Research Activities about the Radiological Consequencesof the Chernobyl NPS Accident and Social Activities toAssist the Sufferers by the Accident

Report of an International Collaborative Work under the Research
Grant of the Toyota Foundation in 1995 - 1997

Edited by IMANAKA T.

Research Reactor Institute,
Kyoto University
March 1998

Research Activities about the Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl NPS
Accident and Social Activities to Assist the Sufferers by the Accident
Preface
The 12th anniversary is coming soon of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station in
the former USSR on April 26, 1986. Many issues are, however, still unresolved about theradiological impacts on the environment and people due to the Chernobyl accident.
This report contains the results of an international collaborative project about the radiologicalconsequences of the Chernobyl accident, carried out from November 1995 to October 1997 under
the research grant of the Toyota foundation. Our project team consisted of the following 9
members: T. Imanaka (leader, KURRI), H. Koide (KURRI), V. P. Matsko (Institute ofRadiobiology, Academy of Sciences of Belarus), I. A. Ryabzev (Institute of Problems of Ecology
and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences), O. Nasvit (Institute of Hydrobiology, National
Academy of Sciences of Ukraine), A. Yaroshinskaya (Yaroshinskaya Charity Fund, Russia), M. V.
Malko (Institute of Physical and Chemical Radiation Problems, Academy Sciences of Belarus), V.
Tykhyi (Environmental Education and Information Center, Ukraine) and S. Sugiura (Japan
Chernobyl Foundation, Minsk office).
Collaborative works were promoted along with the following 5 sub-themes:
General description of research activities in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine concerning theradiological consequences of the accident.
Investigation of the current situation of epidemiological studies about Chernobyl in each affected
country.
Investigation of acute radiation syndrome among inhabitants evacuated soon after the accident
from the 30 km zone around the Chernobyl NPS.
Overview of social activities to assist the sufferers by the accident in each affected country.
Preparation of special reports of interesting studies being carried out in each affected country.
In this report, 32 papers prepared through the collaborative work are included. All membersof the project team are sure that the contents of this report are useful not only to specialists, but also
to all persons who have concern for the problem of nuclear energy.
We are grateful to the Toyota foundation for a high appreciation of our works, and to
Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University for various conveniences during the course of ourcollaborative project.
Imanaka T.
Research Reactor Institute,
Kyoto University
March 1998

ii

Title and Member List of the International Collaboration Study
November 1995 - October 1996
Investigation of Research Activities about the Radiological Consequences of theChernobyl Accident in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine after the Collapse of the USSR
Tetsuji IMANAKA; Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University; Kumatori-cho,Sennan-gun, Osaka 590-04, Japan; imanaka@rri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Hiroaki KOIDE; Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University; Kumatori-cho, Sennan-gun,Osaka 590-04, Japan; koide@rri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Vladimir P. MATSKO; Institute of Radiobiology, Academy of Sciences of Belarus;
Zhodinskaya st. 2, Minsk 220600, Belarus; irb@irb.belpak.minsk.by
Igor A. RYABZEV, Institute of problems of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of
Sciences; Leninsky st. D-33, Moscow 117071, Russia; ryabzev@glasnet.ru
Oleg NASVIT; Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; pr. 12
Geroev Stalingrada, Kyiv 254210, Ukraine; oleg@nasvit.pp.kiev.ua

November 1996 - October 1997
Investigation of Research Activities about the Radiological Consequences of theChernobyl Accident and Social Activities to Assist Its Sufferers in Russia, Belarus
and Ukraine
Tetsuji IMANAKA, Hiroaki KOIDE, Vladimir P. MATSKO, Igor A. RYABZEV, Oleg NASVIT
Alla YAROSHINSKAYA; Yaroshinskaya Charity Fund, Beresnevskaya Naberezhnaya 20/2,
Moscow 103790, Russia; yaro@glas.apc.org
Mikhail V. MALKO; Institute of Physical and Chemical Radiation Problems, Academy
Sciences of Belarus; Sosny, Minsk 220109, Belarus;
Mvmalko@malkom.belpak.minsk.by
Volodymyr TYKHYI; Environmental Education and Information Center; POB 136, Kyiv
254070, Ukraine; eeic@gulk.apc.org
Satoshi SUGIURA; Japan Chernobyl Fund; Asama-Onsen 3-22-33-5, Matsumoto 390,
Japan

iv

CONTENTS

page

1.

Research Activities of the Nuclear Safety Research Group of KURRI with Belarussian, Russian
and Ukrainian Colleagues about the Chernobyl Accident
Tetsuji IMANAKA

1

2.

Chernobyl Accident: the Crisis of the International Radiation Community
Mikhail V. MALKO

5

3.

General Situation of the Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident in Ukraine
Dmytro M. GRODZINSKY

18

4.

Legislation and Research Activity in Belarus about the Radiological Consequences of theChernobyl Accident: Historical Review and Present Situation
Vladimir P. MATSKO, Tetsuji IMANAKA

28

Legislation and Research Activity in Russia about the Radiological Consequences of theChernobyl Accident
Igor A. RYABZEV, Tetsuji IMANAKA

40

5.

6.

Legislation in Ukraine about the Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident
Oleg NASVIT

7.

Research and Managing Institutions in Ukraine concerning the Radiological Consequences of
the Chernobyl Accident
Oleg NASVIT

51

58
65

8.

Assessment of the Chernobyl Radiological Consequences
Mikhail V. MALKO

9.

Relationship between 131I and 137Cs Deposition on Soil in the Territory of Belarus after the
Chernobyl Accident.
Vladimir. A. KNATKO, Igor I. IVACHKEVICH, Valentina D. ASIMOVA

90

10. Isotope Fractionation of Uranium in the Process of Leaching of Nuclides of Dispersed Fuel of
RBMK of the Chernobyl NPP
German N. BONDARENKO, Emlen V. SOBOTOVICH

93

11. Impact of Radiation on the Population during the First Weeks and Months after the Chernobyl
104
Accident and Health State of the Population 10 Years Later
Alla YAROSHINSKAYA
12. Chernobyl 1996: New Materials concerning Acute Radiation Syndrome around Chernobyl
Vladimir M. LUPANDIN

108

13. Overview of Different Information about Acute Radiation Syndrome among Inhabitants
around Chernobyl
Alla YAROSHINSKAYA

114

14. Dose Assessment for Inhabitants Evacuated from the 30-km Zone Soon after the Chernobyl
Accident
Tetsuji IMANAKA, Hiroaki KOIDE

121

15. Current State of Epidemiological Studies in Belarus about Chernobyl Sufferers
Vladimir P. MATSKO

127

16. Epidemiological Studies in Russia about the Consequences of the Chernobyl APS Accident
Igor A. RYABZEV

139v

17. Dynamics of Health Status of Residents in the Lugyny District after the Accident at the ChNPS 149
Ivan GODLEVSKY, Oleg NASVIT
18. Radiation Situation and Health Statistics of the People in the Tula Region of Russia after the
Chernobyl Catastrophe
J. Socorro DELGADO ANDIA

157

19. Present Status of Childhood Thyroid Carcinoma in Belarus following the Chernobyl Accident
Akira SUGENOYA, Yuri E. DEMIDCHIK, Evgeny P. DEMIDCHIK

165

20. Lens Opacities in Children of Belarus Affected by the Chernobyl Accident
A. N. ARINCHIN, L. A. OSPENNIKOVA

168

21. Genetic Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident for Belarus Republic
Gennady LAZJUK, Yukio SATOW, Dmitri NIKOLAEV, Irina NOVIKOVA

174

22. Monitoring of Cytogenetic Damages in Peripheral Lymphocytes of Children Living inRadiocontaminated Areas of Belarus
Ludmila S. MIKHALEVICH

178

23. Study of Genetic Effects in Somatic Cells of Children Living on the Contaminated Territories
in Belarus
Ludmila S. MIKHALEVICH

184

24. Results of Long-term Genetic Monitoring of Animal Populations Chronically Irradiated in the
194Radiocontaminated Areas
Rose GONCHAROVA and Nadezhda RIABOKON
25. Cytogenetic Effects of the Action of Ionizing Radiations on Human Populations
Vladimir A. SHEVCHENKO, Galina P. SNIGIRYOVA

203

26. Estimation of Absorbed Doses on the Basis of Cytogenetic Methods
Vladimir A. SHEVCHENKO, Galina P. SNIGIRYOVA, Alexander V. RUBANOVICH

216

27. Peculiarities of Biological Action of Low Irradiation Doses and Their Probable Relation to the
Health State of Participants of Chernobyl Accident Liquidation
223
E.B. BURLAKOVA, A.N. GOLOSHCHAPOV, N.V. GORBUNOVA, S.M. GUREVICH, G.P. ZHIZHINA, A.I.
KOZACHENKO, A.A. KONRADOV, D.B. KORMAN, E.M. MOLOCHKINA, L.G. NAGLER, I.B. OZEROVA, S.I.
SKALATSKAYA, M.A. SMOTRYAEVA, O.A. TARASENKO, Yu.A. TRESHCHENKOVA, V.A. SHEVCHENKO
28. Chernobyl Sufferers in Ukraine and Their Social Problems: Short Outline
Volodymyr TYKHYI

235

29. Social Aspects of the Chernobyl Activity in Belarus
Mikhail V. MALKO

246

30. Problems of Social Assistance to the Chernobyl Sufferers in Russia
Alla YAROSHINSKAYA

257

31. Legal Regime of the Chernobyl Problems in the USSR, Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine
Milan ZGERSKY

266

32. Collection of Interesting Data Published in Various Documents
Tetsuji Imanaka

271

vi

Research Activities of the Nuclear Safety Research Group of KURRI with
Belarussian, Russian and Ukrainian Colleagues about the Chernobyl Accident
Tetsuji IMANAKA
Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University
Kumatori-cho, Sennan-gun, Osaka 590-04, Japan; imanaka@rri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Sarcophagus, the containment of the destroyed
reactor): 600,000 - 800,000 persons
Evacuees from the 30-km zone during the firstweeks after the accident: 135,000 persons
People resettled from the contaminated areas: morethan 115,000 persons
Residents in the contaminated areas: over 6 million
persons (Table 2)

The 12th anniversary is coming soon since theChernobyl accident on April 26, 1986, the worst
accident in the history of the commercial use of
nuclear energy. In Japan we say ″JUNEN
HITO-MUKASHI″. It means that a period of ten years
is one era. Literally, there happened a series ofhistorical events during these 12 years which brought
drastic changes in the world. The USSR, which had totake the primary responsibility for the Chernobyl
accident, disappeared at the end of 1991. ″JUNEN
HITO-MUKASHI″ also means that we tend to forget
events in the past. The concern of the world toChernobyl seems to become gradually diminishing as
time goes on. However, a vast amount ofcontaminated territories remains and will remain
regardless of the main events in the world (Table 1).
The sufferers by the Chernobyl accident are
categorized into the followings:
Staffs of the Chernobyl NPP and firemen directly
involved in the accident: 1,000 - 2,000 persons
Liquidators who worked for elimination of theconsequences of the accident (including soldiers
and workers for construction of so-called

In April 1996, at the time of the 10th anniversaryof the Chernobyl accident, an international conference
was held in Vienna by IAEA together with EC and
WHO [6]. One of main purposes of the conference
was announced to distinguish ′myths′ and′speculations′ from scientific facts about theconsequences of the Chernobyl accident. Conclusionsof the conference can be summarized as follows.
<The only long-term health effect that could beobserved so far due to the Chernobyl accident was theincrease of thyroid cancer among inhabitants around
Chernobyl. Other health effects were difficult to beobserved even with following-up investigations ofwide-scale. Reports indicating health deterioration ofChernobyl sufferers were made by scientists in the

Table 1. Areas contaminated with 137Cs in three affected countries, km2 [1].
Level of 137Cs density (Ci/km2)
1-5

5 - 1515 - 40>40>1 total

Russia48,800

5,720

2,100

300

56,920Belarus29,900

10,200

4,200

2,200

46,500

Ukraine37,200

3,200

900

600

41,900Total

115,900

19,120

7,200

3,100

145,320- According to Chernobyl laws in these countries, the contaminated territories are divided into the following
categories depending on 137Cs density: higher than 40 Ci/km2 - zone of alienation, 15-40 Ci/km2 - zone of obligatory
resettlement, 5-15 Ci/km2 - zone of guaranteed voluntary resettlement, 1-5 Ci/km2 - zone of radiation control.

Table 2. Number of people living in the contaminated territory, thousands of persons.
Level of 137Cs density (Ci/km2)
Country (year of data)
1-5
5 - 1515 - 40>40>1 total
Russia(1991.1.1) [2]
1,883
347
93
2,323
Belarus(1995) [3]
1,485
314
41
0.283
1,840
Ukraine(1995.1.1) [4]
1,732
653
19
2,404
Total
5,100
1,314
153
0.283
6,567
- According to the GOSPLAN report in 1990 [5], the numbers of residents in the area of 15-40 Ci/km2 and over 40
Ci/km2 were 234 thousands and 33.8 thousands, respectively. So, 115 thousands were at least resettled since 1990.

1

works, our group has been providing the public withinformation about risks accompanied with thecommercial use of nuclear energy.
It was quite natural for us, when the Chernobyl
accident happened, to begin one more task toinvestigate its consequences from our point of view.
We measured radioactivity from Chernobyl in Japan,
collected information on all aspects of the accident
including contamination data from all over the world,and made the assessment of radioactivities released by
the accident [12-15].
By the end of 1986, we succeeded in making
outline of radioactive contamination in the northernhemisphere except in the territory of the former USSR.
Our estimates of irradiation dose in Japan due tofallouts from Chernobyl are shown in Table 3. Table 4
includes our assessment of released activities made in
the first years after the accident. Although the resultsof our analysis, which was made based on small data
presented in the 1986 USSR report on the accident[16], indicated a very high level of contamination in
the territory of Belarus, we did not have measures toconfirm it for several years. The fact should be kept inmind that there was a vacant period of information forabout three years, when we retrospectively try toinvestigate the Chernobyl accident.
In the process of perestroika and glasnost within
the USSR, the first detailed map of contamination was
published in Belarus in February 1989 [17]. A vast
amount of contaminated areas showed the validity of
our assessment in the first years. We were also
surprised to know that high levels of contamination
extended even to 200 - 300 km from the Chernobyl
site, which could not be supposed from our accident
assessment for light water reactors.
Imanaka and his colleague Seo (deceased in 1994)
made the first visit to the USSR in the summer of
1990[18,19].
Through
the
visit
to
Moscow/Minsk/Kyiv, we knew that there wereamounts of data about radioactive contamination
taken by Soviet scientists at the initial stage of theaffected countries, but they were not reliable from thescientific point of view.>
We can interpret the above conclusion as follows:
the health effects of the Chernobyl accident were verysmall except thyroid cancer, mortality of which isrelatively low, although the Chernobyl accident was
the worst one. The fact in 1991 at the conference ofInternational Chernobyl Project by IAEA [7],however, should be remembered that experts of IAEA
neglected protests of Belarussian and Ukrainianscientists insisting serious increase of child thyroid
diseases around Chernobyl against the conclusion of
the International Chernobyl Project that there was nohealth effect there. Five years later the same experts of
IAEA had to recognize ′myth′ of thyroid diseases tobe facts.
In this report of our international collaborative
project, we have included reports and information thatthe experts of IAEA would see as ′myths′ or′speculations′. The present author believes that there
are ′myths′ reflecting the truth, and that one importanttask of science is to find out the truth hidden behindfragmentary information.
By the way, during these years the number ofnuclear power plants in Japan increased to 53 reactors(total 45GWe) in January 1998 from 33 reactors (total
25 GWe) at the moment of the Chernobyl accident.
Activity of Japanese members before thecollaborative project
The Nuclear Safety Research Group of Research
Reactor Institute, Kyoto University (KURRI), towhich the present author belongs, has been working
on safety problems of nuclear facilities for more than
20 years. Main tasks of our group have been thefollowings: analyses of engineering problems of PWR
and other reactors, assessment of radiologicalconsequences by hypothetical severe accidents at
nuclear power plants in Japan, measurements ofradioactive contamination in the environment,
investigation of the Three Mile Island NPP accident
in March 1979 in the USA, etc. [8-11]. Through these

Table 3. Estimates of irradiation dose in Japan due to fallouts from Chernobyl for the 1st year
after the accident [13].
Thyroid Organ Dose, µSv
Path
Total
Inhalation
Tap water
Leafy vegetable
Milk
Children
60
14
290
43
~400
Adults
30
4
110
6
~150
Total Body Dose: µSv
External
Internal
Total
Cloud
GroundInhalation Tap water Leafy vegetable
Milk
Children
0.02
3
0.2
0.07
0.7
1.2
~5
Adults
0.02
3
0.2
0.04
0.5
0.4
~4

2

Table 4. Estimates of released radioactivity of major nuclides by the Chernobyl accident.
Estimated released radioactivity, MCi
Inventory,
USSR
reportNuclideHalf life
Seo [14]
Dobrynin [21]ImanakaMCi[16](1988)(1993)
1993 [20](1986)
I-131
8.05 d36.5
7.3 (20)*
25.40
19.0
17.0
Cs-13730.2 y7.7
1.0 (13)
4.35
2.3
2.5
Ru-10339.3 d110
3.2 (2.9)
10.40
3.8
3.3
Zr-95
64 d
119
3.8 (3.2)
5.60
4.0
5.9
Ce-144284 d
85.7
2.4 (2.8)
4.60
3.6
3.4
- All activities are decay-normalized to values on May 6, 1986.
- Values of reactor inventory are cited from the 1986 USSR report.
* Values in () are released percentage to inventory.

between members to preparing reports by eachmember for his own themes.
In 1995 we received a new research grant under
the title, ″Investigation of Research Activities about
the Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl
Accident in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine after the
Collapse of the USSR″. At the time of the application
to the Toyota foundation, the members were limited to
Imanaka and Matsko in Minsk in order to keep aflexibility of the project. Then, three members, Koide
at KURRI, Ryabzev in Moscow and Nasvit in Kyiv
joined the project. The members in CIS countries
were expected to make their report concerning thesituation of research activities in each country about
the radiological consequences of the Chernobyl
accident. In addition, Imanaka asked preparation of
special reports for our project to several scientists whoare engaged in interesting studies. Through the 1995
project, we succeeded in making 8 reports, including
4 special reports. Four of them were published in
English or Japanese [22-25].
In 1996 we succeeded in extending our research
grant under the title, ″Investigation of Research
Activities about Radiological Consequences of theChernobyl Accident and Social Activities to Assist Its
Sufferers in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine″. A theme
concerning social aspects of Chernobyl problems wasadded in this year. The following 4 new members
joined the project; Malko in Minsk, Yaroshinskaya in
Moscow, Tykhyi in Kyiv and Sugiura in Minsk. In
January 1997, we had a meeting of all members in
Moscow to discuss the contents of the project anddecided the following 5 sub-themes (names of
responsible member):A. General description of research activities
concerning the radiological consequences of theaccident (Matsko, Ryabzev, Nasvit, Malko).
B. Investigation of the current situation of
epidemiological studies in each country (Matsko,
Ryabzev, Nasvit).
C. Investigation of acute radiation syndrome among
inhabitants around Chernobyl (Yaroshinskaya,

accident.
″Toyota″″ project in 1993-1994
The collapse of the USSR at the end of 1991
changed the situation around Chernobyl problems.
This allowed as a possibility to start a collaborative
work with former USSR scientists.
In 1993, we succeeded in getting a research grantof the Toyota foundation for a collaborative projectwith Belarussian scientists under the title,″Radioactivity Releases from the Chernobyl-4
Accident and Dose Estimates in Its Early Stage″(leader Seo T.). The Japanese side consisted of 4
members of the Nuclear Safety Research Group. The
Belarussian side includes 5 scientists of Academy of
Sciences of Belarus, Belarussian State University andHydrometeorology Committee. The Japanese side wasgoing to refine the old analysis of contamination
patterns around Chernobyl and reevaluate released
activities on the basis of the new data that wereobtained from the Belarussian side. In the course ofthis project, frankly speaking, the Japanese side met a
lot of difficulties: differences in the tradition how topromote cooperative researches, difficulties to keep
close communication (e-mail was not available, airmail was not a sure way, fax was relatively expensive),differences in the tradition how to manage the finance,
etc. In addition, the team leader, Seo T. unexpectedly
died of lung cancer during the project. In spite ofthese difficulties, some valuable results were obtainedby this first project [20]. Our new estimates of
released radioactivities are shown in Table 4 together
with old values and by others. Our new estimates are
consistent with the estimation by Dobrynin et.al. [21].
″Toyota″″ project in 1995-1997
We have passed over the application to the Toyota
foundation in 1994 and rearranged the frame ofcooperation during this period. Considering theexperiences through the first project, the base ofcollaboration was converted from a relation between
groups of equal partnership into a network of personal
relation coordinated by Imanaka. The way of working
was also changed from face-to-face discussion

3April 8-12, 1996, STI/PUB/1001.
7. IAC/IAEA, The International Chernobyl Project: An
Overview, Technical Report, Proceedings of anInternational Conference, IAEA, 1991.
8. Kume S. et.al., Defective Safety Devices of Nuclear
Power Plants, Daisanshokan, Tokyo, 1979 (inJapanese).
9. Kobayashi K., Fast Breeder Reactor MONJU:
Dreams and Actuality of a Giant Nuclear Technology,
Nanatsumori-shokan, Tokyo, 1994 (in Japanese).
10. Seo T. The Nuclear Power Plant Accident: What
Are You Going to Do Then?, Fubaisha, Nagoya, 1995
(in Japanese).
11. Koide H. et.al., Environment and Human Society:Lessons from Pollution, Tpkyo-kyogakusha, 1995 (inJapanese).
12. Imanaka T. and Koide H, Fallout in Japan from
Chernobyl, J. Environ. Radioactivity 4 (1986)149-53.
13. Imanaka T., Irradiation Dose in Japan due to theRadioactive Contamination from Chernobyl, Keisemi
Dec1986, pp.120-130 (in Japanese)
14. Seo T. et.al., Released Radioactivity by the
Chernobyl Accident, Kagaku, 58 No.2 (1988)108-117(in Japanese).
15. Imanaka T., Radioactive Contamination and theSufferers by the Chernobyl Accident (1)-(4),Gijutsu-to-Ningen, May-Aug 1992 (in Japanese).
16. USSR State Committee on the Utilization of Atomic
Energy, Report to IAEA, Aug 1986.
17. Sovetskaya Belorussiya, Feb 9, 1989 (in Russian).
18. Seo T., Diary during Travel to Chernobyl, Fubaisha,
Nagoya, 1992 (in Japanese).
19. Imanaka T. et.al., Radioactivity in the Highly
Contaminated Area near the Chernobyl Site,
J.Radioanal.Nucl.Chem., 154 (1991)111-9.
20. Imanaka T. et.al., The Final Report of the Research
Grant of the Toyota Foundation in 1993 (in Japanese).
21. Dobrynin
Yu.L.
et.al.,
Data
Verification
Methodology and New Data for Chernobyl Source
Term, Radiation Prot. Dosimetry, 50 (1993)307-10.
22. Matsko V.P. and Imanaka T., J. Health Physics 32(1997) 81-96.
23. Ryabtsev I.A. and Imanaka T., J. Health Physics, 32(1997)211-25.
24. Imanaka T., Recent Atmosphere in Minsk (4),Gijutsu-to-Ningen, Jun 1996, pp.23-33 (in Japanese).
25. Yaroshinskaya A., Gijutsu-to-Ningen, Apr 1997
pp.28-34 (in Japanese)
26. Sugenoya A. et.al., ibid., Nov 1997 pp.36-40 (inJapanese).
27. Lazjuk G. et.al, ibid., Jan/Feb 1998, pp.26-32 8in
Japanese).
28. Lupandin V., ibid., Mar 1998, pp.58-68 (inJapanese)
29. Tykhyi V., ibid., Apr 1998, (in Japanese) in
preparation.

Imanaka, Koide).
D. Overview of social activities to assist sufferers by
the accident (Yaroshinskaya, Malko, Tykhyi,
Sugiura).
E. Preparation of special reports of interesting studies(Imanaka and all others).
The 1996 project formally finished at the end of
October 1997.
Here in this KURRI report we present 32 papers
we could prepare through the collaborative works in
1995-1997. They are classified into the following
categories by the report number in CONTENTS:- Member reports in the 1995 project; 4, 5, 6 and 7,- Special reports in the 1995 project; 8, 11, 22 and 25,- Member reports in the 1996 project; 1, 2, 13, 14, 15,
16, 28, 29, 30 and 32,
Special reports in the 1996 project; 3, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27 and 31.
Besides already mentioned, No. 19 by Sugenoya,
No. 21 by Lazjuk and No.12 by Lupandin were
published in Japanese [26-28]. No. 28 by Tykhyi will
be published soon [29].
Acknowledgement
Our work was supported by the research grant of
the Toyota foundation (93-II-260, 95-B3-031,
96-B3-034). We are deeply grateful to Kusumi-san of
the foundation for his encouragement and advises toour project. Kamio-san of Catalogue House Inc. isalso acknowledged for her kind arrangement for our
trip to CIS. Ignatovich A. and Malko V. should begreatly acknowledged for their contribution oftranslating Russian manuscripts into English. Imanaka
expresses his deep gratitude to his colleagues of
Kobayashi-san, Ebisawa-san and Kawano-san for
their continuous concern and encouragement to our
project. It should be especially noted that ourcollaborative project was started by the initiative ofthe late Seo-san.
References
1. Izrael Yu.A. et.al., Global and Regional Radioactive
Contamination with Cs137 in the European Territoryof the former USSR, Meteorology and Hydrology,
1994, No.5, pp.5-9 (in Russian)
2. Stepanenko V.F. et.al., Proc. 2nd Hiroshima Intern.
Symp. July 23-25, 1996, ed. Hoshi M., RIRBM,
Hiroshima Univ., pp.31-84.
3. Malko M.V., No. 29 of this report.
4. Ten Years after the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP;
National Report of Ukraine, MinChernobyl, 1996 (inRussian).
5. Firsova D., Chernobyl: Catastrophe Continues,
Moskva, 1990, No.11 pp.138-48 (in Russian)
6. IAEA, One Decade after Chernobyl: Summing up theConsequences of the Accident: Proc. Intern. Conf.,4

Chernobyl Accident: the Crisis of the International Radiation Community
Mikhail V. MALKO
Institute of Physical and Chemical Radiation Problems of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus
Minsk, Sosny, 220109, Republic of Belarus; fax: +375 (0172) 467317
beginning. These and other problems are discussed in
the present report.

Introduction
11 years passed since the Chernobyl accident.
Within this period a lot of data have been establishedby the Belorussian, Russian and the Ukrainian
specialists. These data clearly show that the Chernobyl
accident is the most severe accident in the history ofpeaceful use of nuclear energy in the world. It hascaused a heavy impact on the environment in Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine, significant worsening of theeconomic situation in these countries, disruption ofsocial life in the affected areas, growing anxiety andfears among the people living in the contaminatedterritories, as well as significant biomedical effects onthese people and on other categories of people.
At present there are no controversies about theecological, economic, social and psychologicalconsequences of the nuclear explosion at the
Chernobyl NPP. At the same time there exist
significant differences in the assessment ofradiological consequences of this accident. Specialists
in the affected republics of the former USSR had
established a significant rise in the incidence of manysomatic diseases soon after the accident. However, theinternational radiation community either denies such
effects at all or rejects any link between the increase in
the morbidity in general somatic diseases and theChernobyl accident, and attempts to explain thisincrease on the basis of purely psychological factors
and stresses. Such position of the internationalradiation community results from some politicalreasons and from the fact that it recognises only
leukaemia, solid cancers, teratogen and genetic effects
as late effects of radiation. At the same time even in thecase of medical effects recognised by the internationalradiation community, it failed to make a correct
assessment of thyroid cancers and hereditary
malformations resulting from the Chernobyl accident.
As well, it could not realise timely the real reasons of
the Chernobyl facts. These implications may beconsidered as a sign of a crisis of the internationalradiation community. It could not assess theseriousness of the Chernobyl accident and its
radiological consequences. Instead of taking an
objective position in order to help the affected
populations of the former USSR the internationalradiation community practically played a role of an
advocate of the USSR government that tried to playdown the consequences of this accident from the very

Official Assessment of Reasons andConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident
The Chernobyl accident is recognised by specialists
as the worst nuclear accident in the history of peacefuluse of nuclear energy. It had occurred on the 26th ofApril 1986 when the personnel of the fourth unit of theChernobyl NPP attempted to test the capability of aturbogenerator to supply electrical energy for a shortperiod of time in case of a station blackout. The
accident completely destroyed the reactor and as aresult large amounts of radioactive materials have beenreleased to the environment. The Soviet authorities
initially tried to conceal the fact of this accident. But as
it was impossible they attempted to play down theradiological consequences of the accident.
Soon after the accident the IAEA and the USSR
agreed to hold a Post-Accident Review Meeting in
Vienna. This meeting took place on the 25th-29th ofAugust 1986. At this meeting Soviet specialists
presented false information on the accident and its
radiological consequences [1].
According to the Soviet point of view, the main
reason for the accident was a violation by the
Chernobyl NPP personnel of the procedures of nuclear
power reactor operation developed in the USSR. The
Soviet specialists had also delivered their prognoses of
the Chernobyl accident radiological consequences.
They explained that deterministic effects were
established only among the personnel and the firemen
involved in the extermination of the accident. The
Soviet specialists had excluded the possibility ofdeterministic effects among the population andforecasted only negligible stochastic effects. For
example, their calculations based on the non-threshold
hypothesis of the dose-effect relationship forecasted
that the increase in the mortality rate had to be less than
0.05% of the spontaneous cancer mortality rate. This
result covered the population in the European part of
the USSR (about 75 mln. people).
The explanations presented by the Soviet part havebeen fully accepted by the participants of the meeting.
This can be seen from the Summary Report of the
Post-Accident Review Meeting in Vienna, publishedby the IAEA in September 1986 [2]. On page 28 of theabove-mentioned report one can read the following:"The foregoing account is based on the Working
Documents submitted and information volunteered5

by the Soviet experts. On the basis of thisinformation we have a plausible explanation for thesequence of events at Chernobyl Unit 4, and noattempt has been made to find alternative."
On page 17 of the Summary report of the IAEA it
is stated that:"The errors and violations of procedures were themajor factors contributing to the accident."
The participants of the IAEA meeting have also
agreed with the prognosis of radiologicalconsequences suggested by the Soviet specialists. Suchconclusion can be drawn on the basis of the following
statement made on page 7 of the Summary Report of
the Post-Accident Review Meeting:".... it appears that over the next 70 years, among the135,000 evacuees, the spontaneous incidence of allcancers would not be likely to be increased by morethan about 0.6%. The corresponding figure for theremaining population in most regions of theEuropean part of the Soviet Union is not expected to
exceed 0.15% but is likely to be lower, of the orderof 0.03%. The relative increase in the mortality due
to thyroid cancer could reach 1%" [2].
Such point of view was not changed by theinternational community until the present time.
The Post-Accident Review Meeting has delivered
plausible explanations of the reasons of the Chernobyl
accident and its radiological consequences accepted by
the international radiation community. However, these
explanations have either been erroneous, or incorrect.
Today it is known that different drawbacks of the
RBMK-type reactor project (four reactors of this typewere in operation at the Chernobyl NPP) have been thereal reasons of the accident [3] and not the mistakes ofthe personnel as it was stated in the Post-Accident
Review Meeting in Vienna [2].
The most important of these shortages were [3]:• large positive void coefficient;• unstable operation at low reactor power;• possibility of power excursion;• imperfect construction of absorber rods (use ofgraphite water displacers linked with absorber rods).
One needs to notice that the IAEA had to correct its
explanation of the direct reasons of the Chernobyl
accident only 7 years after the Post-Accident Review
Meeting in Vienna.
A question arises: why did the experts of westerncountries not even try look for other explanations of
the reasons of the Chernobyl accident especially after
the Soviet experts had told at the Vienna Meeting that
remedial actions were planned to improve the safety of
the RBMK reactors operation such as the increase of
the full enrichment from 2.0% to 2.4% and installationof additional absorbers into the core (these two

measures were developed to mitigate the problem of
the positive void coefficient of the RBMK-type
reactors - one of the main reasons of the accident)?
The usage of fast shutdown system and some othersystems had also been foreseen.
Two different explanations can be suggested for thefact that the participants of the Post-Accident Review
Meeting in Vienna could not understand the realreasons of the accident. First is that the experts at thismeeting did not understand the specific features of the
RBMK-type reactors. Second is that they were
unwilling to doubt the official Soviet point of view inorder to save the image of nuclear energy. The first
explanation is quite unreasonable because all remedialactions to improve the nuclear safety of reactors of the
RBMK-type that were suggested by Soviet specialists
at the Post-Accident Review Meeting in Vienna
indicated clearly the project shortages of such reactors.
It seems to us that the second explanation is more
adequate and unpleasant because it means that the
specialists in the field of nuclear safety are ready toconceal the real dangers of the peaceful use of nuclear
energy.
The publication of the document [3] has practically
put an end to the inadequate explanations of thereasons of the Chernobyl accident. However, adifferent situation remains in case of the radiologicalconsequences of the accident. In fact, up to now theinternational radiation community insists that theradiological consequences of the Chernobyl accident
are almost negligible. Only in 1995 did theinternational radiation community recognise therelation between irradiation and the high increase in
the thyroid cancer incidence among children in
Belarus, the Russian Federation, and the Ukraine [4].
All other effects established by the Belorussian,Russian and the Ukrainian specialists are completely
rejected [5].
For example, the international radiation community
does not recognise the data of Prof. G.Lazjuk and hiscolleagues [6,7] on hereditary malformation in theaffected areas of Belarus. As well, nobody recognises
the valuable statistical data on the significant increasein the morbidity rate in different somatic diseases,
established soon after the Chernobyl accident inBelarus, the Russian Federation, and the Ukraine. As
far as the radiological consequences of the Chernobyl
accident are considered, the international radiation
community continues to advocate the idea suggestedby the Soviet specialists and accepted at the
Post-Accident Review Meeting in Vienna that theradiological consequences of the Chernobyl accident
cannot even be observed.

6

Such position of the international radiation
community was of great importance for the Soviet
authorities that have been trying from the very
beginning to play down the Chernobyl radiologicalconsequences. At the time of the accident the Soviet
Union was in a state of a deep economic crisis andcould not provide necessary assistance to the affected
populations of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine. The
Soviet Union could provide only limited help to theaffected population. Due to this reason all information
related to the Chernobyl accident and its radiologicalconsequences in the former USSR was concealed not
only from the general public, but in many cases fromthe specialists in the field of radiation protection. For
example, the data presented by the Soviet experts at the
Post-Accident Review Meeting in August 1986 wereclosed in the USSR for a long time. The same
happened to different documents regulating protective
measures in the contaminated areas of the USSR.

Chernobyl accident. It was foreseen to implement the
350 mSv concept beginning from the 1st January 1990.
Along with its implementation all restrictions
introduced in the contaminated areas after the accident
had to be lifted.
The 350 mSv concept was based on prognoses of
medical consequences made by the Soviet specialists
in the summer 1986 [1], as well as on the basis of arevised assessment carried out under supervision ofProf. L.Ilyin in late 1988 [9]. The new predictions
agreed very good with the old ones. However, they
were incorrect as the previous ones. This is especiallywell seen in the case of thyroid cancer. According to
the assessment [9], only 39 additional thyroid cancers
would have been induced in children of Belarus as aresult of the Chernobyl accident. They had to appear
within the 30-year period after the latent period of 5
years. This means, that the first additional thyroid
cancers could be registered by children in Belarus only
in 1991.
This prognosis of Prof. L.Ilyin and his colleagues[9] was completely wrong. It can be seen from Table 1,
where the data on the thyroid cancer incidence inBelarus [10] are given. Only 7 cases of children's
thyroid cancer have been registered in Belarus within
the 9-year period before the Chernobyl accident(1977-1985). This gives 1 thyroid cancer per year as aspontaneous morbidity rate of children in Belarus.
Taking this value into consideration, one had to expect
only 5 children's thyroid cancers in Belarus within thefirst 5 years after the Chernobyl accident. On thecontrary, 47 cases of this cancer have been establishedover 1986-1990 which is 9 times more as compared tothe expectations based on the assumptions by Prof.
L.Ilyin and his colleagues [9].
The total number of children's thyroid cancers
established in Belarus in 1986-1995, which is the first
10 years after the Chernobyl accident, reached 424
cases [11]. It exceeded 10 times the total number ofchildren's thyroid cancers predicted by authors [9] forthe 35-year period after the accident. As can be seenfrom the comparison of predicted and real data, theprognoses of the Soviet specialists [1,9] had
underestimated to a great extent the children's thyroid
cancer resulting from the Chernobyl accident. The

Medical Effects on People Affected by the
Chernobyl Accident
The ″350 mSv concept″
The complicated economic state of the USSR was
possibly the main reason for elaboration of theso-called 350 mSv concept or the lifetime dose conceptthat established a limit of irradiation of the affected
population. This concept was developed by the
National Commission on Radiation Protection of the
USSR (NCRP) in the late autumn 1988 [8].
The 350 mSv concept was based on the following
assumptions:• the sum of external and internal doses that can bedelivered to a person as a result of the Chernobyl
accident will not exceed 350 mSv within 70 years
period beginning from the 26th of April 1986 in the
majority of the contaminated areas of the USSR;• an additional dose of radiation equal or less than 350
mSv accumulated within the whole lifetime on thecontaminated territory will have no significant
medical consequences for the people.
In accordance with these assumptions there was nonecessity to carry out different protective measures
including relocation practically in all areas of Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine affected as a result of theTable 1 Number of thyroid cancer of children and adults in Belarus [10].
Pre-accident period
Post-accident period
Years
AdultsChildren
Years
Adults
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
Total

121
97
101
127
132
131
136
139
148
1131

2
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
7

1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
Total

7

162
202
207
226
289
340
416
512
553
2907

Children
2
4
5
7
29
59
66
79
82
333

same may be concluded in regard of the hereditary
malformations in the contaminated areas of the former
USSR. Predictions [1,9] excluded practically even thepossibility of such effects being established. The
incorrectness of this conclusion was shown by Prof.
G.Lazjuk and his colleagues [6,7].
The mentioned facts are without doubt an
indication of the serious underestimation of theradiological consequences of the Chernobyl accident
made by the authors of the assessment [1,9]. This fact
was evident for many specialists in the contaminatedareas of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine who had
established a significant worsening in the health stateof the affected population soon after the accident.
However, the results of the assessments [1,9] aswell as the 350 mSv concept were considered by
Soviet authorities and the international radiation
community as valid. One needs to notice that theinternational radiation community had known indetails the new Soviet assessment of the Chernobyl
radiological consequences [9] and the 350 mSv
concept. Soon after the Session of the USSR Academyof Medical Sciences, the report of Prof. L.Ilyin et al.
[9] has been submitted to the World HealthOrganisation. Later it was published as a scientificarticle in a famous international journal [12]. The same
happened to the 350 mSv concept. The report on the
350 mSv concept was delivered by Prof. L.Ilyin at theThirty-eighth Session of the UNSCEAR that was heldin Vienna 8-12 May 1989 [13]. The 350 mSv concept
was also presented on the 12th of May 1989 at an
informal meeting on the Chernobyl consequences
organised by the Secretariat of the IAEA [14].
The new Soviet prediction did not cause any
criticism from the part of the international radiation
community. Such conclusion can be made from thefact that the contents of the article by Prof. L.Ilyin andhis colleagues [12] did not significantly differ from thereport [9], and from the fact of extensive help of theinternational radiation community to the Soviet
government in its attempts to implement the 350 mSv
concept.

the principles and implementation of the 350 mSv
concept. They had also taken part in meetings anddiscussions with other specialists of the affected Soviet
republics and people from contaminated areas. In
Minsk the WHO experts had visited a special meetingon Chernobyl problems held at the Academy of
Sciences of Belarus. Such well-known specialists of
the Ministry of Health Care of the USSR as Prof.
L.Ilyin, Prof. L.Buldakov, Prof. A.Guskova and others
had participated in that meeting.
At all of these meetings and discussions the WHO
experts had completely approved of the official Soviet
point of view that the Chernobyl accident could notcause significant health effects by the affected
populations. They not only agreed upon the 350 mSv
concept, but even volunteered the view that, had they
been requested to set a level for the lifetime dose, theywould have chosen a value of the order of two to threetimes higher than 350 mSv [15].
The WHO experts had also rejected any relation
between radiation and the significant increase in themorbidity in many somatic diseases established in theaffected areas of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine soonafter the accident. In regard to this problem they said in
their report to the USSR government:"... scientists who are not well versed in radiation
effects have attributed various biological and healtheffects to radiation exposure. These changes can not
be attributed to radiation... and are much more likely
to be due to psychological factors and stress.
Attributing these effects to radiation only increases
the psychological pressure in the population andprovoke additional stress-related health problems, italso undermines confidence in the competence of theradiation specialists. This has in turn, led to doubts
over the proposed values. Urgent consideration
should be given to the institution of an education
programme to overcome this mistrust by ensuringthat the public and scientists in allied fields canproperly appreciate the proposals to protect the
population" [15].
The quotations given above from the report [15]clearly show that the WHO experts played a role ofadvocates of the Soviet authorities which tried to playdown by any means the scale of the Chernobyl
accident and its radiological consequences.
In January 1990 the special Mission of the Leagueof the Red Crescent Societies also visited the affectedareas of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine [16]. This
Mission comprised 6 members - qualified specialists indifferent branches of medicine from the United
Kingdom, Sweden, the Netherlands, the Federal
Republic of Germany and Japan. The experts of theMission of the League of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties were more careful in their assessment of theradiological situation in the affected areas. However,they too could not understand the real reasons for theworsening of the health state of the population affectedby the Chernobyl accident. In the summary of theirExperts from WHO
This help was demonstrated by a visit of a group of
the WHO experts to the Soviet Union in June 1989.
This visit found place due to a request of the Soviet
Government. The group of the WHO experts included
the following specialists: Dr. D.Beninson, Chairman of
the International Commission on RadiologicalProtection (ICRP), Director of License Department ofArgentina Atomic Energy Commission; Prof.
P.Pellerin, Chief of Radiation Protection Services of
the French Health Ministry, member of the ICRP; Dr.
P.J.Waight, Radiation Scientist of the WHO Division
of Environmental Health [15].
The WHO experts attended a meeting of the USSR
National Commission on Radiation Protection in
Moscow, where they had taken part in a discussion of8

report compiled after returning from the affected areas,
they had stated the following conclusions:"Among the health problems reported it was felt thatmany of these, though perceived as radiation effects
both by the public and by some doctors, wereunrelated to radiation exposure. Little recognition
appears to have been given to factors such as
improved screening of the population and changed
patterns of living and of dietary habits. In particular,
psychological stress and anxiety, understandable inthe current situation, cause physical symptoms andaffect health in a variety of ways" [16].
Nevertheless, the Mission of the League of Red
Cross and Red Crescent Societies was able tounderstand the seriousness of the situation in theaffected areas of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine.
They had managed to come to the correct conclusionthat in some cases relocation of people must have been
accepted as one of the countermeasures. Taking this
into account, they stated that the indications forrelocation should be based not only on radiation doses,
but on considerations of socio-economic conditions of
inhabitants in the affected areas as well. Thisconclusion has been a very important one because thecentral authorities of the USSR were making all
attempts to avoid the relocation as a measure ofradiation protection.

