as follows: 1) to examine the research methodology of graduationtheses, 2) to examine the results of graduation theses, 3) to examine problems regarding commodity
production adhering to government designated standards, and 4) to synthesize guidelines on thedevelopment of commodity production adhering to government designated standards.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. Research design: This research was designed as survey research.
2. Population/Samples: The population was 58 graduation theses on agricultural extension anddevelopment in agricultural commodities production adhering to government designated standards,
26 samplings were determined using purposive sampling methodology.
3. Research instrument: Survey was used as the research instrument.
4. Data analysis: Descriptive statistics and content analysis were used to analyze the data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Research Methodology of Graduation Theses
All the research methodology of the graduation theses followed quantitative research. Seventy
percent determined the sampling, and all researchers determined their sampling using the Taro
Yamane formula. Ninety-five percent selected sampling using simple random sampling methodology.
Most research methodologies used quantitative research because this determines factual knowledge
from research results which has the least error. Thus, data collection was designed as number andvariables were controlled. Instruments for data collection, data analysis and evaluation were preparedsystematically. Kijpreedaborisut (2008) explained that the advantage of quantitative research wasthat it looked for the facts systematically, applied predictions and searched for correlations between
variables, considered each variable rationally, applied statistical analysis and referred the results tothe population group. However, the researcher considered that research on agricultural extension anddevelopment related to Social Science which studied social phenomena. Inferences from quantitative
research were unable to deal with phenomena and consequently qualitative research was required.
Result of Graduation Theses
Analyzing the time spans of the graduation theses, 50% were completed during the academic years
2001-2005, 34% during 2006-2010, and 16% during 2011-2015.

16%
50%
34%

Fig.1 Time spans of the graduation thesesⒸ ISERD

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To analyze the type of product standards, 92% studied good agricultural practice (GAP). Results
concurred with the declaration of GAP following the National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity
and Food Standards (ACFS) (2016). The Thai agricultural standard TAS 9001-2009, good
agricultural practices for crops was first announced as an Act on 6 November 2003, with anamendment in the GAP manual 2007. This inspired student interest in conducting theses on
Agricultural Commodity Production Adhering to Designated Standards, particularly in regard to
GAP. However, research on GAP declined because the subject had been sufficiently covered.
Students emphasized on other topics consistent with the changing areas of interest.
To analyze the type of agricultural products, 38.5% studied the production standards of fruit
plants, 26.9% vegetables, 15.4% cattle, 11.5% rice and corn, and 7.7% flowering plants. Results wereconsistent with the types of plant that required GAP certification. From GAP information, there were
24 standards regarding plants which accounted for 63%, whereas only 24 relating to animals at 37%(ACFS, 2016). Therefore, the majority of researchers emphasized on the study of plants.
fruit plants

vegetables

cattlerice and corn

flowering plants

8%
12%
38%
15%

27%

Fig.2 Type of agricultural products studied in graduation theses
To analyze the graduation theses in the academic aspect of agricultural extension anddevelopment, 38% studied the usage of agricultural production standards, 30% studied the adoption
process, and 15% studied the learning process. The results could be explained by the agriculturalextension concept; to transfer knowledge to agriculturists to accept innovation to make positive
economic, social and environmental change. The 5 step adoption process postulated by Rogers andShoemaker (1978) consists of awareness step, interest step, evaluation step, trial step, and adoption
step. Agricultural Commodity Production Adhering to the Standards was the research on the firststep, the awareness step, and accounted for 15%. The researcher considered that research on step 1
or the awareness step was only a preliminary study or the first step of the adoption process that
required further research to study step 5, adoption step. However, results showed that many
researchers studied from to step 1 through to step 5, which was called in this research as the usageof agricultural production standards and accounted for 38%. Thus, the research should emphasize on
the study to achieve step 5, or the adoption step of the study through all 5 steps.
Problems on Commodity Production Adhering to Government Designated Standards
To analyze the problems, most had difficulties at a low level with agricultural commodity production
adhering to designated standards. Results indicated that agricultural commodity production adhering
to designated standards in Thailand had been applied for a long time with the use of GAP since 2003.
Agricultural commodity production adhering to designated standards was constantly promoted to theagriculturists. As a result, the problems eventually decreased.

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Synthesis of Guidelines on the Development of Commodity Production Adhering toGovernment Designated Standards.
To synthesize guidelines based on the result of graduation theses, related sectors should havetransferred knowledge and examined production regularly to comply with designated standards andreinforced them to create a brand symbol and increase market opportunities. Findings were in linewith the report of a seminar on the guidelines of GAP projects in 2013. One of the problems ofcommodity production promotion adhering to GAP since the Act came into force was the lack ofagricultural extension staff and consultants. Most were new staff who had less experience andknowledge (Department of Agricultural Extension, 2013). Therefore, this research reflected theguidelines of agriculturists that transferred knowledge and examined production regularly to comply
with designated standards and promoted the brand symbol to increase market opportunities.
CONCLUSION
This research on Synthesis of Graduation Theses in Agricultural Commodity Production Adhering toGovernment Designated Standards illustrated that all the research methodologies of the theses
followed quantitative research methods which determined factual knowledge with the least error.
Qualitative research should also be applied since research on agricultural development and extension
was a social science that studied social phenomena that changed continuously. Findings showed that
research into the possibility of the change in Agricultural Commodity Production Adhering toGovernment Designated Standards was during 2001-2005 and 2006-2010. These were periods when
Thailand announced that agricultural commodity production should adhere to designated standards.
Most researchers focused on plant products rather than animal products since there were moreagricultural commodity production standards for plants than for animals. Researchers emphasized on
the study on the 5 steps of the adoption process, particularly steps 1 and 5. Research should focus on
the study of step 5, adoption process or study through all the steps. The problem of agriculturists in
production adhering to standards was at a low level. However, there was the problem of transferringknowledge of production adhering to standards because of staff insufficiency. As a result, theguidelines of knowledge transfer development which agriculturists require and need to create thebrand symbol of standards and increase market opportunities is lacking.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researchers are grateful to the School of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Sukhothai ThammathiratOpen University who supported the scholarship for this study.
REFERENCES
Department of Agricultural Extension. 2013. Report of workshop to enhance efficiency of consultants,
Approach to drive agricultural products quality extension GAP. Bangkok. Bureau of Agricultural Products
Quality, Thailand.
Kispredarborisuthi. 2008. Research methodology in social science. 10th ed. Jamjuree Product, Bangkok.
National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standard. 2016. Standard of agricultural commodity.
http://www.acfs.go.th/agri_standards.php (retrieved on 12 December, 2016).
Rogers, E. and Shoemaker, F. 1978. Communication of innovations, A cross-cultural approach. Free Press,
New York, USA.

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Research article
erd

Evaluation of Participatory Irrigation Management
Introduced into Dry Land Agriculture in Turpan, China
YAMAMOTO TADAO*
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Email: tady@env.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

NOZAKI AKIHIRO
Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, JapanSHIMIZU KATSUYUKI
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, JapanKUME TAKASHI
Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama, JapanABDISALAM JALALDIN
College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, China
Received 26 December 2016

Accepted 5 Nov 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract A stable supply of irrigation water is essential to ensure agricultural productivity inarid regions. To efficiently use the limited water resources, upgrading of hard infrastructure,such as reducing leakage from channels and installing drip irrigation, and of soft
infrastructure, such as introducing irrigation management involving local farmers, is being
pursued. This study reviewed the rationality of participatory irrigation management (PIM) in
Turpan, Xinjian, China. Turpan depends for its irrigation water on streams, pumped
groundwater, and karez (qanat). PIM mainly involves management of irrigation watersupplied from streams. Between 2013 and 2015, interviews with Turpan City’s Water
Management Agency (WMA) branch office staff, PIM staff, and local farmers wereconducted to collect information on water management. The findings showed that thefounding of PIM organization resulted in the following benefits: (i) reduction of governing
agency’s burden: PIM is now in charge of work that used to be performed directly by staff ofthe WMA branch office (ii) Prevention of illegal practices: PIM staff are elected from among
local farmers, so there is a system of mutual surveillance. (iii) Smoother implementation ofwater management: Previously, there were conflicts between local farmers and staff fromother regions, who were unaware of the local situation. Since establishment of the PIM, local
farmers have taken charge of the water management, which facilitated communication
between the water administrator and farmers. (iv) Enhanced interest in water conservation:
Because farmers now directly manage their water distribution and maintain theirinfrastructure, they are more aware of the importance of conserving water. Regarding thedisadvantages, during seasons with a risk of drought, water management requires operations
24 h a day and there are many housekeeping issues, so labor shortages are a problem. Thislatter issue occurred because the main source of finance is from water fees, which are set bya governmental agency. As a result, the PIM team could not secure a sufficient budget to hire
more staff.
Keywords participatory irrigation management, agricultural water use, interview survey,
water shortage

INTRODUCTIONⒸ ISERD

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Irrigated agriculture is employed in the dry climate of Turpan, China. In this area, oasis agriculture
was undertaken before the 1960s. After the 1960s, many dams and irrigation canals were constructed,
and water was taken from many rivers for agricultural use. In addition, modern irrigation agriculture
spread via the use of groundwater obtained by digging wells. However, recently, securing irrigationwater has been difficult due to the increasing demands from industry and domestic users. Water
shortages have also occurred because of inadequate cooperation between the sectors of landdevelopment and water resource development in China (Yamamoto et al., 2006). To prevent water
shortages, the delivery rate of water has been improved by lining irrigation canals, and more water
resources were developed by digging more wells (Jalaldin et al., 2005). Recently, in addition to suchinfrastructure, participatory irrigation management (PIM) by farmers has been introduced in thisregion due to the expectation that it would improve awareness of the importance of conserving water.
Its introduction in this region occurred later than in other parts of China
In general, PIM aims to involve farmers themselves in irrigation operation and maintenance(Tanaka & Sato, 2003). PIM is a tool to manage irrigation water or irrigation systems to increase theefficiency of their use (Rattanatangtrakul, 2005). It can reduce government costs by reducing thenumber of staff (Raby, 2000). However, Pathasarathy (2000) indicated that although PIM has indeed
led to better and smoother resolution of irrigation-related conflicts, reductions in government
expenditure have not materialized. Many studies have analyzed the effect of PIM in these locations
in monsoon areas, but the results have varied according to differences in the study area. In addition,
few studies on the effect of PIM in semi-arid areas have been performed.
Moreover, there are many karezes around Turpan. A karez is a traditional groundwater system
like a qanat, as found in the Middle East. The old karezes in this region were constructed 300 years
ago and were used for agriculture and for water for daily uses for a long time. However, many karezes
have now been abandoned due to the depletion of groundwater as a result of the digging of wells. In
particular, farmers’ own wells were dug haphazardly and the owners pumped up excessive
groundwater. This excess water intake has also caused degradation of the regional ecology aroundoutward flow of karezes.
OBJECTIVE
To maintain a sustainable regional community and agriculture in this area, there is a need to construct
an agricultural water use system in consideration of sustainable irrigated agriculture by conservationof traditional groundwater use system. To conserve groundwater resources, improvement of water
management is required in this area. And it has been widely expected that PIM can improve issues
in water management. Thus, the goals of this study are to understand the situation of agricultural
water use and to evaluate the effects of PIM introduced recently via a case study based on Turpan.
METHODOLOGY
Turpan district is located in the east of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, in northwestern China,
and is in a basin surrounded by mountains. This investigation focused on Meijiaoqou and Taerlang
river basins in Turpan, a prefecture-level city. The climate in this location is considered to be BWk
according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. The average annual temperature is 13.9°C,
with a maximum of 49.6°C and a minimum of -28.7°C (Turpan Hydrology and Water Resources
Observation Station HP, 2012). The annual discharge of each river is 80 million m3. Annual rainfall
is under 50 mm, and the potential evaporation is 2,845 mm (JICA, 2006). Irrigation water depends
on river intake, groundwater in wells, and karezes, the water of which is meltwater from snow andglaciers of Mt. Tienshan located to the north of the city. Irrigation methods are border and drip
irrigation. The main crops are cotton, grape, corn, and wheat. Field surveys with interviews tounderstand changes of water supply and influence on water management by PIMs introduction wereconducted from 2013 to 2015 in representatives of the water management agency, PIMs in Qiatekale
Township on Meijiaoqou river basin and Yar Township on Taerlang river basin, and farmers (Fig.

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1). In the interviews, in addition to above contents, we researched irrigation area, crop, problems on
PIMs and etc.

Fig. 1 Investigation area
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Changes of the Water Management Organization
Figure 2 shows the common water management system for intake from a river in Xinjiang. Thissystem matches that in Turpan. Before early 2000, the branch office of the WMA had managed thewater supply from water resources to each township, and a representative farmer in the township andthe branch office staff had conducted water distribution in the township. After late 2000, PIM
gradually became involved in terminal water management. Before introduction of PIM, branch
offices at the township level had managed the water supply from large canals - primary or secondary- to farming blocks, and branch office staff and a representative farmer performed the water supply
from small canals - tertiary and terminal canals - to each piece of farmland. After introduction of
PIM, the branch offices managed only primary canals and each PIM managed secondary canals. PIM
staff and a representative farmer dealt with the terminal water supply. In other words, farmers
performed a key administrative role on behalf of government staff regarding the terminal watersupply.
Crops and Water Resources
The main crops cultivated in this area are grapes, corn, cotton, and wheat. The supplied water for
agriculture consists of 44% river intake and 56% groundwater from wells and karezes. The riverwater is mainly used for grape irrigation. The groundwater is basically used for cotton, corn, andother crops, except grapes. Farmers do not use water by mixture of groundwater and river water even
if they can use both resources. The reason for this is that the groundwater is not appropriate forgrowing grapes due to its higher salinity than river water, and its temperature is lower than that inthis area. In addition, the wholesale price of grapes is higher than for other crops. Thus, farmers canobtain an adequate profit even if they pay the fee to use river water. This fee was 0.164 CNY(approximately $0.027)/m3 in 2011, which consists of 0.136 CNY for the water resource fee and0.028 CNY for the management fee. This water resource fee is a flat fee in this district, while themanagement fee is decided by Turpan WMA, along with the benefit area of the water facilities,
length of the irrigation canal, and scale of division works of each PIM or branch office.

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Management organization (and management objects)
Administrative boundary
Before introduction of PIM

After introduction of PIM

Xinjiang Uyghur
Autonomous Region

Water resources bureau

Prefectural level
County level

Turpan water management agency

Township levelvillage level

branch offices
staff: public servants(river, primary canal,s econdary canal)

branch offices
staff: public servants(river, primary canal/larger size canal)

PIMs
staff: representative farmers
in township(primary canal/smaller size andsecondary canal)

representative farmer in village+ bracnh office staff(from tertiary canal to terminal canal)

representative farmer in village+ PIM staff(from tertiary canal to terminal canal)Fig. 2 Changes in water management organization before and after PIM introduction
Table 1 Outlines of each PIM
Land use system
Established
Irrigation water supply river(Intake water rate to river discharge)
Cultivated area (ha)Number of villages in PIM
Number of PIM staff
Monthly salary ($)
Main crops(% of total cultivated area)

Yar PIM
2003
Taerlang(100%)
5,467
22
13(Two vacancies)
240
Grapes (90)Vegetables (10)Qiatekale PIM
2007
Meijiaoqou
(40%)
6,667
12
11
240
Grapes (30)Corn & cotton (70)Concerning groundwater use, the water management organization has managed only public
wells and has deregulated private wells. Therefore, there was no water fee for groundwater use, andfarmers only had to pay for the electricity to pump up the water. However, to protect groundwater
resources, from 2011 the local government decided to prohibit the digging of new wells and to charge
a property fee for those with existing private wells.
Outline of PIM in Turpan
Each PIM is an agricultural water management association operated by representative farmers ineach town. Table 1 shows the outline of each PIM. Branch offices of the WMA are higher-levelcomponents of the organization of PIMs (Fig. 2). There are currently 13 staff members at Yar PIM
and 11 at Qiatekale PIM. Each PIM also has a public servant from Turpan WMA acting as anaccountant. Except for the loaned staff, the others are elected by farmers at the town level National
People's Congress. The term of PIM chairman lasts for five years, but the chairman can be dismissed
regardless of the term if they do wrong.
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The main duties of PIM are to manage the water supply to villages via smaller canal, secondaryor tertiary canal, to record the quantity of supplied water, to maintain water supply facilities, and tocollect water fees. PIM manages only the river water and has no involvement in groundwater use.
During summer, when water shortages are more likely, PIM supplies water to each village by rotation
supply. The rotation system and the supplied water volume are decided in consideration of thenumber of wells, cultivated area, and growth situation in each village. PIM records the supplied water
volume and collected water fee, as calculated by a specific method. The water fee and supplied water
volume are determined each month. Some of this collected water fee is allocated for the salary of
PIM staff and administrative expenses to maintain the water supply facilities. PIM has no right todecide the water fee; it is instead decided by a higher-level organization, Turpan District WMA.
Moreover, it is a custom that the loaned staff from the WMA is in charge of accounting.
Merits of PIM in Turpan
PIM has attracted attention as intangible methods of rationalization of agricultural water managementin China. This is because it is thought that the introduction of PIM can increase efficiency in water
management by promoting voluntary irrigation management by farmers (Drainage and Rural Water
Division, 2007). We identified four merits of PIM from interviews with PIM staff and farmers.
(a) Decreasing government expenditure: Before PIM establishment, each branch office of Turpan
WMA had been in charge of water management in each town. Since PIM establishment,
representative farmers have performed some of the management that was previously conducted attown level by the branch offices. This could allow local government to reduce personnel expenses
by reducing the number of government workers.
(b) Prevention of illegal practices: Farmers were aware of cases of branch office staff undertaking
illegal practices before PIM establishment. However, if such practices are identified now, farmers
can remove the staff from their post because the PIM staff are representatives of the farmers andelected by a congress. In addition, it is indicated that PIM staff have less incidence of illegal behavior
because they have neighborly relations with the farmers in their controlled area and are under mutual
surveillance. This follows the finding in a previous study by Hui et al. (2007).
(c) Facilitating water management: Conflict about the distribution of water can more easily arise
between users in arid areas where there is a chronic water shortage. In Turpan, such conflict also
occurred between farmers and water management staff before PIM was established. Many staff
members came from other areas and did not understand the typical water use in the townships orvillages. However, establishment of PIM provided opportunities for greater understanding andcontributed to smooth water use management. This effect is accepted in a previous study by S. Shindo
and K. Yamamoto (2017). One identified merit was that farmers could more easily give their opinions
about water distribution because PIM staff is now from the same area and understand their local
customs and the details of the irrigation situation.
(d) Improvement of farmers’ awareness of the importance of conserving water: Afterestablishment of PIM, farmers are directly involved in water distribution and the maintenance offacilities. This improves their awareness of the importance of conserving water via theirunderstanding of the present condition of regional water resources.
The results of interviews on the introduction of PIM could help to rationalize water managementin Turpan. However, some problems were revealed from the interviews with PIM staff. For example,
they consider it difficult having to work day and night in periods with severe water shortages. They
desire an increase in staff because they feel that current staffing levels are inadequate. However, thebudget prevents an increase of staff under current conditions.
CONCLUSION
We considered agricultural water use in Turpan from the perspective of change in the management
organization. There are wells and karezes in this area and the pumping up of groundwater affected
the water resources of the karezes. Preventing karezes was required to maintain the groundwaterⒸ ISERD

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level by reducing groundwater pumping via improved irrigation efficiency. PIM was introduced inthis area for improving water management. From interview researches it is clear that PIM has apossibility of improving irrigation efficiency, some beneficial effects, such as the improvement oflocal government finances and the avoidance of water conflict. However, there are some problems
that still need to overcome to ensure continuous running of PIM. Specifically, we suggest that the
local government should pay a subsidy to PIM and that the automation of water supply facilities
should be introduced, among others, for the sustainable management of PIM.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Xayar County Government, Xayar Water Management Agency, and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region Water Resource Management Bureau supported this research. This study is part of academic
research (No. 24405039) supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) from the Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
REFERENCES
Drainage and Rural Water Division. 2007. Operating instruction of accounting practices for water users
association. Water Power Press, 58. [in Chinese].
Guo, H., Zhang, N. and Liu, F. 2007. Sustainable development model of farmer participation in irrigation
management in arid region, A case study of Xinjiang Region. Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation, 27(4), 151-154.
Jalaldin, A., Nagasawa, T. and Yamamoto, T. 2004. Problems of irrigation system in Turpan city of Xinjiang
Uyghur, China. Journal of Rural Planning Association, 6, 67-72.
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2004. Pre-research report of sustainable groundwater
resources development and use in Turpan basin, China. JICA Chinese Office, http:// open_jicareport.jica.
go.jp/618/618/618_105_11770013.html.
Pathasarathy, R. 2000. Participatory irrigation management programme in Gujarat, Institutional and Financial
issues. Economic and Political Weekly, 35, 35/36, 3141-3154.
Raby, N. 2000. Participatory irrigation management in Philippines, National irrigation system, Case studies inparticipatory irrigation management. World Bank Iinstitute, 273, 113-138.
Rattanatangtrakul, U. 2005. Participatory irrigation management (PIM) in Thailand. 19th Internatiional
Congress and 56th International Executive Council of ICID [10-18 September 2005], THAICIDMultifunctional roles of irrigation water in Thailand, http://www.rid.go.th /thaicid/_5_article/2549/
07PIM.pdf.
Shindo, S. and Yamamoto, K. 2017. Strengthening water users’ organization targeting for participatory
irrigation management in Egypt. Paddy and Water Environment, 15 (4), 773-785.
Tadao, Y., Nagasawa, T. and Jalaldin, A. 2006. Irrigated agriculture and the environment in the Tarim River
watershed, Case study of the shaya irrigation district in the Ugen River basin. Sustainable Irrigation
Management, Technologies and Policies, WIT Press, 303-312.
Tanaka, Y. and Sato, Y. 2003. An institutional case study of Japanese water users association, Towards
successful participatory irrigation management. Paddy and Water Environment, 1, 85-90, DOI
10.1007/s10333-003-0016-1.
Turpan Hydrology and Water Resources Observation Station HP. 2012. Outline of Turpan, http://www.tlfswj.
cn/html/kejjdxs/dixiashuidongtai/2012/0613/21.html.