On the basis of the doses estimated by the Projectand currently accepted radiation risk estimates,
future increases over the natural incidence of cancers
or hereditary effects would be difficult to discern,even in large and well designed long term
epidemiological studies" [17].
This abstract shows that the participants of theInternational Chernobyl Project practically repeatedthe conclusions of the official Soviet predictions
presented at the Post-Accident Review Meeting inAugust 1986 in Vienna [1] as well as the conclusionsof the documents [2] and [9].
The following conclusions were made in the Reportof the participants of the International Chernobyl
Project in relation to the increase in the morbidity ingeneral somatic diseases that have been registered by
medical specialists of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine
in the contaminated areas:"Reported adverse health effects attributed toradiation have not been substantiated either by those
local studies which were adequately performed or by
the studies under the Project.
Many of the local clinical investigations of healtheffects had been done poorly, producing confusing
often contradictory results. The reasons for thesefailures included: lack of well maintained equipment
and supplies, poor information through lack of
documentation and lack of access to scientific
literature; and shortages of well trained specialists"[17].
In accord with these statements radiobiologicalconsequences of the Chernobyl accident must havebeen relatively insignificant. However, suchconclusion was wrong and that was proved just a
couple of years after the International Chernobyl
Project. Thus, one could wonder about the reasons forthe experts participating in the International Chernobyl
Project to be so optimistic in the evaluation of theradiological consequences of the Chernobyl accident.
This question sounds especially justified in case one
notices that practically all participants of this project
had materials showing a picture contrary to theiroptimistic assessment.
It is known that the international experts who hadtaken part in the International Chernobyl Project were
aware of the report by the Minster of the Ministry of
Health Care of Belarus [18] delivered at an informal
meeting arranged by the IAEA Secretariat on the 19thof December 1989 in Vienna. The Belorussian
Minister reported about a significant increase in themorbidity of thyroid by children especially in heavily
contaminated districts of the Gomel region. He also
informed the participants of the meeting about anincrease in the rate of hereditary malformations in
new-born:"The frequency of the birth of children withcongenital developmental defects (with stricter
recording) in the radionuclide-contaminated areas
over recent years has increased somewhat moreInternational Chernobyl ProjectIn 1990 the International Chernobyl Project has
been carried out under the aegis of the IAEA. It was
initiated by the letter of the Soviet government sent on
October 1989 [17]. The letter requested the IAEA toconduct an evaluation of the countermeasures taken in
the USSR after the Chernobyl accident and of the
future protective measures. Conclusions made on thebasis of this evaluation were published in 1991 in a
special report [17]. The report stated in regard of thebiomedical consequences of the Chernobyl accident:"There were significant non-radiation-related healthdisorders in the populations of both surveyed
contaminated and surveyed control settlements
studied under the Project, but no health disorders that
could be attributed directly to radiation exposure.
The accident had substantial negative psychologicalconsequences in terms of anxiety and stress due tothe continuing and high levels of uncertainty, theoccurrence of which extended beyond thecontaminated areas of concern. These werecompounded by socio-economic and politicalchanges occurring in the USSR.
The official data that were examined did notindicate a marked increase in the incidence ofleukaemia or cancers. However, the data were notdetailed enough to exclude the possibility of anincrease in the incidence of some tumour types.
Reported absorbed thyroid dose estimates in children
are such that there may be a statistical increase in theincidence of thyroid tumours in the future.

9significantly than in remaining areas of the Republic(except the Grodno region). This index is 5.65 (per1,000 newly born) for Byelorussia but 6.89 for thecontaminated areas” [18].
In regard of the worsening of the general healthstate of the affected population the Minister stated:"Among adults in 1988 there was a two- to fourfold
increase, in comparison with preceding years, in thenumber of persons suffering from diabetes mellitus,
chronic bronchitis, ischemic heart diseases, nerve
diseases, ulcers and chronic bronchopulmonary
diseases. There was also a noticeable rise in the
proportion of children with various functional
disorders, neurasthenic and anaemic syndromes,
chronic diseases of the tonsils and nasopharynx, etc.
At the same time, doctors of all specialities havenoted a more difficult and more prolonged course ofmany diseases, a higher frequency of complications
and an increase in adequate drug response" [18].
Despite of the official character of the information
presented by the Belorussian Minister it wascompletely ignored and was not considered during
implementation of the International Chernobyl Project.
This disregard is often explained by the internationalradiation community by the low competence of thespecialists working in the contaminated areas ofBelarus, Russia and the Ukraine and by lack of reliabledata on the morbidity in theses and clean areas.
Such explanation is not correct, at least in Belarus.
For example, the monitoring of hereditary
malformation of stricter recording has been carried out
in Belarus since 1982 [6]. One needs to know that
submission of data on hereditary malformations ofstricter recording such as reduction of extremities,
spina bifida, polydactyla, etc. to the national register iscompulsory in Belarus. Such conditions allow toacquire reliable statistics related to the hereditary
malformations.

Belarus has been induced by chemical species(nitrates, etc.) in fruit and vegetables brought to the
Republic from the Soviet Middle Asia where mineral
fertilisers and pesticides are heavily used.
It is evident that these hypotheses are not plausible.
The preparates of stable iodine were used in Belarus
over a number of years before the Chernobyl accident
because the soil in Belarus, especially in the Gomel
and Brest regions is short of stable iodine. However, noincrease in the thyroid cancer incidence had beenregistered in Belarus prior to the Chernobyl accident.
On the other hand, the amounts of fruit and vegetablesfrom the Soviet Middle Asia have not been large
enough to be accessible to a significant number ofchildren in Belarus.
The specialists of the WHO believed that their
hypotheses could be valid because at the time of
publishing of the paper [19] only a minor increase in
the thyroid cancer incidence has been registered in the
Ukraine and no increase at all in Russia. In reality, thisdifference in the morbidity in thyroid cancer in
Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine had another cause. It
is known [23], that the highest thyroid doses have beendelivered to the affected children in Belarus and thelowest to the children in Russia. This fact explains thedifference in the latent periods of the thyroid cancers in
the affected republics of the former USSR.
Some specialists denied that radiation could havebeen the reason for the increase in the children's
thyroid cancers in Belarus because of a very shortlatent period. Such specialists simply could notunderstand that the duration of the latent perioddepends strongly on the number of irradiated persons.
It can be lessened if the number of exposed persons
increases. This very important idea was suggested by afamous specialists in the field of radiation medicine,Prof. J.Gofman a long time before the Chernobyl
accident. The Belorussian specialists have managed toprove the validity of this idea by Prof. J.Gofman in thecase of thyroid cancer, thus making a significant
contribution to the study of radiation effects on theorganism. In 1993-1995 it was confirmed that theirdata have been correct [4, 25, 26].
Health statistics in the affected areas
Another very important contribution from the partof the Belorussian specialists is the establishment of asignificant increase in the incidence of the generalsomatic diseases among the affected populations.
Many specialists doubt that an increase in theincidence of general somatic diseases exists. The factthat such doubts have no serious grounds becomes
evident from the data given in Tables 2 and 3 of thisreport. These data are the results of epidemiologicalstudies carried out by Dr. P.Shidlovsky for the
residents of the contaminated and control districts of
the Brest region [27, 28].

Thyroid cancer in Belorussian children
The Belorussian specialists could also prove theirhigh professional skills in the case of children's thyroid
cancer. Different doubts were expressed by specialistsof other countries after a group of Belorussian
specialists had published their data on thyroid cancerof children in Belarus in the scientific journal "Nature"in September 1992 [19]. According to [20,21] asignificant rise in the incidence of children's thyroid
cancers in Belarus could be caused by the improved
screening after the Chernobyl accident. Specialists of
the World Health Organisation had suggested tworather exotic hypotheses [22]. According to the first,
the growth in the thyroid cancer incidence in childrenof Belarus could have been caused by giving stableiodine preparates to children in the affected areas after
the decay of radioactive iodine in order to prevent
endemic goitre. The second hypothesis was based on
the assumption that children's thyroid cancer in

10

As can be seen from the Tables 2 and 3, there had
been a significant difference in the morbidity in many
classes of general somatic diseases in adults andchildren living in the contaminated and clean areas of
the Brest region. In the case of adults such difference
may be observed in infections and parasitogenic
diseases, diseases of the endocrine system,
maldigestion, disorders of metabolism and immunity,
psychic disorders, diseases of the circulatory system,
cerebrovascular diseases, diseases of the respiratory
system, diseases of digestive organs, etc [see Table 2].
In the case of children a significant difference wasestablished in infections and parasitogenic diseases,
diseases of the endocrine system, psychic disorders,disease of the nervous system, diseases of the senseorgans, diseases of digestive organs, etc [see Table 3].
Dr. P.Shidlovsky surveyed a large number of
persons in his studies of the contaminated and control
districts. This provides a significant reliability of his
results. For the cohort of residents of the contaminateddistricts he had used all residents of Luninets, Stolin
and Pinsk districts of the Brest region.
The total number of people living in these districts
constituted in 1990 approximately 182,900 persons.
The average caesium-137 contamination is 37 to 185
kBq/m2 (1-5 Ci/km2) [27,28]. As the control cohort Dr.
P.Shidlovsky used residents of Kamenetsk, Brest,
Malorita, Zablinka and Pruzany districts of the Brest
region with total number of 179,800 persons [27, 28].

Table 2 Indices of general morbidity of adults and adolescents in 3 contaminated and 5 control
districts (rayons) of the Brest region in 1990 [27].
Diseases
Altogether
Infections and parasitogenic diseases
Diseases of the endocrine system, maldigestion, metabolism
disorders, immunity disorders,
including: thyrotoxicosis with and without goitre
Psychic disorders
Chronic otitis
Diseases of the circulatory system
including: hypertension,: ischemic heart diseases
From the total number of patients suffering ischemic heart diseases:
patients with acute myocardial infarction
patients with other acute and subacute forms of ischemic heartdiseasespatients with stenocardia
Cerebrovascular diseases,
including: cerebral atherosclerosis
Diseases of the respiratory system,
including: chronic diseases of tonsils and adenoids: chronic bronchitis and unspecified bronchitis, emphysema:suppurative and other chronic non-specific lung diseases
Diseases of digestive organs,including: gastric ulcer, duodenal ulcer: chronic gastritis (atopic): chololelitic disease, cholecystitis (without mentioningof gallstones)
Urogenital diseases,
including: nephritis, nephritic syndrome, neprosis: kidneys infections
Female infertility
Skin diseases and diseases of the subcutaneous fat,including: contact dermatitis and other forms of eczema
Diseases of the osteomuscular system and of the connective tissue
including: osteoarthrosis and salt arthropathyes
Poisoning with medicine preparates as well as with biologicalsubstances having mostly a non-medical character11

Indices of the general morbidity (per 100,000
adults and adolescents)P

3 contaminated districts
62,023±113.48
3,251±41.5

5 control districts
48,479±117.9
2,119.8±34.0

0.99
0.99

2,340.6±35.4
74.4±6.4
2,936.0±39.5
249.9±11.7
12,060.7±76.2
3,318.2±41.9
5,307.3±52.42

1,506.7±28.7
29.5±4.0
2,604.0±37,6166.3±9.6
9,300.4±68.5
2,394±36.1
4,366.5±48.2

0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99

53.6±5.441.7±4.8

0.99

44.3
1,328.6±26.8
1,981.4±32.6
1,764.4±30.8

17.2
594.5±18.1
1,363.2±27.3
986.7±23.3

0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99

597.0±18.0
1.891.2±31.8
182.1±9.7
7,074.4±59.9
1,895.0±31.8
1,468.6±28.1

278.1±12.4
1,359.3±27.3152.9±9.2
5,108.5±51.9
1,225.7±25.9765.3±20.5

0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99

1,147.1±24.9
3,415.6±42.5131.8±8.5649.5±18.8
83.7±2.3
3,376.7±42.2
735.4±20.0
5,399.1±52.96
1,170.0±25.1

658.5±19.1
1,995.6±33.0
67.9±6.1
522.2±17.0
56.2±5.5
2,060.0±35.5
350.4±13.9
4,191.9±47.3
770.3±20.6

0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99

135.6±3.8

28.9±4.1

0.99

These novel findings of the Belorussian scientist
Dr. P.Shildlovsky were later confirmed by many otherspecialists of the CIS. In February 1993 the official
magazine of the Ministry for Health Care of Belarus"Zdravookhranenie Belarusi" published results

obtained by the Ukrainian epidemiologists [29]. They
analysed the morbidity among 61,066 persons
evacuated from the 30-km zone in 1986. The
Ukrainian have found data similar to that of Dr.
P.Shidlovsky for this category of people. Nearly the

Table 3 Indices of general morbidity of children in 3 contaminated and 5 control districts (rayons) of
the Brest region in 1990 [27].
Indices of the general morbidity (per 100,000
adults and adolescents)
3 contaminated districts
5 control districts

Diseases
Altogether
Infections and parasitogenic diseases
Diseases of the endocrine system, maldigestion, metabolism
disorders,
Psychic disorders
Diseases of the nervous system and of the sense organs
Chronic rheumatism
Chronic pharyngitis, nasopharyngitis, sinusitis
Diseases of digestive organs,chronic gastritis (atopic)
chololelitic disease, cholecystitis (without mentioning ofgallstones)
Atopic dermatitis
Diseases of the osteomuscular system and of the connective
tissueCongenital malformations
including: congenital malformations of the heart and of thecirculatory system
Poisoning with medicine preparates as well as withbiological substances having mostly a non-medical characterP

68,725±188.5
7,096.5±104.4

59,974±203.3
4,010.1±80.6

0.99
0.99

1,752.1±53.3
2,219.8±59.9
4,783.5±86.8
125.6±14,4117.4±13.9
3,350.4±73.2
128.9±14.6

1,389.5±48.1
1,109.6±43,03,173.7±72.0
87.7±12,282.6±11.8
2,355.8±62.3
40.5±8.3

0.99
0.99
0.99
0.95
0.95
0.99
0.99

208.3±18.5
1,011.6±40.7

60.7±10.1
672.8±33.6

0.99
0.99

737.2±34.8
679.3±33.4

492.4±28.7
482.3±28.4

0.99
0.99

305.8±22.4

242.8±20.2

0.954.383.7±83.7

52.3±9.4

0.99

Table 4 Primary morbidity of adults and adolescents in Belarus (per 100,000 persons) [32].
DiseasesYear

Belarus

1st Group

2nd Group

3rd Group

4th Group

Diseases of the endocrine system,
maldigestion, metabolism disorders,immunity depression
Diseases of the blood andblood-forming tissue

1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995

631
668
584
62
91
74
1014
1099
1125
3939
4185
4120

2559
2862
3427
322
339
304
1460
2439
3252
5927
7250
8604

2528
2169
2368
293
283
279
861
1253
2317
4880
4719
5812

1472
1636
1272
292
254
175
1416
1579
1326
4369
4789
3864

762
909
723
132
114
101
930
1194
1115
5270
5363
4769

1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995
1993
1994
1995

136
146
147
1626
1646
1630
1938
1889
1817
3148
3474
3720

301
420
463
4956
5975
7242
5728
6411
7784
4447
7095
8860

355
425
443
4969
5852
6293
2653
3607
4216
3611
4152
4419

226
366
321
3215
4827
4860
3943
3942
3298
4236
4404
5166

190
196
194
1732
1702
1524
2170
2015
2283
4432
4712
4196

Psychic disorders

Diseases of the nervous system and of
the sense organs
including cataract

Diseases of the circulatory system

Diseases of the digestive organs

Diseases of the osteomuscular systemand of the connective tissue

Notices: Belarus — all adults and adolescents; 1st Group — liquidators; 2nd Group — evacuees from the 30-km zone; 3rd Group —residents of settlements in areas with caesium-137 contamination level higher than 555 kBq/m2 (15 Ci/km2); 4th Group — residents
of settlements in areas with caesium-137 contamination level from 37 to 185 kBq/m2 (from 1 to 5 Ci/km2);

12

same results have been established for Belorussian andRussian liquidators [30, 31]. The studies [30, 31]
established reliable data showing that the difference inthe morbidity of liquidators and the general public
increases with time. A similar increase is to be found in
all other categories of the affected populations.
Table 4 compiled by the author of the present reporton the basis of data of the National Medical Register
published by authors [32] indicates this fact clearly. An
analysis of Table 4 shows the existence of an evident
correlation between doses of irradiation or levels of
surface contamination and the morbidity of theaffected populations. The highest incidence in somatic
diseases in comparison to the total population ofBelarus is to be found in liquidators and the people
evacuated from the 30-km zone in 1986, the lowest —in the residents of the affected territories withcaesium-137 contamination level less than 555 kBq/m2(15 Ci/km2).

in the number of non-specific somatic diseases in
populations affected by the Chernobyl accident statethat such an effect has not been observed in citizens ofHiroshima and Nagasaki which survived the atomic
bombardment in August 1945. However, suchstatements are wrong. It was shown by specialists ofthe Hannan Chuo Hospital (Osaka, Japan) [33]. They
examined 1,232 victims of the atomic bombardment
within the period of 1985-1990. According to [33]:"Lumbago was 3.6 times more frequent,hypertension 1.7 times, eye diseases 5 times,
neuralgia and myalgia 4.7 times, same tendencies for
gastralgia, gastritis, etc.".
The data of Japanese specialists are presented in Fig.
1.
There are no data in Fig 1 for such diseases inJapanese general public as dental disease, headachearthritis, loss of physical strength, cervical spondyltitis
because the authors [33] could not find them in "TheBasic National Life Survey of Japan". Accordance indata established in people affected by the Chernobyl
accident and the victims who had survived Hiroshima
and Nagasaki gives a strong argument in favour of theassumption that theincrease in the incidenceingeneralsomatic
diseases established in
Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine resulted fromthe accident, and notfrom pure psychologicalfactors. This information
indicates that at present
there are no objective
groundsforanyscepticism
often
expressedbytheinternational radiation
A-bomb victims
community [5, 34] inGeneral population
relationtosuchphenomenaastheincrease in the incidenceingeneralsomatic
diseases in all categories
of people affected by the
Chernobyl accident.

Comparison with Japanese data
One needs to stress a very interesting fact. Veryoften specialists who doubt of the significant increase
lumbagohypertension
ocular diseaseneuralgia, myalgia
anaemia, leukopenia
dental disease
gastritis
gastro-duodenal ulcer
headacheischemic heart disease
liver disease
diabetes mellitus
arthritis
loss of physical strength
nepritis, urethral infection
skin disease
cervical spondylitis
bronchitis, pneumonia
arythmiacholethiasis, pancreats
0

10

20

30

Fig. 1 Comparison of morbidity rates (%) of the A-bomb victims and of thegeneral Japanese population [33].
13One
decadeafter
Chernobyl
About 20 scientificpapersdescribing
various somatic effects
in liquidators, adults andchildren exposed toradiation as a result of
the Chernobyl accident
have been presented attheInternational
Conference"OneDecade after Chernobyl. Summing up theConsequences of the Accident" held in Vienna,
Austria, 8-12 April 1996 [35, 56]. This conference wassponsored by the European Commission, theInternational Atomic Energy Agency and the World
Health Organisation in co-operation with the United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation and other United Nations divisions, as wellas with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (Nuclear Energy Agency).
Practically all international organisations involved inpeaceful use of nuclear energy took part in the
preparation of this conference which was to become
the most important step in the assessment of theChernobyl accident and its radiological consequences.
However, the conference could not fulfil the task of an
objective analysis of this severest accident in thehistory of peaceful use of nuclear energy. Suchconclusion may be drawn from the following statementof given in the conference summary:"Increases in the frequency of a number of
non-specific detrimental health effects other thancancer among exposed populations, and particularlyliquidators, have been reported. It is difficult tointerpret these findings because exposed populations
undergo a much more intensive and active follow-up
of their state of health than does the general
population. Any such increases, if real, might also
reflect effects of stress and anxiety" [5].
It is evident from the quotation that the participantsof the conference "One Decade after Chernobyl.
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident" whohad prepared the most important document of theconference — the summary, doubted even the realityof the increase in the incidence of general somatic
diseases in the affected areas of Belarus, Russia andthe Ukraine. It seems very strange because, as was
mentioned above, a number of scientific papers[35-56] have been presented at the conference that
demonstrated the manifestation of this phenomena inall categories of people affected by the Chernobyl
accident. The significant increase in the morbidity indifferent somatic diseases in the the affected
population has been recognised by the author of the
Background Paper 4 of the Conference [57] which
explained this increase on the basis of psychologicalfactors and stresses.
The conference also rejected the possibility ofhereditary malformations in the affected areas ofBelarus, Russia and the Ukraine as a result of theChernobyl accident despite of the existence of reliabledata on such effects. Practically it has not changed theconclusion of the international radiation communitythat the consequences of the Chernobyl accident are
negligible. The only exception was made for the strong
growth of the thyroid cancer morbidity. Possibly,
because there are no more arguments to reject thereality in this case.

It seems that the international radiation community
is more interested to save the image of the nuclear
industry rather than to protect people from the effectsof radiation. This can be determined by every objective
specialist as a sign of a crisis if the internationalradiation community which rejects reliable
information in order to support its own point of view
about the negligible radiological consequences of theChernobyl accident.
A very plausible explanation for the above attitudeof the International Scientific Radiation Community
has been given at the Session of the Permanent
People's Tribunal by a famous specialist in the field of
the radiation medicine Dr. Rosalie Bertell [58].
According to Dr. Rosalie Bertell, the harmful
impact of radiation caused interest of the specialists
and the military because of the possible use of nuclear
weapons in wars. A very interesting problem forplanners of such wars was how much enemies could
have been killed by nuclear weapons. Due to thisreasons specialists in the field of radiation biology,
radiation medicine and radiation protection had
worked since the very beginning mostly for the
military purposes. Later they have switched toproblems of nuclear reactors' use for electricity
generation. As a result of such involvement in solvingof military and industrial problems, specialists inradiobiology, radiation medicine and radiation
protection did not pay attention to the problem toprotect the health of public from the harmful influenceof radiation. This is also a reason for the internationalradiation community not to consider any medical
effect of radiation other than fatal cancers andleukaemia, some teratogen and genetic effects asconsequence of irradiation.
Certainly, such way of assessment of theradiological consequences is not acceptable. The life
standard, not the number of fatal cancers, should beconsidered in case of a radiological accident like theChernobyl accident. Has not this to be the primary taskof the international radiation community to protect thepeople exposed to ionizing radiation?

Summary
The information given in the present report about
the Chernobyl accident and its radiologicalconsequences indicates a serious crisis of theinternational radiation community. The following
signs of this crises can be discerned:• The international radiation community did notrecognise the real reasons of the accident for a longtime.
• It could not make a correct assessment of the damage
to the thyroid of the affected populations of Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine.
• Up to present time it rejects the reliable data on
hereditary malformations.

14• It is not able to accept reliable data on the increase in
the incidence in all categories of people affected by
the Chernobyl accident.
• The international radiation community supported theSoviet authorities in their attempts to play down theradiological consequences of the Chernobyl accident
for a long time.

International Conference "The Radiological Consequencesof the Chernobyl Accident" held in Minsk, Belarus, 18-22
March 1996. EUR 16 544 EN. Brussels. Luxembourg,
1996, pp. 677-682.
11.E.D.Williams, D.Becker, E.P.Demidchik et al. Effects on
the Thyroid in Populations Exposed to Radiation as a
Result of the Chernobyl Accident. Proceedings of theInternational Conference "One Decade after Chernobyl:
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident". Vienna,
Austria, 1996, pp. 207-239.
12.L.A.Ilyin,
M.I.Bolonov,
L.A.Buldakov
etal.
Radiocontamination Patterns and Possible HealthConsequences of the Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Station. J. Radiol. Prot. 1990. Vol. 10, N3, pp. 3-29.
13.Appendix 3 of the Appendices to the Draft Proposal "TheRadiological Consequences in the USSR from the
Chernobyl Accident: Assessment of Health andEnvironmental Effects and Evaluation of Protective
Measures". The International Chernobyl Project. IAEA,
Vienna. 1990-04-18.
14.Appendix 2 of the Appendices to the Draft Proposal "TheRadiological Consequences in the USSR from the
Chernobyl Accident: Assessment of Health andEnvironmental Effects and Evaluation of Protective
Measures". The International Chernobyl Project. IAEA,
Vienna. 1990-04-18.
15.Report of the WHO Mission to the USSR. June 19-26,
1989. Appendix 6 of the Appendices to the Draft Proposal"The Radiological Consequences in the USSR from the
Chernobyl Accident: Assessment of Health andEnvironmental Effects and Evaluation of Protective
Measures". The International Chernobyl Project. IAEA,
Vienna. 1990-04-18.
16.The League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
Report on Assessment Mission to the Areas Affected by the
Chernobyl Disaster, USSR. February 1990, p. vi.
17.The International Chernobyl Project. An Overview.
Assessment of Radiological Consequences and Evaluationof Protective Measures. Report by the International
Advisory Committee. IAEA, Vienna. 1991.
18.V.S.Ulashchik. Some Medical Aspects of theConsequences of the Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant (Based on Belorussian Data). Appendix 5 of
the Appendices to the Draft Proposal "The RadiologicalConsequences in the USSR from the Chernobyl Accident:
Assessment of Health and Environmental Effects and
Evaluation of Protective Measures". The International
Chernobyl Project. IAEA, Vienna. 1990-04-18.
19.V.S.Kazakov, E.P.Demidchik, L.N.Astakhova. Thyroid
Cancer after Chernobyl. Incidence. Nature. V.359. 3
September 1992. p. 21.
20.E.Ron, J.Lubin, A.B.Schneider. Thyroid Cancer
Incidence. Nature. V.360. 12 November 1992. p. 113.
21.G.K.Reeves. Comments on Thyroid Cancer. Atoms inJapan, V. 37, N 4, 1993. p. 25.
22.WHO Says: Belarus Cancers May Stem from More than
Chernobyl. Nucleonic week. December 17, 1992, pp.
12-13.
23.M.V.Malko. Assessment of the Chernobyl RadiologicalConsequences. Report for the Toyota-95 Project. 1996.
24. John W. Gofman. Radiation and Human Health. A
Comprehensive Investigation of the Evidence Relating
Low-level Radiation to Cancer and Other Diseases. Sierra
Club Books. San Francisco. 1981.

Acknowledgement
The constant interest of T.Imanaka for the
problem of the role of the international radiation
community in the assessment of the Chernobyl
accident and its radiological consequences, as well as
support from the Toyota Foundation are greatly
acknowledged.
The assistance of Vladimir M. Malko in the
preparation of the English version of the report and its
computer variant is acknowledged.

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16

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Systems in Chernobyl Accident Liquidators and in
Residing in Radiation-controlled Territories of Ukraine.
Book of Extended Synopsis of the International Conference"One Decade after Chernobyl. Summing up theConsequences of the Accident". Austria Centre Vienna,
Austria, 8-12 April 1996. Paper CN-63/399, p. 367.
49.S.S.Aleksin, V.Yu.Cheprasov, N.N.Zybina et al.
Characteristics of Bronchopulmonary
Pathology inParticipants of Liquidation of Consequences of theAccident at the Chernobyl NPP. Book of Extended
Synopsis of the International Conference "One Decade
after Chernobyl. Summing up the Consequences of theAccident". Austria Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April
1996. Paper CN-63/90, pp. 186-187 (in Russian).
50.V.K.Ivanov, A.F.Tsyb. National Chernobyl Registry:
Radiation Risk Analysis. Book of Extended Synopsis of theInternational Conference "One Decade after Chernobyl.
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident". Austria
Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April 1996. Paper CN-63/108,
pp. 208-209 (in Russian).
51.Yu.A.Zozulya, A.R.Vinnitsky, I.V.Stepanenko. ClinicalPeculiarities of the Brain Damage by Liquidators of theChernobyl Accident. Book of Extended Synopsis of theInternational Conference "One Decade after Chernobyl.
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident". Austria
Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April 1996. Paper CN-63/170,
pp. 277-278 (in Russian).
52.N.M.Oganesian, I.Emeryt, A.S.Pogosian, K.V.Asrian.
Medical Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident in
Emergency Workers — 10 Years Observation. Book ofExtended Synopsis of the International Conference "One
Decade after Chernobyl. Summing up the Consequences of
the Accident". Austria Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April
1996. Paper CN-63/193, p. 296.
53.V.B.Karpov, N.G.Yakovleva, E.B.Mokrousova et al.
Some Peculiarities of Health Condition by Liquidators of

the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP, Residents of theContaminated Territories and Persons Participated at
Atomic Weapon Tests. Book of Extended Synopsis of theInternational Conference "One Decade after Chernobyl.
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident". Austria
Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April 1996. Paper CN-63/223,
pp. 338-339 (in Russian).
54.A.Nyagu, K.Loganovsky, E.V.Vaschenko, K.Yuriev.
Psycho-physiological Effects of Chronical Irradiation as a
Result of the Chernobyl Accident. Book of Extended
Synopsis of the International Conference "One Decade
after Chernobyl. Summing up the Consequences of theAccident". Austria Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April
1996. Paper CN-63/229, pp. 347-348.
55.I.I.Gorpynchenko, N.I.Boyko. Sexual Disorders andGenerative Function of Males who Took Part in the
Liquidation of the Consequences of the Accident at the
Chernobyl NPP. Book of Extended Synopsis of theInternational Conference "One Decade after Chernobyl.
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident". Austria
Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April 1996. Paper CN-63/264,
pp. 389-390.
56.A.Ye.Romanenko. Epidemiological and Theoretical
Assessments of Long-time Medical Effects at Victims of
the Chernobyl Catastrophe. Book of Extended Synopsis of
the International Conference "One Decade after Chernobyl.
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident". Austria
Centre Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April 1996. Paper CN-63/259,
pp. 387-388 (in Russian).
57.T.R.Lee. Environmental Stress Reactions Following theChernobyl Accident Background Paper 4. Proceedings ofthe International Conference "One Decade after Chernobyl.
Summing up the Consequences of the Accident". Vienna,
Austria. 1996, pp. 283-310.
58.Dr. Rosale Bertell. Report at the Session of the Permanent
People's Tribunal. Materials of the Session of thePermanent People's Tribunal "Chernobyl. Environmental
Health and Human Rights Implications" held in Vienna,
Austria, 12-15 April 1996, pp. 15-21.

17

General Situation of the Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl
Accident in Ukraine
Dmytro M. GRODZINSKY
Institute of Cell Biology and Genetic Engineering, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
148 Zabolotnogo St., Kiev, GSP-22, Ukraine
fax: +044 267 1050, e-mail: phyto@rbio.isf.kiev.ua
and south-west plumes. Much more than 2*1018 Bq ofradionuclides were released from this unit anddispersed over wide areas (1).
The scale of radionuclide contamination of theterritories is very significant. As we have shown, thearea highly contaminated with 137Cs in Ukraine
occupies a space over 37 thousand sq. km. In
consequence of the radionuclide contamination
Ukraine lost tens of thousands sq. km of forest andarable land.
The surface contamination is extremely spotty.
Spots of radioactive contamination have been formed
after the trace of the plumes on very large territories.
At the present time, we know well the spatial
distribution of radioactivity in Ukraine. The spots
differ in sizes having diameters from few meters tohundreds of km.
The population inhabiting the contaminatedterritories in Ukraine is as follows (1, 3):

Introduction
April 26, 1986, will go into history as the date whenthe 4th reactor of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station
exploded causing radioactive contamination of a wide
area practically in all Europe. The initial explosions
and heat carried volatile radioactive materials up to 1.5
km height from where these materials were transported
over large territories. Plumes containing numerous
quantities of radionuclides moved with prevailingwinds to the north, east, south and west, precipitating
radioactive particles on areas thousands of miles away.
Regions affected with the radionuclides from the
Chernobyl's wrecked reactor included not only
Ukraine itself but also Belarus, Russia, Poland,
Sweden, Norway, Finland, Germany, Hungary,
Slovenia, Lithuania, Greece, Bulgaria, Slovakia andmany others. The volatile radioiodine, otherradionuclides and small hot particles were detected inthese countries on the very first days after the
Accident. Crops, vegetables, grasses, fruits, milk, dairy
products, meat and even eggs were sometimes so
contaminated with radionuclides that they had to beabandoned.
The total amount of radioactivity released exceeded
significantly 50 Mega Curies. On the roof of thedestroyed reactor building, dose rate in May-June 1986
reached a very high level of 100,000 Roentgens perhour (1).
The main dose load on the Ukrainian population iscaused by radionuclide contamination of the country
territories located outside the alienated zone following
the Chernobyl accident.
The territories contaminated with radionuclide137
Cs in Ukraine are as follows (2,3):
Levels of surface
contamination,
Ci/km2
5-15
15-40
above 40
Total

Levels of surface
contamination,
Ci/km2
1-5
5-15
15-40
above 40
Total

Population, thousands ofpeople1,227.3
204.2329.7
19.2
1,480.4

The radionuclide contamination of the areas
marked the beginning of a series of very dangerous
radiological and radioecological consequences on alarge scale and for a long time.
Ecological and radioecological consequences,economic burden, political pressure and speculation
prevailing among politicians, and large moral andpsychological symptoms affecting the Ukrainian
population are linked together by that heavy chain
which the Chernobyl accident had brought in Ukraine
eleven years ago.

Contaminated territories
space, km2
2,355
740
680
3,775

Radioecological Consequences
This main radioecological consequences of theChernobyl accident are as follows:
1. The large activity of fission products escaped into
the atmosphere and further into ecosystems. The
radionuclides are migrating through all componentsof the ecosystems in the landscapes and, as a result,alllivingbeingsbecameradioactive;

Clearly the territory of agricultural use with a level ofthe surface contamination of an order of 1-5 Ci/km2 ismuch more - 33,160 square km.
The radioactive materials from the reactor had been
deposited along the north, west, east, south, south-east

18

microorganisms, mushrooms, plants, insects, otheranimals and human beings.
2. Radioactivity is moving to ground water andcontaminating surface water.
3. Radionuclides come to the trophic chains and are
moving to people. All things around people becomeradioactive as well as the bodies of adults andchildren. For one example, the radioactivity ofleaves of some trees in the central Kiev’s streets in1986 varied from 70,000 to 400,000 Bq/kg (1, 4).
4. Dispersed radionuclides migrate in the biosphereand this process is accompanied by shaping of doseload on all living beings, including a large number of
population. Exposure of population due to the fallout
from the Chernobyl reactor accident occurs via threepathways: external irradiation from radioactive
materials deposited on the ground, inhalation of
airborne material, and ingestion of contaminatedfoodstuff. The contribution of ingestion ofcontaminated foods to the total irradiation dose isvery high. It is worthy to note that internal irradiationis characterized by its much more higher biologicaleffectiveness than external irradiation.
5. Excess of irradiation over the natural background
could lead to manifestations of different kinds ofdiseases in people and deterioration in flora andfauna on the territories contaminated withradionuclides.
Plants being cultivated on soil contaminated withradionuclides uptake these radionuclides in proportion
to their concentrations in soil solution and to biologicalsignificance of corresponding carriers. An example ofradionuclide activity in sod-podzolic soil and someplants is shown in Table 1.
As evident from the data of Table 1, the uptake rateof radionuclides varies considerably depending onplant species. The radionuclide accumulation differs
not only by the species of plants, but also significantly
by the varieties within the same species. For varieties
of winter rye, for example, the values of specificactivity of dry masses varies from 14,900 to 1,100
Bq/kg for 137Cs.
The coefficient of radionuclide accumulation byplants (CA) has been intensively investigated lastyears. Attention is drown to the fact that the values ofthese coefficients are very variable being dependent onplants, physical-chemical state of radionuclides andtheir carriers in soil (1).
 s p c ific a c tiv ity o f d ry p la n t m a s s 
fo r a c e ita in ra d io n u c lid e

CA 


s p e c ific a c tiv ity o f s o il

depends also on soil acidity. Typical values of CA forpea, corn, winter wheat, barley, sugar beet and cabbage
range from 0.06 to 0.30.
The CA coefficients are much higher insalt-tolerant plants. This is apparent from Table 2.
The total reserves of radionuclides in different
components of ecosystems and the rates of transfer ofradionuclides to the food-stuffs (mainly milk, meat,
mushrooms, fishes ) set the extent of exposure ofpeople to irradiation.
A very dangerous place within the 30 km zone
around the destroyed reactor is the “Sarcophagus”

Table 1 Contents of radionuclides in soil and plants grown in the vicinity of the wrecked Reactor. July
1987 (4)Activity, Bq/kg of dry weight
Object
137
144
106
95
Cs
Ce
Ru
Zr/95Nb
Soil
51,800296,000
92,20040,700Vetch
71,78017,4303,700
410
Clover
45,50090,3008,000
14,360Melilo
9,770
9,200
1,400
1,400
Pea
4,400
1,500
330
150
Lupine4,100
10,7005,550
1,440
Alfalfa
1,800
2,150
1,400
70
Oats
330
520
150
75
Barley
260
330
40
40
Table 2 Coefficients of 90Sr accumulation (CA) in some salt-tolerant plants (4)Plant species
CA
Chenopodiacea
Climacoptera salsa
2.38
Kochia scoparia
1.59
Kochia prostrata
2.03
Atriplex Fominii
1.59
Atriplex acuminata
1.06
Petrosimonia crassifolia
2.80
Salicornia europaea
1.70
19

protectively entombing the fourth unit. This
entombment covers the monstrous ruin and radioactive
remains spewed from the reactor core. The
Sarcophagus remains a hazardous building because it
contains about 200 tones of the fuel materials in theform of solidified lava with very high levels ofradioactivity. In the contemporary state, thefuel-containing materials are sub-critical. But ingressof water into the Sarcophagus, earthquake, alterationof the Sarcophagus construction can change thesub-critical state of fuel into critical. The fate of theSarcophagus as well as the fate of sedimentation inponds and rivers within the contaminated region, andthe radioactivity of the “Red Forest” which had died asa result of accumulation of large radioactivity are now
hard to be forecast.

Thirdly, the real levels of irradiation dose to people
were much higher than we believed in the first years
after the Catastrophe.
In such a situation we have no basis to apply the
traditional radiological knowledge to elucidating,quantitatively evaluating and predicting the real threatof the Chernobyl radionuclide contamination.
The population living on the contaminatedterritories (above 0.5 Ci/km2) exceeds five millions
people. The victims of the Catastrophe can be logicallyclassified into six groups according to conditions ofirradiation. These groups are as follows:
1. people who took part in overcoming the accident
consequences within the territory where the wrecked
reactor is located. This territory represents a roundarea ringing the reactor. The radius of this area isequal to 30 km. It is named as the 30-km Zone or
Alienation Zone. People having worked in this Zone
are named Liquidators;
2. people evacuated from Prypyat’ city and othersettlements located within the 30-km Zone;
3. people evacuated from the territories contaminatedwith very high radioactivity;
4. people living on the highly contaminated territories;
5. children who had received high doses on thyroid
gland from radioactive iodine;
6. children from irradiated parents.
I would like to show a sketchy description of themain factors of the radiological effects being formed in
the territories contaminated with radionuclides.
Two general types of radiological effects arerecognized: non-stochastic and stochastic effects.
Non-stochastic effects consist of somatic damages
and deficiencies of the immune system. These effects
induce the secondary diseases which can be manifested
as illnesses mainly non-specific for radiation. At thesame time, acute radiation sickness refers also to
non-stochastic effects of irradiation. Manifestation ofthese effects depends on dose, dose-rate, types ofradiation and the relationship between external andinternal irradiation.
Stochastic effects are characterized by probabilistic
nature of its manifestation. Cancernogenesis based oncell transformations, mutagenesis of somatic orgametes cells refer to stochastic effects of irradiation.
What is known at the present time about revealingof these effects in people?
It is very sad, but the state of people's health has
been affected to a great extent during ten years after the
Accident.
The main information basis to evaluate health ofthe people suffering from the Chernobyl Catastrophe is
the National Register of victims. As for January 1995,
the National Register in Ukraine included 432,543
persons. The Military Medical Register of the Ministryof Internal Affairs of Ukraine includes nearly 36,000
persons.

Assessment of Radiological Consequences
Since the very beginning of the accident, theinformation about the scale of the disaster has been
misjudged and misleading. Even today the world
opinion is far from truly elucidating the real scope of
the impact of the Catastrophe on mankind. A sharply
outlined controversy among specialists in the field ofradiology exist till now about the medical
consequences of the Chernobyl accident. Opinions
differ as to the real causes of the increasing numerous
diseases in the Ukrainian population after the
Chernobyl accident. There are many supporters of a
speculation that the morbidity augmentation after the
Accident is due to psychological factors and no other.
The term “radiophobia” was embedded in radiologicalliterature. However, there is also a speculation that themorbidity is deeply allied to the radionuclide
contamination in the environment. There are reliabledata about the effects of low dose of irradiation and thehealth consequences of iodine influence on thyroid
gland.
I would like to note that there are disgraceful andinhumane attempts to mendaciously diminish theconsequences of the Chernobyl accident or even treat it
as a thing of the past to be forgotten and erased frommemory. This point of view come up mainly fromprejudiced supporters of atomic energy, dignity ofwhich has been suffering from the accident at the
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station. I believe, however,that this accident should not be forgotten. On thecontrary, we should be very attentive to revealing of
the consequences of the Accident because it is related
to principally new aspects of radiation accidents
ecologically dangerous in a large scale as follows.
Firstly, the conditions of combined irradiation by
mixture of beta-, gamma- and alpha- rays are of rather
high radiological effectiveness.
Secondly, the scope of people exposed to the actionof ionizing radiation is unprecedentedly numerous.

20

Table 3 Birth-rate and mortality after the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine(cases on one thousand of residents)
Natural alteration ofYear
Birth-rate
Mortality
population
1990
12.7
12.1
0.6
1991
12.1
12.9
-0.8
1992
11.4
13.4
-2.0
1993
10.7
14.2
-3.5
1994
10.0
14.7
-4.7
1995
9.6
15.4
-5.8
Data of the Health Ministry of Ukraine, September 1996.
Table 4 Infantile mortality after the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine
Year
Number of cases in country Number of cases per 1,000
1990
8,525
12.84
1991
8,831
13.90
1992
8,429
13.98
1993
8,431
14.93
1994
7,683
14.54
1995
7,314
14.68
Table 5 The main causes of infantile mortality in 1990-1995
Diseases
Number of cases per 10,000
Pathological states arisen during
48.4
prenatal period
Inherent anomalies
42.6
Diseases of respiratory system
14.5
Infectious and parasitic diseases
11.2
Altogether over 3,200,000 people in Ukraine areconsidered to be ill owing to the Chernobyl
Catastrophe. Almost 1,000,000 of them are children(5). A brief mention should be made on the health stateof the people in Ukraine which has been heavily
deteriorating last years. It can be seen from the next
Tables (6).
From Table 3 we notice that the mortality rate
exceeds the birth rate in Ukraine from 1991. The paceof the increase in infantile mortality is very high lastyears (Table 4). The main causes of the infantile
mortality are identical to that for the population
affected by the Chernobyl accident (Table 5).
Mortality in the able-bodied residents in Ukraine has
increased sufficiently last years particularly in men(Table 6).
Epidemiological investigations of the influence of
the Chernobyl accident should be carried out with due
regard for total deterioration of the state of health as awhole in Ukraine.
After the Chernobyl accident an annual increase of
sickness incidence among the victims has beenregistered (5).
The alterations of a very general index of the stateof people's health, namely percentage of practically
healthy people, testify that there exists a sharp
deterioration in the health state of adults, adolescentsand children of the affected population (Table 7).

Weight, %
33.0
29.0
9.9
7.6

The percentage of healthy people decreases
drastically with time in three groups of the Chernobyl’svictims. Since 1987 the percentage of healthy
population decreased from 80 % to 20 % andsometimes less. To site one example, in the
Dubrowitzki district of the Riwno region there havebeen no healthy children last years. The high level ofinternal irradiation was observed in this place.

Health state of the participants of the liquidationof the Chernobyl accident consequences and of
the people evacuated from the 30-km Zone (zoneof alienation)
Territory of Ukraine was divided into zones
depending on levels of radionuclide contamination insoil and values of average effective dose (1). There are
the next four zones:- Zone of alienation: the 30-km Zone around theChernobyl Nuclear Power Station;- Zone of obligatory settling out: level of a surface
density of contamination with 137Cs above 15
Ci/km2, with 90Sr above 3 Ci/km2 or Pu above 0.1
Ci/km2. In addition, the territories covered with thesoils in which intensive migration of radionuclides
occurs with a surface density of 137Cs
contamination of 5 - 15 Ci/km2, with 90Sr of 0.15 - 3
Ci/km2, or Pu from 0.01 to 0.1 Ci/km2 are also
included in this category. The effective equivalentdose stands out above 5 mSv /yr.
21

Table 6 Mortality in the able-bodied residents (Number of cases on 100,000)
Year
1990
1992
1994
1995
All causes of death:
Men
697.7
826.9
942.8
1055.1
Women
199.3
216.9
234.7
256.8
Tumor:
Men
226.5
279.9
312.0
349.7
Women
41.2
49.3
54.1
60.2
Diseases of blood circulation:
Men
202.1
242.0
286.4
322.2
Women
50.4
54.1
60.2
65.9
Table 7 The index of practically healthy people , %The groups of victims
Evacuees fromYear
Liquidators
30-km Zone
1987
82
59
1988
73
48
1989
66
38
1990
58
29
1991
43
25
1992
34
20
1993
25
16
1994
19
18
- Zone with the right for settling out: territories
contaminated with 137Cs in the range from 5 to 15
Ci/km2, 90Sr in the range from 0.15 to 3 Ci/km2 or
Pu in the range from 0.01 to 0.1 Ci/km2. When thesoils on territories are characterized by intensive
uptake of radionuclides, the limits of the surface
density are as follows: 137Cs of 1 - 5 Ci/km2; 90 Sr of
0.02 - 0.15 Ci/km2 or Pu of 0.005 - 0.01 Ci/km2.
The effective equivalent dose should not exceed 1
mSv/yr over the pre-accident level of irradiation.
- Zone of residing with strict radiation control:
territories contaminated with 137Cs in the range
from 1 to 5 Ci/km2, 90Sr from 0.02 to 0.15 Ci/km2 or
Pu from 0.005 to 0.01 Ci/km2. When the soils on
this territory are characterized by intensive uptake
and migration of radionuclides, the limit of thesurface density is 137Cs of 0.2 - 1 Ci/km2. The
effective equivalent dose should not exceed 1
mSv/yr.
The victims of the Chernobyl accident in official
documents are divided into four groups in thefollowing way:
- The first group encloses the participants in theliquidationoftheChernobyl
accident
consequences. 245,587 persons fall in this group.
Amongst this group, there are 223,908 men and21,679 women.
- The second group embraces the people evacuatedfrom the Zone of alienation and emigrants from theIncrease compared
to 1990, %
+51.2
+28.9
+54.4
+46.1
+59.4
+30.1

Children from
irradiated parents
86
78
72
62
53
45
38
26

Zone of obligatory settling out. This group consistsof 70,483 persons, among which there are 31,365
men and 39,128 women.
- The third group covers the residents who are living
now or were living some years after the Accident in
the Zone with strict radiation control. This group isvery numerous, it consists of 2,096,000 persons(45.7% men and 54.3% women).
- The fourth group encompasses the children born fromthe parents of any one of the listed groups. This
group consisted of more than 317,000 children in
1995.
The epidemiological data testify that the morbidityof the victims of the Chernobyl accident as a whole andby main classes of diseases is higher than the averagevalues in Ukraine and has a very clearly defined
tendency of increasing with time (7, 8 ). It can be seenfrom Table 8 that the index of morbidity is drasticallygrown with time. The data of morbidity about maindiseases are shown in Table 9.
The number of patients among the participants of
the liquidation of the Chernobyl accident
consequences increased by 2.7 times in relation to
1987. Among the children of the fourth group,morbidity has been increased by 2.5 times last years.
The number of patients increased by 56.3 % in the thirdgroup and by 33.6 % among people related to thesecond group.

22

Table 8

Index of morbidity of the victims by the Chernobyl accident (per 10,000)
Groups of the victims
Year
Adults and adolescentsChildren (less than 14 yr)
1987
4,210
7,866
1994
12,55916,026

Table 9Index of morbidity in adults and adolescents of the suffering people (per 10,000)
Year
Nosological forms
Mean in population
1987
1996
Diseases of blood and hemopoetic system
12.7
30.5
12.6
Diseases of endocrinologic system
41.1
70.0
41.6
Neoplasia of the lymphatic and hemopoetic
3.0
6.7
systemTable 10 Structure of morbidity in adults and adolescents of the victims in 1994
Nosological form%
Diseases of respiration system
35.6
Diseases of nervous system
10.1
Diseases of blood circulation system
8.6
Diseases of digestion system
6.4
Diseases of osseous-muscular system
6.4
Genito-urinary diseases
6.1
Table 11 Index of morbidity in people living in territories of strict radiation control.
(Data of 1996, per 10,000)
Nosological form
Victims
Mean for population of Ukraine
Diseases of hemopoetic system
30.2
12.6
Diseases of blood circulation system
430.4
294.0
Diseases of endocrinologic system
54.2
37.8
Diseases of digestion system
280.9
210.1
Diseases of osseous-muscular system
333.0
307.1
Table 12

Index of mortality in the groups of the victims in 1996
Groups of victims

Participants of the liquidation of the Chernobyl accident consequences
People evacuated from the Zone of alienation
Residents in the territories of strict radiological control
Able-bodied population in Ukraine
Mean for population of Ukraine

The structure of morbidity is specific for thevictims of the Chernobyl accident. The pattern of thenosological forms is shown in Table 10. Diseases ofblood and hemopoetic organs increased during lasteight years by 3.9 times.
Morbidity in people living in the territories
contaminated with radionuclides is well above themorbidity in the average in population of Ukraine. It isseen from the data of Table 11.
The mortality of adults and adolescents subjected toradiation exposure due to the Chernobyl accident
essentially increased after 1987. It can be seen from
Table 12.
The structure of the death causes of the Chernobyl
victims is as follows:

Index (per 1,000)
9.06
11.60
18.42
6.50
15.20

- diseases of blood circulation system; 61.2 %,- neoplasm; 13.2 %,(incidence of death from malignant tumors in thesecase ranges up 98 .4 %);- traumatism; 9.3 %,- diseases of respiration organs; 6.7 %,- diseases of digestion organs; 2.2 %.
The primary disablement in the suffering people
has drastically increased last years. It can be seen from
Table 13.
The data on the health state of the people who
suffered from excess of irradiation confirm beyond any
possible doubt that the environmental situation in thenorth part of Ukraine is unfavorable and inauspicious
for people life.

23

Mortality of children of 0 -14 years increased from
0.5 per 1000 in 1987 to 1.2 in 1994.
The children mortality increases at the expense of
diseases of the nervous system and sense organs(augmentation by 5 times), congenital defects(increasing by 2.4 times) along with the infectious andparasitic diseases, and the diseases of blood circulation
system.
Dynamics of the mortality by malignant tumors ofvarious localization has no regular trend, but the levelof oncological mortality of the suffering children ishigher than this form mortality of the inhabitants inanother parts of Ukraine.

Health state of children subjected to radiation
exposure due to the Chernobyl accident
Increase of primary and total morbidity of children
subjected to radiation exposure due to the Chernobyl
accident was registered on the majority of diseaseclasses for the period 1987 - 1996, as well as constantaugmentation of the number of children with chronic
pathologies. Table 14 gives the value of morbidity andprevalence of diseases in children of the regions
affected by the Chernobyl accident.
It follows that the prevalence of diseases increased
for 10 years by 2.1 times and the rate of morbidity
increased by 2.5 times. It should be pointed out that thehighest level of morbidity increase is registered forneoplasm, congenital defects and diseases of blood andhemopoetic organs. The highest level of morbidity isinherent to the children of the third group of victims(residents of the zone with strict radiation control). It
should be mentioned that the morbidity of children in
all Ukraine decreased by 20.8 % for the same period.
Thus, the morbidity of the suffering children
exceeds significantly the all-Ukrainian level ofchildren morbidity (7, 8 ). The structure of morbidity isshown in Table 15.
Morbidity of the suffering children by malignant
tumors has noticeably increased as compared with theindex of oncological morbidity of children in anotherparts of Ukraine. Oncological morbidity of children in
the affected zones increased for ten years after 1987 by
3.6 times.
The rate of congenital defects increased for thesame period by 5.7 times and morbidity of children by
diseases of blood circulation system and hemopoetic
organs increased by 5.4 times.
Along with the increase of the pregnancy pathology
and confinement, there increases new born children
mortality.

Malignant thyroid tumor
It is now indisputable that the Chernobyl accident
has influenced the increase of thyroid gland tumor
morbidity. It is established that the growth ofmalignant thyroid tumor is connected withradionuclides of iodine released during the Accident
from the damaged reactor unit. Before the Accident
thyroid cancer was rare and characteristic mainly for
elderly people. In children and adolescents anestimated annual incidence of thyroid cancer wasaround 0.2 to 0.4 cases per million children,
representing around 3 % of all tumors. In 1981 -1985
there were only 25 cases of thyroid cancer in children
in Ukraine.
The latency period between irradiation and cancer
development varies with an average period around
8-10 years. There is no correlation between radiationdose and the length of the latency period. However, theincrease of thyroid cancer morbidity began well before
the time it was predicted, namely, after 4 years fromthe Accident and is continuing up to now.
The risk of thyroid cancer has sharply increased
within the children subjected to irradiation at the age
under 3 years old at the moment of the Accident. A

Table 13 Index of the primary disablement (per 10,000)
Groups of people
Year
Participants of the liquidation of the People evacuated from the
Chernobyl accident consequences
Zone of alienation
1987
9.6
20.5
1994
232.4
95.2

Other
5.4
9.3

Table 14 Index of morbidity and prevalence of diseases in children of the affected regions(per 1,000)
Year
Index of morbidity
Index of prevalence of diseases
1987
455.4
786.6
1994
1138.51651.9
Table 15 Structure of morbidity of children of the suffered regions
Nosological forms%
Diseases of respiration system
61.6
Diseases of nervous system
6.2
Diseases of digestion system
5.7
Diseases of blood and hemopoetic system
3.5
Diseases of endocrinologic system
1.2
24

characteristic feature is a high aggressiveness of
thyroid cancer. In a half of cases the tumor goesoutside of thyroid gland and grows into surrounding
tissue and organs.
Number of the cases of childhood thyroid cancer isseen from the data of Table 16 (9).
The majority of cases of children thyroid
carcinoma, 94 % are papillary forms.
It seems reasonable to say that the tendency toaugmentation of manifestation of this cancer inchildren will continue many years. It appears this formof cancer did not peak yet.

The results of radiobiological investigations carriedout in the contaminated territories near the Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Station have shown last time very
important new facts.
The most important radiobiological effects related
to irradiation at low doses have been revealed in thefollowing:
1. Significant non-linearity in dose-dependent curvesof radiobiological effects of irradiation at low doses.
2. Induction of genome instability under the influenceof irradiation at low doses has come to light based on
the chromatographic pattern of restricted DNA
which has been studied in the experiments on
different plant species growing in the soil
contaminated with radionuclides.
3. Disruption of the position control owing toalteration of repeated sequences of DNA molecules
is considered as a likely target at low doses.
4. Deterioration of the accuracy of DNA repair withincells. In our studies to date, by measuring
unscheduled DNA synthesis, we have observed acomplete failure of DNA repair in birch pollen in thefirst generation of pollen after the Chernobyl
accident. Inhibition of unscheduled DNA synthesisin the next generation of birch pollen from the samesite was less. However, later pollen from Chernobyl
failed to achieve proper DNA repair, suggesting thata hidden damage still persisted in the overallmechanisms for DNA repair after chronic irradiation
at low dose rates.
The data of these experiments are presented inTable 17. It is clear that the genotoxicity of irradiationfrom a mixture of radionuclides is much higher thansimilar doses from external gamma-irradiation only.
It was shown that the stochastic effects, likemutagenesis, was closely related to internal irradiationfrom accumulated radionuclides in cells. In this casethe relative biological effectiveness of internal
irradiation was much greater than under external
irradiation. The waxy-mutation of barley and tests forpigment-mutants formation were used in theseexperiments under the controlled level of prolonged
mutagenesis (12).
It is apparent that mutagenic effects in plant cells,in the case of radionuclide contamination of soil, couldRadiobiological appraisal of the radiologicalconsequences
The real reasons responsible for the worsening of
population health in Ukraine can be recognized fromthe radiobiological research carried out on the
biological test-systems of different kinds. We usedplant-systems to reveal the role of chronic irradiation
at low doses on forming the stochastic andnon-stochastic effects. Experiments have been carriedout under the controlled conditions in the area
influenced by the Chernobyl’s radionuclides fallout.
The intimate linkage between the rate of the mitotic
crossingover and irradiation has been proved in the
mutant system of special plants. DNA repair processes
in pollen cells were initially blocked or seriously
reduced in accordance with the level of irradiation at
Chernobyl (10). The present generations of pollen
from trees exposed to continuous irradiation at
Chernobyl fail to repair with fidelity the genesequences in a series of experiments so far carried out.
Epigenetic imprinting during morphogenesis showed ahigh sensitivity to internal irradiation and the hotparticles located on the meristematic tissue (11).
Alterations of mobility of some restriction fragmentsof DNA after chronic irradiation of cells bear witness
to the significance of irradiation at low doses forstability of genom of somatic cells.
The results of fundamental radiobiological researchshould be considered in the attempts to understand themechanism of the changes occurring in irradiated cells
and of the augmentation of numerous diseases owing
to the Chernobyl accident.

Table 16 Number of cases of thyroid cancer in children in Ukraine after the Chernobyl accident (forcontingent with age from 0 to 19 years when the accident occurred)
Year
Number of Cases
Cases per 100,000
1986
15
0.12
1987
18
0.14
1988
22
0.17
1989
36
0.28
1990
59
0.45
1991
61
0.47
1992
108
0.83
1993
113
0.87
1994
134
1.00
1995
166
1.30
25

not be extrapolated on the basis of measured dose. The
yield of chromosome aberration is very high underchronic irradiation at low doses. This is supported byexperimental results presented in Table 18.
The frequency of chlorophyll mutation is also
increased by irradiation due to radionuclide
contamination. The results of experiments on rye aretabulated in Table 19.
The data discussed above point to the conclusionthat irradiation at low dose due to radionuclides
incorporated by tissue is followed by strong genetic
effects. It might be well to point out that themechanisms of radiation mutagenesis and celltransformation are identical both for plant and animalcells. There is no question that irradiation owing its
origin to radionuclides accumulated within cells isdistinguished for its high biological effectiveness. The
use of plant test systems which are capable of fast
responding to irradiation at low dose holds beyond any
reasonable doubt a great promise for the assessment ofradiological risk.

affected by radionuclide contamination in theenvironment. This deterioration of population healthembraces a broad spectrum of diseases.
Social psychological consequences of the Accident
are also very impressive. Under the influence of what
people has seen and heard from the first years after the
Accident, the confidence in many things has beensometimes completely lost for a long time. But there isa tendency to consider the morbidity augmentation
exclusively as a result having been associated withfactors of non-radioactive origin (chemicalcompounds,
heavy
metalsandmainlysocial-psychological syndrome development).
I should note that some specialists being mainly
under ascendancy of the Nuclear Energy Authorities
try to prove from the first days after the Accident thatall deterioration in the health state of the people livingon the territories contaminated with radionuclides aswell as of Liquidators are not directly related to theimpact of irradiation. Why are such doubts being castupon existence of the relationship between irradiationand frequency of diseases in the victims of theChernobyl catastrophe? Skeptics say that there are no
reliable and sufficient proofs of these relationships.
The evidences for this thinking are the following:

Discussion
Following the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident on
April 26,1986, epidemiological analyses of data point
to impressive deterioration of health of the people

Table 17 Frequencies of waxy reversion in barley pollen as a result of 55 days of exposure to various
levels of radionuclides released at Chernobyl and a pure gamma-field
Total reversion
Dose rate (µSv/h) Total dose (mSv)< Radionuclide contaminated conditions >Control (0.96)
174
1.3 ± 0.159226
78 ± 50320837
422 ± 41400
1235
528 ± 47515
1705
680 ± 47
< Chronic gamma-irradiation >Background
0.1
82
5
3.0
145
50
29.6
150
500
296
198
5000
2960
192
50000
29600
292

Radiation-induced
0
52
663
1061
1531
0
63
68
116
110
210

Table 18 Yield of chromosome aberrations (%) by chronic irradiation in root apical meristems ofdifferent plant species (activity of substrate 70,000 Bq.l-1) (4)Plant species
Control
1986
1987
1988
1989
Lupinus alba
0.9
19.4
20.9
14.0
15.9
Pisum sativum
0.2
12.9
14.1
9.1
7.9
Secale cereale
0.7
14.9
18.7
17.1
17.4
Triticum aestivum
0.9
16.7
19.3
17.7
14.2
Hordeum vulgare
0.8
9.9
11.7
14.5
9.8
Table 19 Yield of albina chlorophyll mutation (%) in rye in the 30 km Zone (4, 11)Contaminated soil (137Cs, 137Cs, 144Ce, 106Ru and others,
Variety of rye
Control
180,000 Bq.kg-1)
1986
1987
1988
1989
Kiev-80
0.01
0.14
0.40
0.91
0.71
Kharkow-03
0.02
0.80
0.99
1.20
1.14
26

1. There are no plausible differences related tonon-specific diseases between the people living on
the contaminated territories and the control groups;
2. Techniques for diagnosis verification has become
last years much better than ten years ago. Hence acomparison between epidemiological data obtained
before and after the Accident is improper operation;
3. Deterioration of the state of health can be considered
as a result of other affecting factors; a lowering oflife
conditions,
includingnutrition,andpsychological stresses impact. As this takes place,so-called “radiophobia” attracts the largest notice.
I am sure that there are at least two means ofapproach to interpreting the epidemiological data inorder to solve these contradictions.
In context of this assumption I would like to outline
two considerations.
- The first consideration. Irradiated groups of people
on contaminated territories are too numerous andthey could not advantageously be compared withanother groups. So it is difficult to find adequategroups for comparison. Actually let us see a map of
total mortality of people in Ukraine. The
contaminated territories are found in the regions
where, before the Accident, mortality of people waswell below than in many other regions of Ukraine.
Hence it makes sense to consider the whole
population of Ukraine as the control group forcomparison of indexes of morbidity and mortality.
The alternative is to use a comparative analysis of
the tendencies for morbidity alteration.
- The second consideration. The data ofradiobiological investigations should be used inanalyzing real causes of health deterioration inpeople. Choosing correct controls in radiobiologicalexperiments is fully possible and we know many
biological test-systems particularly well suitable for
evaluating the dose-dependence of the main cellularand molecular genetic processes which can be
primary events of radiological effects.

to consider the morbidity augmentation as a result
having been associated with the factors of
non-radioactive origin (chemical compounds, heavy
metals and mainly social-psychological syndrome
development).
The Chernobyl catastrophe has implied a heavy
burden for Ukraine: pollution of air, water, soils andvegetation in all ecosystems, late radiological effects
in the health of people, losses of arable land and forest,
necessity of mass-evacuation from thousands ofsettlements in the contaminated regions, severe
psychological shock for millions of people, and painful
suffering of unexpected life tragedies.
Eleven years after, this tragic event with its causes
and consequences brings one to very important
conclusions concerning moral aspects of humanrelations within the nuclear society, as well asinteractions between the society and the environment.

References
1. Chernobyl Catastrophe/ Kiev: Naukova dumka.
1995. -547p. (in Russian).
2. Chernobyl catastrophe: causes and consequences.
Part 1 / Minsk: Senmurv. 1993. -242p. (In Russian).
3. Chernobyl catastrophe: causes and consequences.
Part.4 /Minsk:Senmurv. 1993.- 242p.(In Russian).
4. Grodzinsky D.M., Kolomietz O.D., Kutlachmedov
Yu. Antropogenic radionuclide Anomaly and Plants. /Kiev: Naukova dumka. 1991. -158p. (In Russian).
5. Data of the National Commission on RadiologicalProtection of Ukraine, 1996.
6. Medical Ukraine/ 1996, No 3, p.9-10. (In Ukrainian).
7. Data of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine.
8. Indexes of Health of victims due to the accident at
the Chernobyl Power Plant (1987 - 1995). Kiev:
Center of Medical Statistics. 1996. p.4-6. (InUkrainian).
9. Data of the Institute of Endocrinology of the
Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine, 1997.
10. Bubryak I., Naumenko V., Grodzinsky D. Genetic
damages occurred in birch pollen in condition ofradionuclides contamination/ Radiobiologia, 1991,
vol.31, No 4. p.563-567 (In Russian).
11. Grodzinsky D.M. Late effects of chronic irradiationin plants after the accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Station / Radiation Protection Dosimetry.
1995, vol.62, No 1/2. p.41-43.
12. Boubryak I., Vilensky E., Naumenko V.,
Grodzinsky D. Influence of combined alpha, beta andgamma radionuclide contamination on the frequencyof waxy-reversions in barley pollen / Sci. total
Environ. 1992, 112. p.29-36.

Conclusion
Following the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident on
April 26,1986, epidemiological analyses of data point
to impressive deterioration of the health of the people
affected by radionuclide contamination in theenvironment. This deterioration of population healthembraces a broad spectrum of diseases.
Epidemiological prediction of the rate of thyroid
cancer in children near Chernobyl seems strikingly
compatible with a real increase. But there is a tendency

27

Legislation and Research Activity in Belarus about the RadiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident: Historical Review and Present
Situation
Vladimir P. MATSKO and Tetsuji IMANAKA*
Institute of Radiobiology, Academy Sciences of Belarus; Zhodinskaya st. 2, Minsk 220600, Belarus*Research Reactor Instirute, Kyoto University; Kumatori-cho, Osaka 590-04, Japan
number of thyroid pathologies, including thyroid
gland cancer among children.
Aware of the global nature of the catastrophe, andof threatening implications for public health, theSupreme Soviet of Belarus declared the entire
territory of the Republic to be a zone of ecologicalcalamity.

I. Introduction
For nearly ten years since the April 26, 1986
explosion of the Chernobyl power plant nuclear
reactor, the Republic of Belarus has subsequently
been exposed to conditions of global radioactive
contamination. That day ten years ago split the historyof Belarus into two epochs - before and after
Chernobyl. Judging by its scale, the Chernobyl
accident was the biggest technogenious catastrophethat has ever occurred on this planet. Its radioactive
cloud virtually covered the whole northernhemisphere, and resulted in the generation of ahitherto unknown mass of refugees, i.e. for ecologicalreasons, whose numbers only equal those produced bywars.
The most grave results of the accident were to befound in Belarus. Scientists are still arguing as to theexact amount of radionuclides released into theenvironment by the explosion. However, the mostconservative estimate suggests it is equal to the effectof an explosion of twenty nuclear bombs. The damage
caused to the Republic by the Chernobyl accident isestimated to be equal to 32 pre-accidental annual
budgets. The scale of the accident demanded urgent
countermeasures. During the initial stage of the
post-accident period 24,700 people were evacuated.
Up to the present, 130,000 people from thecontaminated areas have been resettled.
Despite the fact that 10 years have passed since theaccident, the problems resulting from it have notdisappeared. Moreover, in some realms they havebecome even worse. This is tied to the high collective
dosage of radiation absorbed by the population, to thedifficulties in remote impact forecasting (especiallyagainst a background of our adverse ecologicalsituation), as well as for other objective reasons.
The Republic, left practically alone to face thecatastrophe’s consequences, still faces a criticalsituation today. 1,840,951 people including 483,869
children below the age of 17, inhabit 3,221 villages
and towns in the radioactively contaminatedterritories. The radiation dose in some of them is up to
5 mSv or higher per year. Socio-psychological tension
is still very high, and there has been a steady increasein the incidence and prevalence of illness. In
particular, concern has arisen over the growing

II. Legislation and regulation in Belarus
concerning Chernobyl
2.a. Legislation to assist people suffering due tothe accident
The Republic of Belarus’ “Social Protection of
Citizens Affected by the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe”
Law proposed on February 22, 1991 was approved on
December 11, 1991 with amendments and additions.
This law is designed to protect the rights and interestsof citizens who took part in the liquidation of theChernobyl accident, as well as those who were
evacuated from the radioactively polluted territories,
and those who still live on these territories. This law
provides that citizens living or working on the
territory of the Republic of Belarus who experienced
damage to their health or property due to theChernobyl APS accident are guaranteed certain rights
and compensation by the State.
The basic criterion used to evaluate the areas inwhich the living and working conditions of the
population do not face any restriction is an effective
equivalent dose of living population which does notexceed 1 mSv (0.1 rem) per year. According to the
stipulations of the Republic of Belarus’ “Legal Statusof Territories Exposed to Radioactive Pollution as a
Result of the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe” Law,following zones are designated on the polluted
territory:- zone of evacuation (alienation);- zone of first-place resettlement;- zone of subsequent resettlement;- zone with the right of resettlement;- zone having periodic radiation control.
This law guarantees the right of Belarus citizens to
obtain complete, timely, and verifiable information
about the level of radioactive pollution of the territory,
the degree of radionuclide contamination of foodproducts and other consumable commodities, and the28following deficiencies in the proposed concept (35rem per life):- there was no system to control the dose commitment
formation, nor any concrete measure to provide safe
living and working environment for separate
districts, categories of population, etc.;- the data on the “dose-effect” dependence forlong-term (70 years) irradiation were not adduced;- a risk assessment of stochastic effects was not maderelating to the present situation;- radiation effects were not evaluated against a
scenario of the joint action of a multitude ofirrational factors;- there was no analysis of data on the irradiation ofdifferent population categories in the first period
after the accident when people lived without any
restrictions and iodine prophylaxy was not carriedout (, which undoubtedly will have future
repercussions);- the endemicity of separate territories relating toiodine and related health disturbances were not taken
into account;- the separate accumulation of plutonium, strontium,“hot” particles in the lungs and strontium in bone,etc. was not considered; however, it may become theleading factor in development of pathologies;- there was no “risk-profit” assessment, etc.
These and other remarks were considered during asession of a number of scientific councils in the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR in May of 1989,
and on September 15, 1989 during a session of theState Council at the Presidium of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR. Representatives of the USSR
Ministry of Health, NCRP, Academy of Sciences of
Ukrainian SSR et al. participated. The most important
conclusions arrived at were as follows:1). Taking into account the generally accepted
conceptof a non-threshold “dose-effect”
dependence, any dose can not be considered asabsolutely safe. This means, the concept of safe
living on polluted territory requires revision andadditional grounding.
2). According to available data, it is impossible toassess correctly the expected risk for the effect ofchronic low (from 0 to 100 rem per life) radiation
doses.
3). The “35 rem per life” dose must be considered as
the limit, overstepping of which or the risk ofoverstepping of which is unacceptable. In the case of
territories where the people receive less than the 35
rem limit, each case must be decided by means of acomplex approach and optimization “input-output”
analysis. Moreover, if the safety of the people can
not be guaranteed by countermeasures, thenresettlement is mandated.
4). The people must be fully informed about theconsequences of living on polluted territories, therequirements of the radiation safety regime. This law
considers workers who participated in the liquidationof the Chernobyl accident as people affected by thecatastrophe. Also covered are citizens of Belarus who
took part in the liquidation or were affected by otheraccidents and their consequences at other nuclear
installations, whether civil or military.
It foresees considerable privileges for those who
participated in the liquidation of Chernobyl and for
those others who were affected by the accident (freereceipt of medicines upon physician prescriptions,
free annual treatment in sanatoria and health resorts,
50-percent off lodging payments, a 50-percent
reduction in heating, water, gas, and electricity
payments, income tax exemption, increase in annual
holidays, etc.). The people affected by the Chernobyl
catastrophe have the right to receive pensions before
the age proscribed by law. Pensions will also be infull irrespective of the salary received. This law also
determines duty of the military to keep watch on thepolluted territories.
A Decree of A. G. Lukashenko, President of the
Republic of Belarus, on September 1, 1995, attempted
to suspend the action of a number of articles of thislaw relating to the privileges of citizens affected bytheChernobyl
catastrophe.
However,theConstitutional Court canceled that presidential decree.