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Research article
erd

Development of the Saturated Ion-Exchangeable Mordenite
for Desalinization Technology in Agricultural Fields
YUKIKO HARUTA*
Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, Japan
Email: ahaharuta@gmail.com

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

TAKASHI KUME
Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, JapanSHINSUKE HARUTA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, Japan
Received 25 January 2017

Accepted 5 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Soil salinization has being occurred not only in arid and semiarid region but inhumid region under saline and shallow groundwater condition in the world. In Northeast
Thailand, approximately 17% of land is salt- affected and it appears even in paddy fields in
dry season. It is not easy to develop water resources in the region because of uneven rainfall
patterns and geological formation such as unevenness of terrain. Rainfall in monsoon season
charges soil water and groundwater, and it could be used as irrigation water resources.
However, the water is salinized, and it needs treatment of desalinization process for the useof irrigation. In preliminary study, we developed artificially saturated mordenite withhydrogen ion for the first step of the development of the technology, and we found high rateof ion-exchange of the mordenite, sodium adsorption and hydrogen desorption, in test
solution which was formed by one monovalent cation of sodium. However, soil andgroundwater in salinized agricultural fields are not formed by one cation, containing various
cations and pH is high, so that we need to reveal ion-exchange ability of the mordenite insuch a complicate ion mixed conditions. Therefore, the objective of this study is to develop
the saturated mordenites as ion-exchangeable materials for desalinization and to reveal ionexchange ability of it by batch test. Batch test was conducted using the saturated mordenite
and groundwater taken from the salt-affected field in Khon Kaen Province, Northeast
Thailand. As a result, we found that sodium ion of the groundwater which contains various
cations was adsorbed selectively by saturated mordenite. It is also revealed that alkalization
is solved since pH decreased by desorption of hydrogen ion from saturated mordenite togroundwater. Hence, we concluded that the saturated mordenite can be utilized as ionexchangeable material for desalinization of saline soil and groundwater in the experimental
field.
Keywords salinization, saturated mordenite, desalinization of groundwater, ion exchange
reaction, developing water resources

INTRODUCTION
In Northeast Thailand, approximately 17% of land is salt-affected and high salinity effects on crop
growth (Land Development Department, 1991). Northeast Thailand belongs to tropical wet and dry
climate and it distinguish clearly between dry season and monsoon season. Origin of the salt is rocksalt in a stratum that called Mahasarakham formed during the Tertiary period, and eluted salts togroundwater is carried to soil surface by evapotranspiration in dry season at location because of highgroundwater level. Total area of paddy in Northeast Thailand is approximately 6,070,000 ha and itⒸ ISERD

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accounts for 58 % of paddy fields in Thailand. However, productivity of crops is low due to soil
degradation and salinization of irrigation water (Kimura et al., 1990). In addition, it is less suitable
to construct extensive irrigation facilities in the region because of uneven rainfall patterns andgeological formation such as unevenness of terrain (Fuji et al., 2012). Leaching is most popular way
to solve salt-affected fields, however, it is not easy to apply it in Northeast Thailand because of lesswater resources and entailing high costs for development of irrigation and drainage channels.
On the other hand, there are rich amount of shallow groundwater derived from monsoon rainfall
in the fields of Khon Kaen, Northeast Thailand. If it can be utilized for irrigation, it may help water
resources development for dry season cultivation. Mordenite is a variety of natural zeolite and it has
cation adsorb ability and it has been utilized as soil improvement material in various fields (Yoshida
et al., 1971). In preliminary study, we have developed three types of saturated mordenite, type-K,
type-KH and type-H, these are saturated by potassium ion, potassium ion: hydrogen ion =1:1, andhydrogen ion, respectively. We revealed that three types of saturated mordenite have ability of
sodium adsorption, and type-K can supply K+ to soil, type-H reduce alkalization of soil water andtype-KH has both functions. Especially, type-H has high ability to adsorb sodium ion when using
test solution of one monovalent sodium cation (Umakoshi, 2016). However, soil water andgroundwater in salinized agricultural fields are not formed by one cation, containing various cations
and pH is high, so that we need to reveal ion-exchange ability of the mordenite in complicate ion
mixed conditions.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to examine ability of the saturated mordenites as ion-exchangeable
materials for desalinization by batch test using saline groundwater in Khon Kaen Province, Northeast
Thailand.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. Production of Saturated Mordenite Type-H
In this study, we produced saturated mordenite type-H (saturated mordenite) which has highest
adsorbed ability of sodium in preceding study (Umakoshi, 2016). Procedure of the production is
described below.
Equipment: Following equipments were used in this study: natural mordenite, potassium chloride
aqueous solution (1 mol L-1), nitric acid solution (100 mmol L-1), deionized water, ethanol solution,acetone solution, centrifugal tubes (50 mL), weighting machine, shaking machine, centrifugal
machine and ventilator.
Test procedure: The test procedures were summarized as follows.
(1) Put 2 g of natural mordenite and 20 mL of potassium chloride aqueous solution (1 mol L-1) in acentrifugal tube then shake it for one hour by shaking machine. Thereafter centrifuge it for ten
minutes by centrifugal machine then discard the supernatant liquid.
(2) Put 20 mL of 1 mol L-1 potassium chloride aqueous solution in the centrifugal tubes of (1) again
then shake it for ten minutes and centrifuge them for 10 minutes and then discard the supernatantliquid. Repeat this process twice.
(3) Change solute in order, 100 mmol L-1 Nitric acid solution, Deionized water, Ethanol solution,
Acetone solution and then shake them for 10 minutes and centrifuge them for 10 minutes and dosame procedure as (2).
(4) Dry mordenite for 24 hours.
2. Groundwater Sampling
We took groundwater from agricultural field in Ban Phai, Khon Kaen Province, Northeast Thailand
on 2nd December 2016.
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3. Cation Analysis
Cations of the groundwater were analyzed using atomic adsorption spectrophotometer, novAA 350(Analytik Jena AG) at Khon Kaen University.
4. Batch Test
We conducted batch test to examine quantitative analysis of sodium adsorption by saturated
mordenite. Test method and equipment are shown below.
Equipment: The equipments used in this test are as follows: saturated mordenite, pH meter, EC
meter, centrifugal tubes (50 mL), shaking machine, centrifugal, machine, atomic adsorption
spectrophotometry, deionized water and weighting machine.
Test procedure: The test procedures were indicated as follows.
(1) Analyze cations, Na+, Ca2+, K+ and Mg2+, of groundwater and measure EC and pH.
(2) Put 20 mL of groundwater and 1 g of saturated mordenite type-H (M:GW=1:20), 40 mL ofgroundwater and 1 g of saturated mordenite (M:GW=1:40), 40 mL of groundwater and 0.5 g ofsaturated mordenite type-H (M:GW=1:80) in tubes respectively and then shaking them for one hourand centrifuge them for ten minutes.
(3) Analyze the cations of the supernatant liquid and measure EC and pH.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Result of Groundwater Analysis
Figure 1 shows result of cation analysis of the groundwater, and EC and pH of the groundwater were
2.3 mS cm-1 and 8.0, respectively. Concentration of sodium was 274.5 ppm. It shows that sodium
was dominant ion of the groundwater and it was 72% of the total of four cations. CEC of natural
mordenite is 2 mmol g-1, therefore it could be estimated that 1 g of saturated mordenite can adsorb
sodium ion of 0.17 L of the groundwater.
Magnesium

21.3
79.9

Calcium
Potassium

4.6

Sodium

274.5
0.0

100.0

200.0

300.0

Concentration (ppm)Fig. 1 Cation composition of groundwater
2. Batch Test Using Saturated Mordenite and Groundwater
Table 1 shows changes in concentrations of cations, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium,
before and after the bath test. Decreasing of the concentrations was due to cations adsorption by
saturated mordenite. Sodium concentration after batch test in M:GW=1:80 didn’t decrease as muchas M:GW=1:20 and M:GW=1:40. It could be due to adsorption of other ions such as ammonium ion
which was supplied by fertilizer application in the research field.
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Figure 2 shows amounts of adsorbed cations after batch test. Amounts of sodium, calcium andmagnesium increased along with increasing the ratios of mordenite to groundwater. It clearly showedthat amount of sodium was adsorbed much more than other cations. It means that sodium ion wasadsorbed selectively by saturated mordenite. Concentration of potassium after batch test increased.
Particle surface of saturated mordenite should be saturated by hydrogen ion and there should be nopotassium ion on the surface, so that potassium ion after batch test cannot be increased. So, thisshould be a measurement error of the equipment.
17.7

Sodium

33.9

104.8

Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium

M:GW=1:20

3.3
4.7
9.0
0.5
1.0
1.8
0.0

20.0

M:GW=1:40
M:GW=1:80
40.0

60.0

80.0 100.0 120.0

Amounts of adsorbed cations (cmolc kg-1)

Fig. 2 Amounts of adsorbed or desorbed cations by
saturated mordenite
3. Changes in EC and pH before and after Batch Test
EC and pH decreased after batch test as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. EC didn’t decrease as expected
because of existing of other cations such as ammonium ion applied by fertilizer and anions.
Decreasing of pH was due to ion exchange, sodium adsorption and hydrogen desorption, of particle
surface of saturated mordenite. It means that alkalization was reduced since pH decreased bydesorption of hydrogen ion from saturated mordenite to groundwater.
Table 1 Changes in ion concentration before and after batch test
Cations
Sodium (mmol L-1)
Potassium (mmol L-1)
Calcium (mmol L-1)
Magnesium (mmol L-1)

BeforeAfter
BeforeAfter
BeforeAfter
BeforeAfter

M:GW=1:20

M:GW=1:40

M:GW=1:80

11.9
3.1
0.1
0.1
2.0
0.4
0.9
0.7

11.9
3.5
0.1
0.1
2.0
0.8
0.9
0.6

11.9
5.4
0.1
0.1
2.0
1.4
0.9
0.9

4. Estimation Cost of Implementation of Saturated Mordenite in Actual Saline Field
Mordenite can be purchased about US$2 per kilo in Japan, so that the amount of mordenite are needed
8.4 kg if we could apply saturated mordenite as sheets on agricultural field which has an area of 1ausing the data of groundwater as well as this study. Therefore, the costs were estimated about US$170
considering only costs of mordenite (Haruta, 2018).

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2.5

1.5
pH

EC (mS cm-1)

2.0

1.0
0.5
0.0
BeforeAfter

Fig. 3 Changes in EC before andafter the batch test

9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

M:GW=1:20
M:GW=1:40
M:GW=1:80

BeforeAfter

Fig. 4 Changes in pH before and after batch test

CONCLUSION
Sodium ion of the groundwater which contained various cations was adsorbed by saturated mordenite
selectively. It is also revealed that alkalization is reduced since pH decreased by desorption ofhydrogen ion from saturated mordenite to groundwater. We could reveal ion-exchange ability ofsaturated mordenite in ion mixed conditions compared to the previous study using test solution(Umakoshi, 2016). Hence, we concluded that the saturated mordenite can be utilized fordesalinization of saline soil and groundwater in the experimental field.
Estimated costs for applying saturated mordenite in actual fields were less than US$200 per 1a.
There exists shallow groundwater in the field and it goes up to root zone by capillary rise during dry
season. Applying saturate mordenite in soil layer in a proper way, it can work as desalinizationmaterial and pH adjuster.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the members who belong to, Integrated Water Resource Management
Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen University, Thailand. This
work is supported by Japan Public-Private Partnership Student Study Abroad Program TOBITATE!
Young Ambassador Program.
REFERENCES
Fuji, H., Nongluck, S., Ono, M. and Fujiwara, Y. 2012. Impact of on-farm pond on agricultural diversificationin rainfed agricultural area in northeast Thailand. Irrigation, Drainage and Rural Engineering Journal, 277,
73-78.
Kimura, M. and Takai, Y. 1990. Coastal and inland salt-affected soils in Thailand, Their characteristics andimprovement, Japan's oversea research activities. 6, Japanese Society of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition,
61 (5), 538-544.
Land Development Department. 1991. Distribution of salt affected soil in the northeast region 1: 100,000 map.
Department of Land Development, Bangkok, Thailand.
Umakoshi, M. 2016. Development of groundwater desalinization technology in soil layer using mordenite
sheet under evaporation process using mordenite sheet. Bachelor Thesis at Department of RuralEngineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Japan.
Yoshida, M., Nakao, Y. and Miyara, E. 1971. Cation adsorption characteristics of zeolite in relation to CEC
determination. Clay Science, 11 (1), 31-35.
Haruta, Y. 2018. Basic study about applying ion-exchange material for improvement of salinization soil in
Northeast Thailand. Professional Education Course in Rural Engineering. Master thesis at Graduate Schoolof Agriculture, Ehime University, Japan.
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Research article
erd

Spatial Assessment of Cultural Ecosystem Services for
Urban Forests based on a Multi-point Field Survey:
Case in Nagoya City, Japan
KIICHIRO HAYASHI*
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Email: maruhaya98--@imass.nagoya-u.ac.jp

MAKOTO OOBANational Institute for Environmental Studies, Miharu, Japan
Received 14 December 2016

Accepted 10 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Urban forests including urban parks, secondary forests, and natural forests provide
many benefits for citizens, such as recreational opportunities, scenic beauty, and cultural
heritage value. Each has a different role in the provision of cultural ecosystem services(CESs) in a city. One issue with urban forests in Japan is the decrease of forests with the lossof CESs. The objective of this study was to develop a method to categorize the CESs of urban
forests through multi-point field surveys as a case in Nagoya City, Japan. Then theequivalency and/or alternativeness of the forest CESs were examined. In total, 180 forests inthe city were surveyed. The percentages of forests featuring aesthetic and daily recreation
values were high. Using a hierarchical cluster analysis, the forests in the city were categorized
into 9 types. Future issues include the idea that, in addition to CESs, other ESs should beconsidered as a part of a comprehensive ES assessment.
Keywords GIS, ecosystem service, cultural ecosystem service, forest, JapanINTRODUCTION
Urban forests have many benefits for citizens, such as recreational opportunities, scenic beauty, andcultural heritage value. There are several types of forest: urban parks, secondary forests, naturalforests, and more. Each has a different role in the provision of ecosystem services (ESs) (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MA), 2005). One issue with urban forests in Japan is their decrease over the
past few decades due to the loss of forests. For example, in Nagoya, which is the third largest urban
area in Japan, forest area has been decreasing. According to the Nagoya City government, the green
coverage ratio of the city, including forests, grassland, agricultural land, and water bodies, was 22.0%
in 2015 which was a decrease from 29.8% in 1990 (Nagoya City, 2015).
Cultural ESs (CESs) bring aesthetic value, recreation, education value, spiritual and religious
values, inspiration, social relations, and cultural heritage value (MA, 2005). CESs are different fromother ESs because they are assessed subjectively by individuals (Burkhard et al., 2012). Nahuelhual
et al. (2013) summarized the approaches to the spatial mapping of CESs, such as recreation andecotourism, into four types: visitors’ expenditure; recreation areas; monetary benefits; and valuing
by stakeholder assessment (Sieber, 2006; Sherrouse et al., 2011; van Riper et al., 2012; Hayashi etal., 2015). Nahuelhual et al. (2013) also developed a method to evaluate CESs using maps. Then,plenty of scholars have conducted economic evaluations of CESs (Costanza et al., 1997). By
providing a city-scale assessment, several papers explored ES spatial assessments, including the
CESs provided by urban forests (Dobbs et al., 2014; McPhearson et al., 2013). However, the scopeof the CES items was limited. So, comprehensive and detailed assessments of CESs are needed tounderstand their provision and usage on a city scale.
Then it will be possible to discuss the equivalency and alternativeness of the CESs provided byurban forests. This is the focus of this study.

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OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study is to develop a method to categorize forest CESs from the perspective of
their provision and usage using multi-point field surveys. Then the equivalency and/or
alternativeness of the CESs will be examined. The case study focused on urban forests in Nagoya
City, Japan.

Fig. 1 Maps of the study area: (a) Japan with Nagoya City as a star symbol, (b) Nagoya City
outlined in black with forests (≥1 ha) in green, (c) east-part of Nagoya City (as an
example) with forests and bamboo forests in green and red, respectively
Source: Hayashi and Ooba (2015) and Hayashi (2017), forest and bamboo from Nagoya green coverage GIS
provided by Nagoya City

METHODOLOGY
Nagoya City (city hall location: 35.181°N, 136.906°E) is the third largest city population-wise inJapan, with over 2 million residents. It is located in the geographical center of Japan (Fig. 1 (a)). The
average annual temperature in 2015 was 16.6°C, and the average precipitation was 1803 mm (Japan
Meteorological Agency, 2016). The city has an area of about 326 km2 (Nagoya City, 2016b).
In this study, multi-point field surveys were employed to understand the provision and citizen
usage of forest CESs. In the study, forests were defined as continuous tree crown areas with one haor more of forest area. Based on the Nagoya green coverage geographic information system (GIS)
data (provided by Nagoya City via personal communication), 180 forests (among around 240 total)
with one ha or more of forest area were studied.
The field surveys were conducted in a similar style to Hayashi and Ooba (2015), which was asfollows. First, one of the authors surveyed the entire forest area by foot. Then the forest usage ofeach CES was judged subjectively on the following five-point scale, tentatively: 1. “very frequently,”
2. “frequently,” 3. “sometimes,” 4. “not so much,” and 5. “rarely used,” as well as “not enoughinformation to make a decision,” for both inside of the forest and the surrounding area. After
conducting several visits to each forest site in various seasons from 2013 to 2016, the final scores
were determined by the author subjectively with the opinions of field survey collaborators. The
values were then put in the opposite order (e.g., 5. “very frequently” to 1. “rarely used”) and thenconverting to 0 to 1 value. The CESs, which followed the categories of MA (2005) with somemodifications, included in this study are listed in Table 1. However, based on several visits to each
forest, “education value: school-related event,” “inspiration,” and “social relations: working or
schooling in the forest” were slightly difficult to evaluate, so these items were excluded from theanalysis. In total, 14 CES items (CES14) were used. Then seven new CES items were developed
from the CES14 (Table 1). The maximum score of each CES14 value was selected for each CES7
value. Then, the following four data sets were used for the analysis: CES14 inside forest (CES14 inforest), CES14 inside forest with the surrounding area (CES14 in area), CES7 in forest, and CES7 inarea. For example, let us imagine that there were children’s play facilities in a park. If these werelocated inside a park forest, they would be classified as CES14 in forest and CES14 in area. However,if they were not inside a park forest but rather around the forest inside the park, they would beclassified as only CES14 in area.
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Table 1 CES14 and CES7 categories
CES14
Contents
subCES1 Aesthetic value
subCES2 Daily recreation: walking, etc.
subCES3 Daily recreation: play with children by play facilities
subCES4 Daily recreation: play in forest (e.g. insect collecting)subCES5 Holiday recreation: holiday leisure, picnics, hiking, etc.
subCES6 Holiday recreation: sports, etc.
subCES7 Attraction facilities*1
Education value: school-related event
subCES8 Education value: nature observation meetings/classes
subCES9 Spiritual value*2
Inspiration
subCES10 Traditional festival
subCES11 Normal festival
subCES12 Religious value
subCES13 Cultural heritage value*3
Social relations: working or schooling in the forest
subCES14 Social relations: volunteers

CES7
Aesthetic value (AE)Daily recreation (DRE)
Holiday recreation (HRE)
Education value (ED)
Education value (ED)Spiritual and religious values (SR)Spiritual and religious values (SR)Social relations (SO)Spiritual and religious values (SR)
Cultural heritage value (CH)Social relations (SO)Note: *1, *2 and *3 were excluded.