2.b. Legislation and regulation pertaining to theradiation dose limit
After agreeing with Academician L. A. Il’in, thePresident of the National Committee on Radiation
Protection (NCRP) at the Ministry of Health of the
USSR, A. I. Kondrusev, the Chief State Sanitarian of
the USSR, upon the presentation of his deputy A. I.
Zajchenko, approved on November 22, 1988, a limiton the individual dose per life for the population ofcontrolled areas of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine whichwere radioactively polluted as a result of theChernobyl accident. This is a 1-page document with 6
pages of explication grounding a 35 rem per life limit
as the basic concept for “safe living” of population(Letter of NCRP No. 51-2-10/4212 of July 25, 1989).
After this, there began discussion of the concept at theCongress of People’s Deputies, evaluations of thesituation by scientists of the Academy of Sciences of
Byelorussian SSR, the Ministry of Education, theGosagroprom, the Ministry of Health and the Ministryof Social Security of BSSR. After the discussion in
the Academy of Sciences of BSSR in July of 1989
with the participation of WHO experts who supported
the concepts, the Presidium of the Academy of
Sciences of BSSR decided to disagree with theproposed concept of safe living and the opinion ofinvited foreign scientists. The principal remarks madeby the Byelorussian scientists were based on the29

- zone of obligatory resettlement - zone with a density
planned governmental activities, and then have theof soils polluted with Cesium-137, Strontium-90 andopportunity to voluntarily decide whether or not toplutonium - 1480, 111 and 3.7 kBq/m2, respectively;
continue living on polluted territories.
As a result of these conclusions, the “Concept of- zone of resettlement - territory with a density of soils
People’s Living in Regions Affected by the Chernobyl
polluted with Cesium-137 , Strontium-90 and
APS Catastrophe” was developed. It was proposed inplutonium, respectively, from 555 to 1480, from 74
this Concept:
to 111 and 1.85 to 3.7 kBq/m2 where the irradiation
1). To define an additionally acceptable irradiationdose of a person may exceed 0.5 rem (5 mSv) per
limit not higher than 0.1 rem (1 mSv) per year for
year;
the living and working conditions of the population.
- zone with the right of resettlement - territory with aThis irradiation limit can be reached by stages: 1991
density of soils polluted with Cesium-137,- 0.5 rem (5 mSv) per year, 1993 - 0.3 rem (3 mSv)
Strontium-90 and plutonium, respectively, from 185
per year, 1995 - 0.2 rem (2 mSv) per year, 1998 - 0.1
to 555, from 18.5 to 74 and 0.37 to 1.85 kBq/m2,
rem (1 mSv) per year.
where the acceptable limit of population irradiation
2). To divide all the territories into zones according tois higher than 0.1 rem (1 mSv) per year;
the density of radionuclide pollution:- zone of living under periodical control - territory- zone of alienation - zone of resettlement in 1986,
with a density of soils polluted with Cesium-137 adjacent to the Chernobyl APS territory;
from 37 to 185 kBq/m2, where the acceptable limit
Table 1. Tentative acceptable levels (TAL) and republican control levels (RCL) of Cesium-137 andStrontium-90 content in food products and potable water, defined in connection with the Chernobyl
APS accident
Name of food product
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

For Cs-137
Potable waterMilk
Lactic products, sour cream, curds
Milk powder
Butter, condensed milk
Meat (pork, mutton), poultry, fish, eggs, meat andfish products
Beef and beef products
Vegetable and animal fats, margarine
Potatoes, verdure
Vegetables, orchard fruits and berries
Bread and bread products, grains, oats, flour,
sugar
Canned fruit and vegetables, juices, honey
Infant foodFresh berries (forest and orchard)
Fresh mushrooms
Dried fruits, mushrooms and forest berries
Medicinal plants, tea
Other food products and additives
For Sr-90
Potable water
Milk and milk products
Milk powder
Condensed milk
Concentrated milk, butter
Meat (beef, pork, mutton), poultry, fish, eggs,
meat and fish products, vegetable and animal fats,margarine
Potatoes
All types of infant food (ready to be consumed)
Bread and bread products, grains, oats, flour,
sugar

30

TAL-86
Bq/kg,lTAL-88
Bq/kg.lTAL-91
Bq/kg,lRCL-90
Bq/kg,l

370
370
3700
18500
7400

18.5
370
370
1850
1100

18.5
370
370
1850
1100

18.5
185
185
740
370

3700

1850

740

592

3700
7400
3700
3700

2960
370
740
740

740
185
600
600

592
185
592
185

-

370

370

370

-

740
1850
11100
-

600
185
1480
1480
7400
7400
-

185
37
185
370
3700
1850
592

-

-

3.7
37
185
111
-

0.37
3.7
18.5
3.7
3.7

-

-

-

18.5

-

-

37
3.7

1.85

-

-

37

3.7

the division of polluted territories defined by this law.
On the basis of emergency dose limits (the firstyear after the catastrophe - 10 rem, 1987 - 5 rem, 1988
- 3 rem, 1989 - 3 rem, 1990 - 0.5 rem; 50% - external
irradiation, 50% - internal one), the Ministry of Healthof the former USSR defined in 1986, 1988, and 1991,
the tentative acceptable levels (TAL) of Cesium-137
radionuclide content in food products and potablewater. TAL-88 were adopted, most likely, on the basisof the concept of “safe living” with an absorbed dose
limit of 35 rem per life, which was adopted in thesame year by the Ministry of Health of the former
USSR.
In 1990, the Republic of Belarus “Social
Protection of Citizens Affected by the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe” Law was prepared. Since August 1,
1990, the Government of Belarus has put in force therepublican control levels (RCL-90) of acceptableradionuclide content in water and food products. The
RCL-90 enforced for two years until June of 1992.
The RCL-90 rates predicted that for a constantradionuclide intake from food products, the annual
dose of internal irradiation of the critical populationgroup would consist of not more than 0.17 rem. The
RCL-90 first included the control levels ofStrontium-90 in potable water and food products. In
the beginning of 1991, the Ministry of Health of theformer USSR began to enforce the new TAL of
Cesium-137 and Strontium-90 content in potablewater and food products. Values of TAL-86, TAL-88,
TAL-91 and RCL-90 are shown in Table 1.
At present, the republican acceptable levels(RAL-92) remain in force for cesium and strontium
radionuclide content in food products and potablewater, which were approved on October 21, 1992 by
the Chief State Sanitarian of the Republic of Belarus.
RAL-92 assume that radionuclide intake by humans
on such a level will comprise an effective equivalentdose not higher than 1 mSv per year (Table 2).

of population irradiation is not higher than 0.1 rem(1 mSv) per year.
The Council of Ministers of Belarus makes
decisions on the resettlement and providing foracceptable living conditions. This Concept wasapproved on December 19, 1990 by the Bureau of the
Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus andbecame the basis of the above- mentioned “Social
protection of citizens affected by the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe” Law. The “Legal Status of Territories
Exposed to the Radioactive Pollution as a Result of
the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe” Law was adopted by
the Supreme Soviet on November 12, 1991.
In order to fulfill the protective and other measuresindicated by these laws, since 1991, the Ministry of
Health has calculated, updated, and filled out the“Catalogue of Doses of Republic of Belarus
Populations Living in Settlements with a Level of
Cs-137 Pollution Higher Than 37 kBq/m2”.

2.c. Legislation and regulation concerning
radioactivity levels in foods, water and air
The basic principles for limitations andprohibitions on agricultural production andconsumption of agricultural products, as well as theharvest and storage of forest food products, wildfowl,
and fish, are laid down in articles 21-25 of the “Legal
Status of Territories Exposed to the Radioactive
Pollution as a Result of the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe” Law and are differentiated according toTable 2. Fixed values (RAL-92)
Name of food producta) for cesium radionuclides
1 Potable water
2 Milk and milk products
3 Milk powder
4 Meat and meat products
5 Potatoes and root vegetables
6 Bread and bread products
7 Flour, grains, oats, sugar, honey
8 Vegetable and animal fats, margarine
Vegetables, orchard fruits and berries,
9
forest berries
Canned vegetables, orchard fruits and10
berries
11 Dried mushrooms
All types of infant food (ready to be
12
consumed)
Other food products (ready to be
13
consumed)b) for strontium radionuclides
1 Potable water
2 Milk and milk products
3 Bread and bread products
4 Potatoes
All types of infant food (ready to be
5
consumed)

Bq/l.kg
18.5
111
740
600
370
185
370
185

III. Activity of governmental organization
concerning Chernobyl

185

3.a. Basic governmental policy
The activity of the Belarus Government
concerning the mitigation of the Chernobyl
catastrophe may be divided conditionally into two
periods (before and after the collapse of the USSR)
and 5 stages. In the first period, the government of the
Republic, recuperating after the shock, made policy
determined principally by the Central Committee of
the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) andthe USSR Government. After the collapse of the
USSR, when the hope to obtain help from otherrepublics of the former USSR (predominantly Russia)
was lost, the Belarus Government began to makeindependent policy concerning Chernobyl.

185
3700
37
370
0.37
3.7
3.7
3.7
1.85

31

During the first stage (April-May 1986), thesocio-economic conditions in the Republic favoredpursuing various directions in spite of theirinconsistencies. The greatest error of that period wasthat the population was not informed about the dangerof radiation. The opinion that panic would arise was
not grounded. Due to the secrecy surrounding thescale of the disaster, only about 170,000 people
received iodine prophylaxy instead of the entire
populations of four regions: Mogilev, Gomel, Brest
and Minsk. Regarding the objective difficulties ofsolving the primary prophylaxy and decontaminaton
tasks, the insufficiency of portable equipment,
medications, and portable sanitation installations
should be taken into account.

related to the consequences of the accident without
adopting a clear overall program. Such a program wasdeveloped and adopted, but it was late in many
respects. Adequate material resources were notprovided to carry out the program tasks. The 5-year
program implementation plan became strategicallyobsolete. The fact that solving the problems of the
population would take five years did not gain theapproval of the people.
The fifth stage (1990-) is characterized by adramatic shift from instructions and decrees to theelaboration of legislative acts: the “Social Protectionof Citizens Affected by the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe” Law and “Legal Status of Territories
Exposed to the Radioactive Pollution as a result of theChernobyl APS Catastrophe” Law were elaborated
and adopted. The State Committee on the Problems of
the Chernobyl APS Accident was created at theCouncil of Ministers of the BSSR. Governmental
activities included all aspects of the liquidation of theaccident’s consequences and were oriented towards:- the resettlement of inhabitants of the most polluted
regions;- the provision of medical assistance to sufferers ;- the construction of new dwellings and opening of
new jobs for the migrants;- the creation of radiation control system;- the isolation of the most polluted areas;- the sanitarian-ecological planning of settlements inpolluted zones;- the organization of scientific investigations of theconsequences of the accident, etc.

In the second stage (June-December 1986), morethan 25 different decrees and instructions were
promulgated by the Council of Ministers of the
Byelorussian SSR and the Central Committee of the
CPB (Communist Party of Belarus). Incidentally, theirprincipal activity was directed to the financial supportof affected citizens, as well as to the privileges anddonations to population living in areas with apollution density higher than 1,480 kBq/m2. Those
acts were conditioned mainly by the massive
departure of population from the most polluted areasof the Gomel region and, a little later, the Mogilev
region. At the same time, there were not clear enoughrecommendations regarding the production of “clean”
agricultural products. Practically all the yield of 1986
was processed to be consumed, except for the yieldfrom the 30-km zone. In this stage, a negative practice
was begun to restrain the population from leaving thearea by offering financial incentives, even though theresettlement of people from especially affected areas
was needed.

3.b. Ministry activity concerning Chernobyl
Primarily, all the decisions concerning Chernobyl
were made in Belarus by the Commission on the
Liquidation of the Consequences of the Chernobyl
APS Accident at the Bureau of the Central Committeeof the CPB and the Council of Ministers of the BSSR.
According to a decision by the Supreme Soviet in
1991, the State Committee on the Problems of theChernobyl APS Accident was formed. The Presidentof the Committee had a position equal to theVice-President of the Council of Ministers. In 1994,
the State Committee on the Problems of theChernobyl APS Accident became the Ministry on
Emergencies and Protection of the Population fromthe Consequences of the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe.
The realization of state policy in protecting the
population, in addition to coordinating and controllingthe activities of ministries and other central bodies inthis direction are the principal tasks of the Ministry interms of mitigating the consequences of theChernobyl APS accident. There are subdivisions
within the Ministry which control the direction ofcertain activities toward mitigating the consequencesof the catastrophe and in making decisions to be

The third stage (1987-1988) is characterized bysocio-economic and political instability. Unnecessary
products were produced in polluted areas. The
number of cases of diseases caused by small radiation
doses increased. Meetings and demonstrations began
to occur, which were the result of contradictions in thedevelopment of concept of safe living between thecentral government and Republican’s scientific andeconomic bodies. The Republic still supplied animaland plant products to the USSR fund in full-volume.
Activity was mainly directed towards decontamination
and agrotechnical works on lowering the radioactive
pollution levels. In polluted settlements with a level ofpollution higher than 555 kBq/m2, pipelines for gas
heating, schools, and polyclinics were built. Later,
those territories were transformed to a regime ofstrong control, and all social and economic activities
were halted.
In the fourth stage (1989), it became obvious that
it was impossible to solve all of the complex problems

32

implemented by various branch ministries andinstitutions, as well as local administrations. For
example, the Department of Science and International
Relations of the Ministry controls the scale, thenature, and the development of research in the field ofChernobyl-related problems conducted by the
Academy of Sciences, universities, and institutes ofbranch ministries. The Ministry orders and financesthese research projects.

After the Chernobyl APS accident, a number ofcomplicated problems arose in the fields of ecology,
medicine, agriculture, law, demography, etc. All the
Republic’s specialists with corresponding profiles
were engaged in the solution of them. In the first stageof the liquidating the accident consequences, work
was carried out under the direction of a working
group of the Council of Ministers headed by A. A.
Petrov. After determining the scale of the disaster, aGovernmental Commission was formed, headed by V.
G. Evtukh, the First Vice-President of the Council of
Ministers of the Republic. The Science-TechnicalCouncil was created for the scientific provision ofworks as well as the Operative Group - at the
Presidium of the Academy of Sciences.
An assessment of the radiation situation and an
elaboration of urgent measures to lower the negative
effects of radiation on human beings were theprincipal tasks during the first stage after the accident.
Scientists and specialists from the Academy of
Sciences, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry ofHigher Education, Gosagroprom and other Belarus
institutions took part in solving these questions. The
research results enabled an assessment of the generalcharacteristics of the radiation situation in the accident
zone and adjacent areas and facilitated the creation ofmaps of radionuclide pollution in the Republic. The
data obtained by scientists and specialists fromdifferent institutions became the basis for making
decisions on additional resettlement of inhabitants ofcontaminated districts, construction of new dwellings,
and norms of radiation safety for industrial activity inpolluted zones.
However, it was obvious that in addition to theurgent first-priority activities, the adoption of
long-term scientifically grounded measures were alsoneeded in order to fully liquidate the consequences of
the accident. It was impossible to elaborate clear
recommendations for solutions to these problems
based on past international experience of liquidating
the consequences of nuclear accidents. Therefore, in
July of 1986, according to a proposal made bydirective bodies and scientists of Belarus, a complex
program of investigations into the problems ofliquidating the consequences of the Chernobyl
catastrophe was jointly developed in cooperation with
Ukraine and Moldova and approved for 1986-1990.
This program induced research and experimental andtechnological works in four principal directions:- study of radioactive pollution of ecologicalsystems; genetic, physiological, and biochemicalassessment of its possible consequences;- development of technology and methods ofagricultural production in the case of pollution of
the environment with radionuclides;- study of the effects of radiation on functional
systems of organisms, occurrence and course of

3.c. Parliament
In October of 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the
Republic of Belarus adopted the “State Program
Mitigating the Consequences of the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe for 1990-1995”. Since its adoption, allactivity concerning protecting the people fromradiation factors, production of “clean” food products,
decontamination, and agrochemical works has
become more complex and systematic. The tasks
foreseen in the Republic’s program were partiallyinduced in the “State Union-Republican Program ofEmergent Measures on Liquidation of After-Effects of
the Chernobyl APS Accident for 1990-1992” which
was adopted by the USSR Supreme Soviet. It was
expected that, after the implementation of thisprogram, the union-republican long-term program on
mitigating the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
accident for 1993-1995 and until 2000 would beformulated. However, due to the collapse of theSoviet Union, it was not adopted.
In 1990, a session of the Belarus Supreme Soviet
defined the Chernobyl problem as a national, nodal,
which causes political, social, demographic, andeconomic tension in the Republic, and thereby
declared Belarus a zone of ecological disaster.
Making up for lost time, the parliament adopted anumber of important acts in the short-term. In
February of 1991, the “Social Protection of Citizens
Affected by the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe” Law
was adopted, as well as instructions for a “Complex
Special Program of Prophylaxy of Genetic
Consequences Influenced by the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe”, and a “Complex Special Program of
BSSR ‘Defense of Maternity and Childhood in theConditions of Influence of Consequences of theChernobyl APS Catastrophe’ for 1991-1995”. The“Legal Status of Territories Exposed to theRadioactive Pollution as a Result of the Chernobyl
APS Catastrophe” Law was adopted in November of
1991.
The Permanent Commission of the Supreme
Soviet on the Problems of the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe also controls the activity of executive
bodies and local administrations on the mitigation of
the accident consequences.
IV. Academy of sciences33

As a result of implementing research projects
within these programs, a complex assessment of theradioecological situation in the Republic was made.
The forms of radionuclides present in different
ecosystems were determined, as well as their basic
ways of migration. The first results were obtained in
the study of the effect of the present situation on
functional systems of organisms and the rate of
disease in the population. A number of prophylactic
medical activities took place; a number ofrecommendations about agricultural production on
polluted territories and the rational use of nature was
elaborated; methods of decontamination and cleaningradionuclides from environmental objects were
proposed; a forecast of radioactive pollution dynamics
in the Belarus territory for the coming years was
made.
The results obtained became the basis for anumber of protective measures taken by directive
bodies, including: the resettlement of inhabitants ofthe most polluted areas, the selection of places forconstruction of new settlements, the confirmation ofstricter norms on radionuclide content in foodproducts and potable water, the prohibition orlimitation of various kinds of economic activity on
affected territories.
The significant negative consequences of theaccident on a large territory of the Republic whichwere revealed in 1986-1989, became the reason forelaborating a state program of liquidation of accident
consequences for 1990-1995. This program wasapproved by the XII Session of the Supreme Soviet of
Belarus on October 26, 1989. In the state program
there is a special section which addresses thescientific provision of works, which is headed by theInstitute of Radiobiology of the Academy of Sciencesof Belarus. The Coordinative Council was formed inorder to coordinate the research and was approvedon December 13, 1989 by the Commission on the
Questions of Science-Technical Progress of theCouncil of Ministers of Belarus. Research within thestate program is carried out based upon a complex
arrangement of assignments in the following areas:- medical consequences of the Chernobyl accident andprognosis of the state of population’s health,elaboration of methods of diagnosis, treatment andprophylaxy of diseases of different categories ofsufferers (head organization: the Research Instituteof Radiation Medicine of the Ministry of Health ofBelarus);- carrying out of agricultural production on
contaminated territories, forecasting and working out
of protective measures (head organization: theBelarus Research Institute of Soil Science andAgrochemistry of the Ministry of Agriculture andFood of Belarus);

human diseases, the development of methods ofdiagnosis and treatment of radiation injuries;- development of technologies to decrease radiation
pollution of the environment and other separate
objects, methods and means of radiometric anddosimetric control.
Specialized scientific institutes and structural
subdivisions were created in a number of the
Republic’s ministries and institutions for the
implementation of this program, and corresponding
tasks were assigned to them. First of all, created were
the Institute of Radiobiology of the Academy of
Sciences of Belarus (Minsk), the Research Institute ofRadiation Medicine (Minsk), Vitebsk, Gomel andMogilev filial branches of the Research Institute ofRadiation Medicine, the Belarus Research Institute ofAgricultural Radiology (Gomel). Practically all of thescientific institutions and centers of higher education
possessing corresponding specialists and equipment
participated in solving the problems which arose. In
particular, involved were the Institute of Nuclear
Energy of the Academy of Sciences (the Institute ofRadioecological Problems later originated from thisinstitute), the Belarus State University, the Belarus
Research Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry,
the Belarus Research Institute of Haematology andBlood Transfusion, the Institute of Oncology andMedical Radiology, and many others. The majority ofscientific groups addressed these problems without
receiving salaries.
The coordination of efforts by scientificinstitutions within the program facilitated thefulfillment of operative tasks in the systematicallyplanned studies of accident consequences, with thegoal to elaborate measures for their liquidation.
Co-ordination was provided by the Inter-republican
Scientific Board consisting of Belarus, Ukrainian andMoldavian sections. The academician E. F. Konoplya
became the Co-chairman of the Inter-republican
Board and the Chairman of the Belarus section. The
program tasks were fulfilled by 18 institutes of the
Academy of Sciences and more than 20 scientific andeducational centers of the Ministry of Health,Gosagroprom, the Ministry of Higher Education andother organizations in the Republic.
In Belarus, every year plans for research within the
program were designed and then approved by the
Academy of Sciences and the Commission of Councilof Ministers of the Republic. The course and resultsof the research were discussed in special republicanand international seminars, sessions and conferences,and the conclusions and proposals made by scientists
were submitted to the Government. Simultaneously,
the program of monitoring and forecasting theradiation situation in the Republic was created andapproved.

34

With the goal to create a radiometric anddosimetric basis in the Republic, instead of issuing ascientific program aimed at creating an equipment
basis, the government of Republic adopted an
independent republican scientific-technical programon design and production of equipment to provide
radiometric and dosimetric control on December 21,
1990.
There are councils of experts within every headorganization, who evaluate the projects submitted forinclusion into the state program, provide the expertisefor them, draw up annual plans and reports oncorresponding branches, and submit them to the
Coordinative Council. The Coordinative Council
considers the plans and reports of these headorganizations, and with the participation of
independent experts, prepares reports compiled within
the program plans and submits them for confirmation
to the Department of Science of the Ministry on
Emergencies and Protection of Population from theConsequences of the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe.
The research implemented within the state
program allows for an objective assessment of theecological,
medical,economicandsocialconsequences of the accident, in order to propose anumber of measures oriented to their mitigation. The
financial support of such research significantly
enhanced their efficiency. The structure andassignment of scientific matters in the state program
are constantly being improved according to thedemands of addressing practical tasks.

- regularities of changes in the radioecologicalsituation and the effects on the life of organisms invarious ecosystems, long-term prognosis of theradioecological situation in the Republic (headorganization: the Institute of Radiobiology of the
Academy of Sciences of Belarus);- decontamination, processing, disposal and storage ofradioactive wastes and products of decontamination(head organization: the Institute of Radioecological
Problems of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus);- social and economic development of territories
affected by the Chernobyl APS catastrophe (headorganization: the Institute of Economy of the
Academy of Sciences of Belarus);- problems of social adaptation and social andpsychological support of population (headorganization: the Institute of Philosophy and Law of
the Academy of Sciences of Belarus);- research and testing of new preparations, compounds
and food additives, development of recipes andtechnologies to produce them (head organization: theBelarus Sanitarian-Hygienical Institute of the
Ministry of Health of Belarus);- design and production of equipment to provide
radiometric and dosimetric control (headorganization: Belarus State University);- effects of small irradiation doses (head organization:
the Institute of Radiobiology of the Academy of
Sciences of Belarus);- combined effect of ionizing radiation and otherinjuring factors (head organization: the ResearchInstitute of Radiation Medicine of the Ministry of
Health of Belarus);- rehabilitation of polluted territories (headorganization: the Belarus Research Institute ofAgricultural Radiology of the Ministry ofAgriculture and Food of Belarus);- provision of information-analysis of scientific issuesof the state program (head organization: the Instituteof Radiobiology of the Academy of Sciences ofBelarus).
The specialized national program approved by theSupreme Soviet of the Republic of Belarus are
elements of the state program on liquidation of theconsequences of the Chernobyl APS accident. They
are as follows:- prophylaxy of genetic consequencesconditioned by the Chernobyl accident (headorganization: the Research Institute of Hereditary
and Congenital Diseases of the Ministry of Health ofBelarus);- defense of maternity and childhood in areas
suffering from the Chernobyl APS accident (headorganization: the Belarus Research Institute ofDefense of Maternity and Childhood of the Ministryof Health of Belarus).

V. List of scientific organization working on
Chernobyl
5.a. Physical processes and radioactivity
released during the accident- sequences and causes of the accident:
The study of the course and causes of thecatastrophe falls within the scope of the Institute of
Nuclear Energy (currently, the Institute of Problemsof Energy of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus)
and the scientific center “Belrad.”- behavior of radioactivity release into theatmosphere:
The Institute of Radiobiology (V. P. Mironov, Ph.
D.) and the Center of Radiation Control andEnvironmental Monitoring of the Committee on
Hydrometeorology of Republic of Belarus study the
distribution of radioactivity released into theatmosphere during the accident.
- dispersion and deposition of radioactivity in theatmosphere:
The dispersion and migration of radioactivity inthe atmosphere and its deposition onto the ground are
the subject of studies by the Institute of Radiobiology(V. P. Mironov, Ph. D.), Belarus State University(Professor E. P. Petryaev), and the above-mentioned
35

Section of Radiation Safety Control on the
Economical Objects (Head - A. F. Kardash) are also
involved. Immediate medical care is provided by
district, town, and regional health departments, inaddition to hospitals, polyclinics, and otherinstitutions. The clinic and dispensary of radiation
medicine of the Ministry of Health of Belarus is thehead medical base.

Center of Radiation Control by which the monitoringof atmosphere pollution is being conducted.

5.b.
Radioactivity
contamination
andmonitoring- contamination data in the early stage after theaccident:
The data on exposure doses during the early stage
after the accident are kept in the Center of Radiation
Control and Environmental Monitoring and in theState Committee on Civil Defense.
The data on soil pollution are kept in the Center ofRadiation Control as the Republic’s data bank on thecesium, strontium and plutonium radionuclide content
in soils throughout Belarus during post-Chernobyl
years. The Institute of Soil Science andAgrochemistry and the Institute of Radiobiology arealso occupied with this question.
The data on food pollution are gathered at the
Ministry of Agriculture and Food, the center “Belrad,”and sanitation stations in settlements.
- recent contamination data:
The Center of Radiation Control andEnvironmental Monitoring of the Committee on
Hydrometeorology of Republic of Belarus is thecenter where recent contamination data are kept.

5.e. Epidemiological study
The program of registering liquidators, evacuees,
and inhabitants of contaminated areas is conducted by
the Belarus State Register of citizens subjected toradiation action as a result of the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe (a Decree by the Council of Ministers No.
283 of 5/5/1993 determined its status and functions).
The Belarus Center of Medical Technologies(Director Professor A. E. Okeanov) is the responsible
executive. The Laboratory of Analysis and Control ofData (Head - S. I. Antipova) is occupied directly withthese questions (medicine). Software is provided by
the Department of Population Registers Automation(Head - S. M. Polyakov). In addition, the state ofhealth of the population subjected to radiation action
is studied by the Laboratory of Epidemiology ofRadiation Actions (Head - K. V. Moshchik) at the
Research Institute of Radiation Medicine and theLaboratory of Epidemiology and Forecast of the
Population’s Health of the Belarus Center of Medical
Technologies.

5.c. Dose estimation
The reconstruction of thyroid dose is the subject of
research by V. F. Minenko, Ph. D. (Head of theLaboratory of Radiation Situation Assessment andDosimetry at the Research Institute of Radiation
Medicine). The research is headed by Ya. Eh.
Kenigsberg, D. M., Deputy Director of the Institute ofRadiation Medicine. They are also involved in thereconstruction of external and internal doses at theearly stage after the accident, as well as the predictionof radiation doses. The forecast of the dynamics ofdoses and radiation risk also fall within the scope ofstudies by the Laboratory of Radiation Monitoring at
the Institute of Radiobiology (Head - V. A. Knatko,
Ph. D.). The rise of thyroid cancer in children
dependent on the absorbed dose is the theme of astudy by the group handling thyroid morphology
research at the Central Research Laboratory of Minsk
Medical Institute (Head - Professor E. D. Cherstvoj),
as well as by the group on tumorous thyroid pathology(Head - Professor E. P. Demidchik).

VI. Short description of lead organizations- Institute of Radiobiology, Academy of Sciences ofBelarusa. History and aims of the foundation
The Institute was organized in 1987 upon a decreeby the Government to be a head organization in the
Republic in solving problems caused by Chernobyl.
b. Structure and number of staff in the organization
10 laboratories, 2 departments, 1 group. 85
scientists.
c. Research activities relating to Chernobyl
Principal scientific activities:- study of radionuclide behavior in environmental
components: soil, water, air, and plants;- study of the effects of ionizing radiation on themost important organism’s systems: endocrine,
immune, cardiovascular, sex, etc.;- forecast of the dynamics of the radioecologicalsituation and doses of external irradiation;- study of the effects of small irradiation doses;- research for compounds of natural or artificial
origin with radioprotective properties.

5.d. Medical care for people suffering from theaccident
The Ministry of Health of the Republic of Belarus
and, more exactly, the Department of Medical
Protection from the Consequences of the Chernobyl
APS Catastrophe and Emergencies (Head - V. A.
Stezhko) directs the medical care for the people
suffering from the accident. The Department ofRadiation Hygiene (Head - V. V. Grin) and the- Research Institute of Radiation Medicine, Ministryof Healtha. The Institute was organized in 1987 upon a decreeby the Government in order to study the medical

36

a. The Institute was organized in 1988 based on
affiliated branch of the Institute of Medical Geneticsof the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR,in order to elaborate methods of prophylaxy anddiagnosis of hereditary and congenital diseases.
b. 2 laboratories, 1 department and 2 groups (total: 20
scientists) are engaged in solving Chernobyl
problems.
c. Principal scientific activities:- biological indication of radiation injury to human
hereditary structures;- monitoring of human hereditary pathology,
medico-genetic consultation;- prenatal diagnosis and prophylaxy of hereditaryand congenital diseases of fetus.

consequences of the Chernobyl APS catastrophe andto search for ways to mitigate them.
b. 14 laboratories. 89 scientists. 3 affiliated branches
in Gomel, Mogilev and Vitebsk.
c. Principal scientific activities:- dosimetry, doses prognosis, determination of ration
components contributing to the formation of internal
doses;- endocrinologic investigations, primarily, thyroid
pathology;- immunological, cytogenetical, epidemiologicalinvestigations;- study of combined effect of radiation andnon-radiation factors;- study of efficiency of sanitation and treatment insanatoria and resorts.

- Institute of Genetics and Cytology, Academy of
Sciences of Belarusa. The Institute was organized in 1965 to develop
genetic studies of vegetable, microbial, and animal
objects in Belarus. After the Chernobyl catastrophe,
it was partially re-oriented to study the effect ofradioactive contamination of the environment on
genetic structures.
b. 2 laboratories, 3 groups, 1 department (total: 34
scientists) are engaged in solving Chernobyl
problems.
c. Principal scientific activities:- study of mutations on the molecular level by
feeding experimental animals with contaminatedfeeds;- analysis and prognosis of genetic after-effects of
the Chernobyl catastrophe on animals and man;
- genetic observation of children living incontaminated areas;- study of genetically determined rise of tumors in
people living in polluted areas;- elaboration of radioprotective preparations andsensitive methods of bioindication of environmental
pollution.

- Belarus Center of Medical Technologies,
Information, Direction and Economy of Public
Healtha. The Center was organized in 1992 upon a decree by
the Government in order to analyze the state ofhealth of the population, to forecast the further
development of a public health system, to create databanks and registers of the health state of the
population, especially of those affected by the
Chernobyl APS accident and those involved with theliquidation.
b. 2 laboratories (15 scientists) are occupied withChernobyl problems.
c. Principal scientific activities:- epidemiology of malignant neoplasm in the
Republic before and after the accident;- study of the health state of different categories ofsufferers based on the State Register of citizens
subjected to the effects of radiation as a result of theChernobyl accident, including liquidators, evacuees,
inhabitants of polluted areas, as well as theirchildren.
- Institute of Radioecological Problems, Academy of
Sciences of Belarusa. The Institute was organized in 1991, based on partof the former Institute of Nuclear Energy of the
Academy of Sciences of Belarus in order to solve
problems
connected
withdecontamination,utilization, and burying of radioactive wastes.
b. 8 laboratories. 48 scientists.
c. Principal scientific activities:- elaboration of methods and means ofdecontamination and protection of the environment
from pollution with decontamination products andburied radioactive wastes;- elaboration of methods to protect the populationfrom radiation and protective countermeasures, andan evaluation of their efficiency.

- Research Institute of Haematology and Blood
Transfusion, Ministry of Healtha. The Institute was organized in 1932 as the headrepublican science-medical organization addressing
problems of haematology and blood service. In
1986, the Institute was partially re-oriented to
Chernobyl problems.
b. 5 laboratories (25 scientists) are engaged in thesolution of problems related to Chernobyl.
c. Principal scientific activities:- analysis of the reaction of haematopoietic andimmunocompetent cells to the action of ionizing
radiation, primarily, in people affected by the
Chernobyl APS catastrophe;- study of phenotypical and functional disturbancesof immunocompetent cells in liquidators;-Research Institute of Hereditary and Congenital
Diseases, Ministry of Health37

16. Belarus Republican Science-Practical Conference“Natural and Economical Complexes of Belarus
Palesse in Extreme Conditions”, May 14-15, 1992,
Gomel.
17. Belarus Republican Science-Practical Conference“Psychological Consequences of the Chernobyl APS
Accident”, June 26, 1992, Minsk.
18. International Symposium “Chernobyl and Healthof Children”, June 1-5, 1992, Mogilev.
19. International Conference “Science and Medicine
for Chernobyl”, November 10-13, 1993, Minsk.
20. Conference “Defense of Maternity and Childhoodin Conditions of the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe
Consequences”, January 10-12, 1994, Minsk.
21.
4th
Science-Practical
Conference“Science-Practical Aspects of Preservation of Healthof People Exposed to Radiation Action as a Resultof the Chernobyl APS Accident”, April 11-13, 1994,
Mogilev.
22. 2nd International Congress “World After
Chernobyl”, April 18-22, 1994, Minsk.
23. Republican Seminar “State and Perspectives ofDevelopment of Medico-Genetic Service in
Post-Chernobyl Period”, June 7-8, 1994, Minsk.
24. Belarus-Japan Symposium “Acute and Late
Consequencesof
NuclearCatastrophes:
Hiroshima-Nagasaki and Chernobyl”, October 3-5,
1994, Minsk.
25. International Task-Force Meeting “Ecological
Status of Territories Polluted with Radionuclides”,
April 19-20, 1995, Minsk.
26. Science Conference “Ten Years after the
Chernobyl Catastrophe (Scientific Aspects of
Problem)”, February 28-29, 1996, Minsk.
27. 1st International Conference “RadiologicalConsequences of Chernobyl Catastrophe”, March
18-22, 1996, Minsk.

- study of the incidence of haematological diseases
in Belarus relating to the Chernobyl accident;- study of clinical characteristics of leukoses,
anemia, and haemostasiopathies in adult patients,
and the definition of peculiarities in clinicaltreatment of diseases arising as a result of small
irradiation doses.

VII. List of principal scientific conference held
on Chernobyl in Belarus
1. Republican Science-Practical Conference onRadiobiology and Radioecology, December 22-23,
1988, Minsk.
2. 1st Science-Practical Conference, December 26-27,
1989, Minsk.
3. Republican Science-Practical Conference onRadiobiology and Radioecology, December 20-21,
1990, Minsk.
4.
2nd
Science-Practical
Conference“Science-Practical Aspects of Preservation of Healthof People Exposed to Radiation Action as a Resultof Chernobyl APS Catastrophe”, March 12-14,
1991, Minsk.
5. Belarus Republican Science-Practical Conference“Psychological Consequences of Chernobyl APS
Accident”, June 26, 1991, Minsk.
6. International Symposium (with the participation of
an international working group on Chernobyl
problems) “Man, Ecology, Symmetry”, October
9-11,1991, Minsk.
7.
All-Union
Conference“RadiobiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl APS Accident”,
October 30 - November 1, 1991, Minsk.
8. 3rd Science-Practical Conference, April 15-17,
1992, Gomel.
9. International Practical Seminar “Agrotechnical
Methods of Improvement on Soils Polluted with
Radionuclides”, September 1992, Minsk.
10. International Symposium “Effect of Radiation on
Thyroid”, October 27-30, 1992, Minsk.
11.
Belarus
Republican
Science-Production
Conference “Principal Directions of Obtaining
Ecologically Clean Plant Production”, 1992, Gorki.
12. Science-Practical Conference on Problems ofSocial and Psychological Rehabilitation andSocial-Legal Protection of Children and Adolescents
Affected by the Chernobyl APS Accident, April
23-24, 1992, Gomel.
13. 2nd Belarus-German Symposium on Problems of
Infant Oncohaematology, April 24-27, 1992, Minsk.
14. International Symposium “Consequences of
Nuclear Catastrophes: Chernobyl, Hiroshima,
Nagasaki”, June 29 - July 1, 1992, Minsk.
15. Science-Practical Conference on Problems of Safe
Living in the Zone, Wastes Management, EcologicalControl, 1992, Gomel.

VIII. List of important publication by
Belarussian scientists on Chernobyl
1. Avramenko T. A., Drozdovich V. V., Minenko V.
F., Tretiakevich S. S. Radiation, “Dose Catalogue ofInhabitants in Settlements on the Republic of
Belarus”, Minsk, 1992 (in Russian).
2. Astakhova L.N., Polyanskaya O. N., Drozd V. M.
et al., “Functional State of Pituitary-Thyroid System
in Children and Adolescents”, Zdravookhranenie
Belarusi. 1993, No.2, pp.4-7 (in Russian).
3. Beskorovajnyj V. P., Kotovich V. V., Molodykh V.
G. et al., “Radioactive Pollution on the Belarus
Territory by Collapse of the Building Structure of
the 4th Block of APS”, Vestsi ANB. Seryya
fizika-tehkhnichnykh navuk. 1995, No.1. pp.93-97(in Russian).
4. Bondar Yu. I., Shmanaj G. S., Matsko V. P. et al.,“Radioactive Pollution on the Territory of thePolesski State Radioecological Reserve”, Vestsi AN

38

13. Lazyuk G. I., Nikolaev D. L., Ilina E. G.,“Monitoring of Congenital Malformation in
New-Born Children of Southern Areas of Gomel andMogilev Regions”, Zdravookhranenie Belarusi.
1990, No.6, pp.55-57 (in Russian).
14. Mazur V. A., Ustinovich A. K., Zubovich V. K. etal., “Health State of Pregnant, Bearing Women and
New-Born Children in BSSR Regions Exposed toRadioactive Pollution in 1981-1989”, Vestnik
Akademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR. 1991, No.11,
pp.22-24 (in Russian).
15. Minenko V. F., Ulanovskij A. V., “RadiometricControl of Irradiation of BSSR Population”,
Zdravookhranenie Belarusi. 1990, No.6, pp.60-61(in Russian).
16. Mironov V. P., Drugachenok M. A., Kudryashov
V. P., “Dynamics of Radioactive Pollution of the
Atmosphere of BSSR Towns”, Vestsi AN BSSR.
Seryya fizika-ehnergetychnykh navuk. 1991, No.4,
pp73-77 (in Russian).
17. Okeanov A. E., Antipova S. I., Karpovich V. A. etal., “Analysis of Morbidity of Population Affectedby the Chernobyl APS Catastrophe in 1993”, Minsk,
1994 (in Russian).
18. Petryaev E. P., Lejnova S. L., Sokolik G. A. et al.,“Composition and Properties of Radioactive
Particles Discovered in the Southern Areas ofBelarus”, Geokhimiya. 1993, No.7, pp.930-939 (inRussian).
19. Ustinovich A. K., Zubovich V. K., Dombrovskij
V. Yu. et al., “Cesium-137, Strontium-90 andMicroelements Content in Mother's Milk fromRadiocontaminated
Areasof
Belarus”,
Zdravookhranenie Belarusi. 1994, No.12, pp.30-33(in Russian).
20. Khotyleva L. V., Dylenok L. A., Yatsevich A. P.
et al., “Effect of Increased Radiation Background on
Chromosomal Aberration Frequency in Norway
Spruce (Picea Abies (L) Karst.)”, Doklady ANB.
1992, Vol.36, No.9-10. p.842. (in Russian)

BSSR. Seryya fizika-ehnergetychnykh navuk. 1991,
No.4, pp.58-64 (in Russian).
5. Buglova E. E., “Formation of Internal Radiation
Dose Dependent on Peculiarities of CesiumRadionuclide Transfer along Food Chain andEfficiency of Protective Measures”, Abstracts ofIntern. Conf. “Science and Medicine For
Chernobyl”. Minsk, 10-13 Nov. 1993, pp.3-4 (inRussian).
6. Eliseeva K. G., Trusova V. D., Vojtovich A. M.,
Sokolik G. A., “Role of Proliferation Activity ofCells and Level of Radionuclide Accumulation in
Injury of Genetic Structure of Animals from the
Pollution Zone around Chernobyl APS”, Doklady
ANSB. 1994, Vol.38, No.4, pp.80-83 (in Russian).
7. Ilin V. P., Gudak S. P., “Characterization ofRadionuclide Migration in the Aeration Zone ofSouth-East of BSSR”, Vodnye resursy. 1990, No.6,
pp.56-60 (in Russian).
8. Kagan L. M., Kadatskij V. B., “Gamma-Field
Transformation on the Belarus Territory andAssessment of External Radiation Dose as a Resultof the Chernobyl APS Accident”, Atomnaya
ehnergiya. 1994, Vol.77, No.3, pp.211-214 (inRussian).
9. Kenigsberg Ya. Eh., Minenko V. F., Buglova E. E.,“Collective Dose of Belarus Population after the
Chernobyl APS Accident and Prognosis of
Stochastic Effects”, Devyat’ let Chernobylyu.
Meditsinskie posledstviya: Proceedings. Rel.2.
Minsk, 1995, pp.61-69 (in Russian).
10. Kenigsberg Ya. Eh., Minenko V. F., Moshchik K.
V., “Radiological Situation in Belarus after the
Chernobyl APS Accident, Biomedical Consequences
and Scientific Justification of Activities on Radiation
Protection of Population”, Minsk, 1991, p.30 (inRussian).
11. Knatko V. A., Sivakov I. V., “Calculation of
Dynamics of Exposure Dose of Cs-134 and Cs-137
Gamma-Radiation with Migration in Soil”, Vestsi
ANB. Seryya fizika-matehmatychnykh navuk. 1995,
No.2, pp.93-96 (in Russian).
12. Kuznetsov V. A., Kol’nenkov V. P., Shagalova
Eh. D. et al., “Plutonium-238, 239, 240 in River
Deposits on the Territory of the North-East Trace of
the Chernobyl Radioactive Pollution”, Doklady
ANB. 1993, Vol.37, No.6, pp.104-107 (in Russian).

Acknowledgement: This study was supported by the
research garnt of the Toyota Foundation. The
authors would like to thank Dr. Fomichenko K. V. of
the Institute of Radiobiology, Academy of Sciencesof Belarus and other colleagues in Belarus for theircollaroration during the study. The authors are also
grateful to Ms. Cynthia Heffelfinger for her help in
preparing the manuscript.

39

Legislation and Research Activity in Russia about the RadiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident
Igor A. RYABZEVand Tetsuji IMANAKA*
Institute of Problem of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences
Leninsky st. D-33, Moscow 117071, Russia*Reserch Reactor Institute, Kyoto University; Kumatori-cho, Osaka 590-04, Japanerrors due to the specificity of this case. Among thespecific features of the Chernobyl accident, it isnecessary to note the following:
1. The complex composition of radionuclides
polluting the environment, which changes in avariety of ways depending on the direction anddistance from the source.
2. Physico-chemical properties (dispersibility,
solubility etc.) of radioactive precipitation, which
also change over a wide range.
3. The diversity of natural and meteorologicalconditions which influence redistribution andmigration of radionuclides in ecosystems.
4. The vast territory of radioactive pollution and thesheer number of people living under conditions ofchronic ionizing radiation of small doses.
Owing to the above-mentioned circumstances,large-scale and systematic studies of the ecologicalandradiobiologicaleffectsofradioactive
contamination in areas adjacent to the Chernobyl APS
were started in the first weeks after the accident.

I INTRODUCTION
One of the principal problems in liquidating theafter-effects of the Chernobyl APS accident in the firstweeks and months after it occurred was to protect
people from external irradiation and internal intake ofradioactive products through the consumption of local
food stuffs. To solve this problem, evacuation of the
population and livestock from a 30-km zone aroundthe APS was carried out in the first days after thecatastrophe. In the following period, assessment of thepollution of agricultural products in areas adjacent to
the Chernobyl APS became one of the primary tasks,
as was a general assessment and forecast of theecological consequences of the environmental
pollution both in natural and agricultural ecosystems.
The approach to solve these problems assumed:
1. Detailed study of the radiation characteristics ofsurface contamination, i.e. spatial distribution,
composition and density of pollution by released
radionuclides, dose of external γ-radiation indifferent landscape-ecological conditions, including
surface waters.
2. Study of migration and penetration of the mostdangerous (long-lived) radionuclides into the soil,
their solubility and potential for root intake in
different soil-geographical conditions.
3. Study of the initial aerial pollution of wild andagricultural vegetation. Later, assessment ofaccumulation coefficients of dangerous radionuclides
by the biomass of wild and agricultural plants at theroot intake to address the problem of how to use theyield economically.
4. Study of the accumulation of dangerous
radionuclides in milk and organs of agricultural
animals to solve the problem of animal products' use.
5. Assessment of direct effects and prognosis of
long-term (genetic) effects of radioactive
contamination on functional parameters of natural
ecosystems, animals and human beings.
Many of these research directions had beendeveloped during the study of environmental pollution
by radioactive products formed during nuclear
weapons tests, as well as accidents at nuclear power
installations. However, the simple application ofprevious
radioecologicalandradiobiologicalknowledge to the Chernobyl catastrophe could leadand did actually result in a number of significant

II LEGISLATION AND REGULATION IN
THE USSR AND RUSSIA CONCERNING
CHERNOBYL
2.a. Legislation and regulation pertaining toradiation dose limit
In April and May of 1986, the Governmental
Commission of the Council of Ministers of the USSR
and the Ministry of Health of the USSR directed
implementation of protective activities and theliquidation of the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe. The first decision concerning limiting theirradiation dose of the population was to evacuate thepopulation from a zone where the exposure dose rate
exceeded 25 mR/h (a level observed approximately ata radial distance of 10 km from the Chernobyl APS).
Then a decision was made to lower this limit to 5
mR/h corresponding to a zone with a 30 km radius.
Among other decisions made on the level ofministries and institutions of the USSR, it is necessary
to mention the following:- On May 12, 1986, the National Committee on
Radiation Protection of the USSR (NCRP)
determined to limit the irradiation dose for the
population to 500 mSv/year, and for children under
14, pregnant women and nurses to 100 mSv/year.
40presented to him (her) about the radiation situation,
irradiation dose and possible health effects.
Based on the above concept, a law of the USSR,"On Social Protection of Citizens Affected by the
Irradiation as a Result of the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe" was written up and approved in May of1991. This law established the rights of citizens who
took part in the liquidation of the catastrophe, those
resettled to new places, and those who still live in thegiven territories.
After the collapse of the USSR, the RussianFederation succeeded to addressing the tasks ofcoping with the consequences of the Chernobyl
catastrophe. At present, there is an elaborated conceptof radiation, medical and social protection andrehabilitation of the Russian Federation population
who were irradiated due to the accident. It contains a
concrete list of recommended measures for radiation
protection of people who still live in situations
vulnerable to the accident consequences. Thoseterritories where people have a possibility to receive
the annual effective dose exceeding 1 mSv arerecognized now as being polluted. They are
categorized in the following manner:- zone of obligatory resettlement: areas where soil
densities of Caesium-137, Strontium-90 and
Plutonium are 1480, 111 and 3.7 kBq/m2 or higher,
respectively.
- zone of limited inhabitancy: areas where the annual
dose of the people may exceed 5 mSv (Caesium-137
density from 555 to 1480 kBq/m2).
- zone with the right to resettlement: areas where theannual dose is higher than 1 mSv (Caesium-137
density from 185 to 555 kBq/m2).
- zone of living under periodical control: areas where
the annual dose should not exceed 1 mSv(Caesium-137 density from 37 to 185 kBq/m2).
Within this concept, those who have received adosage of more than 50 mSv of acute and 70 mSv ofchronic irradiation are recognized as ‘irradiated’, andas ‘affected’ are those who have developed a disease
whose occurrence has been proven to be as a result ofirradiation from the accidents. All of the people
referred to are being included in the nationalradiation-epidemiological register.
A program of medical assistance and rehabilitation
has been developed for all those ‘irradiated’ and‘affected’. Special attention is being paid to the‘affected’ people and groups at increased risk amongthe ‘irradiated’. In the system of medical protection
and rehabilitation of the population, activities areforeseen to raise the resistance to and protect
irradiated people from cancer, as well as for limiting
the influence of injurious factors of a non-radiation
nature. Psychological support and rehabilitation of the
population are aimed to limit and prevent thedevelopment of stress among people living in thepolluted territories. In order to do so, efforts are- On May 22, 1986, a dose limit of 100 mSv/year wasdetermined for the entire population.
- In 1987, NCRP approved norms of radiation safety(NRS-76/87). These norms gave the Ministry of
Health the right to establish dose limits for the
population irradiated as a result of the accident. A
limit of 30 mSv was established for 1987, with alevel of 25 mSv established for 1988 and 1989.
According to decree No. 1452-1 of the Supreme
Soviet of the USSR made April 25, 1990, “About theUnique Program for Liquidating the Consequences of
the Chernobyl APS Accident and the Situation
Related to this Accident” and decree No. 645 of theCouncil of Ministers of the USSR made June 30,
1990, about this problem, a concept was developed
concerning living in the areas affected by the
Chernobyl APS accident. The objective of thisconcept was to formulate principles and criteria tojustify the practical measures aimed at maximizing the
mitigation of possible negative after-effects of theChernobyl APS accident relating to human health andcompensation of losses.
The basic principles and criteria are as follows:
1. Each person living on the territory polluted withradionuclides or having lived there for at least theestablished minimum period has a right tocompensation for losses in the form of legal
privileges, and guaranties of social and medical
protection.
2. The irradiation dose resulting from radioactivity due
to the Chernobyl APS accident is the principal
criterion for making decisions about the necessity ofprotective measures, their content and scale, and thecompensation for losses.
3. Overexposure (above the level of the natural andtechnogenic background for a given locality) of theaverage annual effective equivalent dose not higher
than 1 mSv (0.1 rem) from the radioactive
precipitation as a result of the Chernobyl APS
accident is considered acceptable and does not
require any intervention.
4. It is mandatory to carry out resettlement of people
from the populated areas registered on the official
list, by taking into consideration the establishedintervention levels and socio-economic conditions.
5. Besides radiation protection, the following
countermeasures must be taken:- improved medical service, including special medical
observation of groups at increased risk, treatment insanatoria and sanitation in resorts;- provision of nutrition at full value including
additional microelements, vitamins;- measures to lower socio-psychological tension;
6. Each person living on the territory polluted withradionuclides has the right to make the decisionindependently about whether to continue living on agiven territory or choosing resettlement to anotherplace, on the basis of the objective information

41

Table 1 Temporary acceptable level of Caesium and Strontium contents in food products(TAL-94)
Concentration (Bq/kg, l)Name of foodCaesium-134, 137
Strontium-90
1. Milk and milk products, bread and bread
products, grains, flour, sugar, vegetable and370
37
animal fats, margarine
2. All types of infant foods (ready to be
185
3.7
consumed)
3. Other food products
600
100
Also, in 1987, the new “Norms of Radiation
Safety” (NRS-76/87) and “Principal Sanitarian Rulesof Work with Radioactive Substances and Other
Ionizing Radiation Sources” (PSR-72/87) wereapproved. They defined more precisely somestandards about the influence of ionizing radiation onhuman beings. The experience gained in radiation
control and prophylactic activities in corresponding
institutions and the environment was reflected in them,including the knowledge gained from the liquidationof the Chernobyl after-effects. PSR-72/87 was valid
on the USSR territory and, after its collapse, on the
territory of Russia until recently. At present, they havebeen revised, amended and corrected, and in the
shortest time are to become obligatory to apply theentire Russian territory.
In addition to the principal laws and regulations
mentioned above, a number of instructions,recommendations and rules were published. They
were oriented to decreasing the dose commitment andradionuclide intake by people living on polluted
territories and those working in various spheres of theeconomy. For example: “Instruction on Protection ofPopulation from Accidents Which Release
Radioactive Substances into the Environment,”“Instruction on Radiation Safety for the 30-km Zone
around the Chernobyl APS,” “Provisional Instruction
on Forestry Regulations and Radiation Safety underthe
ConditionofRadioactive
Pollution,”“Recommendations on the Agro-industrial Complex
Activities under the Condition of Radioactive
Pollution of Territories,” “Recommendations to the
Population about Behavior on Territories Polluted
with Radionuclides” and so on.

expected to raise the level of people’s knowledge
about irradiation effects, to provide convincing
information about the radiation situation, and to create
psychological support services in polluted areas.
In accordance with this concept, certain
amendments and changes were introduced into the lawof the Russian Federation, “On Social Protection of
Citizens Affected by Radiation as a Result of theChernobyl APS Catastrophe,” which was approved by
the State Duma of the Russian Federation on July 12,
1995.

2.b. Legislation and regulation concerning
radioactivity levels in foods, water and air
Before the Chernobyl APS accident, limits onradionuclide intake with food, water and inhaled air byhumans, as well as permissible levels of radioactive
contamination of different surfaces, were defined in
the “Norms of Radiation Safety” (NRS-76) and the“Principal Sanitarian Rules of Working with
Radioactive Substances and Other Ionizing Radiation
Sources” (PSR-72/80). Complying with these
documents was obligatory for all state and cooperative
enterprises, institutions and organizations throughout
the USSR. After the Chernobyl APS accident,
however, they could not be complied with across avast territory. Therefore, starting May 3, 1986, the
USSR's NCRP established a temporary acceptablelevel of radioactive iodine of 3.7 kBq/l,kg for drinking
water and food products. It was then revised on May
30, 1986, by the USSR Ministry of Health to add
standards for Caesium-137 and -134. These standards
were calculated to not exceed 50 mSv of the internal
dose permissible for the first year after the accident.
Meanwhile, on May 7, 1986, the USSR Ministry of
Health approved temporary permissible levels of
surface contamination of land, vehicles, clothing, skin,etc., which were then reduced on October 26, 1986.
The temporary acceptable levels of pollution offood products and water with cesium isotopes wereintroduced in 1988 (TAL-88) in order to limit theinternal irradiation dose. TAL-91 were thenestablished in 1991, and TAL-94 (Table 1) in 1994.
The acceptable levels of pollution of food products
and drinking water decreased gradually, and in the last
document the levels correspond to those in the
majority of European countries and the USA.

III GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONCONCERNING CHERNOBYL
The principal policy of the government was madein two directions:- to carry out restoration and decontamination
activities aimed at decreasing radioactive pollution of
the territories;- to provide social guaranties to the sufferers, first ofall, their resettlement away from polluted zones,
supply of clean food products and organization of
medical service.

42

4. Biomedical aspects of radioactive pollution.
5. Decontamination bases.
6. Methodological and instrumental provision ofcontrol for the radiation situation.
Leading scientists of the USSR entered into the
Coordinative Council, and scientists from various
ministries, institutions and academies were charged
with implementation of this program.
The “State Union-Republican Program on the
Liquidation of the Consequences of the Chernobyl
APS Accident for 1990-1995” was worked out later
on, as were legislative acts regulating different aspectsof activity in the post-accident period.
However, it must be pointed out that both researchand socio-economical programs for 1992-1995 were
not implemented. The principal reason for this is that
only 16% of the scheduled funds were provided forthis period. In this case of unsatisfactory financial
provision, only selected activities were implemented,
disregarding the integrated approach. Thus, theplanned objectives were not met and the indices ofpeople’s lives did not improve. This period, moreover,coincided with a general socio-economical crisis in
Russia, the rapid decline in industrial and agricultural
production, the appearance of unemployment andimpoverishment of the population. All of theseprocesses exerted negative effects on the health andbirth-rate of the country. The mortality rate increased,
and the population in the Russian Federation began todecrease.
It is also necessary to note that the pre-Chernobyl
radiobiological science in the USSR was oriented
mainly to the study of the effects of high irradiationdose on cellular, tissue and organisms of living things.
When the Chernobyl catastrophe took place, experts
found themselves in a complicated situation. The
classic texts of radiobiology asserted that effects ofsmall-dose irradiation in people should not be that
extensive. Therefore, such terms as ‘radiophobia’,‘acute psychological stress’ and so on were often usedby the officials to describe the situation.
Other than mentioned above, a very importantbiological concept of the non-proportionally strong
effects of small doses of radiation on biologicalobjects has been developed. It was formulated in the
1960’s by Professor BURLAKOVA E. B. (and,independently, in the 1970’s by Canadian researcher,
PETKO A.). This concept requires to the revision ofmany commonly accepted theories concerning‘dose-effect’ dependence, not only for ionizing
radiation but for all physico-chemical influences onliving organisms. Therefore, before making optimistic
predictions, it is necessary to understand theregularities of the effects of small doses of radiationand carry out extensive investigation into this field.
The results of research concerning the effects ofChernobyl radioactive contamination on human healthwere reported at the World Health Organization’s

Since the time of the accident, the following
organizations have been in charge of handling theconsequences of the accident in the former USSR andthen in the Russian Federation:- Since May 1986 - Governmental Commission of theCouncil of Ministers of the USSR,- Since 1989 - State Commission on Emergencies of
the USSR Council of Ministers,- Since 1990 - State Committee of Russian Federationon the Liquidation of Consequences of theChernobyl APS Accident.
- Since 1994 - Ministry of Russian Federation on Civil
Defense, Emergencies and Liquidation ofConsequences of Natural Disasters.
Besides the above, almost all of the union andrepublican ministries and institutions have been
involved in the liquidation of the Chernobyl
consequences and the activities to help the affected
population right from the first years after the accident.
Currently, the ministries below fulfill these functionsin the Russian Federation:- Ministry on Civil Defense, Emergencies andLiquidation of Consequences of Natural Disasters;- Ministry of Health;- Ministry of Social Protection;- Ministry of Agriculture;- Ministry of Forestry;- Ministry of Atomic Energy and Industry;- Ministry of Chemical Industry;
The Ministry of Health and the Ministry on
Emergencies are responsible for medical assistance tothe people affected by the Chernobyl APS accident. In
the period after the accident, the material-technicalbase of health services was improved significantly inseveral areas. Necessary scientific methods weredeveloped to examine and treat adults and children.
Practical medical activities were undertaken; all ofthese activities acted to preserve the health and,sometimes, the lives of thousands of people.

IV ACTIVITY OF THE ACADEMY OFSCIENCES
Immediately after the Chernobyl APS catastrophe,scientists of the Academy of Sciences and theAcademy of Medical Sciences simultaneously started
functional and expeditionary investigation.
In 1986, the “Coordinative Council on Scientific
Problems Related to the Ecological Aftermath of New
Technologic Systems” was created at the Presidium of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and headed byAcademician ALEKSANDROV A. P. The “All-Union
Science-Technical Program on the Liquidation ofChernobyl APS Accident Consequences for
1986-1990” was worked out under the support of thisCouncil. The program consisted of major six foci:
1. Geophysical aspects of radioactive pollution.
2. Agro-industrial aspects of radioactive pollution.
3. Ecological aspects of radioactive pollution.
43

of what took place and what has continued until thepresent time. Thirdly, organization of social-patriotic
activity based on the experience having worked at
Chernobyl.
At present in Russia, besides the Union“Chernobyl”, there are many regional publicorganizations made up of Chernobyl invalids.
Charitable funds (e.g. A. Yaroshinskaya Fund) also dowhat they can to help the people affected by
Chernobyl.

conference in Geneva in November 1995. They can beformulated as follows:
1. Thyroid cancer incidence among children andadolescents is several tens of times as high as was
prognosticated by medical officials. Obviously, therate of other types of cancer has begun to increase inrecent years.
2. (As compared with children in similarsocio-economic conditions living on “clean”
territories) more than half of the children born on thecontaminated territories show a delay in mental
development (psycho-linguistic and other forms).
3. Immunological and cytogenetic disturbances has
been found in people living on territories polluted
with radionuclides and those who worked at the
Chernobyl APS after the explosion of the 4th block.
4. Incidence of cataract, cardiovascular diseases,
diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory andurogenous systems are increasing.

VI LIST OF SCIENTIFIC
ORGANIZATIONS WORKING ON
CHERNOBYL
6.a. Physical processes and radioactivity releasedynamics
The following organizations have been involved ininvestigating the physical processes and the dynamics
of radioactivity release during the course of theChernobyl accident:• Russian Scientific Centre “Kurchatovskij Institut”,
Moscow• All-union Scientific Research Institute for Nuclear
Power Plant Operation (VNIIAES), Moscow• Scientific Research and Design Institute for PowerTechnology, Moscow• Institute of Problems of Safe Development ofAtomic Energy of RAS (Russian Academy of
Sciences), Moscow• Science-Production Corporation “V. G. Khlyupin
Radievyj Institut”, St. Petersburg• L. Ya. Karpov Research Institute of Physical
Chemistry of RAS, Moscow• Ministry of Defense of the USSR
6.b. Radioactivity contamination and radiation
monitoring• Institute of Experimental Meteorology of
Science-Production Corporation “Tajfun”, Obninsk• State Committee of the Russian Federation on
Sanitarian-Epidemiological Control, Moscow• All-Russia Research Institute of Agricultural
Radiology and Agroecology, Obninsk• Radiation Hygiene Research Institute, St. Petersburg• V. I. Vernadskij Institute of Geochemistry andAnalytical Chemistry of RAS, Moscow• Science-Production Corporation “V. G. Khlyupin
Radievyj Institut”, St. Petersburg• Institute of Problems of Safe Development ofAtomic Energy of RAS, Moscow• Institute of Applied Geophysics, Moscow• Moscow M. V. Lomonosov State University,
Moscow• A. N. Severtsov Institute of Evolution and Ecology
of RAS, Moscow
CBGD: Since 1991, efforts to create a Central
Bank of Generalized Data (CBGD) started at theInstitute of Problems of Safe Development of Atomic

V ACTIVITY OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATION ABOUT CHERNOBYLThe Union “Chernobyl” is the biggest and mostramified public organization uniting the participants inthe liquidation of the Chernobyl APS accident. Its
brief history follows:
1. August 1988 - an initiative group was created ofthose who worked in 1986 on the cleaning of the 3rd
and 4th blocks of the Chernobyl APS and who werestill working in the zone.
2. December 1988 - the first version of the union’s
Statutes was written up.
3. April 5-11, 1989 - the first four primaryorganizations of the future Union were created.
4. April 12, 1989 - the uniting session took place, thus
making the date of birth of the Union.
5. May 13, 1989 - 1st Conference of Union“Chernobyl” took place at the Zeleny Mys settlementin the Kiev region. The Statutes were approved, thefinal name of the Union was approved, the Board
was elected, and a declaration to all “liquidators” andto the public organizations and movements of the
USSR was composed.
6. April 14- the broadcast from the all-Union radio
station “Mayak” of a program about the organization,
its aims, and the tasks of the “Chernobyl” union.
In different cities and regions of the USSR,
organizations, societies and associations of“Chernobyl” people began to appear independently,
and already in October 1989, the All-Union
Conference of the “Chernobyl” Union was held in
Kiev. 344 persons from 11 republics of the USSR
participated in it.
The Union “Chernobyl” took the great tasks uponitself. Firstly, protection of the interests of the Union
members, their families, and the people affected by the
Chernobyl APS accident. Secondly, discovery of thetruth relating to Chernobyl and an objective analysis
44and analysis, as well as the means to interpret them bycomputer, enable carrying out systematic analysis andpredictions of radiation situation on polluted areas
with an acceptable level of precision and validity.
There is no analog of this set of models in terms of thescale and computer technology.

Energy of RAS. The information for CBGD was
supplied by tens of organizations participating in theliquidation of the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
accident, including those mentioned above. The total
volume of accumulated data is over 1 Gbyte. At
present, CBGD consists of more than 20 sub-banks
which include the following:- data bank on the radiation-hygienic situation insettlements (nearly 10 thousand settlements in
Russia, up to 150 indices about every settlement);- data bank on the radioactive pollution of agriculturaland forest lands, and agricultural products;- data bank on the demography (sex-age distribution
and sex-age mortality due to different causes from1982 to the present in the majority of Russian
regions);- data bank on the population’s migration in thezones of radioactive contamination;- data bank on the chemical pollution of atmosphere,
surface waters, agricultural lands and agricultural
products;- data bank on socio-psychological status of
population;- data bank on legislative acts, directive documents,
and reference information concerning the problem ofliquidating the consequences of radiation accidents
and catastrophes;- data bank of electronic maps of Russian territories
polluted with radionuclides with a scale of
1:500,000;- data bank on the registration of persons affected by
Chernobyl or other radiation catastrophes.
An integrated computer system has been
elaborated for analyzing and processing the CBGD
data. It can be used in different analyses and increating prognostication systems to support
decision-making by officials at the time of radiation
accidents. ‘Model Bank’ is a part of the integrated
system and consists of:- models of atmospheric transfer of radioactive
admixture;- models of migration of radionuclides in soil and inwater systems;- models of radionuclides transfer within food-chains;- models for analysis and processing of spatiallydistributed radioecological data;- models for calculating the radiation field andequivalent dose in human organs from sources withvarious geometrical forms.
- models for calculation of equivalent doses in 25
organs and tissues of persons of different ages incases of radioactive substances intake throughinhaled air, food, or direct injection into the blood;- models of risk calculation.
The system presupposes a wide choice of sources,
radionuclides and materials which are frequently usedin calculation. The formation of the data bank, modelbank, and development of methods of data processing

6.c. Dose estimation
Thyroid dose: The Medical Radiological Scientific
Centre (MRSC, Obninsk) of RAMS (Russian
Academy of Medical Sciences) and the Radiation
Hygiene Research Institute (St. Petersburg) have beenworking from the first weeks after the accident toreconstruct thyroid doses received by the populationof Russia as a result of the Chernobyl APS accident.
In the first weeks after the accident, the personnel ofthese institutions measured the Iodine-131 content in
the thyroid of approximately 31,000 persons. The
results of these direct measurements were used todevelop a dose reconstruction model which allowed
the carrying out of a retrospective assessment of
individual and average thyroid doses in settlements.
External dose: The State Scientific Centre of theRussian Federation - the Institute of Biophysics,
Moscow, has been involved in reconstructing the doseof external β- and γ-irradiation received by those who
worked in the zone of the Chernobyl accident. The
lack of individual dosemeters in the months just after
the accident and their virtual absence among themilitary servicemen and clean-up workers made suchstudies necessary. In order to improve the verifiabilityof the available information about γ-irradiation doses,
all ‘liquidators’ were divided into 10 cohorts withdifferent quantities: Chernobyl APS personnel,‘Sarcophagus’ builders, military liquidators and so on.
The distribution of individual doses of γ-irradiation
was determined for all cohorts, as well as thestatistical parameters including the average andmaximum values for each cohort. Doses of
β-irradiation of skin and crystalline lens received in
the first months after the accident were assessed using
the β/γ ratio, and, starting in July 1986, they were
measured in a sample of the liquidators using themultilayer dosemeters developed at the Institute ofBiophysics. The Medical Radiological Scientific
Centre (Obninsk) is concerned with a retrospective
assessment of individual accumulated doses among
the population of the central part of Russia after the
Chernobyl APS accident using the ‘EPR’ method(spectrometry of dental enamel). Dental clinics
collected extracted decayed teeth. More than 2,000
samples of individual accumulated doses have beenmeasured until now.
Internal dose: To reconstruct the internal
irradiation dose, special methods were developed at
the Institute of Biophysics of the Ministry of Healthand the RSC “Kurchatovskij Institut.” These methods
are based on the results of measurements of Chernobyl
45

liquidators of 1986-1987 (4.4%), 864 resettled people(0.2%). In 1993, there were registered 8,006 invalids
among the liquidators (2.2% - 1st class, 58.6% - 2ndclass, 32.9% - 3rd class). Incidentally, malignant
neoplasms constitute 3.61% within the structure of
disablement, while diseases of the nervous system andsensory organs - 26.39%, mental disorders - 15.12%.
Therefore, one of the most real and complicatedproblems in determining the socio-medical
after-effects of the Chernobyl catastrophe is toconduct a complex (integral) evaluation of the damage
to liquidators’ health, including both direct radiation
effects and other factors relating to participation in theliquidating work of Chernobyl.

radionuclide content in organs and tissues of those
who took part in the liquidation of the accident
consequences. The Radiation Hygiene ResearchInstitute (St. Petersburg, filial branch - Novozybkov)
carried out individual surveys of the cesium
radionuclides content in the organ of more than
90,000 people living on territories having a density ofCaesium-137 pollution over 550 kBq/m2. For the
purpose of effectively using the information obtained,
a data bank to reconstruct individual irradiation doses
is being developed at the institute. It includes primarydata of the radiometric surveys of the population, thedata on the radiation situation and social factors
determining irradiation conditions, as well as softwarefor verifying data and processing information.
In addition to the above, efforts to reconstruct theequivalent irradiation dose are being held in the
Laboratory of Radiation Genetics of the N. I. Vavilov
Institute of General Genetics, Moscow, by means of
the FISH method - fluorescence analysis ofchromosomes after in-situ hybridization of DNA
samples with specific reagents for certain
chromosomes. It is noteworthy that the dose definedby this method does not always coincide with theofficial dosimetric data.
Institute of Problems of Safe Development ofAtomic Energy of RAS are occupied with thelong-term prospective assessment of dose.

6.e. Other scientific organizations related to
Chernobyl
Besides the above-mentioned, the following
Russian institutes have also played a role in solving
various problems related to the Chernobyl APS
accident:• Hematological Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Endocrine Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Medico-Genetic Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Oncological Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Moscow P. A. Gertsen Research Oncological
Institute.
• Research Institute of Neurology of RAMS.
• V. P. Serbskij State Scientific Centre of Social and
Juridical Psychiatry.
• Institute of Psychology of RAS.
• Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry.
• Department of Psychology of Moscow State
University.
• All-Russia Centre of Ecological Medicine.
• Research Institute of Experimental Veterinary.
• Republican
Science-Production
Veterinary
Radiological Laboratory• Institute of Biology of Komi Scientific Centre of
Ural Section of RAS.
• All-Russia Research Institute of Chemical
Production of Forestry.
• State Research Institute of Lake and River Fishery.
• Institute of Ecology of the International Engineering
Academy.
• Institute of Chemical Physics of RAS.
• Science-Production Corporation “Radon”.
• State Scientific Centre VNII NM of Academician A.
A. Bochvar.
• Kaluga Institute of Sociology.
• Institute of Economics of RAS.
• Institute of Physical Chemistry of RAS.
• Institute of Parasitology of RAS.
• Laboratory of Forest Science of RAS.
• Institute of Epidemiology of the Ministry of Health.
This list is far from complete.

6.d. Epidemiological study
In 1986, immediately after the Chernobyl APS
accident, the USSR Ministry of Health approved alarge-scaled program creating the All-Union
Distributed Register of irradiated persons. All
republics of the former Soviet Union were involved in
the creation of this Register as were a significant
number of scientific and other institutions.
Presently, the National Radiation-Epidemiological
Register (NRER) exists in Russia. The Ministry on
Emergencies of Russia is the general sponsor of thework carried out within the Register. The headorganization is the Medical Radiological Scientific
Centre of RAMS which collects primary medical anddosimetric data through 24 regional centers.
The Register includes three subsystems ofprincipal medical-dosimetric information:
1. Registration list of the people affected by irradiation
divided according to special dosimetric categories(Southern Urals, Altai, Chernobyl and other regions),
2. All-Russia State Medical-Dosimetric Register(RSMDR, so-called Chernobyl Register, created in1986).
3. Registry of expert councils.
Presently, the creation of the Chernobyl register in
Russia is practically over. At the end of 1994, the database of RSMDR contained information on 370,120
persons including 159,027 liquidators (43.0%), 8,091
evacuees (2.2%), 185,912 inhabitants of Russian
contaminated territories (50.2%), 16,226 children of46

The institute employs 8,500 staff in total: with thenumber of scientific staff at 3,048, technicians -2,562,
workers - 2,198 and other specialists - 692. There are
13 Academicians of RAS, and 900 Drs. and Cds. of
Dr. Academician VELIKHOV E.P. is the director of theInstitute.

VII

DESCRIPTION OF SOME LEADINGORGANIZATIONSa) Medical Radiological Scientific Centre (MRSC)
of RAMS was established based on the ResearchInstitute of Medical Radiology created in 1962 in
Obninsk. An academician, TSYB A. F., the chairmanof Russia Scientific Commission on Radiation
Protection, is the director of MRSC.
MRSC is a research and medical institution
concerned with fundamental and clinical radiobiology,
experimental radiology, radiopharmaceutics, radiation
diagnostics,
radiation
epidemiology,
andradiooncology.
MRSC consists of 10 departments uniting 32
laboratories and sections as well as 11 independentscientific units. The Center’s clinic has 400 beds.
The Center’s staff numbers over 1900 including
350 scientists (25 professors, 51 Drs. and 174
candidates of Dr.).
From the first days after the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe in 1986, scientists and specialists of
MRSC have been engaged actively in efforts
concerning the estimation of possible medical
consequences of the accident and the elaboration of
measures to mitigate their influence on human health.
At present, MRSC conducts studies of the biologicaleffects of small doses of radiation, reconstruction ofirradiation doses using cytogenetic methods andEPR-spectrometry, epidemiological investigations of
the Russian population. Regular investigations arecarried out in Kaluga, Bryansk and other regions. As
described before, the Chernobyl Registry (RSMDR) is
maintained by MRSC.
In addressing the Chernobyl-related scientific andmedical problems, MRSC collaborates fruitfully with
WHO, IAEA, Commission of European Community,scientists from Japan, Germany, USA, Great Britain,
Finland, France and other countries.
b) Russian Scientific Center "Kurchatovskij
Institut" was organized in November of 1991 based on
the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy. The former
Kurchatov Institute was established during World War
II for special military purposes. After quick success inachieving its first task, the Kurchatov Institute began
to work in a wide range of scientific fields not only for
military, but for peaceful, practical and fundamental
purposes. The scope of the Institute gradually widened
to where it has contained practically every field of thenatural sciences.
At present, the main activities of the Institute are
related to the development of safe and clean nuclear
energy (power reactor and fuel cycle), control ofthermo-fusion and plasma processes, and research fornuclear physics of low and medium energy, solid
physics and superconductivity.

c) Institute of Biophysics was established in 1946
to investigate the effects of ionizing radiation on livingorganisms and the methods to ensure radiation safetyof persons working in the nuclear industry. It belonged
at first to the Academy of Medical Sciences of the
USSR and then was moved under the Ministry of
Health of the USSR. Since 1995, it has been called theState Scientific Center of Russian Federation Institute of Biophysics.
The principal activities of the Institute are researchin the fields of radiobiology in animals and man,medical cures for radiation syndrome and protectionof individuals from various sources of radiation.
Standards for radiation safety in the USSR have beendeveloped based on the results of this research.
Radiation dosemeters, various instruments andmedicines have also been invented to protect thepeople from radiation.
There are 5 Academicians and one associate
Academician in the Institute. There are now 64 Drs.
and 215 Cds. of Dr. Since 1968, Academician IL'IN
L.A. has been the director of the Institute

VIII

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIONRELATED TO CHERNOBYL
8.a. Cooperation within the framework of the
4-side agreement among CEC, Russia,
Ukraine and the Republic of Belarus
The long-term and structural help began after
concluding an agreement on June 23, 1992, between
the Commission of European Community, theRepublic of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine on
overcoming the consequences of the Chernobyl
catastrophe.
Thisagreement
permitted
theinvolvement of the leading scientific institutions in thefields of radioecology and radiation medicine of thedifferent EC countries into direct cooperation withthose institutes of the former USSR which since thefirst stage in 1986 had worked actively on the accident
liquidation.
The first step within the framework of thisCEC-CIS agreement was the organization of 7
experimental and research projects in 1992. In 1994,
the number of projects was increased to 16. Presently,
specialists of 30 Russia institutes participate in them.
The EC partners are represented by nearly all leading
institutes of CEC countries.
Implementation of these projects is not
humanitarian aid, but rather presupposes theequivalent participation of the 4 sides. From the side47

At the end of 1995, a protocol of agreement was
signed between the Ministry on Emergencies of
Russian Federation and the International Union ofRadioecologists about a project of Program of
Independent International Expertise called the“Assessment of the Actual State and Ecological Safetyof the Alienation Zone and Influence to the AdjacentZone.”
This project (costing 900,000 ECU) is being
carried out by the initiative of Ukrainian
Minchernobyl with the participation of the Ministry on
Emergencies of Belarus and that of Russia.
The Ministry on Emergencies supports thecooperation of Ukrainian and Belarussian scientists
and will assist with the Program.

of CEC, financial support is given according to itemsof the agreement: equipment, exchange of scientists
and local support. Thus, from 1992 to 1995, within theframework of agreement the CEC side provided nearly
2 million ECU. This is quite a significant contribution
to support the intellectual part of the program - toprovide help to Russian scientists. It was aconsiderable help in purchasing up-to-date scientificequipment. The sum used to procure equipment for theyears of the collaboration reached more than 0.5
million US dollars.
In 1993, the Coordinative Council decided tocreate national secretariats in each participating
republic in order to support cooperation and to solve
practical problems. It was worthy to note thathigh-ranking officials of Ministries on Emergencies of
Russia, Belarus, of Minchernobyl of Ukraine and theXII Directorate of EC entered into the Coordinative
Council. In 1994, the structure of project coordination
was perfected, and the Directive Group was created.
The mission of the Directive Group was to guarantee
the implementation of projects according to the policyof the Coordinative Council, as well as to prepare
reports on project implementation for the Coordinative
Council.
Russians had close contacts not only with therepresentatives of western laboratories, but also with
Ukrainian and Belarussian scientists. The experience
gained by this collaboration is very important toestablish partnerships on all levels of executive power
across the CIS.
The Minsk Conference about this work (March
18-22, 1996) may serve as a good example ofsuccessful cooperation. The complex approach ofinternational groups to solving the task of how to
overcome the greatest nuclear accident of the XX
century is reflected in its proceedings.

8.d. Cooperation with UNESCO
The program of cooperation between the USSR
and UNESCO surrounding Chernobyl problems wasestablished in June of 1990.
According to the “UNESCO-Chernobyl” Program,
235,000 US dollars were provided for purchase of
equipment, reconstruction of buildings, and training ofspecialists-psychologists for three centers ofsocio-psychological rehabilitation being created in
Uzlovaya (Tula region), Nikolskaya Sloboda (Bryansk
region) and Bolkhov (Orel region).
Additionally, UNESCO gave 12,000 US dollars
for equipment to be used of the childhood sport
schools in Novozybkov, the Bryansk region.
In its first stage, the “UNESCO-Chernobyl”
Program foresaw implementation of 70 projects on the
territories of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus concerning
the liquidation of the Chernobyl APS accident
consequences. Taking into consideration certain
priorities, 30 projects were selected for realization
including 9 on the Russian territory. In order tooversee their implementation, the Coordinative
Council was created consisting of representatives ofBelarus, Russia, Ukraine and UNESCO. The projects
listed below are being carried out successfully:- Project No. 1 “Language Support” has been carriedout from 1992 until the present.
- Project No. 18 “Associated Schools”; within its
framework the spread of knowledge is expectedamong pupils about prophylactic measures in casethey stay in the areas affected by the Chernobyl APS
accident.
- Project No. 32-33 “Creation of Zones ofSocio-Economical Development”. Such zones willbe created in Gagarin, the Smolensk region.
- Project No. 42-45 “Culture” has been in place since1993. The exchange of art exhibitions, musicians has
been taking place. The International Seminar“Children of Chernobyl” was held in France in 1994.
- Project No. 79 “Sport Equipment” was conducted in
Novozybkov, the Bryansk region.