In addition, the basic parameters of the CESs were listed for each forest: “forest area,” “in scenic
districts designated by the city (S_D)” (Nagoya City, 2016a), “in shrine or temple (S_T),” and “inmajor attraction facilities listed by the city (A_F)” (Nagoya City, 2014).
Utilizing the CES14, statistical analyses including the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test andSpearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient among the CES14 items were conducted. Also, toinvestigate what percentage of Nagoya forest provided each CES, the total number of forests
provided by each CES was summed up and divided by the total number of forests studied (N=180).
For the CES7 data sets, similar basic statistical analysis was conducted. Then, the differencesamong the CES7 in area items were tested with Friedman’s test with pairwise comparisons. Also, ahierarchical cluster analysis (using Ward linkage) was conducted to categorize Nagoya City’s forests
into several types based on the CES7 in area with basic parameters: namely, forest area, S_D, S_T,
and A_F after converting to the 0 to 1 scale.
Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS ver. 22 (IBM). ArcGIS10.2.2 (ESRI) was used
for GIS analyses.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In total, 180 forests were studied. The total area of accumulated forest area studied was over 1,000
ha, which was around 30% of the total tree area in the city in 2015 (Nagoya City, 2015).
Table 2 Basic statistics for each subCES on a five-point scale
CES14 in
Forest
CES14 inArea

MeanMedianMeanMediansubCES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14
2.3 2.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.0 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2.8 2.7 2.1 2.0 2.3 1.9 1.7 2.0 2.2 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.5 2.3
3
3
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
3

Table 2 shows the mean and median of each CES14 on a five-point scale for both the CES14 inforest and in area. SubCES1 (aesthetic value), subCES2 (daily recreation: walking, etc.), andⒸ ISERD

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subCES5 (holiday recreation: holiday leisure, picnics, hiking, etc.) under CES14 in area showed
relatively higher values than the other CESs.
Regarding the correlation coefficient among the CES14in area categories, subCES2-subCES3,
subCES2-subCES9, subCES3-subCES4, and subCES7-subCES11 were relatively highly correlated,with coefficients over 0.7 (see Table 3).
Table 3 Correlation coefficients among CES14 in area
subCES
2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

subCES1 .623** .514** .454** .685** .252** .491** .616** .625** .185* .532** .076 .212** .429**
subCES2.737** .667** .540** .428** .171* .575** .741** -.111 .261** .093 -.060.588**
subCES3.888** .466** .572** .077 .398** .678** -.104 .252** .032 -.080.416**
subCES4.449** .549** .092 .429** .616** -.105 .272** .009 -.066.359**
**
**
**
**
**
subCES5.056 .554**.265 .478 .550 .596 .016 .585 -.094
subCES6.169* .256** .395** -.254** .253** -.177* -.161* .127
subCES7.386** .315** .152* .720** -.157* .290** .179*****
subCES8.002.000 .549**.660 -.106 .454
subCES9-.115 .348** .036
.057 .593**
subCES10.129 .502** .624** -.096
subCES11-.238** .202** .225**
subCES12.376** .033
subCES13.029

Note: statistical significance: **, <0.01; *, <0.05, N=180

The results on the percentage of forest provided by each CES in area against the total numberof forests are presented in Fig. 2. SubCES1 and subCES2 showed high percentages of nearly 80%.
This means that nearly the 80% of the forests in Nagoya were used for subCES1 and subCES2
purposes. SubCES5, subCES9 and subCES14 were more than half. Conversely, the percentages ofsubCES7 (attraction facilities) and subCES10 (traditional festival) were relatively small, at around20%. These kinds of CESs were found in a limited number of forests.
100%%of forest, N=180

80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

subCES

Fig. 2 Percentage of forests provided by each subCES in Nagoya
Regarding the analysis of the CES7 in area, the mean and median of each CES7 item arepresented in Table 4. Here, the AE and DRE were high, but the CH was low. The results ofFriedman’s test showed that the differences among the several CES7 items were statisticallysignificant, such as CH-ED and ED-HRE.
Table 4 Basic statistics for each CES7 on a five-point scale
CES7 inArea

MeanMedianAE
2.8
3

DRE HRE
2.8
2.6
3
3

ED
2.3
2

SR
2.7
3

CH
1.5
1

Note: Friedman's test with selected pairwise comparison; CH-ED:**, ED-SO: NS , ED-HRE:*,
SO-SR: NS, HRE-SR: NS; SR-AE: NS, **, <0.01; *, <0.05, NS: not significant; N=180Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

Table 5 Cluster analysis results for 9 forest categories(Using Ward linkage, total N=180)
Category No and contents

N Area(ha)1393

1: in A_F
CES medium to
2: in S_T
high in S_D
3: other
4: in S_T in S_D
CES low to
medium

CH

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

12

24

35

198

7: outside of S_D, S_T and A_F with medium CESs
8: outside of S_D, S_T and A_F with low to medium CESs

16
12

37
26

9: outside of S_D, S_T and A_F with low CESs

24
180

41
1,036

S_T

SO
A_F

CH

Category1
Category2

SR

AE

Category3

SO

CH

DRE

S_D
S_T
A_F

Category4
Category5

AE
ED

Category6

DRE
HRE

S_D
S_T
A_F

AE

SR

DRE
ED

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

SR

HRE

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

529
44

6: in S_D with low CESs

S_D

ED

44

43
15

5: in S_T out side of S_D

Total

SO

10

HRE

Category7
Category8
Category9

S_D
S_T:
A_F:
AE:
DRE:
HRE:
ED:
SR:
CH:
SO:

Scenic districts
Shrine/temple
Major attraction facilities in Nagoya
Aesthetic value
Daily recreation
Holiday recreation
Education value
CES7 category
Spiritual and religious values
Cultural heritage value
Social relations

Fig. 3 Radar charts for each forest category after averaging values in each category
Using a hierarchical cluster analysis, we divided Nagoya’s forests into 9 categories using thedata sets of the CES7 in area with basic parameters. A basic description of the 9 categories can befound in Table 5, and the results of the radar charts for the categories are presented in Fig. 3.
According to the results, the forests in category 1, including Atsuta Jingu shrine and Nagoya Castle,
have relatively high values for most of the CES7 items within major attraction facilities (A_F),
because these are major historical and cultural spots in Nagoya featuring nature areas. The forests,
namely, Higashiyama Park, were also high in most of the CES7 items except for the CH, because a
zoo and a botanical garden with nature areas can be found in these areas. Categories 2 showed
relatively high values for most of the CES7 items in shrines or temples (S_T) including cemetery.
The total number and area of forests in category 3 were 43 and 529 ha, respectively—higher than theother categories. On the other hand, categories 4 and 5 were located in shrines or temples (S_T) with
low to medium CESs in which a lot of the natural forests were designated as conservation areas by
the city or prefecture. The forests in category 9 were located outside of S_D, S_T, and A_F, with low
CES7 items because they are located in a remote or low intervention area. So these are relatively low
provisions for CES assessments.

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Regarding the equivalency and/or alternativeness of the forest CESs, forests within the same
category had similar roles in CES provision and usage by citizens, so their equivalency and/or
alternativeness were relatively high. The number of forests in categories 1 and 2 with high CESs was
small, so their alternativeness was relatively low.
An important point is that the forest category only included the CES contents and should be
elaborated on; for example, the spatial distribution of the forest CESs and their future demands could
be included. Also, the results were obtained by focusing on CES assessment without consideringother ESs and habitats/species, except for basic parameters considered. Some forests were located insomewhat remote areas, even in a big city, so that there still remained natural forest with little humanintervention. In this case, the use of cultural aspects of ESs were limited. These issues should beconsidered appropriately as part of a comprehensive ES assessment in the future.
CONCLUSION
In this study, based on multi-point field surveys, a method to categorize CESs was considered, taking
into account their provision and usage as a case study in Nagoya City. Also, the equivalency and/or
alternativeness of forests from the perspective of CESs were examined. The correlations among
CESs were not very high, except among recreation values. The percentages of forests equipped withaesthetic and daily recreational values were high in the city. Via cluster analysis, the forests werecategorized into 9 types by CES7 in area with forest area, S_D, S_T, and A_F. Then the equivalency
and/or alternativeness of the forest CESs were discussed. This forest categorization could be used
for a CES management planning and environmental assessment for development activities. Futureissues include the fact that, in addition to CES assessment, other ESs and habitat/species assessment
should be considered as part of a comprehensive ES assessment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Nagoya City Greeniﬁcation and Public Works Bureau and the many forest owners who
gave us permission to do the field surveys. We also thank Natsuko Yoshino, Wataru Kobayashi,
Yuya Katada, Masaki Iwai, Kay Khaing Lwin, Yusuke Yonekura, Yasuhiro Hasegawa, and Hiroaki
Sumi for their assistance with the field survey. This research was supported by “KAKENHI”
15K00622 from JSPS, Japan; the “Funding Program for Next Generation World-Leading
Researchers” from JSPS and MEXT, Japan; and the “Environment Research and Technology
Development Fund (1-1401)” from MOE-J, Japan.
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van Riper, C.J., Kyle, G.T., Sutton, S.G., Barnes, M. and Sherrouse, B.C. 2012. Mapping outdoor recreationists'
perceived social values for ecosystem services at Hinchinbrook Island National Park, Australia. Applied
Geography, 35 (1-2), 164-173.

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Research article
erd

Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness as an
Approach to Pupils’ Academic Achievement
NEIL MICHAEL G. OLAIVAR*
Casate Elementary School, Ubay, Bohol, Philippines
Email: neilmichaelolaivar1991@yahoo.com

REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines
Email:regupobar@gmail.com
Received 23 January 2017

Accepted 10 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Brigada Eskwela is a volunteerism program which is annually launched to prepare
the public schools for the opening of classes enlivening the spirit of solidarity among theschool personnel, pupils, parents, and rural residents. Classroom repair, furniture repainting,and school ground cleaning are some of the Brigada Eskwela activities that are geared
towards making schools disaster-prepared, ecologically-conscious, and conducive to learning.
Having these annual activities along with the schools’ Disaster Preparedness program assuressmooth opening of classes because teachers and pupils will no longer clean and set up theirclassrooms during the first day of school. This study aimed to determine the schools’
implementation of Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness Program in relation to theacademic achievement of pupils in Ubay 1, Ubay 2, and Ubay 3 Districts of Bohol. This
employed descriptive-normative survey. A total of 45 elementary schools were surveyed
including 45 school heads, 422 teachers, and 180 rural residents. The findings showed thatthe Brigada Eskwela implementation was evaluated "excellent" so with the disaster
preparedness as “very high capacity”. In turn, these programs had significantly improved thepupils’ academic achievement and had raised awareness among the rural residents theimportance of culture of safety. School heads played an important role in the implementationof these programs. Their managerial skills potentially affected Brigada Eskwela
implementation and disaster preparedness of the schools. It was then recommended that therural residents may strengthen its disaster preparedness through establishing a Family
Disaster Plan to avoid casualties from any hazard and calamity that may occur. Moreover,
Brigada Eskwela should also be implemented in the private schools to intensify partnershiptowards their stakeholders.
Keywords BrigadaEskwela, disaster preparedness, rural residents, volunteerism

INTRODUCTION
Angela (2013) stressed that positive learning environment, either in school or home setting, isimportant for a child. Healthy and safe learning environment denotes a child-friendly and hazardfree classroom where children feel safe and valued at all times.
Through the spirit of volunteerism and public-private collaboration for Philippine education,
the Republic Act 8525, also known as the “Adopt-A-School Act”, was crafted in 1998. With the
Adopt-A-School Program (ASP), the Department of Education launched the National Schools
Maintenance Week in May 2003 and was institutionalized on May 2008 by Department of Education
Order No. 24, s. 2008. Dubbed, “Brigada Eskwela”, the program enlivened the spirit of volunteerism
through bringing together teachers, parents and community members every third week of May towork together in repairing and preparing public schools for the class opening. It is also participatedby individual, private organizations, business sectors, local and national government agencies which
together share their efforts, time and resources (Vargas, 2016).

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On the other hand, Department of Education Order No. 83 or the Disaster Preparedness
Measures for Schools mandated public schools to be disaster-resilient by implementing measures forthe protection against rains or floods of all school paraphernalia like textbooks, teaching manuals,
school records and equipment; designing orientation to all pupils and students on disaster
preparedness; conducting of regular disaster drills; properly informing pupils and students on earlysigns of weather disturbances and their effects; and, observing policies in coordination with the local
government units on decisions regarding the suspension of classes during disasters or calamities.
In addition, UNESCO (2013) elaborated three pillars of comprehensive school safety, namely,
the Safe Learning Facilities; the school Disaster Management; and the Risk Reduction and Resilience
Education. These pillars were adopted by the Department of Education in accord to their Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM).
Ayeni, et al (2011) concluded that the collaborative effort between the school personnel andother stakeholders is greatly important in the success towards the development of learning
infrastructure and environment and to any projects a certain school may implement. After all, themost benefited individuals of such are the children themselves. Hence, it is of great importance toestablish a close monitoring and evaluation of all the programs of the Department of Education likethe Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness to make sure that these programs continuously
respond to the ultimate goal of the department – the welfare and total development of the children.
OBJECTIVE
The researchers would like to investigate the status of implementation of Brigada Eskwela andDisaster Preparedness programs in public elementary schools. This further evaluated the influenceof the school heads’ managerial skills towards the implementation of these programs and their impact
towards pupils’ academic achievement.
METHODOLOGYThis study utilized descriptive-normative survey with documentary analysis. School heads’
managerial skills were measured using adopted questionnaires from the study of Timbal (2012).
Meanwhile, the Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness were assessed using the standard
checklist issued by the Department of Education. The respondents of the study were all the teachersand school heads of subject elementary schools and selected rural residents of Ubay I, Ubay II, andUbay III Districts in Bohol. There were a total of 647 respondents, comprising 422 teachers, 45
school heads, and 180 rural residents. The National Achievement Test mean score of the pupils forthe school year 2014-2015 was used as basis for their academic achievement.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Brigada Eskwela program of the Department of Education of the Philippines demands schoolheads’ managerial skills. It became one of the Department’s initiatives of enjoining the rural residents
and local communities to respond to the needs of public schools in the Philippines. This referred tothe advocacy known as National Schools Maintenance Week.
As reflected in Table 1, school heads generally performed ‘very often’ the managerial skills
they possessed in the school operation. In particular, they excelled equally both in conceptual andtechnical skills. Basically, conceptual skill includes the ability of the school heads in updating andcoaching his teachers on recent trends in education; applying logic in effectively solving problems;
allocating responsibility for continuous improvement; and flexibly modifying course to suit changing
circumstances. Technical skill, on the other hand, is about being computer-literate; regularmonitoring and evaluation of school projects; managing people and resources; maintaining order anddiscipline in school; and identifying smarter ways to do things.

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Table 1 School heads’ managerial skills as perceived by the respondents
Parameters
Conceptual Skill
Communication
Skill
Human Relation
Skill
Technical Skill

School Heads
N=45
WM
DV
3.40

Always

3.23

Very
Often

3.28

Always

3.34

AlwaysTeachers
N=422
WM
DV
Very
3.22
Often
Very
3.13
Often
Very
3.18
Often
3.28

AlwaysRural Residents
N=180
WM
DV
Very
3.19
Often
Very
3.11
Often
Very
3.15
Often
Very
3.19
Often

Overall
WM

DV

Rank

3.27

Always

1.5

Very
Often
Very
Often

3.16
3.20
3.27

Always43
1.5

Although perceived as ‘very often’ done, it didn’t imply that the school heads’ communicationand human relation skills were alarming. Communication skill requires a two-way process, theconcept of listening and speaking. Further, it refers to ones’ ability to understand and to be understoodby others in the most possible way. Meanwhile, school heads’ human relation skills involve
establishing good relationship towards others; understanding the social fabric of the organization;
being sensitive to others’ feelings; keeping promises and commitments; and handling difficult people
with diplomacy and tact. All these skills are of importance for school leaders to effectively do thetasks expected from them. According to the study of Uko (2015), effective management is a precursor
to facilities sustainability, utilization and maintenance as it enhances effective productivity. Hence,
it can be said that a school head with good managerial skills could effectively facilitate the schools’
Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness programs.
Table 2 Respondents’ perception towards schools’ Brigada Eskwela implementation

DV
VG
E
E
E
VG

Rural
Residents
N=180
WM
DV
2.06
VG
2.51
E
2.58
E
2.61
E
2.20
VG

WM
2.10
2.50
2.65
2.58
2.24

DV
VG
E
E
E
VG

E

2.39

2.41

E

School Heads
N=45

Teachers
N=422

Enrolment Preparation
School Leadership
Teachers’ Preparation
Learners’ Status
Physical Plant/Facilities