8.b. Cooperation with the Commission ofEuropean Community within the frameworkof TASIS program
Cooperation between the Ministry on Emergenciesof the Russian Federation and CEC within theframework of the TASIS program has been lesssuccessful. This is due to the fact that there is not acapable infrastructure in Russia to permit the planningand implementation of the project, and that Russian
specialists, mainly from the affected regions, are notclosely involved with the work.
In 1995, within the framework of the TASIS
program, it was planned to start a project costing
about 400,000 ECU to train medical personnel inthyroid cancer therapy.
This program is expected in total to complete 3-4
projects concerning Chernobyl.
8.c. Cooperation with the International Union ofRadioecologists

48

8.e. Cooperation with the World HealthOrganization (WHO)From 1991 to 1994, 6 projects of WHO’s program
were carried out in Russia: “Medical Aspects of theChernobyl
Accident”
IPHECA,“Thyroid”,“Hematology”,“Epidemiological
Register”,“Sustaining Activity (Biological and PhysiologicalDosimetry)” and “Pre-Natal Injury of Brain”. The
Bryansk and Kaluga regions of Russia, which are themost polluted with radionuclides, were covered bythese projects.
The IPHECA (International Program on the Health
Effects of the Chernobyl Accident) program’s budget
for three affected countries constituted 20 million US
dollars received by WHO mainly from the governmentof Japan. Russia received unique diagnostic anddosimetric equipment through this program, as well as
hardware costing a total of nearly 6.5 million US
dollars. The use and operation of the equipment
purchased are under the supervision of WHO.
51 Russian specialists were trained in foreign
centers which accounts for part of the IPHECA
program’s budget. 16 Russian medical specialists
visited Japan (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) in 1992-1994
at WHO’s expense to participate in a one-monthtraining course on medical equipment.
The IPHECA program is oriented to diagnosis of
diseases and analysis of their possible relationshipwith irradiation factors. Regretfully, medical
assistance to the people who revealed pathology is notincluded within the framework of this program.
In 1994, the budget of the IPHECA program was
exhausted. The results of the implemented studies
were generalized in a report “Medico-RadiologicalResearch in Prior Directions” published by WHO at
the end of 1995. The pilot project “Thyroid” hasbecome a permanent project. It is also planned tocontinue research on the “Dosimetry” project. A new
project “Liquidator” has also been formulated andapproved.
8.f. Cooperation within the Russian-German
Dosimetry Program
In 1991-1993, the Russian-German Dosimetry
Program was carried out successfully to solve theproblem of how to define radiation burden on the
population and environment of the territories of theRussian Federation affected as a result of theChernobyl catastrophe. The German side gave to
Russia 4 movable research laboratories equipped withwhole body counters, devices to measure radioactivityof environmental samples, and two camping-vans. The
total cost of the equipment was 1.25 million Germanmarks. Nearly 200,000 people living on polluted areasof Russia were observed as a result of this joint
project.

8.g. Cooperation with the USA
According to a treaty between the government of
the Russian Federation and the government of UnitedStates of America, an agreement was concluded aboutcollaboration in the field of studying radiation effects
in order to minimize the influences of radiation
pollution on human health and the environment. The
planned budget of this program is 1 million US
dollars. The projects are planned to look at theradiation consequences of the activity of the
production corporation “Mayak” in the South Ural.
The cooperation plans in the future to include projects
related to the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
accident and nuclear weapons tests at the
Semipalatinsk testing ground.
8.h. Cooperation with France
The French public organization “Rotary Club”
supplied, as humanitarian aid, an immuno-pharmiclaboratory costing 162,000 francs to the All-Russia
Centre of Radioecological Medicine (St. Petersburg),
and trained service personnel. Besides this, theorganization provided technical maintenance for two
years.
On June 23, 1993, according to a commission of
the Russian Government, an agreement was concluded
with the Medical Committee on Nuclear Safety of theFrench Republic about a cooperation in the field ofstudying the consequences of radiation accidents andexchanging knowledge of how to control
post-accident situations. At present, works on
implementing this agreement is being continued.
8.i. Cooperation with Japan
Cooperation with Japan at an official level started
in 1990 based on an agreement between the Japanese
government and the USSR. Within the framework ofthis cooperation, Japanese scientists of the Radiation
Effect Research Foundation (RERF), National
Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), Universityof Hiroshima, University of Nagasaki and others havebeen involved. The experience in Japan of overcoming
the after-effects of the atomic bombing ofHiroshima-Nagasaki provided valuable information to
the USSR, later the CIS, scientists to cope with theconsequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe. Other
than the official level, the Sasakawa Memorial HealthFoundation launched the "Chernobyl Sasakawa
Project" in 1991 to provide medical services financed
at 5 billion yen over five years. They created 5 clinicalcenters and have examined more than 130,000
children around the contaminated territories in Russia,
Belarus and Ukraine. There are also many otherNGOs in Japan carrying out humanitarian activity tohelp the sufferers of the Chernobyl catastrophe.

49

16. "Effects of Radioactive Contamination on the
Ecosystem on the Ground in the Zone of the Chernobyl
NPP Accident (1986-1996)", Trudwi Komi Nauch.
Tsentra Uralskoy Otdeleniya RAN, No. 145, Syktyvkar,
1996 (in Russian).
17. MERWIN S.E. and BALNOV M.I. ed., "The Chernobyl
Papers", Vol.I, Research Enterprises, Washington,
1993.
18. YAROSHINSKAYA A.A., "Chernobyl: Top Secret",Drugie-Berega, Moscow, 1992 (in Russian).
19. YAROSHINSKAYA A.A. ed., "Nuclear Encyclopedia",Blagstvoritelny Fond Yaroshinskoy, Moscow, 1996 (inRussian).
20. SOKOLOV V.E., RYABOV I.N., RYABTSEV I.A. et.al.,"Effect of Radioactive Contamination on the Flora andFauna in the Vicinity of Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant", Soviet Scientific Reviews, Section F, Harwood
Academic Publishers. 1994.
21. "Medical Aspects of the Chernobyl Accident",
IPHECA report, WHO/EHG 95.19, 1995 (in Russian).
22. "Transfer of Radionuclides to Animals, Their
Comparative Importance under Different Agricultural
Ecosystems and Appropriate Countermeasures",
EC-Experimental Collaboration Project No. 9, Final
Report, ECSC-EC-EAEC, Brussels, 1996.
23. "Radiation Dose to Liquidators", Byulleten
Natsionalnogo
Radiatsionno-Epidemiologicheskogo
Registra, 2, Obninsk, 1995 (in Russian).
24. TSYB A.F., "Development of the All-Union Registerfor the Sufferers from Radiation of the Chernobyl
Accident", Meditsinskaya Radilogiya, 1989, No. 7, pp.
3-6 (in Russian).
V.K.,
TSYB
A.F.
et.al.,
25. IVANOV"Radiation-Epidemiological Analysis of RSMDR Data
about Participants in the Liquidation of the Chernobyl
NPP Accident", Atomnaya Energiya, 78(2), 121-127,
1995 (in Russian).
26. NIKIFOROV A.M., SHANTYR I.I. et.al., "Radiation
Dose to the Participants in the Liquidation of theChernobyl Accident", International Conf. One Decade
after Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of theAccident, Vienna., April 8-12, 1996. pp. 192-194 (inRussian).
27. KARPOV V.B., YAKOVLEVA N.G. et.al., "SomeCharacteristics of Health Status of Liquidators of theChernobyl Accident, Inhabitants in the ContaminatedTerritories and Participants of Nuclear Weapon
Experiments", ibid., p. 338 (in Russian).
28. IVANOV E.V., BALONOV M.I. et.al., "Concentration
for Radiation, Medical and Social Protection of
Inhabitants Suffering from Radiation Accident", ibid.,
pp. 342-343 (in Russian).

IX LIST OF IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONSBY RUSSIAN SCIENTISTS ON CHERNOBYL
1. "Information to IAEA about the Chernobyl NPP
Accident", Atomnaya Energiya, 61(5), 301-320, 1986
(in Russian).
2. "Ecological Consequences in the Natural Environment
in the Area Contaminated by the Chernobyl Accident",
UNESCO Report to XIV Session, Nairobi, June 1987.
3. ASMOLOV V.G., BOROVOI A.A., DEMIN V.F.,
KALUGIN A.K. et.al., "The Chernobyl Accident: One
Year After", Atomnaya Energiya, 64(1), 3-23, 1987 (inRussian).
4. "ProblemsofEcological
Monitoring",
Scientific-practical Conference, Bryansk, 1991 (inRussian).
5. KRISHEVA I.I. ed., "Radioecological Consequencesof the Chernobyl Accident", USSR Nuclear Society,1991 (in Russian).
6. "Radioecological, Medical and Social-EconomicalConsequencesoftheChernobyl
Accident:
Rehabilitation of Territories and Inhabitants",
All-Russian Conference, 1995 (in Russian).
7. BURLAKOVA E.B. ed., "Consequences of theChernobyl Catastrophe: Human Health", Center for
Russian Environmental Policy, Moscow, 1996.
8. ZAKHAROV V.M. and KRYSANOV E.YU. ed.,"Consequences of the Chernobyl Catastrophe:
Environmental
Health",Centerfor
RussianEnvironmental Policy, Moscow, 1996.
9. ADAMOV E.O., IONOV A.I., PODLATSOZ L.N. et.al.,"Extended Analysis of the First Phase during the
Accident Process at the 4th Reactor of ChNPP", FirstInternational Working Group for Severe Accident and
Their Consequences, Nauka, Moscow, 1990, pp. 33-38(in Russian).
10. ADAMOV E.O., VAZINGER V.V. et.al., "Qualitative
Evaluation of the Effects of Possible Disturbances at theTime of the Chernobyl Accident", ibid., pp. 48-68 (inRussian).
11. IZRAEL YU.A. et.al., "Radioactive Contamination in
the Environment in the Zone of the Chernobyl NPP
Accident", Meteorologiya i gidrologiya, 1987, No. 2
pp. 5-18 (in Russian).
12. Izrael Yu.A., "Chernobyl: Contamination in theEnvironment", Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1990 (inRussian).
13. IZRAEL YU.A. et.al., "Radioactive Contamination by
Caesium-137 in the European Part of CIS Territory in
1992 as the Result of the Chernobyl NPP Accident",
Metodika i Nekotory Rezultatwi Aviatsionnoy
Gamma-semki Radioaktivnogo Zagryazneniya Territorii
Evropeiskoy
Chast
Rossii,
Gidrometoizdat,
St.Petersburg, 1994, pp. 16-51 (in Russian).
14. POPOVA O.N., TASKAEV A.I. et.al., "Genetic Stability
and Variability of Seeds of Grass Population in theZone of the Chernobyl NPP Accident", Nauka,
St.Petersburg, 1992 (in Russian).
15. KOZUBOK G.M., TASKAEV A.I., et.al., "Radiation
Effects on Coniferous Forest in the Zone of theChernobyl NPP Accident", Syktyvkar, 1990 (inRussian).

Acknowledgment: The authors are grateful to Dr.
Anatoly A. IGNATOVICH of the Institute of Radiobiology,
Academy of Sciences of Belarus and Ms. Cynthia
HEFFELFINGER of Tokyo Institute of Foreign Language
for their useful comments and help in preparation of themanuscript.

50

Legislation in Ukraine about the Radiological Consequences of theChernobyl Accident
Oleg NASVIT
Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
12 pr. Geroev Stalingrada, Kyiv 254210, Ukraine• II stage - guaranteed voluntary resettlement - ispracticed on the territories with cesium deposition
from 5 to 15 Ci/km2, or with strontium from 0.15 to
3 Ci/km2, or with plutonium from 0.01 to 0.1
Ci/km2, where residence of population in existing
conditions can cause additional effective exposure
dose exceeding 1 mSv (0.1 rem) per year, which isdangerous for health".
On these territories it is necessary to apply thesystem of countermeasures to protect population fromradiation (which was considered non-efficient in thefirst part of the Concept, O.N.). Also, some additional
criteria are established there to make decisions on
resettlement. These criteria relate to the possibility ofgrowing radiologically "clean" agricultural products.
A very important aspect of the Concept is thestatement that "after the Chernobyl accident theconditions for the combined effect of radioactive
exposure and factors of non-radioactive origin(synergism) were formed. This greatly increases
negative influences of low radiation doses on the
population health status, especially that of children. In
this situation the extent of synergism is an additional
criteria for making decision on introducing any
counter-radiation measures."On the territories with contamination density ofcesium isotope below 5 Ci/km2, or strontium below
0.15 Ci/km2, or plutonium to 0.01 Ci/km2, residence isallowed only with enhanced control and on a condition
that the additional effective dose from the Chernobyl
accident does not exceed 1 mSv (0.1 rem) per year. If
this condition is not observed, the population should begiven the possibility to resettle to radioecologically"clean" areas.
On the whole, the Concept lacks consistent logic
and is even of contradictory nature. At first, it states
low effectiveness of protective measures (though it is
not clear what specific measures are meant) on the
territories with higher levels of contamination. This
provides a basis for psychological orientation toward
resettlement. Then, in the latter part, the necessity ofcountermeasures is proposed on the territories withlower contamination levels, although specialists know
very well that countermeasures are more effective on
the territories with higher contamination levels, i.e.
implementation of ineffective measures is proposed.

1. Principal laws aimed at liquidating theconsequences of the Chernobyl accident
1.1. Basic concept
The description of the Ukrainian system of laws
concerning the problem of the Chernobyl catastropheshould be started from a document of generalcharacter, “Concept of population residence on the
territories of Ukrainian SSR with increased levels ofradioactive contamination as a result of the Chernobyl
accident.” This document, small in volume, wasadopted by the Supreme Soviet of Ukrainian SSR on
February 27, 1991. It was planned that this Concept
would provide decrease of negative influences of theChernobyl accident on public health. Implementationof the principles of the Concept should be based on thefollowing two Ukrainian laws; "On the legal status of
the territory subjected to radioactive contamination asa result of the Chernobyl catastrophe" and "On thestatus and social protection of the citizens who suffered
as a result of the Chernobyl catastrophe."
The main principle of the Concept is as follows:
for the critical group of population - children born in1986 - the effective exposure dose due to theChernobyl accident should not exceed 1 mSv (0.1 rem)
per year and 70 mSv (7 rem) for the life period in any
specific environment.
The Concept states that "the situation on thecontaminatedterritories
demonstrates
loweffectiveness of countermeasures aimed at eliminating
harmful effects of radiation on the health of people" ,and, therefore, "evacuation of people from these
territories is of particular importance". In the Concept,
the soil density of radioactive contamination(deposition) is considered to be a temporary (until
individual effective dose is identified) criterion to
make decision on resettlement. As it is impossible toresettle a great number of people simultaneously, theConcept presumes as follows: "a principle ofdifferentiated step-by-step resettlement:• I stage - obligatory resettlement - is practiced on the
territories with cesium deposition above 15 Ci/km2
or above 3 Ci/km2 with strontium deposition, or 0.1
Ci/km2 with plutonium, where residence of people
in excising conditions can cause additional effective
exposure dose exceeding 5 mSv (0.5 rem) per year,
which is dangerous for health.

51

territories subjected to radioactive contamination as aresult of the Chernobyl catastrophe - these are theterritories where "the persistent contamination of theenvironment with radioactive substances exceeding thelevel before the accident...can cause population
irradiation above 1mSv/year...". On these territories
special measures should be introduced in order toprovide radiation protection and normal life activity ofthe population.
Article 2 defines the categories of the zones ofcontaminated territories. Following Table 1 presents
the summary of criteria for identification of zones ofradioactive contamination as a result of the Chernobyl
catastrophe. As it can be easily seen, the zone ofenhanced radioecological control (monitoring),
defined as Zone-4 in Table 1, should not be related tothe territories subjected to radioactive contamination asa result of the Chernobyl catastrophe (see Article 1),
but it is.
The criteria of zones identification are set by the
National Commission of Radiation Protection of
Ukrainian Population (NCRPU). The zone borders are
identified by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine
proceeding from the expert conclusions of NCRPU,
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU),
Ministry of Health, Ministry of Chernobyl Affairs,
Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Ecological Safety,
State Hydrometeorological Committee, and on the
representation of the Regional deputy councils.
According to the additions to the Law, adopted by
Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) in 1996, nochanges could be done to the zone borders without
approval by Verkhovna Rada.

A similar problem is with synergism. According to
the Concept, the people are totally resettled from theareas with higher contamination levels. Consequently,
synergism should be eliminated on the territories withlower contamination levels. It is recommended to takemeasures to lower exposure doses (which wasconsidered to be ineffective), while nothing is said
about elimination of non-radiation origin factors whichcause synergism, and about improvement of general
ecological conditions of life.

1.2. Basic laws aimed at liquidating the accident
consequences
The Ukrainian Law, "On the legal status of theterritory subjected to radioactive contamination as aresult of the Chernobyl catastrophe" was adopted by
the Supreme Soviet of Ukrainian SSR on the February
27, 1991, and is effective since July 1, 1991. Changes
and additions have been introduced by laws of Ukraine(by Verkhovna Rada, i.e. Ukrainian parliament) of
17.12.91, 01.07.92, 28.04.95, 22.12.95, 17.12.96,
04.04.97; by a decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of
Ukraine of 26.12.92
This Law is aimed at regulating "problems ofterritories classification by zones in accordance to thelevels of contamination; the regime of territories
utilization and security; conditions of living and workof the population; production, research and other typesof activities in these zones".
This Law consists of 6 chapters:
I. General
II. Legal status of exclusion zone and zone ofobligatory resettlement
III. Legal status of guaranteed voluntary resettlementzone
IV. Legal status of the zone of enhanced
radioecological control
V. Control of the legal status in the zones subjected
to radioactive contamination after the Chernobyl
catastrophe
VI. Liability for the violation of the legal status in thezones subjected to radioactive contamination
after the Chernobyl catastrophe
Article 1 of the Law gives the definition of the

Article 7 of the Law in its initial edition provided
the release from taxation for enterprises, organizations,collective and state farms, located in the zones ofvoluntary guaranteed resettlement and enhanced
radioecological control, except payments to the local
budgets. At the end of 1992 the release from profits tax
was canceled, and from January 1996 the release fromtaxes, customs and excises on imported excisable
goods was canceled.
I cite the next article, as it is of special interest for

Table 1. Criteria for identifying the zones of radioactive contamination
Deposition, Ci/km2
No
Zones
137
90
Cs
Sr
Pu
1
2

Exclusion
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
Obligatory resettlement
>15
>3
>0.1
Guaranteed voluntary
5-15
0.15-30.01-0.1
3
resettlement
Enhanced radioecological
1-5
0.02 - 0.15
0.005-0.01
4
control (monitoring)n.d.: not determined
exclusion zone - the territory from which the people were evacuated in 1986

52

Calculateddose,
mSv⋅y-1n.d.
can exceed 5
can exceed 1
exceeds 0.5

everybody involved in scientific research concerning
Chernobyl:"Article 11. Property on the results ofscientific research, connected with Chernobyl
catastrophe. All scientific information and resultsof research, obtained in the zones of radioactive
contamination, is the property of Ukraine, andcan be used only on the permission of the Cabinetof Ministers of Ukraine"
The Law prescribes limitations of types of
economic activities in the contaminated zones, aiming
at decreasing radiological and other toxic effects on thepeople living and working there, as well as atpreventing radionuclides transport outside the bordersof the zones.
The article on the measures to reduce disease risk isvery important from the point of view of population
protection. In accordance to this article, the state has toguarantee:! annual medical check of the population and earlyprophylactic of diseases;! supply of the population with necessary amount of
medicines, potable water, clean foodstuffs;! provision of gas supply for the settlements,
construction of roads with concrete cover, etc.
Article 21 of the Law identifies responsibilities
among the Ministries and Departments concerning
radiation monitoring and provides the notion about
monitoring structure and location of the data. The
following Table 2 summarizes the contents of Article
21.

effective since July 1 1991. Changes and additions
were introduced by laws of Ukraine (by VerkhovnaRada) of 19.12.91, 01.07.92, 05.05.93, 17.06.93,
06.04.95, 22.12.95, 22.03.96, 06.06.96, 11.12.96,
27.06.97; and decrees of the Cabinet of Ministers of
Ukraine of 26.12.92, 26.03.93 and 30.04.93.
"The Law is aimed at protection of the citizens
who suffered as a result of the Chernobyl
catastrophe, and at solving the problems of
medical and social character, which arose as aresult of radioactive contamination of theterritories" (Article 1).
The Law consists of the following 10 Chapters
I. General
II. Status of persons who suffered as a result of theChernobyl catastropheIII. Unified system of registration and medical care forthe persons who suffered as a result of theChernobyl catastrophe
IV. Social protection of the citizens affected by the
Chernobyl catastrophe, general compensations andbenefits
V. Protection of the children who suffered as a resultof the Chernobyl catastrophe
VI. Protection of the population affected by the
Chernobyl catastrophe
VII.Peculiarities of labor regulation for the citizens
who work on the territories with radioactive
contamination.
VIII.Pensions and compensations for the persons
related to categories 1, 2, 3. 4
IX. Public associations of the persons who suffered asa result of the Chernobyl catastrophe
X. Final statement
Article 2 provides the definition of the zones ofradioactive contamination (in fact, it is the same as

The law of Ukraine, "On the status and social
protection of the citizens who suffered as a result of theChernobyl catastrophe" was adopted by the Supreme
Council of Ukraine on February 28, 1991 and isTable 2. Responsibilities among the Ministries and Departments concerning radiation monitoring.
Type of activity and control
Prognostic estimates of the total human irradiation dose and control of
the radiation safety standards
General assessment of radiological situation on the territories of thezones, radioecological monitoring, methodical supervision andcoordination of works on identifying the radiological situation
Control of radioactive contamination levels of:-farmlands-water resources-subsurface waters and minerals-atmosphere on the territory of contaminated settlements-agricultural products and foodstuffs-vehicles and their parts-Household belongings, tools and construction materials during thetransportation outside contaminated areas during evacuation
domestic animals during the evacuation
Control of reliability and objectivity of the data of radiation control
services
Metrology control of radiation control services
Radiation control of the products

53

Responsible Ministries-Ministry of Health-Ministry of Chernobyl Affairs-Ministry of Food and Agriculture-State Water Resources Committee-State Geology Committee-State Hydrometeorological Committee-Ministry of Food and Agriculture-Ministries and committees on transportation means
and Ministry of Internal Affairs-State Sanitary Control-Civil Defense-State Veterinary Control-State Sanitary Control-State Committee of Standard-enterprises, organizations-manufacturers

Commission on Radiological Protection of Ukraine.
The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine is responsible
for the reliability, completeness and timeliness of theinformation on radioactive contamination levels of theenvironment and foodstuffs, as well as for therequirements and conditions of radiation safety.
According to the Law, the people who sufferedfrom the Chernobyl catastrophe include those who
participated in the liquidation of its consequences andresidents, including children, who were affected byirradiation as a result of the Chernobyl catastrophe.
The Law defines 4 categories of the people affected by
the Chernobyl catastrophe (Table 3). The amount of allcompensations and benefits depends on the category of
the person and status of the territory of their residence
and work.
The State should compensate the followings:
1) health damage or loss of working ability of thepeople caused by the Chernobyl catastrophe;2) supporter loss of children if his death is caused by
the Chernobyl catastrophe;
3) material loss of the people and their families causedby the Chernobyl catastrophe.
The State is responsible to provide medical
examination to the people affected by the Chernobyl
catastrophe. Of great importance is the statement in the
Law that "the causal relation between the deteriorationof health status, disease... loss of ability to work of thepeople who suffered from the Chernobyl catastrophe,
and the Chernobyl catastrophe is identified

Article 2 of the previous law), and in Article 3 it isstated that "the condition of living and working without
limitations, considering radiation factor, is additional
irradiation dose which does not exceed 1 mSv peryear". Thus, the contradiction between Articles 1 andArticle 2 of the previous law can be found also in thisLaw. In these Laws it is defined first that thecontaminated territory is the area where additional
irradiation due to the accident can be over 1 mSv per
year, and then, when the contaminated zones are
identified, the territories are included where thisadditional irradiation dose is less than 1 mSv, e.g. from
0.5 mSv and more.
Further, the Law sets limitations for entering in theradioactively contaminated territories for permanent
residence, and states necessary and sufficientconditions for resettlement of the people. In particular,
the right for self-resettlement (before the conditions forresettlement are ready) is given to the people whose
individual effective dose exceeds 70 mSv for life
period, in reality, only to those who received this doseby the present time because there is no method of dose
prognosis confirmed by competent authorities. A very
important, but also a very disputable statement is that"the population in the zone of obligatory resettlement is
to be resettled without fail."
The Law defines that the values of acceptable levelsof radionuclides content in foodstuffs and agricultural
products are approved and putted into practice by the
Health Ministry of Ukraine on approval of the National

Table 3. Definition of categories of people who suffered from the Chernobyl catastrophe
Categories
Description
Invalids, belonging to liquidators and affected residents, for whom the causal relation between their
I
II

III

IV

disability and the Chernobyl catastrophe was proved;
Persons who got radiation syndrome as a result of the Chernobyl catastrophe.
Liquidators who worked in the exclusion zone:- since the accident to July, 1, 1986: independently of length of working days;- since July,1, 1986 to December, 31, 1986: not less than 5 days;- in 1987: not less than 14 days;
Affected residents:- evacuated from the exclusion zone in 1986;- permanently lived in the zone of obligatory resettlement since the accident to the moment of adoption of thedecree on resettlement.
Liquidators who worked:- in the exclusion zone since July,1, 1986 to December, 31, 1986: from 1 to 5 days;- in the exclusion zone in 1987: from 1 to 14 days;- in the exclusion zone in 1988-1990: not less than 30 days;- on sanitary treatment of people and decontamination of equipment or on construction of these stations;
Affected residents (not referred to category II), who:
- permanently lived on the territory of zones of obligatory resettlement and guarantee voluntary resettlementon the day of accident, or by the January, 1, 1993, provided that they spent not less than two years in the zoneof obligatory resettlement, or three years in the zone of guarantee voluntary resettlement, and were resettled
from these territories;- permanently living, or permanently working, or permanently studying in the zones of obligatory
resettlement and guarantee voluntary resettlement, provided that by January, 1, 1993 they spent not less than
two years in the zone of obligatory resettlement, or three years in the zone of guarantee voluntary
resettlement.
Affected residents who permanently living, or permanently working, or permanently studying in the zone ofenhanced radioecological control (monitoring), provided that by January, 1, 1993 they spent not less than 4
years in this zone.

54

Rather strange is the statement in the Law that "thesalary of the workers on enterprises, organizations andinstitutions, who work on the construction of theobjects within the program of the liquidation of theChernobyl accident consequences, should be 20%
above the standard rate."
The Law provides the definition of the children
considered as affected by the Chernobyl catastrophe
and identifies the following benefits andcompensations for such children and their parents: total
state insurance of the children before they reach schoolage; annual free treatment in sanatoriums and resorts
for the period to 2 months; increase of the salary for
one of the parents; prolonged maternity leave forwomen who suffered as a result of the Chernobyl
catastrophe - 180 paid days, etc.
The expenses related to the implementation of thisLaw are financed from the State budget. The Cabinet of
Ministers of Ukraine is responsible for the clarificationof the scheme of Law implementation.

(independently of whether the dosimetry results areavailable or not) unless the authorized medical
institution confirms the absence of such relation".
"For the purpose of effective fulfillment of the taskof medical and social care of the citizens who sufferedfrom the Chernobyl catastrophe, the State Register of
Ukraine (general information system) is organized. It
includes sociological, dosimetry and medical
sub-registers". The basic task of the register is "tocontrol health status, and to study immediate andremote medical consequences" of the affected people.
Organs of the state administration, executive
committees of the local councils, and socialorganizations should send complete information about
the affected people to the State Register of Ukraine.
Confidentiality of the information in the register isguaranteed.
Medical supplies and equipment, imported on the
territories of radioactive contamination, are exempt
from customs and tax.
Further in the Law, compensations and benefits are
specified for the citizens who suffered as a result of theChernobyl catastrophe. The list of all the benefits andcompensations occupies 11 pages. Benefits andcompensations can be both of single-time character,e.g. free supply with dwellings and compensation of
the lost property (houses, vehicles, domestic animals
and fruit plants), as well as of permanent character, e.g.
free medicines, free treatment in sanatoriums, additions
to the salary, additional payment for enhanced foot,increased pensions, free use of city transport, andearlier retirement age.
The Law states that the citizens who suffered as aresult of the Chernobyl catastrophe have advantage inapplying to job and advantage in preserving theirworking places during reduction of staffs onenterprises and organizations. This creates conflictsituations, as it causes the dissatisfaction and anger ofmore experienced and qualified workers. The Law
declares that the local councils should allocate 15% of
all built dwellings annually in order to provide for the
benefits envisaged by the Law. This situation also
creates a basis for conflict, because, despite theallocation of special funds, the queue of those waitingfor dwelling is very long.

2. Laws and regulations of Ukraine on radiation
protection
The legislation of Ukraine on radiation protectionof people consists of the following laws: "On radiation
protection of people" (being considered by the
Parliament), "On radioactive wastes disposal", "On
the use of nuclear energy and radiation safety", as wellas other legal documents.

2.1. Laws and regulations on dose limits.
The basic document on radiation protection on the
territory of the former USSR is the Standards ofRadiation Safety SRS-76/87 (Нормы радиационной
безопасности НРБ-76/87), which are still effective in
Ukraine until new national norms are adopted.
According to this document, three categories ofirradiated persons are identified:• Category A, staff - persons directly working with thesources of ionizing radiation (SIR)• Category B, certain part of population - persons who
are not working directly with SIR, but by living
conditions (this made essential difference with theinternational standards !!!) or by the location ofworking places may be affected by radioactive
substances or other SIR.
Table 4. Dose limits for total (internal and external) irradiation•
CategoryC,
population(mSv⋅⋅y-1)
population of the country, region,
Category of irradiated persons
etc.
Dose limitsA
BC
For category A and B, dose limits
Effective dose limit
20*
2
1
are identified to be 50 mSv per year
Equivalent dose limits:and 5 mSv per year, respectively. For
category C, however, dose limit is notfor crystalline lens
150
15
15
determined, but there is only afor skin500
50
50
requirementfor
implementing
for hands and feet
500
50
Remark: * - in average for any 5 consecutive years, but not more than 50 measures to restrict irradiation of
population. In a case of radiation
mSv for separate year.
55

accident, "depending on the scale Table 5. Local control levels of 137Cs concentration in food andand character of an accident, the agricultural products brought into use in different regions since 1994,
Ministry of Health can establish Bq/l, Bq/kg.
temporary dose limits andRegions
Foodstuff
permissiblelevelsforthe
Kyiv
Volyn’
Zhytomyrpopulation".
1. Drinking water
4
4
The Law of Ukraine, "On 2. Milk
74
74
74
radiation protection of people" 3. Different milk products
74-14874
75(still being considered at the 4. Milk powder
185
Parliament) defines dose limits for 5. Pork, beef, mutton, poultry
74-148276
740
categories A and B to be 50 mSv 6. Fish
185-296296
and 5 mSv per year, respectively. 7. Potato
60
The same law establishes dose 8. Root vegetables
60
limit for category C (population) - 9. Leafy vegetables, fruits, berries
60
185"on the condition of normal 10. Bread, grain products
185
operation of nuclear installations 11. Mushrooms fresh
740
740
and sources of ionizing radiation", 12.
dry
1850
1850
effective dose should not exceed 1 13. Eggs
74
296
mSv per year. "Real or expected 14. Infants foodstuff
37
doses of irradiation for individualsof any critical group should not
Table 6. Values of acceptable levels for 137Cs and 90Sr in foodstuff andexceed the determined dose limits,
potable water (AL-97), Bq/kg, Bq/l.
independently on the number of
137
90
Cs
Sr
Name of the productpathways for the formation of this
1.
Bread
and
bread
products
20
5dose."
60
20
In 1997 the Ministry of Health 2. Potato
3.
Vegetables(root,
leafy)
40
20
of Ukraine adopted new Standards
70
10of Radiation Safety of Ukraine 4. Fruits
5.
Meat
and
meat
products
200
20
SRSU-97, mainly based on
6.
Fish
and
fish
products
150
35
international safety standards (1).
100
20This document presents a different 7. Milk and milk products
8.
Eggs
(per
piece)
62
definition for category B of
*)
9.
Water
2
2
irradiated persons: “category B,
300
60
staff - persons, which are not 10. Milk concentrate11.
Milk
powder500
100
working directly with the SIR, but
500
50
by the location of working places 12. Fresh wild berries and mushrooms
13.
Dried
wild
berriesandmushrooms
2500
250
may be affected by radioactive
600
200
substancesor
other
SIR”. 14. Drug plants
15.
Others600
200
SRSU-97 will be introduced into
Special infants foodstuff
40
5practice from 1998. The following 16.
*)
Remark:
4
Bq/l
until
01.01.1999
Table 4 presents main dose limits
established by SRSU-97.
determined, taking into account existing ratios ofradionuclides in water and air.
2.2. Laws and regulations on radioactivity levels
In Ukraine there are no standards for radionuclides
of food, water and air.
content in the air for the category C. After the
For the category B, the permissible concentrations
Chernobyl accident in accordance with Sovietof radionuclides (PCB) in water and air are presented inregulations the Ministry of Health of the USSR defined
the Standards of Radiation Safety (Table 8.1 ofin 1986, 1988 and 1991 the tentative acceptable levels
SRS-76/87). Its values were calculated with the(TAL) for radionuclides in foodstuff and potable water.
assumption that if a person constantly inhales air withIn 1993 the National Commission on Radiologicalradionuclide concentration equal to PCB, or if a person
Protection of Ukraine issued the TAL-93 document.
constantly consumes water with radionuclide
But, since different Ukrainian Ministries did not comeconcentration equal to PCB, then human irradiation
to an agreement about the figures of this document, it
dose will be 5 mSv per year from each radionuclide of
was not approved by the Ministry of Health. So,
either route of intake (inhalation or ingestion). In
TAL-91 continued to be actual in Ukraine up to 1997.
certain situations that persons receive irradiation from
The main problem of TAL-93 was groundlessness ofboth pathways, derived permissible levels should be
its figures. Since 1994, however, local authorities of56

According to the monitoring data, the level ofirradiation dose of about 50% of all settlements does
not correspond to their present status (relation to theirzones).
What is very impotent in the present situation is tostop compulsory resettlement (senseless after 11 years
have gone since the accident) and drive resources to thereconstruction of people’s life on the contaminatedterritories. It is necessary to stop to pay compensations
for production of radioactively contaminated foodproducts and introduce a system of benefits to those,
who produce pure products on contaminatedterritories.
These elements of new approach to the Chernobyl
problem as well as many others are presented in the
new “Concept of protection of population inconnection with the Chernobyl catastrophe”
elaborated together by MinChernobyl and NCRPU.
This document was submitted to the Cabinet of
Ministers and approved by it in Autumn 1997. It is
expected that on approval of Verkhovna Rada it will
become a new basis for reviewing of the Chernobyl
Laws.
2. Laws and regulations of Ukraine on radiation
protection are on the way to meet international basic
safety standards. But there is no experience in theworld of dealing with the consequences (especiallylong-term ones) of such a wide-scale radiation
catastrophe. Taking into account that a certain part of
the Ukrainian population have to live permanently on
the radioactively contaminated territories, thecontamination on this territories is not considered as
accidental (people can not live permanently in
accidental conditions), but rather as environmental
factor like natural radioactivity. This provides
somewhat different approach to setting acceptablelevels of radionuclides in foodstuff and explains thedifferences in figures between AL-97 and international
recommendations (2).

the contaminated regions brought into use local control
levels (LCL) of radionuclides in food and agricultural
products, mainly based on the TAL-93 figures, andalso taking into account local conditions (Table 5).
According to local laws, exceeding of LCL is a subjectof investigation and, if necessary, elaboration andimplementation of countermeasures. In fact, only
several percents of products, obtained from collective
farms, exceeded LCL values in 1995-1996. In private
sector of agriculture, however, this happens more
often.
In 1997 the Ukrainian Ministry of Health approved
acceptable levels for 137Cs and 90Sr in foodstuff andpotable water (AL-97). This document will be
introduced into practice from January 1, 1998. If aperson of critical groups constantly consumes areference ration composed of all products containing
137
Cs and 90Sr at the levels presented in Table 6, he will
receive 1 mSv per year separately from 137Cs and 90Sr.
A product is considered to be accepted for
consumption if the sum of ratios of actual
concentrations of 137Cs and 90Sr to their acceptablelevels dose not exceed 1. Introduction of AL-97
provides guarantee that annual individual effective
dose of internal irradiation due to consumption of foodproducts does not exceed 1 mSv for any person.

Final remarks.
1. The system of Chernobyl Laws in Ukrainereflects rather good intentions of Ukrainian authorities
to help the people who suffered from the Chernobyl
catastrophe,thanscientificallyjustifiedrecommendations. Firstly (in 1991) it was planned toreceive funds for implementation of the Laws from thebudget of the Soviet Union. After the Soviet Union
decay it was found that the Laws were overloaded withsocial payments and compensations and became
impracticable taking into account the state of economy
of independent Ukraine. Annual income to theChernobyl fund is about 70-80% of what is prescribedby the Laws for their implementation.
A number of changes and additions to the Laws
reflects the special attention to the Chernobyl problem
of Verkhovna Rada deputies and public in general.
This is being exploited by politicians, and Chernobyl
issues became the field of political struggle between
pragmatists and populists. In this situation, radiologicalaspects of the problem stepped aside.
Radiological survey system in Ukraine provides
necessary information on annual doses to population ofeach settlement on the contaminated territories.
Despite of clearly observed reduction of doses on mostterritories, allocation of settlements to the categories ofcontaminated zones has not been reviewed since 1991.

Literature
1. International basic safety standards for protection
against ionizing radiation and for the safety ofradiation sources. - Vienna : International Atomic
Energy Agency, 1996. - (Safety series, №115.
Safety standards). - STI/PUB/996. - 354 P.
2. Derived intervention levels for radionuclides infood. Guidelines for application after widespreadradioactive contamination resulting from a majorradiation accident. World Health Organization.
Geneva, - 1988. - 60 P.

57Research and Managing Institutions in Ukraine concerning the RadiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident
Oleg NASVIT
Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
12 pr. Geroev Stalingrada, Kyiv 254210, Ukraine
were developed and implemented by staffs of theInstitute of Nuclear Research of NASU.
In October 1986 a special modeling system todescribe and predict the behavior of radionuclides inthe Dnieper reservoirs cascade was developed at theInstitute of Cybernetics in collaboration with otherinstitutes of NASU. This system provided an
instrument of reliable prediction of the radioactive
contamination in Dnieper water, which was proved by
the actual monitoring data. In December 1986 the firstprediction of radioactive contamination in subsurface
water was performed at the Institutes of Geological
Sciences and of Cybernetics together with Ministry of
Geology of Ukraine. Scientists of NASU took part inelaboration of contamination maps, and in developingof technologies and techniques of decontamination andradioactive dust reduction (suppression).
Some part of proposals of Ukrainian scientists was
rejected in Governmental bodies of the USSR. For
example, this happened to a plan, developed by NASU
and Ministry of Water Resources Management of
Ukraine, to change the Pripyat river stream and to drive
it to the Dnieper river round about the Chernobyl site.
After the acute period of the accident has passed,
institutions of NASU concentrated their efforts on
investigations and elaboration of measures to mitigate
consequences, taking into account their long-term
character. This activity was carried out from 1987
within all-union programs, and from 1992 withinrepublican ones.
In 1990 a special executive body, the State
Committee of Chernobyl Affairs was established in
Ukraine to manage the whole activity to overcome theChernobyl problems. In 1991 it was rearranged into the
Ministry of Chernobyl Affairs (MinChernobyl). In
1996 a new Ministry of Ukraine on Emergencies andAffairs of Population Protection from theConsequences of Chernobyl Catastrophe (MEA) was
found on the basis of both MinChernobyl and
Headquarters Staff of Civil Defence. Officially MEA is
the main coordinator of all scientific research related to
Chernobyl.
Since 1992 to 1995 financing of Chernobyl-related
NASU activities was being distributed through the
Presidium of NASU using the Chernobyl fund of thestate budget. This scheme of financing did not permit
effective usage and comprehensive control of theChernobyl fund. In 1996, therefore, MEA introduced a

1. National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine andgovernmental organizationsFirst of all it should be mentioned that during thetime of the Soviet Union all researches andinvestigations connected with different aspects ofnuclear energy and industry were secret and, as a rule,
carried out by all-union organizations which had theirmain offices in Russia. National (republican)
institutions had only restricted access to this kind of
information and scientific activity. After the Chernobyl
accident even the Minister of Ministry of Health of the
Ukrainian SSR was not provided with comprehensive
actual information on the problem for a long time andhad to content himself with pieces of information
obtained from his Moscow colleagues by personalcommunications.
On the basis of above-mentioned circumstances,
the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU)
started its activity on liquidation of the accident
consequences (LAC) from the first days after theaccident. On May 3, 1986 the Operational Commissionof NASU (which later was renamed into the Permanent
Acting Commission of the Presidium of NASU) was
created. Being the acting body of the Presidium, thiscommission was managing the activity of institutions
and enterprises of NASU, accomplishing scientificexamination of proposals on LAC, providing
communication and coordination of NASU activities
with ministries and departments, and preparing
proposals to directive bodies and Governmental
commission. The head of this commission was
Academician of NASU, V.I.Trefilov, and his deputies
were Academicians of NASU, V.G.Barjakhtar and
V.P.Kukhar.
During the first days after the accident a large scale
rearrangement of financial and technical resources wasmade to provide solution of immediate tasks of LAC.
For example, since May 3 teams of scientific workers
from various Institutes of NASU (among them theInstitute of Nuclear Research, the Institute of Physics
and the Institute of Metallophysics) carried out
twenty-four-hour radiological control on milk-treating
factories in Kyiv. This permitted to reduce the strengthof iodine shock on Kyiv citizens.
A special attention was paid to the diagnostics ofthe destroyed unit 4 reactor. Unique technical solutions
to monitor physical parameters in the destroyed reactor

58

(Oblast), District (Rayon) and City stateadministrations by their Chernobyl departments.
The National Commission on RadiologicalProtection of Ukraine (NCRPU) belongs to theParliament (Verkhovna Rada) structure. Being the
body of the Parliament, NCRPU is responsible forapproval of radiological safety standards and derived
regulations. Very often the regulations approved by
NCRPU are stricter than the respective international
recommendations.
There is an essential lack of attention within the
Parliament deputies to the activity of NCRPU. It
operates in the frame of the temporary Statute, thefull-scale permanent Statute of NCRPU was submitted
two years ago to the Parliament for approval, but has
not been considered yet.
The head of NCRPU is Academician of NASU,
Dmytro Grodzinsky. Total number of Commission
members is 25, but only two of them (deputy head,
Yu.Bezdrobny and scientific secretary, V. Kalyna)
have full-time occupation within the Commission.
Others are working in different research institutions
and ministries of Ukraine.

system of direct contracts between MEA as thecustomer and leading institutions of NASU as
executors of research work. MEA elaborates a programof scientific research and experimental design aimed atelimination of negative effects of the Chernobyl
accident. Then direct contracts are made with different
institutions of MEA. Specialists of MEA check
implementation and results of the works.
Several principal directions were defined within the
program and respective institutions of NASU were
nominated as head organizations. Among them are:• Institute of Nuclear Research (I.Vyshnevsky),• Institute of Magnetism (V.Barjakhtar),• State Scientific Center of Environmental
Radio-geochemistry (E.Sobotovich),• ScientificEngineering
CenterofRadiohydro-geoecological
Field
Research(V.Shestopalov).
The Permanent Acting Commission of the
Presidium of NASU is responsible for coordination ofChernobyl-related research activity within NASU
(head of the Commission is Academician
V.Shestopalv, his deputies are Academicians
E.Sobotovich and I.Vishnevsky, members are
Academicians D.Grodzinsky, V.Kukhar and others)
and the First Vice-president of NASU V.Barjakhtar isthe supervisor of this activity.
The following governmental organizations are also
directly involved in the activities on the elimination of
the Chernobyl accident consequences:• Ministry of Health of Ukraine• Ministry of Agricultural-Industrial Complex of
Ukraine;• State Water Resource Committee of Ukraine• State Hydrometeorology Committee of Ukraine;• State Geology Committee of Ukraine
MinistryofHealth,Ministryof
Agricultural-Industrial Complex and State Water
Resources Committee have special departments which
deal with Chernobyl-related problems. The activity ofthese departments is funded by the MEA. A certain
amount of finance to implement works concerning theChernobyl problems is allocated to the Ministries andorganizations directly from the state budget, and in thiscase MEA has no possibility to provide effective
control of the use of funds, topics and quality of
research.
The structure of Regional administration of all
regions with contaminated territories includes
departments for Chernobyl affairs (the size of which
depends on the contaminated area and the number of
inhabitants). These departments are subordinate to the
Regional administrations and MEA, i.e. these are thedepartments of double subordination. The same
situation is on district (rayon) level. The major work to
help people is being done on the level of Regional

2. Medical care system and the State Registry of
the Chernobyl sufferers.
Ministry of Health is responsible for all kinds of
medical care for the people suffering from the
Chernobyl catastrophe. In order to provide permanent
medical service, a nation-wide scheme has been
worked out based on 4 hierarchy levels of medical
institution:• the first level - medical assistants’ and obstetricclinics and District hospitals,• the second level - Central District and Numberedhospitals,• the third level - Regional Specialized Medical
Dispensaries of Radiological Protection ofPopulation and other specialized medical
institutions,• the fourth level - Ukrainian Scientific Centre ofRadiation Medicine and other central scientificresearch institutes.
Network of these medical institutions (about 300) wasapproved by instructions of regional and stateadministrations.
Every
year
MEA
(earlier
MinChernobyl) develops and approves “Programmeof Measures on Special Medical Support to the People
Who Suffered from the Chernobyl Catastrophe”. This
Programme is aimed at providing support andadditional financing to medical institutions which
belong to the network of permanent and continuous
medical assistance to those suffering from thecatastrophe.
The State Register
Right after the Chernobyl accident, the USSR

59

Academy of Sciences of Ukraine;

Ministry of Health started a program on creating the
All-Union Distributed Register of irradiated persons.
After decay of the USSR, Ukraine inherited some
uncoordinated parts of this register and had to develop
its own system aimed to provide effective
medical-social security for those suffering from the
Chernobyl catastrophe. The respective statements were
included into the Article 16 (Organisation of the unitedstate registration of the persons who suffered from the
Chernobyl catastrophe) of the Law of Ukraine, “On the
Status and Social Protection of the People Who
Suffered from the Chernobyl Catastrophe”. Ministryof Health is nominated to be responsible for
implementation of this task. Formally the State
Register was created, but due to lack of coordinationand shortage of funds it did not provide the reallyunited registration system. It is expected that thissituation will change on approval of “Regulations on
Organizing and Functioning of the State Register of
Ukraine of the Persons Who Suffered from theConsequences of the Chernobyl Catastrophe”(approved by the Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of
Ukraine on June, 9, 1997 No. 571).
The population size of principal groups in the State
Register is shown in Table 1. The State Register also
includes medical, dosimetric and sociologicalsubregisters. <Medical subregister> provides the dataof special purpose clinical examination and medicalcare for suffering people. <Dosimetric subregister>
provides the data of measured and reconstructed dosesof irradiation. <Sociological subregister> is formed on
the basis of selected groups belonging to all categories
of suffering people which are included to the Stateregister. The Ukrainian Military Register, units ofwhich are managed by Ministry of Defence, Ministryof Internal Affairs and Security Service of Ukraine, isalso a part of the State Register.
Organizational structure of the State Register has
following levels of managing:a) state level - Ukrainian Centre of Medical
Information Technologies and National Register of
Ministry of Health of Ukraine, respective special
units of Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Internal
Affairs and Security Service of Ukraine, special
departments of scientific research institutes of the
Academy of Medical Sciences and Nationalb) region and city level - regional or city hospital(center or dispensary);c) district level - central district hospital.
The basic elements to collect medical data within
this medical scheme are district hospitals. In principle,
there are instructions in order to provide certain basis
for proper data collection. It is recognized, however, byinternational medical scientific experts that lack ofknowledge about the actual mechanisms of datacollection and the quality of basic epidemiologicalstatistics, such as mortality and cancer incidence, arelimitation factors in Ukraine for epidemiologicalinvestigations of international standards.
Managing and financing of the activity of State
Register are coordinated by MEA. Finances forcreating and maintenance of the State Register areprovided from the Chernobyl fund of the state budget.

3. Description of leading research organizations
about the Chernobyl problems
3.1. Scientific Centre for Radiation Medicine of the
Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine
Scientific Centre for Radiation Medicine (SCRM)
is the leading scientific institute of the Academy ofMedical Sciences of Ukraine and Ministry of Health of
Ukraine, which works on the medical problems of theChernobyl accident.
The total number of personnel of the Center as of
01.01.1995 was 1,254 persons, including 236 scientists(30 doctors, 90 candidates)
The structure of SCRM comprises three institutes:• Institute of clinical radiology with the clinic for 300
beds;• Institute of epidemiology and prophylactics of X-ray
diseases;• Institute of experimental radiology and outpatient’s
clinic of radiation registration.
The SCRM performs fundamental and appliedresearch. The main trends of research are:- investigation and assessment of radiation andnon-radiation factors of the Chernobyl accident, as
well as of other sources of ionizing radiation, which
affect the health of people;- investigation of the health status of the population

Table 1. The structure of the State Register of persons who suffered from the Chernobyl catastrophe(persons, 01.01.1996)
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4AdultsChildren
Total

Liquidators

Evacuees andresettlers

184,672
184,672

53,866
8,845
62,711

Residents in thecontaminated areas

161,61127,907
189,518

Children bornwith parents ofGroup1-3

Total

37,19437,194400,149
73,946474,095

origin- Ten Years after the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP: National Report of Ukraine, MinChernobyl, 1996.

60

which suffered from the Chernobyl accident, andthose of other categories which receive additional
irradiation doses;- scientific grounds and support of medical measureson the protection of population form negative effectsof the Chernobyl accident and other sources ofradiation;- scientific support, generalization of the data,
presented by the national State Register, about thepersons who suffered from the Chernobyl accident;- study of the mechanism of ionizing radiation effectand negative factors influencing on humanorganism, development of prophylactic, diagnostics,
treatment and rehabilitation methods.
Reconstruction of thyroid dose for 12 regions andthe city of Kyiv due to the Chernobyl accident has been
carried out at the Department of Dosimetry andRadiation Hygiene of SCRM (Dr. I.Kairo). Results for7 regions and the city of Kyiv were approved by
Ministry of Health and presented to the Ukrainian
government as Thyroid Dosimetric Passports. Ministryof Emergencies (MEA) supports this work and isplanning to provide the passportisation of the whole
Ukrainian territory until the end of 1999.
Works on reconstruction of external and internal
dose at the early stage after the accident have being
carried out at also this Department (Drs. V.Repin, V
Chumak, V.Berkovsky, O.Bondarenko) in cooperation
with staffs from other institutes. This Department isleaded by Prof. I.Likhtarev.

• section of radiogeochemistry of ecosystems(G.Bondarenko);• section of ecological geology (V.Bukharev);• section of geochemistry of technogenesis(B.Gorlytsky);• section of cosmoecology and cosmic mineralogy(V.Semenenko);• section of problems of ecological safety(Ju.Melnyk);• section of metalogenesis and mineral resources(Eu.Kulish);• section of geology of uranium and attendant metals(V.Koval);• section of complex problems of uranium deposits(B.Zankevych).
Total number of staff members is 200 persons,
including 72 - scientific workers, among the last - 1
academician of NASU, 3 correspondent-members of
NASU, 15 - doctors of science, 47 - candidates (Ph.D).
The main directions and subjects of investigations:• geochemical fundamentals of noosphere forming;• technogenic-ecological safety and rehabilitation ofcontaminated territories;• treatment, preservation, disposal and deposition(burial) of radioactive and toxic wastes;• ecological assessment and forecasting of theenvironment status;• complex problems of ecological safety andforecasting of emergencies.

3.2. State Scientific Center of Environmental
Radiogeochemistry of NASU and MEA
State Scientific Center of Environmental
Radiogeochemistry (SSCER) was created in 1996 on
the basis of two departments of the Institute ofGeochemistry, Mineralogy and Ore Forming:
Department of Environmental Radiogeochemistry andDepartment of Metallogenesis.
Center was created in order to improvecoordination and managing of scientific researches on
the behavior of artificial and natural radionuclides andchemical substances in the environment, creation ofdata basis of scientific works on this subject,
preparation of recommendations on restoration of theenvironment, including questions of decontamination
and rehabilitation of the exclusion zone of theChernobyl NPP and other territories, subjected toharmful influence of technogenic and natural
catastrophes; scientific supervising over thedevelopment of uranium industry and radioactive
waste treatment, including preservation, disposal anddeposition in deep geological formations.
SSCER has the following 9 scientific sections:• section of nuclear geochemistry and cosmochemistry(E.Sobotovich);

3.3. Chernobyl Scientific-Technical Center forInternational Research
Chernobyl Scientific-Technical Center forInternational Research (ChSCIR) was created in March
1996 on the basis of Scientific-Technical Center (STC)
that existed within the structure of Research-Industrial
Association(RIA)“Pripyat”
andresearch
infrastructure of Chernobyl Center for International
Research (CheCIR). The last organization was
up-to-date equipped for radioecological study andcarried out associated investigations with CEC within
the frame of ECP-JSP projects in 1993-1995.
ChSCIR is headed by the director, Prof.
N.Arkhipov and includes 7 sections:• section of analysis and research work organization(A.Makhno);• section of study of radionuclides spreading(V.Nadvorsky);• section of radiology and recultivation (L.Loginova);• section of forest radioecology (M.Kuchma);• section of radiobiology and medicine (M.Alesina);• section of international analytical research(V.Libman);• production-technical section (G.Mykhailyuk);and special experimental farm (M.Novopashen).

61

USHC is a leading scientific institution in Ukraine
in the fields of environmental hygiene, hygiene ofchildren and adolescents, medical genetics, assessmentof ecological-hygienic safety of population, medical
aspects of liquidation of the consequences of the
ChNPP accident.
Activity of USHC is being carried out within theframe of complex programs of Ministry of Health;“Environmental hygiene” and “Medical genetics” andaimed at:• protection of health and geno-fund of populationfrom hazardous environmental agents, including
anthropogenic;• elaboration of scientifically grounded practicalmeasures of health protection for present and future
generations, improving conditions of theenvironment;• coordination of research work within the statescientific-technical programs “Protection of
Ukrainian population geno-fund” and “Problems of
ecological safety of Ukraine”;• preparation of research personnel on hygiene,
ecology and genetics.
The next scientific topics were accomplished orbeing studied in USHC since the Chernobyl accident:
1. Hygienic aspects of the consequences of theChernobyl NPP accident, 1986-1990.
- Hygienic assessment of the natural and artificial
sources of ionizing radiation on the territory of
Ukraine;- Analysis of health status of children population,subjected to radiation as a result of the ChNPP
accident;- Developing of organizational questions ofsanitary-epidemiological stations work in theconditions of radiation accident.
2. Analysis of radionuclides of 90Sr and 238,239Pu in
soils of some contaminated districts of Ukrainian
SSR, 1990.
3. Study of the radiation-hygienic situation in some
districts of the Rivne region, 1991-1994.
4. Study of the migration of artificial and naturalradionuclides through ecological paths inparticular geochemical provinces of the republic
and to develop hygienic recommendations forprovision of safe living conditions for population,
1991-1992.
5. Ecological-hygienic
assessmentoftheenvironment in controlled regions of Kyiv,
Zhytomyr, Rivne, Chernigiv, Cherkasy regions inrelation to the ChNPP accident and developmentof prophylactic measures, 1991-1992.
6. Study of the mechanisms of migration of 137Cs,
90
Sr, Pu radionuclides through the ecological paths
taking into account their state and forms present insoils, 1992-1995.

ChSCIR has 159 staff members, among them 80
graduate specialists, 4 doctors of science, 15
candidates (Ph.D).
Directions of research work:• elaboration and implementation of radioecologicalmonitoring system of radioactively contaminatedterritories;• complex investigations, analysis and forecast of
space distribution and migration of radionuclides inthe environment and food chains;• study of radiogeochemical status of the exclusionzone on the basis of geochemical andhydrogeological observations;• radiobiologicalandmedical-biologicalconsequences of the Chernobyl accident;• study of the influence of radioactive contamination
upon forest ecosystems and development of special
forestry system;• elaboration, examination and implementation ofcountermeasures to reduce radionuclide transferfrom soil to plant and through the food chains, andmethods for rehabilitation of radioactively
contaminated agricultural lands;• study of the influence of microbiological agents upontransformation and migration of radionuclides andtheir compounds (including initial fallouts);• elaboration and implementation of geographicalinformation-modeling systems;• forecast of ecological and radioecological status of
the exclusion zone;• making informational provision of research work,
elaboration of standardizing basic documents,
elaboration of united informational data bank on
scientific research works, standardizing technicaldocuments, working materials of conferences,
workshops etc.
ChSCIR has well-equipped laboratories andexperimental field stations located in a distance of 3-15km from ChNPP and experienced in sampling of soils,
waters and biological objects. Laboratories andvivariums, greenhouses and field stations are suited tocarry out various radiobiological and radioecologicalinvestigations. Spectrometric and radiochemicallaboratories, natural experimental fields, cooling pondof ChNPP with special fish-breeding farm, vivariums
for about 2 thousands laboratory rats and mice are also
opened to those who want to carry out radioecologicaland radiobiological studies.

3.4. Ukrainian Scientific Hygienic Center of
Ministry of Health of Ukraine
Ukrainian Scientific Hygienic Center (USHC) was
created in 1989 and included two institutions:• Scientific Research Institute of General andCommunal Hygiene named after O.M.Marzeev• Ukrainian Scientific Center for Medical Genetics.
62

3. Post-Accidental Encephalopathy: Experimental
Studies and Clinical Observations/ Red. Romodanov
A.P. - Kyiv, Ukr SRI Neurosurgery, 1993. (Ukr)
4. Serkiz Ya.I., Pinchuk V.G., Pinchuk L.B. et al.
Radiobiological Aspects of Chernobyl NPP
Accident. - Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 1992. - 172 P.
(Rus)
5. Frantsevych L.I., Gaichenko V.A., Kryzhanovsky
V.I. Animals in Radioactive Zone. - Kyiv: Naukova
Dumka, 1991. - 128 P. (Rus)
6. Accident at Chernobyl NPP: Radiation Monitoring,
Clinical Problems, Social-Psychological Aspects,
Demographic Situation, Low Doses of Ionizing
Radiation: Inform. Bull. - Kyiv, 1992. (Rus)
7. Medical Consequences of Chernobyl NPP Accident:
Inform. Bull. - Kyiv, 1991. (Rus)
8. Problems of Radiation Medicine: Repub. Cooper.
Collect. / Health Ministry of UkrSSR, SCRM AMS
USSR. - Kyiv, 1988. - Issue 1. (Rus)
9. Problems of Radiation Medicine: Repub. Cooper.
Collect. / Health Ministry of UkrSSR, SCRM AMS
USSR. - Kyiv, 1989. - Issue 2. (Rus)
10.Actual Problems of Liquidation of Medical
Consequences of Chernobyl NPP Accident:
Collection. - Kyiv, 1992. (Rus)
11.Kuchin
O.V.,
Khalimonchuk
V.A.
Neutron-PhysicalandThermo-PhysicalInvestigations on unit 4 of ChNPP // Rep. AS
Ukraine (Doklady Akademii Nauk Ukraunskoi
SSR).- 1993. - № 1. - P.140. (Rus)
12.Chernobyl Accident // Events, Facts, Figures. April
1986 - March 1990 : Textbook / Civil Defense
Headquarters of Ukrainian SSR. - Kyiv, 1990.
13.Radiation Aspects of Chernobyl Accident:
Collection. - Kyiv, 1989. - Part 2. (Rus)
14.Dolin V.V., Bondarenko G.N., Sobotovich E.V.
Diffussional Mechanism of Migration of 137Cs and90
Sr of ChNPP Fuel Fall-outs // Rep. AS Ukraine
Ser.B (Doklady Akademii Nauk Ukraunskoi SSR
Seria. B).- 1992. - № 12. - P.6-10. (Rus)
15.Prister B.S. et al. Efficacy of Measures Aimed at
Decreasing of Contamination of Farm Produce inRegions, Contaminated as a Result of Chernobyl
NPP Accident // Rep. AS Ukraine (Doklady
Akademii Nauk Ukraunskoi SSR).- 1992. - № 1. P.157-161. (Rus)
16.Sobotovich
E.V.,
OlkhovikYu.A.,
Koromyslichenko T.I., Sokolik G.A. Comparative
Study of Migration Ability of Radionuclides in
Bottom Sediments of Water-Bodies in Near Zone of
ChNPP // Rep. AS Ukraine (Doklady Akademii
Nauk Ukraunskoi SSR).- 1990. - № 8. - P.12-18.
(Rus)
17.Sobotovich E.V., Chebanenko S.I. Isotopic
Composition of Uranium in Soils of Near Zone of
ChNPP // Rep. NASUSSR (Doklady Akademii
Nauk SSSR).- 1990. - 315, № 4. - P.885-888 (Rus)

7. Hygienic assessment of the 30-km zone of theChernobyl NPP and elaboration of network of
medical sanitary measures for optimization of
conditions for staying in the zone, 1991-1994.
8. Evaluation of the contribution of water path ofradionuclides migration through food chains todose forming to population of Dnieper river basin,
1992.
9. Ecological-hygienic monitoring and assessment ofenvironment and population health quality on theradioactively contaminated territories, 1993-1995.
10. Study of the influence of doses due to presence of137
Cs and 90Sr in organisms on children’s health indifferent regions of Ukraine, 1993-1995.
11. Radiological-hygienic assessment of working
conditions of forest workers, carrying out different
works in the exclusion zone, 1993-1994.
12. Study of the forming of microbiocenoses ofwaters and soils in the regions of enhanced
radioactive contamination and their role in
remedial processes in the environment, 1994-1996.
13. Radioecological studies of the consequences of
the Chernobyl catastrophe on the Dnieper
reservoirs cascade (determination of plutonium),
1994.
14. Study of the influence of magnetic field ofindustrial frequency in combination with ionizing
radiation upon organism and development ofhygienic measures to protect humans from
unfavorable effects of these factors, 1995-1999.
15. Radiological-hygienic grounding of the diet- andphyto-therapeutic measures for improving ofhealth and rehabilitation of persons, subjected toirradiation, 1995-1997.
16. Elaboration of acceptable levels of radioactive
contamination of objects in the exclusion zone of
the Chernobyl NPP, 1996.
17. Study of sanitary-hygienic characteristics of theenvironment on the territories contaminated byradionuclides, and their influence on health status,
1996-1998.
The reports on accomplished topics were presented
to Ministry of Health of Ukraine.

4. Major publications on Chernobyl by
Ukrainian scientists
1. Hydroecological Consequences of the Chernobyl
NPP Accident. / Evtushenko N.Yu., Kuzmenko M.I.,
Sirenko L.A. et al. - Kyiv.: Naukova Dumka, 1992. 268 P. (Rus)
2. Radioactive and Chemical Pollution of Dnieper
River and It’s Reservoirs After the Chernobyl NPP
Accident. / Romanenko V.D., Kuzmenko M.I,
Evtushenko N.Yu. et al. - Kyiv: Naukova Dumka,
1992. - 196 P. (Rus)63

contaminated by the 1986 Chernobyl accident //Health Physics, 1996, Vol.71, № 1, P. 19-28.
29.Pilinskaya M. The results of selective cytogenetic
monitoring of Chernobyl accident victims in the
Ukraine // Health Physics, 1996, Vol.71, № 1, P.
29-33.
30.Berkovski V., Ratia G., Nasvit O. Internal doses to
Ukrainian populations using Dnieper river water //Health Physics, 1996, Vol.71, № 1, P. 37-44.
31.Ten years after the accident at Chernobyl NPP.
National report of Ukraine. Year 1996.
Minchornobyl, “Infotsentr Chornobyl”, Kyiv, 1996.
(Rus, Ukr)
32.Health Indices of People Who Suffered from the
Accident at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant(1987-1995). Statistical handbook. Minchornobyl of
Ukraine, Health Ministry of Ukraine, Center for
Medical Statistics. Kyiv, 1996. - 438 P. (Ukr)
33.Bobylyova O.A. Assessment of medical
consequences of Chernobyl NPP accident forsix-year period in Ukraine. // Rep. AS Ukraine(Dopovidi Akademiyi Nauk Ukrayiny).- 1993. - № 1.
(Ukr)
34.Problems of Agricultural Radiology. Collection. Kyiv, 1991. - 222 P.
35.Problems of Agricultural Radiology. Collection.
Issue 3. - Kyiv, 1993.
36.Davydchuk V.S., Zarudnaya R.F., Mikheli S.V.
Landscapes of the Chernobyl zone and theirassessment by the conditions of radionuclides
migration. - Kyiv, Naukova Dumka. - 1994.
37.Influence of low doses of ionizing radiation andother factors of the environment upon the organism.
/Editor Rudnev// - Kyiv, Naukova Dumka. - 1994.
38.Prister B.S., Loshchilov N.A., Nemets O.F.,
Poyarkov V.A. et al. Fundamentals of agriculturalradiology // Kyiv, Urozhai, 1991.
39.Likhtarev I., Chumak V., Repin V. retrospective
reconstruction of individual and collective external
gamma doses of population evacuated after the
Chernobyl accident. // Health Physics, 1994, Vol.66,№ 6, P. 643-652.
40.Likhtarev I. et al. Results of large scale thyroid dosereconstruction in Ukraine // The radiologicalconsequences of the Chernobyl accident.
Proceedings of the first international conference.
Minsk, Belarus, 18 to 22 March 1996. P.1021-1034. EUR 16544 EN.
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al. The time trends of cancer incidence in the mostcontaminated regions of the Ukraine before and after
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42.Gulko G.M. et al. Estimation of 131I thyroid doses
for the evacuees from Pripjat. // Radiat. Environ.
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18.Pinchuk L.B., Rodionova N.K., Serkiz Ya.I.
Changes of Hematological Indices, Frequency of
Neoplasm Revealing and Lifetime of Experimental
Animals During 6 Years After Chernobyl NPP
Accident // Rep. AS Ukraine (Doklady Akademii
Nauk Ukraunskoi SSR).- 1993. - № 1. - P.148-153.
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19.Sobotovich E.V., Shestopalov V.M., Pushkarev
A.V. et al. Principals of Landscape-Geochemical andRadioecological
MappingofTerritory,
Contaminated with Thechnogenical Radionuclides //Rep. AS Ukraine (Doklady Akademii Nauk
Ukraunskoi SSR).- 1993. - № 1. - P.177-181.
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20.Radiogeochemistry in the Chernobyl NPP
influenced zone. Sobotovich E.V., Bondarenko
G.M. et al. Kyiv, Naukova dumka, 1992. - 146 P.
(Rus)
21.Nyagu A.I. Psycho-neurological and Psychological
Aspects of the Consequences of Chernobyl NPP
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A.I.
Social-PsychologicalandPsycho-neurological Aspects of the Consequences ofChernobyl NPP Accident // Bull. AMS USSR
(Vestnik Akademii Meditsynskikh Nauk SSSR). 1991. -№ 11.- P.21-25. (Rus)
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65

Assessment of the Chernobyl Radiological Consequences
Mikhail V. MALKO
Institute of Physical and Chemical Radiation Problems of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus
Minsk, Sosny, 220109, Republic of Belarus; fax: + 375 (0172) 467317

established in the affected regions of the former
USSR [4,7,17].
One of the reasons for such controversy has been
explained by J. Gofman [18]. He managed to showthat the abovementioned discrepancies in prognosis of
medical consequences of the Chernobyl accident
arose due to the incorrect risk coefficient of ionizing
radiation employed by some specialists to forecast
additional number of solid cancers and leukemia
induced by Chernobyl radiation.
Another incorrectness that can seriously influence
the forecasting of biomedical consequences of theChernobyl accident is related to the collective dose
estimation. It is well known, that assessments ofauthors [8, 12-16] have been made on the basis ofdata of nuclides release into the environment
established soon after the accident [19, 20]. During
the last years, however, more accurate data were
established on the total discharge of radioactive
species due to the Chernobyl accident, as well as moreaccurate data on deposition of different radionuclides
in the affected areas of the former USSR [5-7].
The facts discussed above justify any independent
analysis of possible medical consequences of theChernobyl accident. This paper presents our attempt
to assess the pure radiological consequences of theaccident at the Chernobyl NPP.
The following limitations were taken into
consideration in our assessment. First, we haverestricted our analysis to stochastic effects of ionizing
radiation only, such as solid cancers and leukemia.
Second, we have also excluded from our analysis
members of the personnel of the Chernobyl NPP and
the cohort of liquidators. It means that our study wasconcentrated only on the population of areas affectedby the Chernobyl accident. Third, our assessment was
based on the use of simplified model of collective
dose estimation very similar to the models used byauthors [13-16,20]. The first step in collective dose
assessment is the calculation of the exposition dose in
air on the basis of experimental data on radionuclide
deposition on the ground. The results of ourassessment are given below.

INTRODUCTION
The Chernobyl accident has been the worst
accident in the history of peaceful use of nuclear
energy. The nuclear explosion and the following 10days graphite fire have not only completely destroyed
the fourth unit’s reactor of the Chernobyl NPP but, aswell, resulted in the release of a large amount ofradioactive species into the environment. This
accident caused radioactive contamination in a lot
countries of the Northern hemisphere, even incountries many thousand kilometers away from
Chernobyl. For example, the deposition of different
radionuclides has been found even in Japan [1-3].
The Belorussian Republic was affected by the
Chernobyl accident much more than any other country
in the world [4]. Twenty three percent of its territory
were contaminated by caesium-137 with 1 Ci/km2 andhigher. As a result of the accident at the Chernobyl
NPP, large territories in the Russian Federation and in
the Ukraine have been contaminated as well [5-7].
Experts of different countries and internationalorganizations are unanimous in the opinion that the
Chernobyl
accident
hascausedenormoussocio-economic consequences in Belarus, the RussianFederation, and the Ukraine [4, 7-9]. It is also
recognized that residents of the affected areas of theformer USSR have been subject to various
psychological burdens soon after the Chernobyl
accident [4, 7-11].
However, there exists a significant controversy
among specialists about the medical consequences(other than psychic) of the Chernobyl accident. For
example, according to the assessment of J. Gofman[12] this accident will result in additional 475,000
fatal solid cancers, 19,500 leukemia and additional
475,000 non-fatal solid cancers. The abovementioned
data were evaluated by J. Gofman [12] for all
countries of the Northern hemisphere affected by the
Chernobyl
accident.
Significant
medicalconsequences, especially additional thyroid cancers
and leukemia, have been as well predicted by E.
Ivanov [13].
The whole International Radiation Community, on
the contrary, rejected the possibility of serious
medical consequences other than psychic stresses andfeeling of anxiety suffered by the residents of theaffected areas [8-11, 14-16]. Such controversy isunbelievable in the light of the reliable data

METHOD OF THE COLLECTIVE DOSEASSESSMENT
The collective irradiation dose within some time τ,H τcoll , can be estimated as:
65

H τ

c o llwhere,NH τ= N ⋅ H τ

(1)*values: H τ , ext , Q0 and S∑. The mean individual
equivalent dose of external irradiation normalized tothe initial level of 137Cs contamination equal to 1

= number of irradiated people,= mean individual effective equivalentdose accumulated within the time τ.

*

Ci/km2, H τ , ind , can be determined on the basis ofmeasured or calculated exposition dose rates incontaminated areas. By means of exposition dose
rates integration for the period of time τ one can thencompute the exposition dose Pτ. This value can betransformed to the air-absorbed dose Dτ by:(7)
Dτ = C 1 ⋅ PτThe value of H τ is estimated as a sum of external,H τ , ext , and internal, H τ , int , doses:

H τ = H τ,

ext

+ H τ,in t(2)

On the basis of data given in the Catalogue ofdoses [21] we have estimated that averagecontributions of external and internal irradiation to theequivalent doses delivered to inhabitants of theaffected areas of Belarus in 1991-1992 were 60 and
40 percent respectively.
Assuming that the same contribution of external
and internal radiation will be sustained at any timewithin a period of time τ we can write:

H τ =
Hτ =

H τ ,ext
,
0 .6

where
C1

required equivalent irradiation dose:H τ = C ⋅ DτDOSE RATE AND DOSE IN AIR
RECONSTRUCTION
There are only sparse measurement data on
exposition dose rates in different areas of Belarus
affected by the Chernobyl accident. Thus, one needs
to assess these values by means of somecomputational methods and data on contamination of
the soil.
The most simple model which can be used forcomputation of dose rates is based on the so-called
model of infinite half-space source geometry at areference height of 1 m. According to this model the
exposition rate of external radiation at the time t isgiven by:because the procedure of assessment of H τ , ext is
much easier than that of H τ , int . The mean externalH τ , ext , can be determined by meansof the equation:
0

137

⋅

(9)

= mean external individual
equivalent dose of inhabitants
living in areas with initial
contamination level by 137Cs equal
to 1 Ci/km2,= average initial deposition level ofAs0 (137C s) 137 determined for the total area ofcontaminated territories.

H τ*, ext0

A s0 ( 1 3 7 C s ) =

137

Q0
S

n

R γ ( t ) = ∑ K i ,γ ⋅ σ i0 ⋅ exp ( − 0.693⋅ t ) ⋅ K i,L ( t ) ,
i =1
T1i2

(5)

where

Thus, the value of As (

(8)

2

(4)

H τ , ext = H τ*, ext ⋅ As ( Cs )remone can later estimate theraddetermined in

Any of these expressions can be used forassessment of the collective equivalent dose delivered
to the Belorussian population.
We shall base our investigation on the equation (3)equivalent dose,

rad
[22].
R

By means of another conversion factor C2 which is(3)

H τ , in t.
0 .4

= conversion factor equal to 0.873

where
n

K i ,γσ i0Cs) is given by:

T 1i2= number of nuclides contributing to thetotal exposition dose rate,= conversion factor of ith nuclide perunit deposition, (mR/hr)/(Ci/km2),= initial surface contamination with ith
nuclide normalized to initial surface
contamination equal to 1 Ci/km2 of 137Cs,= half-life of ith nuclide,

K i,L (t) = shielding factor of ith nuclide(6)

originated from its penetration into thesoil (function of time).

where
Q0

= total amount of 137Cs deposited on allaffected territories (source term)= total area of contaminated territories
S
As can be seen from the equation given above the taskof the collective equivalent dose assessment results in⋅

Computation of R (t) is usually carried out on thebasis of the assumption, that all nuclides have thesame shielding factor K L (t) . Then the equation (9)66can be written in the form:⋅nRγ (t) = KL (t) ⋅ ∑K i,γ ⋅ σi ⋅ exp (−
0

i =1

0693
.

T1i2

periods of time after the Chernobyl accident are given
in Table 6. They were determined from experimental
data on vertical migration of radionuclides into thesoil measured by specialists of Goshydromet of theformer USSR [5]. They measured the verticalmigration of radionuclides in the undisturbed soil fordifferent kind of soils. We used data given in [5] forthe sod-podsolic soil as more characteristic forcontaminated territories of Belarus.
Figure 1 shows the change in exposition dose rates
of external radiation in different areas of Belarus
within the first weeks after the nuclear explosion at
the Chernobyl NPP.
One can see that as a result of different
composition or radionuclides deposited on the ground,roofs and walls of houses and other buildings the
exposition dose rate in air in different contaminatedareas of Belarus can differ by factor 3 even at thesame 137Cs contamination level.
The highest exposition dose rate had to be in the
Northern sector of the so-called “nearest zone”. This
zone is a not very broad stripe that is extended in the
Northern direction up to 100 kilometers from the
Chernobyl NPP.
The lowest exposition dose rate had to be in theso-called “caesium spots”, which are characterized byrelative enrichment of radioactive deposition bycaesium isotopes.
The difference in exposition dose rates diminishedvery quickly because of a radioactive decay ofshort-lived isotopes. At the end of the first month after
the explosion at the Chernobyl NPP the expositiondose rates at different areas of Belarus were quite
similar.

⋅ t),

(10)
Integration of the equation (10) from t=0 up to t=ττgives the exposition dose of external radiation
accumulated within the period of time τ:τnPτ = ∫ KL (t ) ⋅ ∑ K i ,γ ⋅ σi0 ⋅ exp (− 0.693⋅ t )dt.
i =1
0
T1i2
(11)
Data on exposition dose rates and doses calculatedon the basis of the equations (10) and (11) for
different areas of Belarus are given in Fig. 1 and in
Tables 1, 2 and 3. In computing these dataexperimental data on deposition of radionuclides as aresult of the Chernobyl accident given in the book [5]were used (see Table 4). Table 5 consists of values ofhalf-lives of gamma-emitting nuclides considered by⋅

calculation of R γ and Pτ . The shielding factor
K L was calculated for the exponential model as it
was done by T. Imanaka, T. Seo and H. Koide [23]:K = a ⋅ exp(−l ⋅ t) + a ⋅ exp(−l ⋅ t), (12)
L

1

1

2

2

where
= fractions of fast and slow
migration of radionuclides into
the soil= constants of vertical migrations
l1 and l2
into the soil
Values of these fractions and constants for different

a1 and a2

1. Sector “North” of the near zone;
2. Averaged composition of the total release;
3. Gomel oblast;
4. “Caesium” spots;
5. Mogilev oblast.