WM
2.13
2.48
2.74
2.48
2.27

DV
VG
E
E
E
E

WM
2.10
2.51
2.63
2.65
2.24

COMPOSITE MEAN

2.42

E

2.43

Parameters

E

Overall
Rank
5
3
1
2
4

As shown in Table 2, the parameters included in the Brigada Eskwela were enrolment
preparation, school leadership, teachers’ preparation, learner’s status and physical plant/ facilities. It
shows that as far as Brigada Eskwela was concerned, respondents perceived that teachers were morethan prepared. This simply unveiled the idea that prior to the opening of classes, all the teaching
paraphernalia like lesson plans, teaching manuals, curriculum guides, instructional materials, school
register, class records, and even the classroom structuring were ready for use. Furthermore, this
implied that teachers were efficient enough to prepare for their assigned tasks as curriculum
implementers.
The learners’ status which included the actual attendance of the students per class or the teacherpupil ratio was excellently facilitated by the schools and their staffs to make sure that quality
education in every classroom was maintained. Moreover, the aspect on school leadership was also
carried out by the school heads, teachers and stakeholders well. This covered the School
Improvement Plan (SIP), Annual Implementation Plan (AIP), Annual Procurement Plan (APP),
supervisory plan, calendar of school programs for the entire school year, distribution of teachingloads for teachers, project work and financial plan, advocacy plan, monitoring and evaluation plan,and transparency measures of expenditures.
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In consonance, Brigada Eskwela program was also perceived to be of potential help in preparing
the school facilities before the classes started. This included the repair of classroom and its furniture,
water drainage system and sanitation maintenance, rehabilitation of the school garden, and the likewhich made the school child-friendly and a zone of peace. Lastly, the program has also showedsignificant contribution to the schools’ enrolment preparation. This finding suggested that the
information dissemination pertaining to enrolment including the hanging of streamers, establishingof information action centre and help desks, education caravan, and community immersion; rigid andstrict adherence to No-Collection-Policy; family mapping; networking with stakeholders; andsoliciting school supplies and uniforms for the less privileged pupils were a contributory factor toincreased enrolment.
In the overall, the Brigada Eskwela implementation was rated “excellent”. With this, it can be
implied that there was a strong partnership between the school and the rural residents. Furthermore,this proved that the objectives of the said program have been achieved through the spirit ofvolunteerism. This result agreed to the study conducted by Celestial (2015) which stated that Brigada
Eskwela was highly implemented by public elementary schools from its pre-implementation to thepost-implementation stage.
On the other hand, one of the targets of Brigada Eskwela is to ease the public schools’
vulnerability to both natural and human-made disasters. Hence, the Department of Education issued
the Comprehensive Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) in Basic Education
Framework under Department Order No. 37, s. 2015 to guide DRRM efforts in the basic education
sector towards resilience-building in offices and schools, and to ensure that quality education was
continuously provided and prioritized even during disasters and/or emergencies. This framework
served as basis towards the attainment of Department’s three education outcomes, namely: Access,Quality, and Governance (AQG), and maintained a learner-centered, rights-based implementation at
all levels. It set the direction and priority areas for DRRM in the Department of Education while
maintaining the prerogative of field offices to decide on what specific activities to undertake
depending on their exposure to hazards, available resources and existing partnerships and linkages.
In order to achieve the education outcome as to Access, DRRM interventions, policies andmechanisms should be in place to ensure the immediate resumption of classes after the occurrenceof any hazard or calamity so that school children will not be hindered from the access of learning
services. Meanwhile, even if the concepts on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Climate Change
Adaptation (CCA) have been integrated in the K to 12 Curriculum, the constraints to access, alongwith the psychosocial condition of school children and teachers, affect the quality of education. Thus,in order to reinforce the education outcome as to Quality, there is a need to identify strategies
including support materials attuned to the learning needs of children and teaching strategies that
could adapt to emergency situations. On the other hand, with the acknowledgement that DRRM is acomplementation of infrastructural and non-infrastructural interventions, Governance comes crucial
in the implementation. This will determine the institutionalization and implementation of systems
and protocols that will be issued. In this study, these three education outcomes served as theparameters to evaluate the implementation of the disaster preparedness of the subject schools.
Table 3 Respondents’ perception towards schools’ disaster preparedness
PARAMETERS
Access
Quality
Governance
COMPOSITE MEAN

School Heads
N=45
WM
DV
0.90
VH
0.97
VH
0.94
VH
0.94
VH

Teachers
N=422
WM
DV
0.85
VH
0.89
VH
0.88
VH
0.87
VH

Rural Residents
N=180
WM
DV
0.86
VH
0.88
VH
0.92
VH
0.89
VH

Overall
WM
0.87
0.91
0.91
0.90

DV
VH
VH
VH
VH

Rank
3
1.5
1.5

Table 3 showcases the status of implementation of Disaster Preparedness wherein both the
Quality and Governance got the highest rating. This finding suggested that the teachers, pupils,
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regular conduct of evacuation drills like earthquake, fire, tsunami, flooding, and locks down drill.
DRR and CCA were also evidently integrated in actual classroom instruction whereby disasterprevention measures were also taught. In addition, as to governance, the schools had strong
partnerships with external stakeholders in order to address the DRR and CCA related needs of theschool; and a well-organized and capacitated DRRM Committee including the rural residents wascreated and made functional. Lastly, an existing emergency incident control system that included
accessible student emergency contact numbers and school records back-up system was wellestablished. To sum up, the overall implementation of schools’ disaster preparedness was with very
high capacity.
Another target of Brigada Eskwela is to achieve higher learning outcomes of pupils throughestablishing an environment that supports learning. Herein, the study utilized the results of National
Achievement Test, a standardized test annually administered by the Department of Education in
partnership with National Educational Testing Resource Center (NETRC).
Table 4 National Achievement Test (NAT) mean percentage scores
n=45

Level

Range

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Superior

90-1004

8.89

Meeting Standard

75-89

33

73.33

Below Standard
Poor

35-74
0-34

8
0

17.78
0.00

45

100%

Total

Table 4 exhibits the mean percentage scores in National Achievement Test. Clearly, majorityof the elementary schools had mean percentage scores categorized as “meeting standard”. The NAT
results indicated commendable academic performance of the same schools with excellent Brigada
Eskwela and very highly capacitated Disaster Preparedness. This implied that Brigada Eskwela andDisaster Preparedness were potential factors that affected the performance of the pupils.
CONCLUSION
In the light of the findings of the study, it can be concluded that the school heads’ managerial skills
played a vital role in the successful implementation of the different programs and projects of theschool such as Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness, leading to its ultimate goal – the quality
and relevant education for the pupils. Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness did not only makethe public schools accessible to all, conducive to learning, ecologically-conscious, and disasterresilient but also promoted awareness among the rural residents the importance of culture of safety.
The rural residents have also shown positive response to the said programs through actively engaging
in the planning and implementation. Moreover, these programs, with the help of a committed andskilled school heads as the mediator, have been found out to be potential factors affecting the
National Achievement Test (NAT) mean percentage scores of the pupils.
RECOMMENDATION
It is highly recommended that Brigada Eskwela and Disaster Preparedness Programs be implemented
in all private schools not only to become disaster-prepared or to increase their pupils’ academic
achievement but also to intensify the good rapport between the schools and their stakeholders. Also,
the rural residents may strengthen their disaster preparedness through crafting a Family Disaster Plan
to prevent casualties from any hazard and calamity that may occur.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSⒸ ISERD

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The researchers would like to extend so deeply their utmost gratitude first and above all to the Creator
for the wisdom and good health, to the BISU officials and the Superintendent of the Department of
Education, Division of Bohol for allowing the conduct of the study; to the administrators of the three
districts of Ubay, to the respondents for their cooperation in answering the questionnaires, to all
people who may not be mentioned but had become an instrument in realizing this humble piece ofwork, the heartfelt thanks of the researchers go to them.
REFERENCES
Angela, M. 2013. How to create a positive learning environment. http://www.livestrong.com/article/207728(retrieved on July 28, 2016).
Ayeni, A.J. and Adelabu, M.A. 2011. Improving learning infrastructure and environment for sustainable
quality assurance practice in secondary schools in Ondo State, South-West, Nigeria.
Ayeni, A.J. and Akinola, O.B. 2008. Influence of principals’ leadership styles and motivation of teachers on
quality assurance in secondary school, A case study of Ondo State. Ife Journal of Theory and Research in
Education, 2 (1&2), 162-170.
Brigada Eskwela Manual for School Heads. 2009. http://www.deped.gov./cpanel/uploads/issuance/mg/Brigada Eskwela manual (retrieved on October 29, 2014).
Celestial, M. 2010. Extent of implementation of brigada eskwela, Basis for an action plan. University of
Mindanao, Davao City. https://goo.gl/a4m9dg (retrieved).
DepED Order No. 24 Series. 2008. Institutionalization of the BrigadaEskwela program for the national school
maintenance week (NSMW). www.depedqc.ph/memo/51208/180.pdf (retrieved on January 2, 2015).
DepEd Order No. 37, Series. 2015. The comprehensive disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) in
education framework. Philippines. http://www.deped.gov.ph (retrieved).
Timbal, M. 2011. Thinking styles and the management skills of private secondary school administrators.
Dissertation. Bohol Island State University, Main Campus, Tagbilaran City, Bohol.
Uko, E. 2015. Principalship and effective management of facilities in secondary schools in Cross River State,
Nigeria. University of Calabar, Nigeria.
Vargas, E. 2016. BrigadaEskwela. http://udyong.net/teachers-corner/7657, http://www.deped.gov.ph/sites/
default /files/Brigada%20Eskwela%20Manual.pdf (retrieved on July 28, 2016).

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Research article
erdUsing Vermitechnology in Soil Rehabilitation for Rice
Production in Salt-affected Area of Northeast Thailand
CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chuleemas1@gmail.com

AJCHARAWADEE KRUAPUKEE
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 25 January 2017

Accepted 11 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Soil degradation resulting from salinity is a major obstacle to the optimal utilizationof land resources. In Northeast Thailand, approximately 17% of the land is salt-affected due
to salt bearing rocks, predominantly in Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Roi-Et andMahasarakham provinces. The present extent of salt-affected soils in the Northeast alreadysubstantially restricts crop production in many areas especially rice production. This study
aims to study using vermitechnology to rehabilitate saline paddy soil for rice production. The
experiments were conducted to study the influence of earthworm and their activity on soil
properties, production and growth of rice variety (Pathumthani 1) under the influence of salt.
The results found that Activities of earthworms encourage the release of available plant
nutrient, especially when associated with the utilization of organic matters. Applying 1% ofbiochar per 1 kg of dry soil, 650 kg of rice straw per Rai, and 1,000 kg of vermicompost per
Rai can significantly increase organic carbon in soil in deteriorated paddy soil (EC= 0.08 –0.13dS/m), slightly saline paddy soil level 1 (EC= 1.56 – 1.71 dS/m), and moderately saline
paddy soil level 2 (EC= 2.90 – 3.47 dS/m). Moreover, the amount of total nitrogen,exchangeable sodium, exchangeable calcium, and exchangeable magnesium in soil also
increased under all soil salinity level. The experiment under control condition indicated that
activities of earthworms associated with the utilization of biochar, rice straw, and compost
produced by earthworm enhanced the availability of plant nutrients. Furthermore,
earthworms are soil organisms that benefit to soil property rehabilitation such as improving
physical properties of soil by assisting on soil inversion. The burrowing by earthworm
loosens the soil causing well drainage and aeration and improving water holding capacity.
Activities of earthworms associated with the utilization of biochar, rice straw, andvermicompost in different soil salinity level under control condition enhanced growth rate ofrice that increases rice productivity.
Keywords earthworm, rice production, salt-affected area, amelioration

INTRODUCTION
Soil degradation resulting from salinity is a major obstacle to the optimal utilization of land resources.
Salt-affected soils are widely distributed throughout the world, with around 20% of the world's
cultivated land affected (Sumner, 2000). In Northeast Thailand, approximately 17% of the land issalt-affected due to salt bearing rocks (Land Development Department, 1991), predominantly in
Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Roi-Et and Mahasarakham provinces (Department of Mineral
Resources, 1982). The salinization of soils in Northeast Thailand has several unique characteristics,
and has been accelerated by human activities such as improper land management practices,
deforestation, irrigation, salt-making, and construction of roads and reservoirs (Mitsuchi et al., 1986).
All of these human activities except salt-making are believed to promote salinization by causing thelevel of saline groundwater to rise towards the surface. Eventually, low-lying paddy fields become
subject to rapid salinization. The present extent of salt-affected soils in the Northeast alreadysubstantially restricts crop production in many areas. Concerns regarding the potential futureⒸ ISERD

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expansion of areas of salt-affected soils and their effects on land and water resources have beenreported to be one of the most important issues for farmers who live in affected areas (Kohyama andSubhasaram, 1993; Topark-Ngarm, 2010).
Soil salinity has become a serious threat to crop productivity. Many previous studies (Keren,
2000; Levy, 2000; Liang et al., 2003; Sardinha et al., 2003) have reported on the adverse effects ofexcessive amounts of salts on the physical and chemical properties of soils and on plant growth andyield. Salt-affected soils exhibit unique structural problems resulting from soil physical processes
such as slaking, swelling, and dispersion of clay, which in turn cause degradation of soil structure(Boivin et al., 2004; Tejada and Gonzalez, 2005). These structural changes can affect water and air
movement, plant available water holding capacity, root penetration, seedling emergence, and runoff
and erosion, as well as tillage and sowing operations (Oster and Jayawardane, 1998). Salinity also
affects soil chemical properties through the presence of high soluble salt concentrations (Sumner,
2000). This alters the osmotic and matric potential of the soil solution, thereby adversely affecting
soil microbial communities and their activity (Zahran, 1997; Sardinha et al., 2003; Rietz and Haynes,
2003). This in turn can have a negative influence on plant growth and yield (Marschner, 1995). In
addition, changes in the proportions of exchangeable ions in the soil solution have osmotic and ionspecific effects that can produce imbalances in plant nutrients, including deficiencies of several
nutrients, or conversely high levels of Na+ (Grattan and Grieve, 1999; Mengel and Kirkby, 2001).
In order to solve such problems, expansion of amelioration actions and improved management
practices are needed to reclaim salt-affected soils (Qadir et al., 2001; Suarez, 2001; Barrett-Lennard,2002).
The amelioration of salt-affected soils can be accomplished through many effective methods,
such as water leaching, chemical remediation, and phytoremediation (Sharma and Minhas, 2005;
Qadir et al., 2007). The amelioration of salt-affected soils using chemical agents, including gypsum,
calcite, calcium chloride and organic matter (farmyard manure, green manure, organic amendments,and municipal solid waste), is a successful approach that has been implemented worldwide (Mitchell
et al., 2000; Hanay et al., 2004; Sharma and Minhas, 2005; Tejada et al., 2006). According to Melero
et al. (2007), the application of organic matter conditioners has become a common practice in saltaffected areas in the last several decades and constitutes an important method of soil regenerationand fertility enhancement. The application of organic matter for soil remediation is consideredessential for sustainable land use and crop productivity.
Vermitechnology has been developed as a means of using earthworm converting wastes intovalue-added products which can be utilized for improving soil structure and fertility. Agro wastes
could effectively be tapped for resource recovery through vermicomposting technology to produce a
product for use in land rehabilitation. Adding compost or vermicompost to soils can help to replenish
soil organic carbon which can help to improve soil health and promote further primary productivity(Iwai et al., 2010; 2011; Lal, 2004;).
Earthworms are known to have beneficial effects on the physical, chemical and biologicalproperties of soils, and thereby contribute to increased plant growth and crop yields in both naturaland managed ecosystems (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996; Edwards, 1998). Their beneficial effects havebeen attributed to improvements in soil properties and structure, greater availability of mineral
nutrients to plants (Gilot, 1997), and enhanced microbial populations and activity, thereby producing
biologically active metabolites such as plant growth regulators (Doube et al., 1997).
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of vermitechnology for alleviatingsalt-affected soils, and to determine the effect of these amendments on the rice production in
Northeast of Thailand.
METHODOLOGY
Preparation of Soil and VermicompostⒸ ISERD

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An experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of vermicompost produced on soil propertiesof different level of saline soils on the growth of rice under greenhouse conditions at Khon Kaen
University, Thailand, during the rainy season of 2015. The soil was air-dried and passed through a 2
mm mesh to remove stones and other debris. The initial physical and chemical properties of the soils
before the start of the experiment are shown in Table 1. Vermicompost were prepared in a laboratoryof the Land Resources and Environment Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University.
They were produced from cassava waste materials incubated for two months in black plastic pots.
The earthworm species used to produce the vermicompost was Eudrilus eugeniae. The chemical
properties of the vermicompost used are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Chemical characteristic of soil, biochar and vermicompost used for experiments
Parameter
Soil texture
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
OM (%)EC (dS/m)
pH (1:5)
Total N (%)
Extractable P (ppm)
Exchangeable K+ (ppm)
Exchangeable Na+ (ppm)
Exchangeable Ca2+ (ppm)
Exchangeable Mg2+ (ppm)

Soil
loam
49.9
38.1
12.0
0.63
0.09
6.32
0.059
2.94
56.14
48.89
930.9081.38

Biochar
16.40
2.85
6.34
0.16
2,543.53
5,886.65
113.453,084.95
669.86

Vermicompost
8.37
2.20
6.84
0.77
2,309.52
7,683.94
142.34
13,675.76
1,992.63

Experimental Design
The experiments were conducted to study the influence of earthworm and their activity on soil
properties, production and growth of rice variety (Pathumthani 1) under the influence of salt. The
experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Threelevel of saline soils were used, in deteriorated paddy soil (EC= 0.08 – 0.13dS/m), slightly saline
paddy soil level 1 (EC= 1.56 – 1.71 dS/m), and moderately saline paddy soil level 2 (EC= 2.90 –3.47 dS/m). Seven treatments were compared: T1 = control; T2 = biochar (BC1%); T3 = biochar(BC1%)+earthworms (20 individuals pot-1); T4 = rice straw 650 kg/rai; T5 = rice straw 650
kg/rai)+earthworms (20 individuals pot-1); T6 = vermicompost (VMC) 1,000 kg/rai; T6 =earthworms (20 individuals pot-1). Seven kilograms of 2 mm sieved air-dried soil were placed ineach black plastic pot of 30 cm height and 25 cm diameter for each treatment.
Table 2 The results of vermitechnology with different amendments on Rice production in
deteriorated paddy soil (EC= 0.08 – 0.13 dS/m)
Treatments

Spikelet
Yield (kg./Rai)
1000 grain weight (g)numberSoil
12.33
816.00 ab
25.40 absoil add earthworm (EW)
13.67
849.20 ab
26.87 asoil add biochar (BC)11.33
705.10 bc
25.90 asoil add BC and EW
14.33
1,000.51 a
26.77 asoil add rice straw
12.00
512.09 c
23.33 bsoil add rice straw and EW
13.33
599.47 bc
26.23 asoil add vermicompost (VMC)
14.67
817.12 ab26.37 asoil add VMC and EW
16.00
1,024.38 a
27.17 af-test
ns
**
**
CV %
20.18
14.27
4.04
Note: Values are mean ± standard deviation. Means with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different(P>0.05)Ⓒ ISERD

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Table 3 Results of vermitechnology with different amendments on Rice production in slightly
saline paddy soil level 1 (EC= 1.56 – 1.71 dS/m)
Treatments
Soil
soil add earthworm (EW)
soil add biochar (BC)soil add BC and EW
soil add rice straw
soil add rice straw and EW
soil add vermicompost (VMC)
soil add VMC and EW
f-testCV %Spikeletnumber
7.33
8.67
6.33
9.33
7.00
8.33
9.67
11.00
ns
32.11

Yield (kg./Rai)

1000 grain weight (g)496.00 bc
593.90 abc
482.85 bc
751.44 ab385.21 c
635.48 abc
763.06 ab
878.00 a
**
21.06

24.60
26.30
25.30
26.43
23.80
26.53
26.67
27.07
ns
5.02

Note: Values are mean ± standard deviation. Means with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different(P>0.05)

Plant Data Collection
The growth and rice production were measured.
Soil Analyses
Triplicate soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–10 cm by taking a soil core from each pot at
the end of the experiment. The soil samples were analyzed for soil physical and chemical properties
at the laboratory of the Land Resources and Environment section, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University. Soil texture was determined by a hydrometer (Bouyoucos, 1951). Soil pH wasdetermined in a 1:2.5 soil to water solution by a pH meter. Electrical conductivity (ECe) in saturated
paste extracts was measured following the method described by the United States Department ofAgriculture (USDA, 1954). Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by the 1 N ammonium
acetate method (Black, 1965), and total soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined by the method ofWalkley and Black (1934). Total nitrogen (TN) was measured by the Kjeldahl method (Bremner,
1960). Extractable phosphorus (Extr. P) was determined by the Bray II method (Bray and Kurtz,
1945). Exchangeable potassium (Exch. K+), sodium (Exch. Na+), calcium (Exch. Ca2+) andmagnesium (Exch. Mg2+) were extracted with 1 N ammonium acetate (pH 7.0) (Schollerger andSimmon, 1945). The concentrations of K+ and Na+ from these extracts were analyzed by flame
photometry, while those of Ca2+ and Mg2+ were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry
following a standard procedure.
Statistical Analysis
The data collected were analyzed statistically using analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques.
Treatment means were compared by the Least Significant Difference (LSD) method at the 5% level.
All data analysis was done using Statistix 8.0 (Analytical Software, 2003).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results found that Activities of earthworms encourage the release of available plant nutrient,
especially when associated with the utilization of organic matters. Applying 1% of biochar per 1 kgof dry soil, 650 kg of rice straw per Rai, and 1,000 kg of vermicompost per Rai can significantly
increase organic carbon in soil in deteriorated paddy soil (EC= 0.08 – 0.13dS/m), slightly saline
paddy soil level 1 (EC= 1.56 – 1.71 dS/m), and moderately saline paddy soil level 2 (EC= 2.90 –3.47 dS/m). Moreover, the amount of total nitrogen, exchangeable sodium, exchangeable calcium,and exchangeable magnesium in soil also increased under all soil salinity level. The experiment underⒸ ISERD

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control condition indicated that activities of earthworms associated with the utilization of biochar,rice straw, and compost produced by earthworm enhanced the availability of plant nutrients.
Table 4 The results of vermitechnology with different amendments on Rice production inmoderately saline paddy soil level 2 (EC= 2.90 – 3.47 dS/m)
Treatments
Soil
soil add earthworm (EW)
soil add biochar (BC)soil add BC and EW
soil add rice straw
soil add rice straw and EW
soil add vermicompost (VMC)
soil add VMC and EW
f-testCV %Spikeletnumber
5.33
6.67
4.33
6.67
5.00
5.00
6.33
8.00
ns
37.63

Yield (kg./Rai)

1000 grain weight (g)314.56460.41457.14480.00400.54459.32521.36535.51
ns
18.41

22.50
23.90
23.37
23.57
23.07
23.43
23.20
24.53
ns
3.44

Note: Values are mean ± standard deviation. Means with the same letter in the same column are not significantly different(P>0.05)

CONCLUSION
The above results showed the beneficial effects of earthworm and vermicompost application inincreasing the rice growth and production. The results of soil analysis showed that application ofvermicompost significantly increased soil organic carbon, CEC and soil N, P and K contents. Organic
amendments can thus serve as a source of essential nutrients for plants as well as contributing to
improved soil properties. In addition, these amendments increased exchangeable K+, Ca2+ andMg2+ while decreasing exchangeable Na+ in the saline soil, thereby reducing soil salinity. These
results suggest that the use of earthworm and vermicompost is likely to be helpful for both alleviating
salinity and improving crop productivity in salt-affected areas. The addition of earthworms as soil
conditioners can also contribute to improved physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil
and thereby increase its nutritive value for plants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks the Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development Centerin Northeast Thailand and The Research Developing and Learning Centre on Earthworm for
Agriculture and Environment, Khon Kaen University and Khon Kaen Research Fund on the research
project “Using Agro-industrial Waste with Chicken manure in Vermicomposting for Soil
Rehabilitation and Rice Productivity”.
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Analytical Software. 2003. Statistix 8, User’s manual. Analytical software, Tallahasse.
Barrett-Lennard, E.G. 2002. Restoration of saline land through revegetation. Agricultural Water Management
53: 213-226, DOI: 10.1016/S0378-3774(01)00166-4
Boivin, P., Saejiew, A., Grunberger, O. and Arunin, S. 2004. Formation of soils with contrasting textures bytranslocation of clays rather than ferrolysis in flooded rice fields in Northeast Thailand. European Journalof Soil Science, 55, 713-724, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.2004.00644.x
Edwards, C.A. 1998. The use of earthworms in the breakdown and management of organic wastes. In Edwards
CA (ed.), Earthworm Ecology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 327-354.
Gomez, E., Ferreras, L., Toresani, S., Ausilio, A. and Bisaro, V. 2001. Changes in some soil properties in a
Vertic Argiudoll under short term conservation tillage. Soil Tillage Research, 61, 179-186, DOI: 10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00193-3Ⓒ ISERD

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Grattan, S.R. and Grieve, C.M. 1999. Salinity–mineral nutrient relations in horticultural crops. Scientia
Horticulturae, 78, 127-157, DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4238(98)00192-7
Hanay, A., Büyüksönmez, F., Kiziloglu, F.M. and Canbolat, M.Y. 2004. Reclamation of saline-sodic soils with
gypsum and MSW compost. Compost Science and Utilization, 12, 175-179.
Iwai, C.B, Ta-oun, M, Seripong, S. and Champar-ngam, N. 2011. Vermicompost technology. Faculty ofAgriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. (in Thai).
Kahlown, M.A. and Azam, M. 2003. Effect of saline drainage effluent on soil health and crop yield.
Agricultural Water Management, 62, 127-138, DOI: 10.1016/S0378-3774(03)00096-9
Kohyama, K. and Subhasaram, T. 1993. Salt-affected soils in northeast Thailand, Their Salinization andAmelioration. ADRC Technical Paper No. 12, ADRC Khon Kaen, Thailand. 55.
Land Development Department. 1991. Distribution of salt-affected soil in the northeast region 1:100,000 map.
Department of Land Development, Bangkok.
McCormick, R.W. and Wolf, D.C. 1980. Effect of sodium chloride on CO 2 evolution, ammonification, andnitrification in a sassafras sandy loam. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 12, 153-157, DOI: 10.1016/00380717(80)90052-8
Melero, S., Madejon, E., Ruiz, J.C. and Herencia, J.F. 2007. Chemical and biochemical properties of a clay
soil under dryland agriculture system as affected by organic fertilization. European Journal of Agronomy,
26, 327-334, DOI: 10.1016/j.eja.2006.11.004
Mitchell, J.P., Shennan, C., Singer, M.J., Peters, D.W., Miller, R.O., Prichard, T., Grattan, S.R., Rhoades, J.D.,
May, D.M. and Munk, D.S. 2000. Impacts of gypsum and winter cover crops on soil physical properties
and crop productivity when irrigated with saline water. Agricultural Water Management, 45, 55-71, DOI:
10.1016/S0378-3774(99)00070-0
Mitsuchi, M., Wichaidit, P. and Jeungnijnirund, S. 1986. Outline of soils of the northeast plateau. Their
haracteristics and constraints. ADRC, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Technical Paper, No.1, 24-35.
Oster, J.D. and Jayawardane, N.S. 1998. Agricultural management of sodic soils. In Sumner, M.E. and Naidu,
R. (eds.), Sodic soil, Distribution, management and environmental consequences, Oxford University Press:
New York, 126-147.
Parkin, T.B., Doran, J.W. and Franco-Vizcarno, E. 1996. Field and laboratory tests of soil respiration. In Doran,
J.W., Jones, A.J. (eds.), Methods for Assessing Soil Quality, SSSA Special Publication, No. 49, 231-245.
Qadir, M., Schubert, S., Ghafoor, A. and Murtaza, G. 2001. Amelioration strategies for sodic soil, A review.
Land Degradation and Development, 12, 357-386, DOI: 10.1002/ldr.458
Sharma, B.R. and Minhas, P.S. 2005. Strategies for managing saline/alkali waters for sustainable agricultural
production in South Asia. Agricultural Water Management, 78, 136-151, DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2005.
04.019Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.L., Beaton, J.D. and Havlin, J.L. 1993. Soil fertility and fertilizers. 5th Edition,
Macmillan Publishing Co, New York.
Walkley, A. and Black, J.A. 1934. An examination of the dichormate method for determining soil organic
matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science, 37, 29-38.

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Research article
erd

Dried Porang Industry in Lakewood, Zamboanga Del Sur,
Philippines
LORITA P. ANDOT*
J.H. Cerilles State College Lakewood Campus
Biswangan Lakewood, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines
Email: loritapotayreandot@gmail.com

REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines
Email: regupobar@gmail.com
Received 14 January 2017

Accepted 11 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Porang is a kind of small scaly fish, as small as anchovies which thrive in brackish
water. In a lake in Lake Wood, Zamboanga del Sur, a group of fishermen survived for many
years because of Porang fishing and dried Porang industry. This study was conducted todetermine the current status of the dried Porang industry in Lake Wood, Zamboanga del Sur,
Philippines. This is a normative-descriptive study employing observation, interview, andquestionnaire techniques. The 120 fisherfolks who were directly involved in the dried Porang
industry were the respondents of the study. It was found out that there were problems andchallenges which the respondents and the industry were facing at present. One of the
problems met was the slowly decreased of Porang in the lake. The result also showed that
their practices especially the hygienic practices were not in conformity with the code ofpractice for processing and handling of dried fish as reflected in the Philippine National
Standards. It is recommended that a seminar about proper handling of dried fish be conducted
so that the fisherfolks will be aware of it, thus leading to sustainable dried Porang industry.
It is recommended further that these fisherfolks would also be educated on the proper way ofcatching this kind of fish to avoid their possible extinction in the lake.
Keywords dried, Porang fish, practices, conformity, Philippine standard

INTRODUCTION
Porang fish (Rasbora sp.) is one among the abundant fish species and the only endemic specie foundin Lake Wood Zamboanga del Sur (Superales, Zaparalla, Zacala, & Narbasca, 2013). Just like anyother fish species, Porang is high in protein and rich in omega-3 fatty acids which are also essential
nutrients in the human body system.
For some reasons, the Subanens (the major ethnic group living in the suburban areas) inparticular, have been using their own initiatives in preserving the Porang following no standard
procedure in drying it. Besides, the Subanens do not care the aftertaste of their dried Porang nor evenconsider its packaging, resulting at a very low price when selling the dried Porang in the market.
Although, despite the Subanens have been preserving the Porang by drying, still there could bemany methods of preserving fish in order to withstand longer such as, by salting, freezing, smoking,cooking, pickling, and drying. Noticeably, there has been no established standard procedure has been
followed by the Subanens in drying the Porang, to the extent of its production practices andmarketability. Hence, this investigation sought to shed light by employing descriptive survey designusing interview and questionnaires in assessing the current status of the Dried Porang Industry in
Lake Wood, Zamboanga del Sur and further finding out the production process is in conformity with
the Philippine National Standard (PNS) Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD).
OBJECTIVESⒸ ISERD

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This study was conducted to determine the current status of the dried Porang industry in Lake Wood,
Zamboanga del Sur in terms of source of fresh Porang, volume of catch per season, Porang catching
method used, number of years in Porang fishing, strengths and drawbacks of Porang fishing, common
problems and challenges of Porang, fishing industry, marketability and shelf life.
METHODOLOGYThis is a normative-descriptive study employing observation, interview, and questionnairetechniques. The 120 fisherfolks who were directly involved in the dried Porang industry were therespondents of the study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 manifested the source of fresh Porang, volume of catch per season, Porang catching method,and number of years in Porang fishing. It shows that 46 or 40 percent of the fisherfolks got more fishin the creek while about 11 or 9.57 percent revealed that they got fish from the central section of thelake.
This implies that the fishermen in Lake Wood got Porang fish often in the creek (sapa). This is
the area where most of the Porang thrive. However, some of the fisherman can also caught more in
the lakeshore especially those fishermen who did not own a bukana which serves as an entrance ofPorang to the creek. The creek serves as the breeding place of Porang. According to Simons (2017),
a creek often shallows and flows into larger bodies of water such that of the lake that will provide
habitat to non-living and living things.
Also shown in Table 1, is the volume of catch of Porang by the fishermen per season. It discloses
that during rainy season 108 or 93.91 percent of fishermen caught 0-6 kilos, 4 or 3.48 percent caught
7-15 kilos and 1 or 87 percent each had 16-21 kilos and 22 kilos and above. Meanwhile, during dry
season, 113 or 98.26% had 0-6 kilos catch and 3 or 1.74 percent had 7-15 kilos. The results impliedthat during dry season the fishermen of Lakewood got only a few catch of porang. According to thefishermen they can have 2 kilos or below or even nothing during dry season. Only few of Porangreached the creek or bukana in this period. Most of the fishermen made other alternative to support
their families. Other find jobs out of town and others went on farming to provide their family’s dailyneeds. For the fisherfolks, the family experienced crisis during this season.
The results implied that fisherfolks have greater catch of Porang in rainy season than in dry
season. It has been observed by them that Porang were abundant because of the increased water flowon the creeks and water inlets. During this time, the water temperature declines and the Porang moveto higher areas to spawn and breed. As cited in the study of Alkins-Koo (2000) and Ballesteros (2009),
in the tropical water system, most fishes breed during the rainy season; however, a few breed during
the dry season, (Pusey, 2002) (Torres-Mejia &Ramírez-Pinilla, 2008) or throughout the year (AlkinsKoo, 2000). Variation in reproductive seasonality has been associated with several factors, such asavailability of nursery areas, availability of food for adults or juveniles and competition for breedingsites in the river system. The highest feeding activities of tropical fishes usually occur during therainy seasons when the availability of prey is relatively higher (Ballesteros, 2009).
In the same table it is shown that the catching method used. Fish net (Pukot) got the highest as
admitted “by 75 respondents (61.22%)”. Net with bamboo on both ends got the lowest response asclaimed “by 28 respondents (24.35%)”. The results connote that the fishermen in Lake Wood usedfish nets in catching the Porang. According to the fisher folks there were regulations made by the
Local Government Unit (LGU) on the size of the hole of the net to be used in catching Porang.
Because there is no strict implementation on the said policies, some of the fisherfolks used net withsmall holes than the prescribed net in catching the Porang which led to the capture of small specie.
This is one of the reasons why the Porang is diminishing in the lake. There was depletion of catchper day. Net with bamboo of both ends were the usual fishing gear used by some fishermen especiallythose who were catching Porang on the lakeshore or in the creek.

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Furthermore, Table 1 showed the number of years the Porang dryer-sellers go on fishing. 0-3
years posted the highest percentage as replied “by 46 respondents (40%)” while “by 12 (10.43%)”
had been in Porang fishing from 7 to 9 years. The results indicated that most of the Porang fishermen
have experienced on Porang fishing on a short period of time but it was also noted by the researcherthat “by 38 respondents (33.04%)” had 10 years and above experience in Porang fishing which meansthat Porang fishing was already their source of livelihood since they started this job.
Table 1 Source, volume of catch, catching method and number of years in Porang fishing
Source of fresh Porang
Entry point of the Lake
Creek
Central Section
Other Part of the Lake
Volume of catch per season
0-6 kilos
7-15 kilos
16-21 kilos
22 kilos and above
Catching method
Bamboo Trap
Fish NetNet with bamboo on both ends
Number of years in Porang fishing
0-3
4-6
7-9
10 and above

Total
30
46
11
28
Rainy Season
F
%`
Rank
108
93.91
1
4
3.48
2
1
.87
3.5
1
.87
3.5
Frequency
1275
28Frequency
46
19
12
38

Percentage (%)
26.09
40.00
9.57
24.35
Dry Season
F
%`
113
98.26
3
1.74
0
0
Percentage
10.43
61.22
24.35
Percentage
40.00
16.52
10.43
33.04

Rank
2
1
4
3
Rank
1
2
Rank
2
1
3
Rank
1
3
4
2

Table 2 discloses the strengths and drawbacks of Porang Fishing. Among the identified
strengths “help augment family income” was identified as the top strength “by 44 respondents(38.26%)”. And “by 34 respondents (29.57%)” claimed it “sustained family’s food consumption
while “by 17 (14.78%)” said it “help promote the One Product One Municipality”. The results
implied that the Porang industry was of great helped to the Porang fishermen for this generate
additional income at the same time it could also be used as a staple food for their consumption.
Porang fishing had also drawbacks as reflected in Table 2. More than half “ by 71 respondents(61.74%)” testified that this is seasonal, “ by 30 respondents (26.09%) said that the industry isdepleting and slowly becoming extinct while 8 or 6.96 percent of the respondents claimed thatyounger generation slowly lost their interest in Porang fishing and 6 or 5.22 percent said this industry
is a slow merchandising commodity.
Table 2 Strengths and drawbacks of Porang fishing
Strengths
Help augment family income
Sustain family’s food consumption
Help in the economic development of thecommunity
Help promote One Product One Municipality
DrawbacksThis industry is a slow merchandising commodity
This is a seasonal industry
Depleting and slowly becoming extinct
Younger generation is slowly losing interestⒸ ISERD

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Total
44
34
20

Percentage (%)
38.26
29.57
17.39

Rank
1
2
3

17

14.78

4

6
71
30
8

5.22
61.74
26.09
6.96

4
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2
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2

The findings connoted that the Porang in Lake Wood is sporadic, meaning that the abundancyof the species is not constant. To the fishermen their cached is not anymore as plentiful as before,
nowadays only few Porang will be caught that sometimes they can experience “no catch” at all forthree hours or more staying in the lake water watching for their fish net.
On the other hand, Table 3 reflected the problems and challenges of Porang industry. As shown,“by 87 respondents (75.65%)” claimed that diminishing Porang was the number one problem. It isfollowed by no control on the size of Porang catch as identified “by 11 respondents (9.57)”.
Meanwhile, no law or ordinances got the lowest rank as answered 7 or 6.09 percent of the respondents.
Table 3 Problems and challenges of Porang industry
Problems
No control on the size of porang catch
Diminishing porang
No law/ordinance controlling the catch of porang
Teenagers no longer challenge on porang fishing
Challenges
Look for another possible ways to catch porang
Organize fisherfolks and make common policies on
porang fishing
Give more concern on the environment, the lake or
fisherfolks
Better ways for porang fishing, drying and selling

Frequency
11
87
7
10

Percentage (%)
9.57
75.65
6.09
8.70

Rank
2
1
4
3

8
92

6.96
80.00

2.5
1

8

6.96

2.5

7

6.09

4

The results indicated that the Porang in the lake of Lake Wood deteriorated. This is the common
problem encountered by the fisher folks. According to the fishermen if only the local government of
Lake Wood implemented fully the regulations in catching the Porang there is no reason the Porang,
will not multiply and increased its number.
Table 3 also revealed the common challenges of Porang, as shown “to organize the fisher folks
in Lake Wood to make a common policies on Porang fishing” was the highest challenges as identified“by 92 respondents (80%)”. “Look for another possible ways to catch Porang” and “Give moreconcern on the environment” got a tie occupying the second challenges as claimed “by 8 respondents(6.96)”. “Teenagers are not anymore challenged on Porang fishing instead they are much interestedon the job offered outside the community or in Lakeview resort” ranked as the lowest challenges as
identified “by 7 respondents (6-09%)”.
The results revealed that the fisher folks wanted to be organized to come up with only one policy
to be followed by the organization. An organization can be a social unit that is designed to accomplish
the need of its members and have a common purpose. Just like the fisherfolks they wanted to beorganized because according to them the Porang industry will not prosper if they are not structured
as one organization.
Table 4 Marketability and shelf life of dried Porang
Marketability
1
50
25
10

115 kilos produced
50 kilos produced
50 kilos produced

2
25
20
8

Shelf life
Dried Porang
1:1/2
1:1/4
1:1/8

1
√
√
√

Days
3
4
30
10
28
10
7
7
Month
2
3
√
√
√
√
√

5

6

10
5

7
3
4
√

Table 4 reflected the marketability and shelf life of dried Porang. The researcher observed threegroups of Porang dyers and sellers for one week to find out the marketability of their products. TheⒸ ISERD

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first group produced 115 kilos which were all sold out on the fourth day. The second group produced
100 kilos of dried Porang and were sold out on the sixth day. This is the same with the third groupwhich produced 50 kilos, the products were all sold out on the sixth day also. This only indicatedthat the dried Porang is marketable.
According to the fishermen, they were not anymore consuming their dried Porang products mostof the time because of its less supply that the price becomes higher. They sold it to the buyers or“barter” it in exchanged of other commodities.
For shelf life, the researcher bought 3 packs of dried Porang with different ratio of fish and salt.
First pack is Porang with a ratio of 1 kilo of fish salted with ½ kilo of salt. The second pack 1 is to¼ kilo of salt and the third has the ratio is 1 is to 1/8 kilo of salt. The researcher placed the productat room temperature packed in plastic. She made observations for four months. It was noticed thatthe 1:1/2 lasted for four months while the packed with lesser salt 1:1/8 lasted for only 2 months.
The results showed that the higher the amount of salt the more longer in its shelf life but it
degraded its quality because it became very salty. Packaging materials could also help in prolonging
the shelf life of dried Porang. With these observations, Porang can sustain its life longer only if
preserved well with a good grade of salt and packaging materials.

Fig. 1 (Left) Dried Porang, (Right) Bukana or water inlet connecting the lake,
where the Porang is usually catch
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings presented, the following conclusions were established by the researcher.The
current status of Porang industry in Lake Wood, Zamboanga del Sur is depleting due to thedestructive fishing gears used by some fisherfolks in catching Porang. Furthermore, the preservationand production practices of the fisherfolks did not met the standard process set by the Philippine
National Standards (PNS) Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD).
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings, it is imperative that the LGU shall take part on the full and strict
implementation of the ordinances made by the local executives of Lake Wood, Zamboanga del Sur.
Furthermore, the Academe, particularly the JHCSC- Lake Wood campus, among its other functions,
may coordinate with the LGU, BFAD, DA on monitoring and evaluating the status of the Porang
industry. The fisher folks should organize a cooperative to handle the buying of Porang fish,processing, drying, packaging, and marketing. The Porang cooperative should engage into a fish cage
culture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researchers would like to extend their utmost gratitude to the following entities who, in one way
or another have contributed to the success of this study, namely; BISU Officials for the approval of
the study, CHED K to 12 Transition Program on Dissertation for the scholarship grant and J.H.
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Cerilles State College for the study leave granted; family, relatives and friends for the moral andspiritual supports.
REFERENCES
Boundless. 2016. The purpose of packaging. Boundless Marketing Boundless, https/www.boundless.com/marketing/textbooks/boundless-marketingtextbook/branding-and-packaging-10/packaging-75/the rposesof-packaging-379-4125 (retrieved on October 4, 2016).
Chandravadan. 2016. How too long can you store dried fish? How do you make it last longer. https://www.
quora.com/How-long-can-you-store-dried- fish-how-do-you-make-it-last-longer (retrieved on November 2,2016).
Doe, P. 1998. Fish drying and smoking production and quality. CRC Press, LLC. https://books.google.
com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_eATME6TvigC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=+fiah+drying+principles+and+practice&ots=LnzBC5XGNh&sig=DhAMXOjdB_C1hHY5PTeGG2tILN8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=
fiah%20drying%20principles%20and%20practice&f=false (retrieved on November 2, 2016).
Espanol, F. 2014. Fish utilization trade and fisheries, Quality and safety. Fish and Aquaculture Department,
Philippines.
Fellows, P.J. 2009. Food processing technology, Principles and practice third edition. Woodhead Publishing
Limited. Oxford Cambridge New Delhi, https://books.google.com.ph/books? (retrieved on September 20,2016).
Gatchalian, M. 2009. Sensory quality management. Quezon City, Phils., Quality Partners Company, Ltd.,
Philippines.
Kituu G.M., Shitanda, D., Kanali, C.L., Mailutha, J.T., Njoroge, C.K., Wainaina, J.K. and Silayo, V.K. 2010.
Thin layer drying model for simulating the drying of Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus) in a solar tunnel.
Journal of Food Engineering, 98 (3), 325-331.
Superales, J.B., Zafaralla, M.T., Sacala, J.M.A. and Nabasca, J.S. 2013. Water quality and fish fauna in lake
Wood, lake Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. http://www.ipcbee.com/vol54/008-ICEES2013ES2005.pdf(retrieved on November 6, 2016).

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Research article
erdApplication of Integrated Modeling System to Ecosystem
Services Evaluation
MAKOTO OOBA*National Institute for Environmental Studies, Fukushima Branch, Fukushima, Japan
Email: ooba.makoto@nies.go.jp

KIICHIRO HAYASHI
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Received 14 December 2016

Accepted 11 November 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In recent years, many case studies have been conducted on ecosystem service (ES)evaluation in both developed and developing regions. A method to integrate the ES evaluation
has hitherto been undeveloped and a few systems been proposed for the same. Based on ourprevious studies on estimations of the potential supply of ES in both rural and urban areas, amodeling system capable of performing an integrated evaluation of ES is automaticallyapplied into our study. A geographical and ecological information database of the ecosystem
in Japan was connected, and an interface of an estimation model of the ecosystem services
was connected to an integrated system. A system with a visible interface and clearly definedconcepts and concept relationships, is helpful not only to researchers who are unfamiliar with
GIS and modeling, but also to stakeholders and decision makers.
Keywords environmental planning, ecosystem services (ES), Geographical Information
System (GIS), meta-modeling, semantic modeling

INTRODUCTION
The concept of ecosystem services (ES) refers to a variety of services ranging from highly related
ecological functions (supporting and regulating services, e.g., material cycles inside ecosystems) tohighly related human society functions (provisioning and cultural services, e.g. food production,
logging, and recreation space provision).
Recently, many quantitative and spatial case studies on ES have been conducted using thegeographical information system (GIS, e.g., Verhagen et al., 2015). Large projects on the assessment
framework of ES, such as InVEST (Jackson et al., 2016), Oppla (Verweij et al., 2015), TESSA (Pehet al., 2013), and the Artificial Intelligence for Ecosystem Services (ARIES project, 2016), are also
being conducted.
Rapid emergence of overwhelming volumes of data in recent years, for example the increasing
number of elevation, landuse, and species occurrence databases, make choosing a suitable dataset forour study difficult. Many portal sites and meta-database projects for efficient database location are
now being developed, e.g., KNB (The Knowledge Network for Biocomplexity), and OBIS (Ocean
Biogeographic Information System). Despite great efforts to digitize data location, many researchers
still search for files using browsers and download them individually, unzip, and convert them to asuitable format (file type, encodings, geographical projection, etc.), manually.
The existence of diverse methods of ES assessment in terms of aims and scopes presents a
serious barrier to the sharing of ES studies, especially to the integration of various ES evaluations.
For example, various methods of quantifying ES have been proposed: lookup table, statistical models
explained by environmental variables, and mechanistic models based on ecology and earth sciences(Verhagen et al., 2015). The lookup table is fairly straightforward and transparent. However, its
accuracy and its application are limited by its high dependency on location and disregard for the
temporal and spatial continuity of ecosystems. Mechanistic models can perform highly accurate andⒸ ISERD

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detailed simulations; however, models developed by researchers or projects cannot be exchanged
because highly specific ecosystem and ES concept terminologies are assigned.
Semantic modeling and semantic meta-modeling (Villa et al., 2014) are attractive methods inthe big-data and divergence-model era. Based on machine-readable knowledge bases, such as unit
systems, physical constants, formulae, and relationships between ES and landuse, a distributed
database and model are automatically assembled to the requirements of a user.
OBJECTIVESIn this paper, the authors applied semantic modeling to our previous estimation method of urban ES(Ooba et al., 2015). A detailed description of the current situation of data-model rich ecology is givenin the former section, where the needs of semantic modeling are discussed. In the next section, detailsof a trial application of the semantic modeling on urban ES assessment are given.
BACKGROUND OF SEMANTIC METHODOLOGY
Before the downsizing of digital electronic devices, measuring and observing field data such as
geographical and ecological data was rather difficult in terms of accessing study areas, recording
outside, and security. However, acquiring field data from various electric sensors, data loggers,
wireless internet, remote sensing, global positioning system, etc. is much easier. Growing memory
and bands of the networks governed by Moore's law results in relatively low-cost storage andtransport of geographical and ecological data. Although the explosive availability of the data
provides equal accessibility, new problems that have already been pointed out in the introduction
section, still occur.
One of the solutions to this problem is the development of meta-databases. These systems needdata annotations such as author names, data type, location and time of observation, and so on. For
description method for the annotation, Dublin Core is commonly used and a related search engine
for ecology has been developed, e.g., Morpho by the KNB project.
Statistical methods of computer modeling, including spatial analysis, have made marked
progress with the growth of data availability. Free and commercial software for statistical modelingare well developed as they are not required to list software names. In addition, distributed data
analysis frameworks are also available (e.g., Spark). It also mentions that the advancement ofmachine learning in this decade must be focused on.
It seems that the abundant data and models are not enough to address the concerns of policy
makers and stakeholders regarding biodiversity, ecosystem, and ES. In addition to the diverse modelsof ES that are difficult to integrate, these models that assess and interpret ES do not meet the morepractical needs of policy makers, stakeholders, and governmental and private planners (Urban andrural design, environmental planning, and ecosystem conservation).
Machine readable knowledge can solve this problem through machine reasoning (Villa, 2009;
Villa et al., 2009, 2014). Ontology in computer science suggests an inference system based on setsof concepts and relationships among the concepts in a domain (e.g. disciplines of science or industrial
sectors). For example, if a system holds an ontological engine and can access a knowledge base of
the unit system, it appropriately converts from a unit (e.g., area, m2) to another unit (e.g., ha).
A system that operates databases and models using such ontological inference provides anintegrated platform for the assessment of ES for specialists, as well as non-specialists, e.g., for aid indecision making regarding ecosystem conservation to keep ES from development. Non-specialists
may not always understand the significance of the contribution of data and models to the success ofa project, such as an environmental problem, in terms of accuracy and effectiveness as well as a
specialist. However, the understanding of some concepts related to the environmental problem issimple enough that they can be shared by both non-specialists and specialists. Once an agreement on
the ontology and the semantic modeling system to be used is established, discussions on the problem
may benefit the data and models based on the system.

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k.LAB software provides an integrated environment for the development of knowledge bases
and data-model complexes, including automatic model selection (meta-modeling). This technology
has been developed in conjunction with the ARIES project. Many studies have been conducted in
the San Pedro River Basin, USA (Bagstad et al., 2016a), Puget Sound, Washington (Zank et al.,2016), the Southern Rocky Mountains (Bagstad et al., 2016b), and so on.
CASE STYDY
A fairly simple and transparent method was proposed for the spatial assessment of ES supply
potential for a rapidly growing city in a developing country (Ooba et al., 2015, 2016; Kay et al.,2015). Integrated potential supply of ES can be estimated from a limited dataset (e.g. digital elevation
map, DEM, and remote sensing image) and it can suggest the relative importance of green spaceinside a study area for the purpose of conserving ES supply. First, elevation and land cover map are
obtained from remote sensing images or geographical maps. Indices related to each type of ES(supporting, regulating, provisioning, cultural, and habitat) are calculated using primary units or
simple models related to a target type of land cover on a km-level grid. In the previous study (Oobaet al., 2014), these indices were collinear due to limited data-sources; one index that was notcorrelated to other indices was assigned to one type of ES category (Table 1). Finally, the ES indices
are aggregated to an integrated index by ES weights estimated from results of internet surveys (Oobaet al., 2016).
Table 1 Methods used to estimate ecosystem services (see also Ooba et al., 2015)
Service category
Supporting
Provisioning
Regulating
CultureHabitat

Proxy variable
Carbon sequestration
Food supply
Inverse of soil erosion
coefficient
Economic value of green
space
Continuity of green
space

Basic units, method details*
3.09(W)
2.98(A)S = 65.41sin2T+ 4.56sinT+ 0.065
C = 1 (R), 0.33(A), 0.0085(W)
Value per unit area as green belt
area A(ha) V = 3.0184A-0.437
ArgGIS tool (Focal statistics)
proximity as 2 km radiusUnitt/y hat/y ha106
JPY/y-* Land-use codes—R: Residential Area, A: Agricultural field, W: Vegetation mainly covered by wood plantFig. 1 Concepts and related attributes for the simple evaluation of ES supply potentialⒸ ISERD

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These manual operations by GIS were transplanted into a semantic modeling environment(k.LAB, ver. 0.9.8) based on ontology. Because there was no common knowledge base (ontology)
that suited our purpose, we created a small, toy-level, ontology based on our method, for a trial
assessment (Fig. 1). Two main concepts of land area and potential ES supply were asserted on a
project in the system as "LandArea" and "ESPotential", and these concepts had their types describedby the following attributes. "LandAreaType": WaterSurface, ResidentialArea, AgriculturalField,
VegatationWP (Wood Plant); "ESPotentialType": Provisioning, Regulating, Supporting, Cultural,
Habitat. In the next step, models that mention a multiple line statement are defined for file loading
and calculating on the project. A study area is Nagoya City, Japan as the same as in the previous
study, and then spatial context must be defined on the integrated system before model running.
In this study, due to somewhat complex spatial assessment calculation for Cultural and Habitat
ESPotential, these raster files that had been prepared by GIS were loaded into the projects. DEM thatan index of regulating services needs is obtained automatically from the standard knowledge base ofk.LAB accessed to the default repository.
Results that is the same as the results of previous studies (Ooba el al., 2015). Relatively highpotential supplies were exhibited in the area surrounding the city (agricultural fields and secondary
forests).
The source code and data in this study will be open, and the k.LAB software can be used freely
after a simple application in the integrated modeling project site (ARIES project, 2016).
CONCLUSION
Solving environmental problems requires collaborations between, not only biologists and ecologists,
but also other scientists, engineers, environmental planners, and individuals from many other sectors.
Vihervaara (2013) stressed the role of international and ecological monitoring networks, such as
ILTER, for the assessment of biodiversity and ES, and the usefulness of the acquired data in the
mitigation and adaptation of climate change. Integrated platforms for semantic modeling may
enhance the potential of the data. Moreover, ES tools suitable for non-specialists under consensus on
ecological concepts may provide new insight into regional planning from the perspectives of
biodiversity and ES. Bagstad et al. (2014) mentioned that the semantic framework using hypothesis
driven approaches or trusted process-based models is more confidential than statistical modelingfrom a reason of being able to validate of reasoning.
We have reported on the results of our toy program for the popups of popularization of semantic
modeling in the Asia region; however, we can elaborated on more complex functions of the wellestablished k.LAB system. Many researchers have indicated more complicated usage of the systemsuch as baysian model, watershed model, mechanistic model of ecosystem and so on, which havebeen researched in the ARIES project.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (1-1401,
2-1404, MOE, Japan). The authors thank Prof. F. Villa and Dr. K.J. Bagstad for their valuable advice
regarding ARIES project and k.LAB system.
REFERENCESARIES Project. 2016. Artificial intelligence for ecosystem services. http://aries.integratedmodelling.org/.
Bagstad, K.J., Semmens, D.J., Ancona, Z.H. and Sherrouse, B.C. 2016a. Evaluating alternative methods forbiophysical and cultural ecosystem services hotspot mapping in natural resource planning. Forthcoming
in: Landscape Ecology. Doi:10.1007/s10980-016-0430-6
Bagstad, K.J., Reed, J., Semmens, D., Sherrouse, B. and Troy, A.R. 2016b. Linking biophysical models andpublic preferences for ecosystem service assessments, A case study for the Southern Rocky Mountains.
Regional Environmental Change, 16 (7), 2005-2018.
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Bagstad, K.J., Villa, F., Batker, D., Harrison-Cox, J., Voigt, B. and Johnson, G. 2014. From theoretical toactual ecosystem services, Accounting for beneficiaries and spatial flows to map and quantify ecosystemservices. Ecology and Society, 19 (2), 64.
Jackson, S.T., Duke, C.S., Hampton, S.E., Jacobs, K.L., Joppa, L.N., Kassam, K.-A.S., Mooney, H.A., Ogden,
L.A., Ruckelshaus, M. and Shogren, J.F. 2016. Toward a national, sustained U.S. ecosystem assessment2016. Science, 354, 838-839.
Kay, K.L., Hayashi, K. and Ooba, M. 2015. Comparative spatial assessment of regulating and supporting
ecosystem services in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. Int. J. Env. Rural Dev., 6 (2), 159-165.
Ooba, M., Ito, H. and Hayashi, K. 2016. Socio-economic and spatial evaluation of ecosystem services in
Nagoya, Japan. Int. J. Env. Rural Dev., 7 (2), 182-189.
Ooba, M., Hayashi, K., Suzuki, T. and Li, R. 2015. Analysis of urban ecosystem services consideringconservation priority. Int. J. Env. Rural Dev., 6 (2), 66-72.
Peh, K.S.-H., Balmford, A.P., Bradbury, R.B., Brown, C., Butchart, S.H.M., Hughes, F.M.R., Stattersfield,
A.J., Thomas, D.H.L., Walpole, M. and Birch, J.C. 2013. Toolkit for ecosystem service site-based
assessment (TESSA). http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/info/estoolkit.
Verhagen, W., Verburg, P.H., Schulp, N. and Stürck, J. 2015. Mapping ecosystem services. In Bouma, J.A.
and van Beukering, P.J.H. (eds.) Ecosystem Services, From Concept to Practice. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 65-86.
Verweij, P., Pérez-Soba, M., Vanmeulebrouk, B., Brown, C., Wilkinson, T., Cojocaru, G., Aldescu, A., Brown,
M., Porter, J., Mahoney, P., Metzger, M., Rounsevell, M., Delbaere, B., Saarikoski, H. and Harrison, P.
2015. A demonstration version of the Common Platform (Oppla). European Union.
Vihervaara, P., D’Amato, D., Forsius, M., Angelstam, P., Baessler, C., Balvanera, P., Boldgiv, B., Bourgeron,P., Dick, J., Kanka, R. and Klotz, S. 2013. Using long-term ecosystem service and biodiversity data to
study the impacts and adaptation options in response to climate change, Insights from the global ILTER
sites network. Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5, 53-66.
Villa, F. 2009. Semantically-driven meta-modelling automating model construction in an environmental
decision support system for the assessment of ecosystem services flow. In Information Technology in
Environmental Engineering, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 23-36.
Villa, F., Bagstad, K.J., Voigt, B., Johnson, G.W., Portela, R., Honzák, M. and Batker, D. 2014. A methodology
for adaptable and robust ecosystem services assessment. PloS one, 9 (3), e91001.
Villa, F., Athanasiadis, I.N. and Rizzoli, A.E. 2009. Modelling with knowledge, A review of emerging
semantic approaches to environmental modelling. Environmental Modelling & Software, 24 (5), 577-587.
Zank, B., Bagstad, K.J., Voigt, B. and Villa, F. 2016. Modeling the effects of urban expansion on natural capitalstocks and ecosystem service flows, A case study for Puget Sound, Washington, USA. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 149, 31-42.

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Research article
erdModel of Chachoengsao Province Network of Growers of
Quality Mangoes for Export
PARPITCHAYA CHINTAPITAKSAKUL*
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
Email: agrpyc@ku.ac.th
Received 21 December 2016

Accepted 16 December 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The study on a successful farmer network is a mixed-method research that focuseson mango farmers in Chachoengsao province under a protocol of multistage sampling.
Several factors influencing farmers to set up their own network are common interests,
problems and needs that led them to establish a new production system based on Good
Agricultural Practice (GAP) in order to fulfill their customer needs in terms of quantity andquality. The results of hypothesis testing regarding the farmers’ opinions on GAP in the
aspect of understanding, positive thinking and positive behavior before and after network
setup revealed statistically significant difference. Farmers who owned different farm sizes
had different opinions on GAP in terms of understanding and positive thinking before
network setup, but not different after setup. Meanwhile, the positive behavior had no
statistically significant difference before and after network setup. The network model shouldhave an operating protocol to link inputs and outputs. Operation under suitable strategies canorganize the farming system to fulfill customer needs by transferring appropriate changes
directly to customers or target groups. The strategic map should start from giving knowledge,changing internal process management, fulfilling stakeholder expectation and end withfulfilling customer satisfactions under the support of government and private sectors.
Keywords network, model, mango, Chachoengsao province

INTRODUCTION
Solving agricultural problems in the form of integrated development for farmers to becomesustainably self-reliant is a challenging and crucial task that requires time, serious contribution andcontinuity. Since the past, many governments have consistently implemented this kind ofdevelopment. Recently, all sectors have been more involved in participating in the integration. The
concepts and approaches for dealing with these problems have been developed in various ways. The
concept of integrating farmer networks is yet another approach that has been used and considered tohelp strengthen the farmers as well as offer synergy. However, in integrating farmer networks, there
is still the problem of absence of model and potential strategies for possible application of suchprototype.
As for the nature of operation as a network, it requires coordination and connection between
members in the groups and between small groups that are interlinked in the network. Moreover, it’svery crucial to have relationship and correlation among groups as well as the connection of
information and knowledge which contributes to learning process, exchange of knowledge , ideas,
experiences and working process, in the form of integrations among groups, networks that will
eventually result not only in increasing success of implementation but also more chances ineliminating weaknesses, and developing strengths and competency to effectively deal with externalsituations. In addition, constant participation in the collaboration will also help strengthen and ensure
members and groups of the network and raise awareness in the management of lifestyles,
environment and local resources which contribute to the empowerment and encouragement for thegovernment to participate in the operation e.g., encouraging the establishment of community forums
as well as group operation for self-reliant development (Thana, 2544).

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Considering the agricultural sector, fruit is a significant product. As for the years 2013-2015,
fruit is ranked the fifth out of ten agricultural plant commodities for export. The export of fruit is in
the form of chilled, frozen and dried fruit products. (Office of Permanent Secretary Ministry ofCommerce, 2015). Furthermore, the development of fruit products is recognized and prioritized by
the government for agricultural development, and there are strategies formulated for the developmentof Thai fruit products. In Thailand’s fruit development strategy for the years 2010-2014, mango isdefined as one of the six major economic fruits that the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
provides the policy for, focusing on the promotion of production, and marketing in the form of mango
planting network with systematic, unified management to provide sustainable solutions, so as tostabilize the price, increase value for export and to gain sales revenue for farmers (Office ofAgricultural Economics, 2010).
Thailand is regarded as a source of tasty mangoes with most desirable quality that meets thestandard, for either domestic or foreign consumers, particularly, in Chachoengsao province where
there are approximately 86,000 Rai of mango plantations, the country's largest mangoes plantation
area. Mango fruit is, therefore, regarded as a major economic fruit of the province. Every district iscapable of producing mangoes. Districts capable of mango planting for exports include Bang Khla,
Ratchasan, Phanom Sarakham, Plaeng Yao, Sanam Chai Khet, Tha Takiap and Klong Khuean. Apartfrom domestic markets, these mangoes have also been distributed to international markets, which
tend to keep increasing. Since the province is capable of producing mangoes of good tastes and goodquality, there have been signed contracts for exporting mangoes between farmers and export
companies made every year from 2001 until present. More importantly, the mangoes produced inthis province are safe for consumers as they are certified garden products based on Good Agricultural
Practice (GAP) by the Department of Agriculture. Mango varieties grown in the province include
Barracuda (Nam Dok Mai), Nam Dok Mai Si Thong, Nang Klang Wan, Raed, and Khiaw Sawoei.
Major varieties of mangoes for export of the province are Nam Dok Mai #4 and Nam Dok Mai Si
Thong. The largest markets for A-grade mangoes are Japan, Europe and the United States,
respectively. For the inferior quality mangoes, the markets for export are Malaysia, Indonesia andSingapore (Kenan Institute Asia et al, 2006).
In addition, growers of quality mangoes for export have integrated in the form of network, which,at present, consists of two main groups with 230 members in total, including Chachoengsao Mango
Exporter Community Enterprises, and Chachoengsao Mango Cooperative. The integration of
farmers in the form of network represents an approach that will help strengthen farmer’s capacity.
Thus, the studies about the prototype of mango growers networking in such areas will be a significant
part in effectively solving the problems of integrated development for farmers to become sustainably
self-reliant.
OBJECTIVE
The objectives of this research were 1) to understand farmer’s network. 2) to study farmers’ opinions
on Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) in three aspects, namely understanding of GAPs content,
positive thinking and positive behavior and 3) to propose the network model in the form of prototype
model called Model of Chachoengsao Province Network of Growers of Quality Mangoes for Export.
MATERIALS AND METHODSThis study was an applied research that focused on Chachoengsao province network of growers ofquality mangoes for export as a form of mixed-method research with both qualitative and quantitative
research. Multistage sampling was used including 1) Purposive Sampling 2) Quota Sampling, withthe criteria as follows: a) must be member of Chachoengsao Mango Exporter Community Enterprises
or Chachoengsao Mango Cooperative b) only active operators were selected. In addition, accidental
sampling technique was used for data collection and the criteria include willingness to participate
and focus group interview with a sample of 36 members, accounting for 15% of the total membersof 230.
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The tools for data collection consisted of interviews, questionnaires, in-depth interviews andfocus groups interview. Qualitative data was analyzed by descriptive and content analysis, whilequantitative data employed statistical analysis software for social science research, including
descriptive statistics, t-test and one-way anova (F-test).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

General Characteristics of Mango Growers
It was found that their average age was 56.83 years, and the mango plantation area was divided into
3 groups, including not exceeding 15 Rai (30.56%), 16-30 Rai (44.44%), and more than 30 Rai(25.00%). The average farm size was 22.89 Rai. Most of the farmers were members of Chachoengsao
Mango Cooperative, which accounted for 61.11%, and the remaining farmers were members ofChachoengsao Mango Exporter Community Enterprises.
Mango Growers Network
It was found there were two main groups of growers of quality mangoes for export, including
Chachoengsao Mango ExporterCommunity Enterprises, and Chachoengsao Mango Cooperative.
Each group had their own operation and divided the works according to their skills. Several factors
influencing the farmers to set up their own network were common interests, problems and needs that
led them to establish a new production system based on Good Agricultural Practice (GAP). In
addition, there were also links to other mango grower groups which were important groups of mango
growers from around the country under the Thai Mango Growers Association whose goals are to
jointly plan production and marketing, as well as perform quality control to meet the same standard
for domestic sale and export throughout the year, and to establish reliability for consumers. The main
exported markets were Japan and South Korea, etc.
Farmers’ Opinions on Good Agricultural Practice (GAP)
The results of farmers’ opinions on Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) in three aspects, namely
understanding of GAPs content, positive thinking and positive behavior are as follows: (The items
consisted 8 element: water resource, cultivation site, use of agricultural substance, product storageand on-site transportation, disease and pest-free production, management of quality production,
harvesting and post-harvesting handing, data recording. The meaning of mean scores were: 1.001.49 = lowest level, 1.50-2.49 = low level, 2.50-3.49 = medium level, 3.50-4.49 = high level, 4.505.00 = highest level).
1. It was found that the farmers had the overall opinion on mango production according to Good
Agricultural Practice (GAP) in three aspects, including; a) understanding, b) positive thinking and c)positive behavior at a low level before network setup, with average scores of 2.16, 2.20 and 2.02,
respectively. After network setup, the opinion was at a high level with average scores of 3.90, 4.12
and 4.22, respectively.
2. The results of the study of farmers’ opinions on mango production according to Good Agricultural
Practice (GAP) in three aspects, including ; a) understanding, b) positive thinking, and c) positive
behavior found that there was a difference before and after network setup at a statistical significancelevel of 0.01, where t = -32.46, -42.83 and -31.94, respectively, and df = 35
3. The results of the study involving the relationship of size of plantation area (farm area) farmer's
opinions associated with Good Agricultural Practice (GAP), in 3 aspects: a) understanding,b)positive thinking and c) positive behavior before and after network setup (integration of working
as network) revealed that;
1) Farmers with different plantation sizes had different opinions on compliance with Good
Agricultural Practice (GAP) in terms of understanding and positive thinking before network setup atⒸ ISERD

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a statistical significance level of 0.01. However, after network setup, their opinions were not different
at a statistical significance level of 0.01 (Table 1).
2) The opinions of farmers with different plantation sizes on compliance with Good Agricultural
Practice (GAP) in terms of positive behavior before and after network setup were not different at a
statistical significance level of 0.01 (Table 1).
Table 1 Results of farmers’ opinion on Good Agricultural Practice (GAP)
Subject
Understanding before network setup
Understanding after network setup
positive thinking before network setup
positive thinking after network setup
positive behavior before network setup
positive behavior after network setup

Source ofvariance
Between Group
Within Group
Total
Between Group
Within Group
Total
Between Group
Within Group
Total
Between Group
Within Group
Total
Between Group
Within Group
Total
Between Group
Within Group
Total

SS

df

MS

F

Sig.

1.34
2.44
3.78
0.06
0.61
0.67
1.09
1.50
2.59
0.10
1.05
1.15
0.40
1.32
1.72
0.02
3.14
3.16

2
33
35
2
33
35
2
33
35
2
33
35
2
33
35
2
33
35

0.67
0.07

9.10

0.001

0.03
0.02

1.48

0.242

0.55
0.05

12.03

0.000

0.05
0.03

1.63

0.211

0.20
0.04

5.08

0.012

0.01
0.10

0.08

0.922

These results suggest that the integration of working as a network results in the increased
efficacy of operation among farmers which is consistent with the opinion of Attha Intaralak(Director- General of Department of Agriculture Extension at that time) saying that "The integrationand networking of manufacturers provide farmers with rough knowledge about appropriate
manufacturing technology in order to develop and enhance the production efficiency, particularly
promoting farming group GAP certification standards, as well as the exchange of knowledge andtechnology among them, and the centralization of production and packaging. In addition, networking
will also provide cooperation and cooperative solution"(BioThai Foundation, 2554).
The Propose Integrated Network Model in the Form of Prototype Model -Model of
Chachoengsao Province Network of Growers of Quality Mangoes for Export
The results in this study revealed that possible practical model for the integration of fruit farmer
networks must contain a structure consisting of subsystems in providing interaction between inputs
and outputs of the agricultural systems management. Such model requires appropriate strategies tosuit changes and development and it needs to be capable of transferring, distributing, making benefits
and responding to the stakeholders and consumers or prospect clients. Such potential model must
provide a strategic map initiated from learning / growth and it will eventually result in changing in
the management of internal processes to meet the expectations of stakeholders. Finally, the model
will lead to added value and provide satisfaction to consumers or target clients with the support ofgovernment and private sectors.
When applied, this model focuses on marketing and innovation (innovative marketing), in
which development strategies are required based on the collaboration of such network as follows:
1. Synergies resulting from common problems and common needs.
2. Self-reliant development which includes relevant criteria in addition to what is stated in the firstclause above, namely,a) task allocation based on individual skills,Ⓒ ISERD108

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2017) 8-2b) equal or fair sharing of mutual benefits.
3. The development of self-management organization focusing ona) exchange and transfer of appropriate technology,b) availability of public funds of the network.
Thus, this model is a strategic model which has passed the test of the experimental networkgroup.
All components of this model focus on two main issues:a) marketing that meets the expectations of customers in terms of satisfaction and enrichment (values
adding),b) innovation that focuses on appropriate innovation and technology.
This model contains IPO relevant systems which are inputs, process and results (output,
outcomes and impacts). As for the outcome, it will be associated with the overall future scenario
from the vision of network leader which will result in public funding of the network for buying
production inputs at high prices.
The implementation in accordance with the strategic map will include:1) giving knowledge and developing
2) changing of internal processes
3) increasing revenue for stakeholders,
4) responding to desirable requirements of target consumers.
CONCLUSION
Coordination among various groups of farmers in the form of network include holding seminars to
exchange academic knowledge and experience in the production of mangoes so as to offer members
a method of producing mangoes with the same standard across the country, and to build credibility
and confidence among consumers in general. The network started from two main groups, namely
Chachoengsao Mango Exporter Community Enterprises and Chachoengsao Mango Cooperative inorder to connect and coordinate the operation among farmer groups. Currently, there are mango
grower cooperatives and clubs from nine provinces joining as the core group, including those from
Kanchanaburi, Nakhon Pathom, Nakhon Ratchasima, Suphan Buri, Chiang Mai, Chon Buri, Udon
Thani, Khon Kaen, and Chachoengsao and many other groups from other provinces and from many
communities that are interested in joining.
The results of this study indicated that the integration of operation as a network results in theincreased efficacy of operation among farmers, allowing members to share agricultural knowledge
and technology. In addition, a potential prototype or model of the integration as a network of fruit
farmers to be implemented for practice must contain a structure consisting of subsystems that provide
interaction between inputs and outputs of the management of agricultural systems. This
prototype/model needs to have an appropriate strategy of management with a strategic map for theoperation, and support from government and private sectors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to extend sincere thanks to the Department of Agricultural Extension andCommunication, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand for sponsoring thisresearch, as well as the instructors who gave useful advice, relevant farmers and government
authorities.
REFERENCES
BioThai Foundation. 2011. Mango network on the global market. http: //www.biothai.net (retrieved on 28
December, 2011)
Kenan Institute Asia et al. 2006. Report of the cluster mapping project to enhance the competitiveness of the
manufacturing sector and service. Bangkok. Office of the National Economics and social DevelopmentⒸ ISERD

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Board, Thailand.
Office of Agricultural Economic. 2010. Strategic development of fruit, Thailand 2553-2557. Ministry ofAgriculture and Cooperatives, http://www.Oae.go.th (retrieved on 28 October, 2015).
Office of Permanent Secretary Ministry of Commerce. 2015. Thailand trading report. Ministry of Commerce.
http://www.Opc3moc.go.th (retrieved on 20 October, 2015).
Thana Pramookkul. 2011. Network. Thailand Journal of Health Promotion and Environment, 24 (3), 104.

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Research article
erdCharacteristics of Participants of Non-Formal Education
Contributing to Learning Achievement: A Case Study ofSnuol Commune, Kratie Province, Cambodia
SHINOBU YAMADA*
Research Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: sinobun4022@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanKUMIKO KAWABE
Extension Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: hq-erecon@nifty.com
Received 28 December 2016

Accepted 16 December 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In this study, the main objective was to evaluate the number of days attended at
Farmers’ school and their academic ability. The research site was Snuol Commune, Kratié
Province. First, the relationship between the characteristics of local farmers and the results of
the achievement test was clarified. In addition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school
was evaluated by multiple regression analysis. The results of the analysis are summarized asfollows. 1) According to the results of the Multiple Correspondence Analysis, it was clearthat the result of the achievement test was connected with characteristics of local farmers byeducational background, gender, and whether or they attended Farmers’ school. 2) According
to the results from the Multiple Regression Analysis, after being confirmed statistically,
Farmers’ school attendance and educational background gave positive effects as a result of
the achievement test. In addition, the results of the categorical regression analysis suggested
the characteristic of the participant of the Farmers’ school statistically. The participants of
the Farmers’ school already have the ability for reading and understanding basic Khmer. As
for the educational content that the participant of the Farmers’ school expected at the sametime, it was suggested that it was knowledge, except the Khmers word acquisition, such asarithmetic or the environmental problem. In conclusion, creating an opportunity for the nonformal education is a necessary condition for knowledge acquisition concerning theappropriate usage and environmental problem of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in thelocal Cambodia area.
Keywords non-formal education, Farmers’ school, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
In Cambodia, a large amount of pesticides and chemical fertilizers have been used in order to increase
the agricultural productivity. This situation has caused the destruction of the environment, such as along-term deterioration of soil and water quality, and a decline of land productivity. The main causeof the excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers this is because local farmers cannot
understand appropriate use (Kazama and Honma, 2015). For this reason, learning their own language,
Khmer, is necessary and important. Based on the above-mentioned backgrounds, the main objectiveof this study was to evaluate the number of days attended at Farmers’ school and their academic
ability. First, the relationship between the characteristics of local farmers and the results of theachievement test was clarified. In addition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school was
evaluated by multiple regression analysis.

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The research site was at the Snuol Commune in the Kratié Province. The Kratié Province islocated in the northeastern part of Cambodia, where development is the slowest, and the comparable
difference with other areas is large. In the Snuol Commune, the applications of agricultural chemicals,such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, have rapidly been increasing in recent years. Although it
contributed to increasing agricultural productivity, the amounts of applying agricultural chemicals
caused environmental disruptions, such as soil and water quality degradation, and decreased land
productivity in the long term. Until now, a local NGO distributed a document that disseminatedcorrect information regarding chemical fertilizers and pesticides. However, one in about three peopleof the inhabitants of the Snuol Commune aged 25 to 60 cannot read and write, so the correct
information has not been delivered. In addition, at this site, the Institute of Environmental
Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON) carried out the project “study on sustained utilizationof the natural resource” (3/2015-4/2016). In this project, the Khmer language, arithmetic, and an
environmental class were conducted with support of ERECON once a week in each village for twohours.
The Kratié Province is located in the northeastern part of Cambodia, where development is theslowest and the comparable difference with other areas is large. In Snuol village, Snuol district,Kratié Province, 170,000 ha, equal to 65%, is used in the total area, 260,000 ha is forest, and 14,000
ha, equal to 5%, is used as agricultural land.
OBJECTIVESIn this study, the main objective was to evaluate the number of days attended at Farmers’ school andtheir academic ability. First, the relationship between the characteristics of local farmers and theresults of the achievement test was clarified. In addition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school
was evaluated by multiple regression analysis.
METHODOLOGY
The index of a questionnaire carried out included gender and age of the respondent, educational
background, and having participated in Farmers’ school or not. In addition, for respondents who
participated in Farmers school, attendance level, comprehension of the Khmer reading
comprehension and writing ability was investigated.
The target area of the questionnaire survey consisted of the following seven villages: Kathdai,
Krang, Kbal Snuol, Snuol Kert, Snuol Lech, Prek Kdey and Thpong. The survey period lasted from
July to August 2015. The number of useful responses we received per area are as follows: Kathdai:
32 respondents (20.5% of the total respondents); Krang: 4 respondents (2.6%); Kbal Snuol: 18
respondents (11.5%); Snuol Kert: 41 respondents (26.3%); Snuol Lech: 20 respondents (12.8%);
Prek Kdey: 26 respondents (16.7%); and Thpong: 15 respondents (9.6%). There were 156
respondents in total.
Based on survey data, Multiple Regression Analysis is applied, and the results of achievement
test and the characteristics of the respondent are elucidated. Furthermore, Categorical Regression
Analysis is referenced, and the attendance level in Farmers' school, and the characteristics of the
respondent are clarified.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the differences in the means of achievement test scores for respondents. The contentsof the achievement test are on a scale of one to fifteen by the Khmer language. The attributes of the
respondents and the relations of the achievement test are as follows. Concerning the “Gender” of the
respondents, 50% were “male” and 50% were “female.” The average score of the actual test by thedifference of “Gender” is as follows, “male”: 11.86 (maximum of 15) and “female.”: 10.41.
Concerning the “Age” of the respondents, the majority of respondents were between the ages of “50Ⓒ ISERD112

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59” years (25.0%), followed by “40-49” years (19.23%) and “More than 70” years (17.95%). The
lowest percentage was aged “Less than 20 years” old. The average score of the actual test by thedifference of “Age” is as follows: the ages of “50-59” years: 11.28; “40-49” years: 11.48; “Morethan 70” years: 10.55; and “Less than 20 years” old: 11.0. Concerning the “Educational background”,
the majority of respondents had “Primary” (60.26%), followed by “Secondary” (18.59%) and “Never
had been to school” (16.03%). The average score of the actual test by the difference of “Educational
background” is as follows: “Primary”: 11.13; “Secondary”: 12.90; and “Never had been to school”:
8.52. The respondents of "Never had been to school" obviously had a low average on the achievement
test.
Table 1 Demographic information of respondents
Index
GenderAge

Educational backgroundNumber of response Achievement test(n)(％) scoring average
1. Male
78
50.0
11.86
2. Female
78
50.0
10.41
1.Less than 20 years old
19
12.18
11.00
2.20-29years
20
12.82
11.40
3.30-39years
0
0.00
0.00
4.40-49years
30
19.23
11.40
5.50-59years
39
25.00
11.28
6.60-69years
20
12.82
10.96
7.More than 70 years old
28
17.95
10.55
1. Never had been to school
25
16.03
8.52
2. Primary
94
60.26
11.13
3. Secondary
29
18.59
12.90
4. High school
5
3.21
13.00
5.College/University
2
1.28
15.00
Total
156
Total average mark11.13

source ： Survey Date
Fs ： Farmers School

Table 2 A question index and achievement test scoring average
Index
The presence orabsence of attend in Fs
Number of times
of attend in Fs

Reading comprehension

Writing ability

Number of response Achievement test(n)(％)
scoring average
1. Yes
93
59.62
11.95
2. No
63
40.38
9.94
1. 1-3 times
17
10.90
12.29
2. 4-6 times
12
7.69
11.92
3. 7-10 times
17
10.90
10.29
4. Over 14 times
50
32.05
11.98
1. No
28
17.95
8.11
2. Yes, little
82
52.56
11.32
3. Yes, well
45
28.85
11.33
non-response
1
0.64
13.00
1. No
30
19.23
8.10
2. Yes, little
78
50.00
11.13
3. Yes, well
48
30.77
13.00
Total
156
100.00Total average mark11.13

source ： Survey Date
Fs ： Farmers SchoolⒸ ISERD

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Table 2 shows differences in the achievement test scores concerning the attendance of Farmers’
school. Concerning attendance in Farmers’ school, almost 60% were “Yes” and about 40% were“No”. The average score of the achievement test by the difference of “attendance in Farmers’ school”
is as follows, “Yes”: 11.95 and ”No”: 9.94.Concerning the number of times of attendance in the
Farmers’ school, "1-3 times" (10.90%),"4-6 times” (7.69%), "7-10 times" (10.90%) and "Over 14
times" (32.05%). The average score of the achievement test by the difference of the “Number oftimes of attendance in Farmers’ school” is as follows: “1-3 times”: 10.90; “4-6 times”:7.69; “7-10times”: 10.29; and “Over 14 times”: 11.98. Concerning “Reading comprehension”, almost 20% were“No”, about 53% were "Somewhat" and about 40% were “Yes, well”. The average score of theachievement test by the difference of “Reading comprehension” is as follows, “No”: 8.11, “Yes, alittle”: 11.32 and “Yes, well”: 11.33. Concerning “Writing ability”, almost 20% were “No”, about
50% were "Yes, a little" and about 30% were “Yes, well”. The average score of the achievement testby the difference of “Writing ability” is as follows, “No”: 8.10, “Yes, a little”: 11.13 and “Yes, well”:
13.00.
Characteristic of Respondents and the Results of the Achievement Test by Multiple
Correspondence Analysis
Using attributes from Tables 1 and 2, this part clarifies the characteristics of respondents and theresults of achievement test. In this analysis, Multiple Correspondence Analysis was employed.

Fig.1 The result of Answer Pattern for using of the characteristics on participants
and the achievement test score －Correspondence Analysis －Figure 1 shows the results of the answer pattern for “participants of non-formal education”,“non-participants of non-formal education” and “Never had been to school”. In this analysis,
Multiple Correspondence Analysis was employed. According to the results of the Multiple
Correspondence Analysis, it was clear that the results of the achievement test were connected withcharacteristics of local farmers by “educational background”, “gender”, and “whether or not to attend
Farmers’ school”.
Characteristic of Respondents and the Result of Achievement Test by Multiple Regression
Analysis
The Multiple Regression Model is shown by Eq. (1), where Y is the achievement test score, X2 isthe attendance in Farmers’ school (dummy), X3 is the number of times of attendance in the Farmers’Ⓒ ISERD

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school (1-3 times: 1; 4-6 times: 2; 7-10 times: 3; Over 14 times: 4), X4 is the educational background(Never had been to school: 1, primary: 2, secondary: 3, high school: 4, college/university: 5), X5 isthe reading comprehension in Khmer (dummy), and X6 is the writing ability in Khmer (dummy). At
the same time, β is the estimation parameter. The ordinary least squares (OLS) method was employedin the estimation of the regression model.
Y=α＋βx2＋βx3＋････＋βx6(1)

The estimation results of the multiple regression analysis are shown in Table 3. The statisticallymeaningful independent variables are as follows: X2 is the attendance in Farmers’ school: 2.763(3.083); X3 is the number of times of attendance in Farmers’ school: -0.469 (-1.833); X4 is thehighest achieved educational background: 1.211 (3.113); X5 is the reading comprehension in Khmer:
1.042 (0.745); X6 is the writing ability in Khmer: 1.773 (1.315), which shows a t value. From anestimated result, it was confirmed statistically that attendance of the Farmers’ and the last educational
background gave a positive effect to (Y) as a result of the achievement test.
Table 3 Estimation results of Multiple Regression Analysis
Dependent variable: Achievement test score

Y：
Estimated parameterBt-value

Independent variable
Constant
5.705
6.909
The presence or absence of attend in Fs
x2 ： Dummy
2.763
3.083
Number of times of attend in Fs
x3 ：4−0.469 −1.8336
Educational background
x4 ：
5
1.121
3.113
Reading comprehension
x5 ： Dummy
1.042
0.745
Writing ability
x6 ： Dummy
1.773
1.315
R Square0.269
Adjusted R Square
0.245
Note:***1% level of significance,**5% level of significance,*10% level of significance
Source:Survey Data
Fs ： Farmers’ school

p-value
0.000 ***
0.002 ***
0.069
0.002 ***
0.458
0.191

Characteristic of Respondents and the Number of Times of Attend in Farmers’ School byCategorical Regression Analysis
The Categorical Regression Model is shown by Eq. (2), Where Y is the number of times of attendancein Farmers’ school; X2 is the achievement test score (1-3 points: 1; 4-6 points: 2; 7-9 points: 3; 1012 points: 4; 13-15 points: 5); X3 is the educational background (Never had been to school: 1;
primary: 2; secondary: 3; high school: 4; college/university: 5); X4 is the reading comprehension in
Khmer (dummy); and X5 is the writing ability in Khmer (dummy). At the same time, β is theestimation parameter.
Y=βx2＋βx3＋････＋βx5(2)

In Table 4, the estimation results of the Categorical regression analysis are shown. The
statistically meaningful independent variables are as follows: X2 is the achievement test score: 0.070 (-0.707); X3 is the highest achieved educational background: 0.203 (1.829); X4 is the reading
comprehension in Khmer: 0.692 (3.888); and X5 is the writing ability in Khmer: -0.518 (-2.960),
which shows a t value. From estimated results, it was confirmed statistically after the reading
comprehension in Khmer and the educational background gave a positive effect to (Y) as did thenumber of times of attendance in Farmers’ school.

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Table 4 Estimation results of Categorical Regression Analysis
Dependent variable:
Number of times of attend in Farmers’schoolY：
Estimated parameterBt-value p-value

Independent variable
Achievement test scorex2 ：5-0.070 -0.707
Educational background
x3 ：
4
0.203
1.829
Reading comprehension
x4 ： Dummy
0.692
3.888
Writing ability
x5 ： Dummy-0.518 -2.960
R Square0.232
Adjusted R Square
0.151
Note:***1% level of significance,**5% level of significance,*10% level of significance
Source:Survey Data

0.481
0.040
0.000 ***
0.000 *

According to the results of the Multiple Correspondence Analysis, it was clear that the result of
the achievement test was connected with characteristics of local farmers by educational background,gender, and whether or they attended Farmers’ school.
According to the results from the Multiple Regression Analysis, after being confirmed
statistically, Farmers’ school attendance and educational background gave positive effects as a resultof the achievement test.
In addition, from the results of the categorical regression analysis, the characteristics of theparticipants in the Farmers’ school were confirmed statistically, as follows. The participants of theFarmers’ school already have the ability for reading and understanding basic Khmer. As for theeducational content that the participant of the Farmers’ school expected at the same time, it wassuggested that it was knowledge, except the Khmers word acquisition, such as arithmetic or theenvironmental problem.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the main objective was to evaluate the number of days attended at Farmers’ school andtheir academic ability. The research site was Snuol Commune, Kratié Province. First, the relationshipbetween the characteristics of local farmers and the results of the achievement test was clarified. In
addition, the educational effect of the Farmers’ school was evaluated by multiple regression analysis.
In conclusion, creating an opportunity for the non-formal education is a necessary condition forknowledge acquisition concerning the appropriate usage and environmental problem of chemicalfertilizers and pesticides in the local Cambodia areas.
REFERENCES
Fujimoto, A. and Miyaura, R. 1996. An ecological and economic assessment of vegetable, Cultivation inhighland areas in Southeast Asia. Journal of Agricultural Science, 40 (4), 248-263.
Fujimoto, A. 1998. The problem and possibility of food production in Southeast Asia. Agriculture andHorticulture, 73 (6), Japan.
Kazama, M. and Honma, K. 2015. The use of agricultural chemicals in Cambodia, From the interview researchwith rce farmers and consumers. Hokusei Review, Junior College, 13, 47-59.

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Research article
erd

Ready to Drink Milk as a Nutritional Toolfor Human Capital Development of Thailand
ANUCHA WITTAYAKORN-PURIPUNPINYOO*
School of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Parkkret, Nontaburi, Thailand, 11120
Email: puanucha@windowslive.com

VASINA CHANDASIRI
School of Human Ecology, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Parkkret,
Nontaburi, Thailand, 11120

SULUCK KONGKAEWSchool of Agriculture and Co-operatives, School of Human Ecology,
Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Parkkret, Nontaburi, Thailand, 11120
Received 20 December 2016

Accepted 16 December 2017(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Ready to drink milk is one of the nutrient food for Thais as a way for humandevelopment in the long run. The research objectives were to 1) study the generality of readyto drink milk as a nutritional tool for human capital development of Thailand, 2) forecast thequantity of ready to drink milk for Thai consumers, and 3) find out the factors affected on
consumers’ demand quantity for Thais. The secondary data were collected as time series data
gathering from Food Intelligence Center of Thailand from the year of 1987 to 2014, the Officeof Agricultural Economics Office, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Department ofInternal Commerce, Ministry of Commerce, Bank of Thailand. Data analysis was applied
descriptive statistics which comprised of arithmetic mean, standard deviation, linear
forecasting, and growth rate while inferential statistics composed of multiple linear regression
analysis in the form of double natural logarithm, T-test, F-test, the Coefficient of
Determination (R2) and Durbin-Watson (DW). The research results revealed that 1) ready todrink milk as a nutritional tool as human capital development of all Thai. There obviously
trended to get the high potential nutritional consume for Thai as a nutrient food for people ofThailand with the increasingly demand. 2) For ready to drink milk forecasting, quantity
demand for ready to drink milk of Thai consumers has been significantly increased as a highnutrient quality drink of essential protein and calcium for Thais. 3) factors affected on readyto drink milk were comprised of its retail prices, quantity of consumer, income per capita as
well as the advertising expenditure of ready to drink milk venders. Due to the research results,
Thai government should strongly promote ready to drink milk as a tool for human capital todevelop both physical and dietary for Thai as a tool for human capital sustainable
development.
Keywords ready to drink milk, nutritional tool, human capital development

INTRODUCTION
ASIA is no doubt flexing its muscles as a global milk producer. Recent statistics from the United
Nation’s Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) show that the region
currently supplies 37 percent of milk worldwide. Thailand is well positioned in all this as its dairy
market is valued at $850 million, with UHT milk and culture yoghurt as main drivers. Although there
is a growing demand for cheese mostly from urban dwellers, cheese products continue to take a small
bite into Thailand’s dairy market. Working against it is the local consumers’ lack of familiarity ofcheese variety and benefits. In fact, most Thais tend to associate the product as a source of fat and acause of obesity (www.industrysourcing.com).
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In Thailand, the long-running School Milk Programme subsidised by the Royal Thai
Government is also fueling milk consumption amongst the young. The project daily provides 200ml milk carton to more than eight million students below the age of 12 years. Estimated cost to
finance the project this year stands at $432.6 million, with some 80 dairy companies and cooperatives
being roped in to process 1,252 tonnes of raw milk daily. FAO estimates the project to account for
more than 30 percent of the total liquid food market (www.industrysourcing.com).
According to FAO data, a precursor to the national School Milk programme was introduced in
the mid-1980s to provide an outlet for locally produced milk. By doing so, it hoped to introduce milk
nutrition into the diets of young people especially those outside of the urban and semi-urban region.
A more long-term goal was for the programme to develop in students a lifelong taste for milk. And
acquiring the taste for milk they did. Statistic show that from a low 2-litre milk per capita milk
consumption in 1984, the rate has risen to as high of 23 litres by 2002. The dairy market has likewise
increased from a 290-million-litres-a-year business in the early 1990s to a 1,146-million litres market
by 2003. The ascent continues. Whilst milk production within Thailand has grown 30-fold in close
to three decades and average dairy consumption in the Thai diet has more than quadrupled for thesame period, experts say demand still exceeds local production (www.industrysourcing.com).
Almost 30 years, the Royal Thai Government launched the national school milk programme asa nutritional tool for human capital development of Thailand. More than 90 percent of consumers inthis programme consume ready to drink milk as a nutritional food for diet in order to develop both
physical and healthy human capital. Ready to drink milk in Thailand comprised of 3 main different
types which are pasteurized milk, sterilized milk, and ultra-high temperature milk or ultra-heat
treated milk (UHT) (www.ku.ac.th).
In this research paper, the researcher tried to study and examine the situation of ready to drink
milk consumption through the national school milk programme as the Royal Thai government
provides students as a nutritional tool for human capital development. Also, the research tried toforecast the quantity of ready to drink milk for Thai consumers as well as find out the factors affectedon consumers’ demand quantity for Thais.
OBJECTIVE
The research objectives are to:1) study the generality of ready to drink milk as a nutritional tool for human capital development ofThailand,2) forecast the quantity of ready to drink milk for Thai consumers, and3) find out the factors affected on consumers’ demand quantity for Thais.
METHODOLOGY
Data collection: The secondary data were collected from Food Intelligence Center of Thailand fromthe year of 1987 to 2014, the Office of Agricultural Economics Office (AEO), Ministry ofAgriculture and Co-operatives, Department of Internal Commerce, Ministry of Commerce, Bank ofThailand.
Data analysis: Data analysis was applied descriptive statistics which comprised of arithmetic mean,
standard deviation, linear forecasting, and growth rate while inferential statistics composed ofmultiple linear regression analysis in the form of double natural logarithm, T-test, F-test, theCoefficient of Determination (R2) and Durbin-Watson (DW).
RESULTS AND DIACUSSION
The research results are expressed corresponding to the 3-research objectives as below.

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1) The Generality of Ready to Drink Milk as a Nutritional Tool for Human Capital
Development of Thailand
The Royal Thai Government implemented the national school milk as a nutritional tool for humancapital development of Thailand especially for children. The establishment of the National Milk
Drinking Campaign Board (NMDCB) by the Cabinet decision in 1985 stems from the farmers
protests of 1984 on unsold milk. A pilot programme was implemented in selected areas of Bangkok
and Chiang Mai for parents to purchase milk at 25 percent less the normal priced milk throughmonthly coupons for their children in Primary and Kindergarten schools. This programme was theorigin of the national School Milk Programme of Thailand. Over the years, the programme was later
expanded and today all school children in public schools are provided with 200 ml of free milk.
Today, the operation of the Thai school milk is carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock Bureau. As per the cabinet consensus in 2003, ready to drink milk, only plain milk in both
UHT and pasteurised format are provided. The success of school milk in Thailand stems is not justmeasured in terms of nutritional benefits, in previous International FAO sponsored school milk
conferences. (School milk conferences, www.fao.org/economic/est/est-commodities/dairy/schoolmilk/school-milk-conferences.) The economic benefits and the support in national development isless known. Without school milk to provide a stable platform by which to support the growth of theThai dairy industry, the Thai dairy will definitely not have experience such growth.
2) Forecast the Quantity of Ready to Drink Milk for Thai Consumers
The quantity forecasting of ready to drink milk consumption of Thailand is expressed in Fig. 1 andTable 1 as follows.

Consumption Quantity Forecasting
2,000,000
1,800,000
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

Fig. 1 The quantity forecasting of ready to drink milk consumption of Thailand
Source: Calculated from the data base of the Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture andCo-operatives, The Royal Thai Government

According to the research results, from the year of 2015 to 2034, the Quantity Forecasting ofReady to Drink Milk Consumption of Thailand would be increased over time with the average
1,540,402 tons a year, standard deviation of 223,007 tons a year, and growth rate of 2.46 percent ayear.

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Table 1 The quantity forecasting of ready to drink milk consumption of Thailand
The quantity forecasting of ready to drink milk
consumption of Thailand
Growth rate (%)(Unit : Tons)
2015
1,182,299
2016
1,219,994
3.09
2017
1,257,689
3.00
2018
1,295,384
2.91
2019
1,333,079
2.83
2020
1,370,774
2.75
2021
1,408,469
2.68
2022
1,446,165
2.61
2023
1,483,860
2.54
2024
1,521,555
2.48
2025
1,559,250
2.42
2026
1,596,640
2.36
2027
1,634,640
2.31
2028
1,672,335
2.25
2029
1,710,725
2.20
2030
1,747,725
2.16
2031
1,785,421
2.11
2032
1,823,116
2.07
2033
1,860,811
2.03
2034
1,898,506
1.99
Average
1,540,402
2.46Standard Deviation
223,007
Source: Calculation from the Data Base of the Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture andCooperatives, the Royal Thai Government, 2016.
Year3) Factors Affected on Consumers’ Demand Quantity for Thais
According to the research results, the factors affected on ready to drink consumption in Thailand
were expressed as follows.
LnQt = -7.88 – 0.084 ln (Price) t + 1.015 ln (GDPH) t + 0.207 ln (Pop) t + 0.486 ln (Advt) t + e(-2.406)**(-14.42)**(35.71)**(42.14)**(36.62)**R2 = 0.97, F = 328.91***, D.W = 1.86
Where (Price) t: Ready to drink milk retail price, (GDPH) t: Income per capita, (Pop) t: Numberof population, (Advt) t: Advertising expenditure, e: error term, **: Statistical significance at 99
percent.
Factors affected on ready to drink milk were its retail price, income per capita, number of
population and advertising expenditure. The increasing in retail price by 1 percent led to thedecreasing in ready to drink milk by 0.084 percent while the increasing in income per capita, numberof population and advertising expenditure by 1 percent led to the increasing in ready to drink milk
by 1.015, 0.207 and 0.486 percent respectively.
CONCLUSION
Ready to drink milk as a nutritional tool for human capital development of Thailand through thenational school milk programme launched by The Royal Thai government to develop human capitalby promotion the ready to drink milk consumption for Thai young students in schools throughout
Thailand. The successfulness of this programe brought to Thai young students develop both physicaland healthy human capital.(www.fao.org/school milk programme in Thailand) From 2015 to 2034,
the quantity forecasting of ready to drink milk in Thailand has been increased significantly. Due tothe research results, factor that has biggest influenced on quantity demand of ready to drink milk in
Thailand was advertising expenditure because Thai ready to drink milk market structure has been
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and still be the oligopoly. The national school milk of the Royal Thai government applied ready todrink milk as a nutritional tool for human capital development of Thailand especially Thai young
students all over Thailand. In terms of nutrition, ready to drink milk is one of the diets which rich ofprotein, calcium, and other necessary nutrients for young students as a tool for human capitaldevelopment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I, personally, dedicated my work to my beloved Father and Mother and my Family. Father who gaveme all of his unconditional love which is the greatest love of all. Mother who is the first teacher in
my life who showed me her unlimited love.
REFERENCES
Kasetsert University. 2017. Milk and dairy products in human nutrition. http://www.ku.ac.th
Milk Information. 2017. www.industrysourcing.com/food-beverage (retrieved).
The Office of Agricultural Economics. 2017. Ready to drink milk. The office of Agricultural Economics,
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, The Royal Thai Government.
The Office of Agricultural Economics. 2017. School milk conferences. http://www.fao.org/economic/est/estcommodities/dairy/school-milk/school-milk-conferences/en/, The Office of Agricultural Economics,
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, The Royal Thai Government.

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erdInternational Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
Purposes of ISERD:
The primary purposes of ISERD are to contribute to sustainable rural development through social andeconomic development in harmony with the natural environment and to support the potential or capacity
building of local institutions and stakeholders in the rural area with academic background.
In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, where is located in
the Research Center at Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) by writing or byother appropriate means.
Also every presenter who attends the International Conference on Environmental and Rural
Development (ICERD) is registered as an Individual Member of ISERD.
Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability, Japan

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

Deputy Presidents
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Executive Secretary / Editor-in-Chief of IJERD
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan /Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation,
Southeast Asia Office / Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Dr. Sinisa Berjan, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dr. Buntong Borarin, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, African Program on Field Oriented Leaders in Environ. Sectors, Ghana
Dr. Sri Wahyuni, Islamic University of Riau, Indonesia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Regucivilla A. Pobar, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
ISERD Secretariat:
Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
2987-1 Onoji Machida-Shi, Tokyo 195-0064, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81-42736-8972
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net
Collaborated with

Association of Environmental and Rural Development (AERD)
93/64 Moo.3, Sinsab Village 2, Bungyeetho Sub-district, Thanyaburi District,Pathum Thani 12130, Thailand
Tel/Fax: +66-2957-8064
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net

Institute for the Advanced Studyof Sustainability
All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the International Conference on
Environmental and Rural Development that was co-organized by United Nations University, Institute for
the Advanced Study of Sustainability.