Rg(t
mR/h
2

1.5
1
1

0.5

2
43
5

0

0

10

20

30

Days

Fig. 1 Exposition dose rates in air at a height of 1 m during the first weeks after the
Chernobyl accident in different areas of Belarus (normalized to the contamination level of
caesium-137 equal to 1 Ci/km2).
67

Table 1. Free air gamma exposition doses at a height of 1 m accumulated in different contaminatedareas of Belarus within the period from 26.04.1986 to 26.04.2056 (normalized to the level of 137Cs
contamination of 1 Ci/km2, mR).
Year

Vetka rayonof Gomel oblast

Krasnopoljerayon of
Mogilev oblast“Caesium spot”

Sector“North” of thenear zone

Averagecomposition of
the total release

1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2016
2026
2036
2046
2056

258.0
414.0
531.7
623.4
698.0
760.8
815.2
863.2
906.5
946.2
983.0
1017.41049.81080.51109.91138.01164.91191.11216.31240.31263.21447.81573.81660.81721.11760.4

212.7
358.8
471.9
561.4
635.0
697.2
751.4
799.3
842.6
882.2
919.1
953.4
985.8
1016.61046.01074.01101.01127.31152.41176.41199.31383.91509.91596.91657.21696.6

225.1
366.7
476.8
564.2
636.2
697.4
750.8
798.2
841.1
880.5
917.2
951.4
983.8
1014.41043.81071.81098.71125.11150.11174.11197.11381.61507.6
1594.61654.91694.3

622.5
815.1
947.9
1048.61128.81195.11251.71301.31345.71386.11423.41458.11490.21521.51551.1
1579.21606.31632.41657.41681.31704.21888.82014.72101.82162.12201.4

369.1
517.6
628.0
715.5
787.5
848.7
902.1
949.5
992.4
1031.81068.51102.71135.01165.71195.11223.11250.01276.31301.41325.41348.31532.81658.71745.71806.01845.3

Table 2. Contribution of different radionuclides to the summary free air gamma exposition dose,
accumulated within the period from 26.04.1986 to 31.08.1986 in contaminated areas of Belarus.
Di / D, %Radionuclide
239

Np
Mo
132
Te
131
I
140
Ba
141
Ce
103
Ru
95
Zr
110m
Ag
144
Ce
106
Ru
134
Cs
125
Sb
137
Cs
99

Vetka rayon of
Gomel oblast
0
0
25.3
12.6
9.1
0
10.0
0
0
0
6.8
21.1
0
15.1

Krasnopoljerayon of
Mogilev oblast
0
0
21.6
10.7
7.6
0
11.1
0
0
0
3.3
26.7
0
19.0

“Caesium spot”

Sector “North”
of the near zone

0
0
26.9
10.5
6.5
0
11.6
1.4
0
0
4.0
22.1
0
17.0

0.9
0.2
22.1
6.6
11.3
0.8
10.2
27.8
0
0.7
3.7
9.9
0
5.8

Averagecomposition of thetotal release
0.8
0.1
19.5
7.3
16.6
0.5
5.2
25.0
0
0.7
2.0
12.6
0
9.7

According to our calculation nuclides withhalf-lives shorter than 1 year played an important role
during the first months after the Chernobyl accident.
It can be seen from Table 3, where individual
contributions to the total exposition dose of externalradiation of different nuclides at different areas ofBelarus are given.
Data presented in Table 2 show that short-lived

According to [7], there are places in the 30
kilometers zone with level of contamination by 137Cs
as high as many hundred Ci/km2. It means that soonafter the explosion the exposition dose rate in air
could reach in such places many hundred millirentgen
per hour and therefore exceed many hundred thousand
times the exposition dose rate in air before theChernobyl accident.

68

Table 3. Contribution of different radionuclides to the summary free air gamma exposition dose,
accumulated within the period from 26.04.1986 to 31.04.2056 in contaminated areas of Belarus.
Di / D, %Radionuclide
Vetka rayon
Krasnopolje rayon
Sector “North” of“Caesium spot”
of Gomel oblastof Mogilev oblast
the near zone
239
Np
0
0
0
0.2
99
Mo
0
0
0
0
132
Te
2.7
1.9
2.5
5.1
131
I
1.3
0.9
1.0
1.5
140
Ba
1.0
0.7
0.6
2.6
141
Ce
0
0
0
0.2
103
Ru
1.2
1.1
1.2
2.6
95
Zr
0
0
0.2
8.3
110m
Ag
0
0
0
0
144
Ce
0
0
0
0.6
106
Ru
3.0
1.2
1.6
3.4
134
Cs
16.4
17.0
15.5
16.0
125
Sb
0
0
0
0
137
Cs
74.4
77.2
77.4
59.5
Table 4. Composition of nuclide deposition in the affected areas of Belarus (normalized to theactivity of 137-Cs) [5]
Di / D, %Radionuclide

Vetka rayon of
Gomel oblast

Krasnopolje rayonof Mogilev oblast“Caesium
spot”

239

Np
Mo
132
Te
131
I
140
Ba
141
Ce
103
Ru
95
Zr
110m
Ag
144
Ce
106
Ru
134
Cs
125
Sb
137
Cs

Sector “North”
of the near zone

14.13
14.13
1.086

9.5
9.5
0.714

12.78
10.0
0.67

1.957

1.714

1.994
0.056

33.33
3.33
33.3
20.0
3.67
3.67
5.33
3.33

1.413
0.545

0.55
0.545

0.722
0.5

2.00
2.00
0.67

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

99

Averagecomposition of
the total release
6.67
3.33
16.7
16.7
3.33
3.67
2.67
3.33
0.01
2.33
1.0
0.5
0.02
1.0

given in Table 3. In this table results of the exposition
doses calculated for different areas of Belarus for theperiod of time from 26.04.1986 to 26.04.2056 (70years period) are presented.
As can be seen from this table nuclides withhalf-life shorter than the half-life of isotope 134Cs,
give together only about 7% of the total expositiondose in air delivered during the 70 years after the
Chernobyl accident.
It means that caesium isotopes determine
practically the total exposition dose of externalradiation delivered during a rather long period of timeafter the Chernobyl accident.
So, in the assessment of the total collective
irradiation dose one does not have even to take into
consideration nuclides other than caesium isotopes
and concentrate the efforts on accuracy of

nuclides determined more than 50 percent of the total
exposition dose in air delivered within the firstmonths after the accident.
In case of the Northern sector of the so-called“near zone” (Bragin district is settled in this zone)
short-lived nuclides gave about 85 percent of the total
exposition dose.
It is clear that one needs to consider the total
spectrum of the deposited radionuclides in theassessment of the possibility of direct effects ofradiation on inhabitants of 30 kilometers zone, thatwere evacuated within the first months after the
Chernobyl accident.
The total contribution of short-lived nuclides to the
exposition dose of external radiation which can bedelivered within quite a long period is not very large.
Such conclusion may be drawn on the basis of data69

Table 5.

Half lives and conversion factors of radionuclides deposited in the areas affected by the
Chernobyl accident [5].
Conversion* factor, Ki,8
NuclideHalf life, T1/2, days
239
Np
2.35
2.9
99
Mo
2.73
5.1
132
3.27
45.9
Te
131
8.04
7.3
I
140
12.6
41.5
Ba
141
32.5
1.2
Ce
103
Ru
39
8.9
95
64
28.3
Zr
110m
250
50.3
Ag
144
284
0.8
Ce
106
Ru
368
3.8
134
755.6
29.1
Cs
125
985.5
7.9
Sb
137
11023
10.7
Cs
* Note: Conversion factors are given in units

Table 6.

m R /HC i/km 2

Parameters of nuclide vertical migration in soil.

Period of time, years
0 ≤ t ≤ 1 year
0.5 ≤ t ≤ 16.5 years
16.5 ≤ t ≤ 100 years

a1
—
0.61
0.44070.5345l1
year-1
1.25
0.18
0.18

computational models and accuracy of data on
contamination levels of caesium isotopes.
Only in case of the Northern sector of the “nearzone” the contribution of nuclides other than caesium
isotopes to the total exposition dose in air delivered
over the 70 after the Chernobyl accident has reachedabout 25%.
It is well known, that radioactive contamination of
the soil in the major part of the affected territories ofBelarus, the Russian Federation and the Ukraine issimilar to contamination in “caesium spots”.
This fact simplifies the assessment of collective
irradiation doses of the affected population in Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine because it allows to use some
uniform data that transform data on the initial surface
contamination of the soil to external exposition doses.
According to the data given in Table 1, the total
exposition dose of external radiation in air at areference height of 1 m delivered over the 70 years
after the Chernobyl accident in an area with 137Cs
isotope contamination equal to 1 Ci/km2 is about
1,700 mR.
The contribution of the 137Cs isotope to the total
exposition dose is about 1,311 mR or 77.4 percent
within the 70 years period.

a2
—
0.39
0.40680.4934l2
year-1- 0.4
2.75•10-3
1.375•10-2

SETTLEMENTS ENVIRONMENT
It is clear that the data established for the areas
with undisturbed soil can not be used for assessmentof the collective irradiation doses delivered byexternal radiation because only a small fraction of
population affected by the Chernobyl accident has aregular access to such areas.
For example it was established by the Ukrainian
specialists [7] that children at the age of 7 years andunder living in contaminated areas spend only 13
percent of the day outside the houses and otherbuildings. This means automatically that such children
forming the most sensitive subpopulation toirradiation spend 87 percent of day inside thebuildings and at least 87 percent of their time insettlements.
Children and teenagers at the age of 7-18 years
according to the Ukrainian National Report [7] (seeTable 4.1.3 on pages 4.18) spend about 18 percent of
their time outside the buildings and this means about
82 percent inside the buildings.
The largest fraction of time outside the buildings
spend pensioners. It reaches 36 percent of the day.
These data show that the inhabitants ofcontaminated areas spend about 20 percent of theirtime outside the buildings and 80 percent of time
inside the buildings.

DOSE RATES AND DOSES IN

70

Table 7.

Mean exposition dose rates in different areas of Bryansk oblast in autumn 1990 at a heightµR/h) [24].
of 1 m (µSettlement
Fedorovka
Glinnoe
Klintsy
Veliki Topol
Lopatni
Unoshevo
Lesnovka
Novo-zybkov
Gordeevka
ZlynkaVyshkov
MirnyiStaryi Vyshkov

Table 8.

Mean level ofcontamination,
Ci/km2
2.2
5.2
5.9
7.1
8.1
10.8
15.9
18.5
21.6
28.4
29.6
32.6
33.9

Street

Bench

Yard

Bed

Garden

House

19
27
20
28
32
35
54
53
50
106
82
58
145

18
23
19
28
30
39
51
52
65
85
85
65
132

19
27
19
27
31
39
49
49
67
90
89
78
108

20
28
21
30
34
45
61
58
79
87
100
109
112

21
28
22
32
34
48
73
62
84
100
109
113
143

14
15
14
16
17
17
26
19
25
25
47
22
32

Mean exposition dose rates outside and inside the buildings in contaminated areas ofBryansk oblast in autumn 1990 at a height of 1 m (µµR/h).
Mean level ofcontamination, Ci/km2
2.2
5.2
5.9
7.1
8.1
10.8
15.9
18.5
21.6
28.4
29.6
32.6
33.9

Settlement
Fedorovka
Glinnoe
Klintsy
Veliki Topol
Lopatni
Unoshevo
Lesnovka
Novozybkov
Gordeevka
ZlynkaVyshkov
MirnyiStaryi Vyshkov

These values show that at least 80 percent of timethe inhabitants of contaminated areas spend insettlements or areas with disturbed soil.
Therefore, use of the data calculated for areas with
undisturbed soil for the assessment of the collective
dose will cause a significant overestimation of thecollective doses.
In order to avoid this mistake one needs to correct
the equations (10) and (11) by introducing an
additional correcting factor KS , which is determined
as a ratio of the exposition dose rate in air measured
in settlements to the exposition dose rate in air overthe undisturbed soil measured at the same level ofradioactive contamination.
The equations (10) and (11) can be then rewritten
as follows:⋅

Outside the building

Inside the building

19.4
26.6
20.2
29
32.2
41.2
57.6
54.8
69
93.6
93
84.6
128

14
15
14
16
17
17
26
19
25
25
47
22
32

(13)
τ

n

Pτ* = Ks ⋅ ∫ KL (t) ⋅ ∑ K i ,γ ⋅ σi0 ⋅ exp (− 0.693
⋅ t)
i =1
0
T1i2
(14)
where:⋅= exposition dose rate at a reference

R γ* ( height of 1 m in the settlements
environment.

= exposition dose of externalPτ* radiation in air at a reference height of 1
m in the settlements environment
delivered over a period of time τ
We describe here a very simple method that allows
to consider the differences in external radiation insettlements and in areas with the undisturbed soil. It isbased on experimental data on exposition dose rates
measured by specialists of the scientific organization“Typhoon” of the Goshydromet of the former USSR

n

.
⋅ t),
Rγ*(t) = Ks ⋅ KL (t)∑ K i,γ ⋅ σi0 ⋅ exp (− 0693
i =1
T1i2

71

[24].
Specialists of this organization have carried out
extensive measurements of dose rates in autumn 1990
in different contaminated settlements of the Bryansk
oblast.
They performed measurements of exposition dose
rates in the streets, yards, on benches, over beds ofkitchen gardens, in gardens and inside the houses aswell. Dose rates measured in the course of thisinvestigation and averaged for each studied settlement
are given in Table 7.
On the basis of data given in columns 3-7 of Table
7 we can estimate the mean arithmetic dose rates

levels Aeff that can be described on the basis of thelinear function:⋅
R γ (t)out = A + B ⋅ A eff,(17)
where A and B are some constants.
They have a very easy meaning. As can be seen from⋅(17), at Aeff→0 R γ (t)out→A. It means that A isthe exposition dose rate on territory not contaminatedby the Chernobyl accident or the exposition dose rateof the background radiation. The constant B in theequation (17) is the exposition dose rate in autumn
1990 per unit of the effective contamination Aeff,(µR/h)/(Ci/km2).
On the basis of the standard LSM procedure wehave established the following values of A and B:
A=8.555 µR/hr, B = 2.381 (µR/h)/ (Ci/km2).
Substitution of quantities A and B into the equation(18) transforms it to:⋅outside the buildings, R γ (t)out, by:⋅Rγ (t)out
⋅

⋅

⋅

⋅

⋅

Rγ (t)str. + Rγ (t)bn. + Rγ (t)y + Rγ (t)b + Rγ (t)g
=
5

(15)

⋅

where:Rγ (t ) out = 8.555 + 2.381 ⋅ Aeff ,⋅= exposition dose rates measured in
the streets,

R γ (t)str.

where R γ ( t ) out is expressed in µR/h.
The solid line in Fig. 2 was drawn on the basis of theequation (18).
We have performed the same procedure with thedata on measured exposition dose rates established by[24] inside the houses of settlements of the Bryansk
oblast (see column 8 of Table 7 or column 4 of Table
8).
For the exposition dose rates inside the buildings⋅

R γ (t)bn. = exposition dose rates measured atbenches,⋅= exposition dose rates measured inyards,R γ (t)y⋅= exposition dose rates measured
over beds of kitchen gardens,R γ (t)b⋅⋅

R γ ( t ) in , we have established the following formula:= exposition dose rates measured ingardens.

R γ (t)g⋅+ 0505Rγ (t ) in = 11814.
. ⋅ Aeff(19)
The solid line in Fig. 3 was calculated by means of theequation (19). One needs to notice much larger
scattering of measured data from the solid line in Fig.
3 in comparison to Fig. 2.
This phenomenon has an easy explanation.
Conditions of irradiation outside the houses and otherbuildings in different settlements of the Bryansk
oblast do not differ very much. On the contrary conditions of irradiation inside the houses and otherbuildings can differ very significantly. It is known thatin rural settlement houses and other buildings aremostly constructed of wood that has much lower
attenuation capability than brick or concrete used as aconstruction materials in urban settlements. Therefore,
the exposition dose rates inside the urban buildings
are lesser than in rural settlements even if the
exposition dose rates outside the buildings are thesame. This is a reason of much larger scattering ofexperimental points from solid line in Fig. 3 than in
Fig. 2.

⋅

Values of R γ (t)out determined this way arepresented in the third column of Table 8. Here arealso given the values of exposition dose rates
measured by [24] inside the houses for comparison(see the fourth column of Table 8).
⋅

Values of R γ (t)out as a function of effective
contamination levels, Aeff, are also shown in Fig. 2.
Here Aeff is estimated by:Aeff =1137n⋅ ∑ Ki ,γ ⋅ Ai0 ⋅ exp( −Kγ ( Cs) i =1

(18)

⋅

0.693
t ),
T1i2
(16)

where:
137
per unit
K γ (137C s) = conversion factor of Cs
2deposition, (µR/h)/(Ci/km ),= initial surface contamination of thesoil by ith nuclide.
Figure 2 shows the existence of a strong dependence

A i0⋅

of R γ (t)out from the effective contamination

72

µR/h
140
120
100
80
60
40
2
Aeff, Ci/km

20
00Fig. 2.

10

20

30

40

50

Exposition gamma dose rates at a height of 1 m outside the buildings as a function of
Aeff
50

µR/h

40

30

20

10

2
Aeff, Ci/00

Fig. 3.

10

20

F (t)

A 0 ( 137 C s )⋅ F ( t ),K ( 137 C s )γ

F (t) =R γ*()
t = K s⋅ K L ()t⋅
The value of

(20)

i =1

K γ (137Cs)
t . (23)⋅ Aeff()A 0 (137Cs)

Rγ* (t ) in 1990 R γ*(90), can be

R γ*(90)= K s ⋅ K L (90)⋅K γ (137Cs)⋅ Aeff(90),A 0 (137Cs)(24)

where:= numeric value of shielding factor
originated from natural verticalmigration of nuclides into the soil,
A eff(90) = effective contamination of the soili

K L (90)
0.693⋅ t ).
T1i2(22)

calculated from the following formula:= initial surface contamination by the
nuclide 137Cs,= some function of time.

F ( t ) = ∑ K i ,γ ⋅ σ i0 ⋅ exp( −K γ (137C s)⋅ A eff(t).
A 0 (137C s)

Then the equation (13) can be rewritten as:

This function is given by:n50

On the basis of the equation (20) one can estimate
F (t)as:where:A 0 (137C s)

40

Exposition gamma dose rates at a height of 1 m inside buildings as a function of Aeff

One needs to remember that the equations (18) and(19) can be used only for calculation of expositiondose rates outside and inside buildings in settlements
environment in autumn 1990.
They can be transformed to such equations thatwill allow the assessment of the exposition dose rates
at any arbitrary time t.
Let us rewrite the equation (16) in the following
form:

Aeff ( t ) =

30

(21)

73

Multiplication of the left and right parts of theequation (32) by A 0 (137C s)gives:in 1990.
On the other hand the equation (18) can be written as:⋅⋅

R γ (90)out = R γ ,bgr.+ R γ (90)ch,⋅

R ( t ) ch =(25)

where:⋅

where:⋅= exposition dose rate outside theR γ (90)out building in settlements environment

R (t)chin autumn 1990,⋅= exposition dose rate of backgroundradiation; does not depend on time,R γ ,bgr.

= contribution of Chernobyl nuclides
to the exposition dose rate.
Comparison of the equations (18) and (25) gives:

R γ (90)ch(26)
Let us transform the last equation by dividing its left
0 137
and right parts by A ( Cs ) :⋅R ( t ) ch = 3.944 ⋅ Aeff * ( t ),⋅= exposition dose rate in air per unit of theeffective contamination expressed in(µR/h)/ (Ci/km2).
The total exposition dose rate outside the buildings
expressed in µR/h can be described by the following
equation:⋅. + 3944. ⋅ Aeff * (t ).
R(t ) out = 8555

(36)
The same procedure allows to develop the equation
for calculation exposition dose rates in air inside thebuildings (expressed in µR/h):⋅R(t ) ins = 11814.
+ 0.836 ⋅ Aeff * (t )Combining the equations (24), (27) and (28) gives thefollowing equation:

A 0 ( 137 Cs )Aeff ( 90 ).
A 0 ( 137 Cs )(29)

From here:

K s ⋅ K L (90) ⋅ Kγ ( 137 Cs) = 2.381 .

(30)

⋅

R ( t ) ch = 0.836 ⋅ Aeff * ( t ).

(38)
There are some arguments allowing to state thatthe equations (35)-(38) can be used for the assessmentof the collective doses not only in settlements of the
Bryansk oblast but outside of this area. Thesearguments are discussed below.
Data on measurements of exposition dose rates in
air outside and inside were measured by specialists of
the “Typhoon” in settlements of the Bryansk oblastthat borders the Gomel oblast. That allows the
supposition that (35)-(38) are also valid forcontaminated territories in the Gomel oblast.
One also needs to consider that the major part of
the total deposition of radioactive species in the

The equation (30) can be rewritten as follows:

Ks =2 .381.
K L ( 90 ) ⋅ K γ ( 1 3 7 C s )(31)

Let us insert the correcting factor K s determined by
the equation (31) into the equation (23). After somechanges this gives the following:⋅Rγ* (t ) =2.381
1⋅ 0 137⋅ Aeff * (t ),K L (90) A ( Cs)(32)

where Aeff * ( t ) is determined by:

A eff * ( t ) = K L ( t ) ⋅ A eff ( t ).

(37)

Here the numeric constant 11.814 in the part of theequation (37) determines the average exposition dose
rate inside buildings, originatedfrom thebackground radiation. The second member of the rightpart of this equation gives the contribution of theChernobyl nuclides to the total exposition dose rate⋅
inside buildings, R (t)ch (expressed in µR/h):⋅ Aeff ( 90 )= 2 .381 ⋅(35)

where:
3.944(27)

The left part of this the equation can be denoted as⋅
R γ*(90)ch. It is the exposition dose rate of externalradiation normalized to the initial surface
contamination by 137Cs.
It is clear that:⋅⋅(28)
R γ*(90)ch.= Rγ* (90)ch .

K s ⋅ K L ( 90 ) ⋅= exposition dose rate of externalradiation at the time t at the initial
surface contamination with 137Cs
originated from the Chernobyl accident
0 137
equal to A ( C s).

by means of the equation (12). It gives K L = 0.604.
Insertion of this value into the equation (34)transforms it into:R γ ( 9 0 ) c h = 2 .3 8 1 ⋅ A e ff ( 9 0 )

K γ ( 137 Cs )(34)

The numeric value of K L (90) can be estimated⋅Rγ (90) ch
Aeff (90)= 2.381 0 137.
0 137
A ( Cs)A ( Cs)2.381⋅ A eff * ( t ),K L ( 90 )

(33)

74

SF
1.5

1

0.5

*
2
Aeff , Ci/km
0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Fig. 4 Shielding factors as a function of contamination levels
former USSR lies in the Belarussian-Ukrainian
Woodland with quite uniform geochemical
characteristics. Moreover, urban and rural settlementsin the affected areas of Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine are very similar as well as are the life-styleand occupational activities of their inhabitants.
Our assumption on the similarity of irradiation of
the Bryansk oblast inhabitants and inhabitants of otheraffected areas of the former USSR is also supportedby the data on the natural radiation background in
Belarus prior to the Chernobyl accident [25].
So according to the publication [25], the average
exposure dose rate in air in 1981-1982 was 10.6 µR/h
in urban areas of Minsk, Borisov, Vitebsk, Soligorsk
and 9 µR/h in rural areas of Minsk rayon. These
values very well agree with the dose rate of
background radiation (∼ 8.6 µR/h) that we haveestimated for the settlements environment in the
Bryansk oblast.
An additional evidence of justified application of
the equations (18), (19) and (35)-(38) for assessmentof exposition dose rates and doses in the settlements
environment outside of the Bryansk oblast gives alsoa very good agreement between the shielding factorsof buildings SF, calculated on the basis of theequations (18), (19) or (36), (37) and estimated on thebasis of experimental data.
The shielding factors of buildings are expressed asa ratio of the exposition dose rates inside and outside
the buildings.
They can be calculated on the basis of theequations (18), (19) or (35)-(38).
Figure 4 shows the shielding factor estimated by
the following equation:

SF =11.814 + 0.836 ⋅ Aeff *.
8.555 + 3.944 ⋅ Aeff *with the increase of the A eff* . Its value changes
from about 1.4 at A eff * = 0 (noncontaminatedterritory) to 0.4-0.3 in the interval of A eff* from
20 to 80 Ci/km2.
Table 9 demonstrates the data on the expositiondose rates in air outside of buildings that were
calculated for different periods of time on the basis of
the equation (35). Here are shown separately
individual contributions of short-lived nuclides,
isotopes of caesium as well as the total expositiondose rates. Data of Tables 1 and 3 have been also usedby calculation of data given in Table 9.
On the basis of Table 9 we have calculated the
air-absorbed doses inferred only by 137Cs insettlements environment accumulated over different
periods of time τ after the Chernobyl accident. Resultsof this calculation are presented in Table 10. There
are also our estimates on the air-absorbed doses inareas of “caesium spots” with the undisturbed soil.
They were calculated on the basis of data presented inTable 1 and 3 of our report.
We have also included in Table 10 the data
estimated on the basis of data of Miller et al [27] anddata used by J. Gofman [12] in his assessment of theChernobyl consequences.
As it is known, J. Gofman [12] did not carry out astudy for estimation of the air-absorbed doses inferredby the isotope 137Cs. He had based his assessment on
investigations conducted by H. Beck and G. de
Planque [28] and recommendations of UNSCEAR[29].
Data in Table 10 shows that there is very good
agreement between our values of air-absorbed doses
estimated for areas with undisturbed soil and values of
air-absorbed doses delivered in forest that we
estimated on the basis of data [27]. Our doses
calculated for areas with undisturbed soil as well very(39)

As can be seen from Fig. 4 this factor decreases

75

kilometers away from the contaminated territories of
the Bryansk oblast.
Taking into consideration all arguments given
above one can conclude that our method of dose rates
estimation and doses described in this part of ourreport gives quite correct data.
One can also agree with our statement that theassessment of the collective doses delivered to the
population affected by the Chernobyl accident has tobe based on results estimated for the settlements
environment. The use of data established for
undisturbed soil for this purpose will cause an
overestimation of the collective dose at least by factor
3. Taking in account this conclusion we shall carryout our further calculation on the basis of data given
in Table 9.
The value of the mean equivalent dose of externalradiation normalized to the level of contamination by137
Cs equal to 1 Ci/km2 can be estimated by use ofdata from Table 9 on the basis of the equation:

good agree with data estimated on the basis of data
used by J. Gofman [12]. On the other hand, our results
for settlements environment fall into intervals formedby data of Miller et al [27] estimated for plowed lands
with depth plowing of 15 and 30 cm respectively.
It is also necessary to notice that our air-absorbed
doses estimated for settlements environment
practically coincide with the arithmetic mean values
calculated on the basis of data [27] estimated for
different depth of plowing.
For example, air-absorbed doses that we haveestimated by use of data of Miller et al [27] for theperiod of time τ=70 years are 0.559 rad for the plowed
land with depth plowing of 15 cm and 0.348 rad for
depth plowing of 30 cm (see Table 10).
The arithmetic mean of these values is 0.453 rad.
The last value is only about 7 percent higher than thevalue of air-absorbed dose that we have calculated forthe settlements environment (0.425).
This agreement is surprising, especially, if one
remembers that our estimations are based on
experimental data of [24] established in areas of the
Bryansk oblast affected by the Chernobyl accident
and contaminated by 137Cs to very high levels.
On the contrary, the data of K. Miller et al [27]have been established in course of experimental
investigations of 137Cs soil-penetration due to global
fallout from atmospheric nuclear weapons tests.
Moreover, these investigations have been carried out
in the USA, which means in areas many thousandH τ*,ext = C1 ⋅C 2 ⋅ F1(F2 + (1− F2 )F3 )⋅ Pτ ,(40)

where:
C1 = conversion factor from exposition dose totissue-absorbed dose (rad/R),
C2 = conversion factor from tissue-absorbed doseto equivalent dose (rem/rad),F1 = correction factor (considers different factor
that can influence the exposition dose in air,for example snow cover, etc.),

Table 9.

Exposition doses in air at a height of 1 m in “caesium spots”, accumulated during different
periods of time after the Chernobyl accident (normalized to 1 Ci/km2 of 137Cs), in mR.
All nuclides
134
137
Periods of time, years
Short lived isotopes
Cs
Cs
together
50
45.4
98.6
449
593
70
45.4
98.6
486.6
630.6
90
45.4
98.6
508.6
652.6

Table 10. Calculated doses of caesium-137 in air at a height of 1 m accumulated during different
periods of time after deposition (given in rads) normalized to 1 Ci/km2
Period of time, years
Place
Source of information
50
70
90
Infinite time
Forest
1.195
1.365
1.495
—
Kevin M. Miller et all [27]Undisturbed field
0.707
0.807
0.866
—
Kevin M. Miller et all [27]Plowed land (to 15 cm
0.481
0.559
0.625
—
Kevin M. Miller et all [27]depth)
Plowed land (to 30 cm
0.296
0.348
0.370
—
Kevin M. Miller et all [27]depth)
Undisturbed field
1.058
1.145
1.193
—
M.Malko, this paper
Settlement, outside the
0.392
0.425
0.444
—
M.Malko, this paperbuildings
Used for assessment of the
1.15*
1.25**
1.44
J.Gofman [12]Chernobyl consequences
Notice:***this value is evaluated by multiplication of the value 1.44 rad per km2 by factor 0.80;
this value is evaluated by multiplication of the value 1.15 rad per km2 by factor 0.425/0.392.

76

F2

= occupancy factor (fraction of time spentoutside the buildings, dimensionless),
F3 = shielding factor of buildings (dimensionless).
Pτ = exposition dose in air (R).
*By carrying out the calculations of H τ ,extwe used
the following numeric values of these factors:
C1=0.93 rad/R; C2=0.72 rem/rad; F1=1; F2=0.2 [20],F3=0.211.
We estimated the value of factor F3 by use of theequations (35) and (38). Therefore: F3 is determinedby the equation:

F3 =0.836 ⋅ Aeff * 0.836== 0,2123.944 ⋅ Aeff * 3.944

The total release of nuclides to the environment(source term) is an important parameter in any
radiological accident because it determines the scaleof this accident. Soon after the Chernobyl accident theSoviet specialists had suggested their data on theamounts of radionuclides that escaped from thedestroyed Chernobyl reactor [19]. In this paper thesedata are presented in Table 11.
According to the estimations of the Soviet
specialists about 100 MCi of different nuclides
including 50 MCi of radioactive inert gases came into
the environment over the 10 days after the first
explosion at the reactor of the fourth unit of theChernobyl NPP.
Later it was recognized that the data published in[19] were underestimated. For example, the
UNSCEAR had shown in its report published in 1988
[20], that the total release of 137Cs into theenvironment as a result of the Chernobyl accident
had been in reality 2 times higher than claimed by theSoviet specialists.
According to the Ukrainian specialists [7] the total
release of all radioactive isotopes during the accident
at the Chernobyl NPP reached 10,813 PBq (about 296
MCi). This value is about factor 3 higher than theestimations of the specialists of the former USSR in1986. The data of the Ukrainian specialists on the
total release of nuclides from the Chernobyl reactor
are presented in this paper in Table 12.

(41)

As can be seen from the equation (41), the shielding
factor of buildings F3 does not depend on the effective
contamination level A eff* . It means that F3 is an
uniform factor for all contaminated areas. The
differences in shielding factors of buildings (39) and(41) arises from the fact, that the equation (39)determines the shielding effect of buildings fromcombined action of background radiation and
Chernobyl nuclides. On the contrary, the equation(41) describes only the shielding effect against
radiation caused by nuclides deposited on the groundas a result of the Chernobyl accident. As the task ofour study is the assessment of the consequences of theChernobyl accident we need to separate the influenceof background radiation and radiation caused by theaccident.
Insertion of the numeric values of the factors C1,
C2, F1, F2 and F3 into the equation (40) results in thefollowing formula:

CAESIUM DEPOSITION IN BELARUS,
RUSSIA AND THE UKRAINE.
Over the years that passed since the Chernobyl
accident extensive measurements of contaminationlevels by 137Cs have been undertaken in Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine. Results of thesemeasurements allowed to establish the meancontamination levels by 137Cs in many thousand
settlements in these countries.
The total area of contaminated territories withinitial levels of contamination by 137Cs that change
0
from some minimal value As,min to some maximalH τ*,ext = 0.247 ⋅ Pτ .

(42)
The next step is estimation of the total mean*equivalent dose H τ ,ext normalized to the initial
surface contamination by 137Cs equal to 1 Ci/km2.
On analogy to the equation (3) one can write:

H =
*
τ

H τ*,ext
0.6

(43)

.

value

0
As,maxhas also been determined.

As a rule 6 different intervals for characterizing ofareas of contamination were established:
0.27-0.54 Ci/km2 (10-20 kBq/m2);
0.54-1.0 Ci/km2 (20-37 kBq/m2);
1-5 Ci/km2 (37-185 kBq/m2);
5-15 Ci/km2 (185-555 kBq/m2);
15-40 Ci/km2 (555-1480 kBq/m2);
and higher than 40 Ci/km2 (> 1480 kBq/m2).

Combination of the two last equations gives:H τ* = 0 .4 1 2 ⋅ Pτ .

(44)
Application of the equation (44) to a 70 years periodof time yields the following value of the normalized
mean equivalent dose: H τ = 0.26 rem / 1 Ci/km2.
*

The last value was calculated by use of the value, ⋅ R given in Table 9.
Pτ = 0631

SOURCE TERM

77

Table 11. Radionuclide composition of discharge from damaged unit of Chernobyl nuclear power
plant* [19]Nuclide***

*)
**)
***)

Activity of discharge, MCi
Fraction of activity discharge
25.04.86
06.05.86**
from reactor on 6 May 1986, %
133
Xe
5
45
Possibly up to 100
85m
Kr
0.15
—
-“85
Kr
—
0.5
-“131
I
4.5
7.3
20
132
Te
4
1.3
15
134
Cs
0.15
0.5
10
137
Cs
0.3
1
13
99
Mo
0.45
3
2.3
95
Zr
0.45
3.8
3.2
103
Ru
0.6
3.2
2.9
106
Ru
0.2
1.6
2.9
140
Ba
0.5
4.3
5.6
141
Ce
0.4
2.8
2.3
144
Ce
0.45
2.4
2.8
89
Sr
0.25
2.2
4.0
90
Sr
0.015
0.22
4.0
239
Np
2.7
1.2
3.2
238
Pu
3%
0.1•10-3
0.8•10-3
239
Pu-“0.1•10-3
0.7•10-3
240
-3
-3
Pu
“0.2•10
1•10
241
Pu
0.02
0.14
-“242
Pu
-“0.3•10-6
2•10-6242-3
Cm-“3•102.1•10-2
Error of estimate ± 50%
Total discharge up to 6 May 1986
The data presented relate to the activity of the main radionuclides measured on radiometricanalyses

Table 12. Radionuclide composition in the active core before the accident and in the total discharge
recalculated on 26.04.1986 [7].
Inventory of the active core before the accident
Total discharge recalculated on (26.04.1986)(26.04.1986)
NuclideHalf life
Activity
Released fraction of
Activity (PBq)(PBq)
inventory, %
133
Xe
5.3 d
6 500
100
6500
131
I
8.0 d
2 300
50-60
-1760
134
Cs
2.0 a
180
20-40
-54
137
Cs
30.0 a
280
20-40
-85
132
Te
78.0 h
2 700
25-60
-1150
89
Sr
52.0 d
2 300
4-6
-115
90
Sr
28.0 a
200
4-6
-10
140
Ba
12.8 d
4 800
4-6
-240
95
Zr
1.4 h
5 600
3.5
196
99
Mo
67.0 h
4 800
> 3.5
> 168
103
Ru
39.6 d
4 800
> 3.5
> 168
106
Ru
1.0 a
2 100
> 3.5
> 73
141
Ce
33.0 d
5 600
3.5
196
144
Ce
285.0 d
3 300
3.5
-116
239
Np
2.4 d
27 000
3.5
-95
238
Pu
86.0 a
1
3.5
0.035
239
Pu
24 400.0 a
0.85
3.5
0.03
240
Pu
6 580.0 a
1.2
3.5
0.042
241
Pu
13.2 a
170
3.5
-6
242
Cm
163.0 d
26
3.5
-0.9
Total
73559.05-10933.007
Notice: The discharge activity recalculated on 6 May 1986 is about 2000 PBq

78square kilometers) gives the following minimal
average contamination of the total territory of Belarus
by 137Cs:

The data on the total area of contaminatedterritories of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine
characterized by these intervals of contaminationlevels by 137Cs are presented in Tables 13-16.
The data given there allow to estimate the minimal
amounts of 137Cs deposited in Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine by means of the following equation:(45)
Q mi i n = A s0, ,mi i n ⋅ S i ,As,min ≈ 125. Ci / km 2 or 46.3 kBq / m 2 .
It is interesting to notice that the UNSCEAR
performed its assessment of the collective irradiation
doses originated from the Chernobyl accident by theaverage contamination of Belarus equal to 39 kBq/m2[20]. This value is about 20 percent lower than thevalue 46.3 kBq/m2 which was calculated on the basisof the equation (45).
It is clear that the real average contamination ofBelarus by 137Cs has to be higher than 1.25 Ci/km2.
We have developed a simple method for estimation of
more correct data on the total contamination ofBelarus by 137Cs.
The corrected amount of the deposited 137Cs, Qtot,
as a result of the Chernobyl accident can be calculatedby the following equation:

where:Q mi inSi= the minimal amounts of 137Cs depositedon the area with the initial contamination
0,iby 137Cs equal to As,m in (Ci);= the area of territories contaminated by
0,i

137

Cs at the level As,m in (km2).

The results of our calculation on the basis of theequation (45) are given in Table 17. In case of Belarusithis method gives Qmin
= 260,000 Ci .
Division of this minimal deposition value of 137Cs,
Q mi in by the total area of Belarus (207.6 thousandN

Q 0 = ∑ A s0,i ⋅ ∆ S i

(46)

i= 1

Table 13. Contaminated areas in Belarus with the level of caesium-137 equal to 1 Ci/km2 or higher(square kilometers) [31].
OblastBrest
Vitebsk
Gomel
GrodnoMinsk
Mogilev
Total

1-5
3800
35
16870
1690
2030
5490
29915

Level of contamination, Ci/km2
5-15
15-40
470
6740
12
48
2900
10170

> 40

2760

1625

1450
4210

525
2150

Table 14. Contaminated areas in the Russian Federation with the level of caesium-137 equal to 1
Ci/km2 or higher (square kilometers) [31].
OblastBelgorod
Bryansk
Voronezh
KalugaKursk
Lipetsk
Leningrad
Nizhni Novgorod
Orel
Penza
RyazanSaratov
Smolensk
Tambov
Tula
Uljanovsk
Total

1-5
1620
6750
1320
3500
1220
1690
850
15
8840
4130
5210
150
100
510
10320
1060
48915

Level of contamination, Ci/km2
5-15
15-40
2628

> 40

2130

310

2130

310

1419

132

1271
5450

79

where:N∆S i ≈S,N

A s0,iN

Q0 ≈ S ⋅∑= number of all contaminated settlements;0= the average level of initial surface
As,icontamination by 137Cs in ith settlement,(Ci/km2);that belonged to ith∆S i = area of the territory
settlement (km2).
The equation (46) can be simplified in order to makethe estimation of the value Q easier.
It is known that there is no significant difference inthe population density in the affected regions ofBelarus. The same conclusion can be made in relation
to Russia as the Ukraine. It is also known that the
majority of settlements in the affected regions havequite similar number of inhabitants.
Considering the abovementioned facts we canestimate the value of ∆S i by:

i= 1

N

= S ⋅ A s0 ,(48)

where:= contamination level by 137Cs averaged
over the total contaminated area (Ci/km2).
As can be seen from the equation (48) the value of

As0

As0 is determined by the equation:
N

A s0 =∑

A s0,i

N
i= 1

.

(49)

The last equation was used for the calculation of theaveraged levels for areas with the level of0
contamination A s≥ 1 C i/km 2. Results of thecalculation performed on the basis of the experimental
0
data on A si
, presented in the publication [32] are(47)

given in Table 18. There are also the averaged levelsof contamination by 137Cs at levels of contamination
A s0 ≤ 1 C i/km 2. In this case the following
equation was used:

where:S= the total area of all contaminated territories.
Combination of the equations (46) and (47) gives:

Table 15. Contaminated areas in the Ukraine with the level of caesium-137 contamination equal to 1
Ci/km2 (square kilometers) [31].
OblastLevel of contamination, Ci/km2
1-5
5-15
15-40
> 40
Vinnitsy
1944
38
Volyn
582
Dnepropetrovsk
38
Donetsk
410
Zhitomir
9192
1780
336
154
Ivano-Frankovsk
606
Kiev
7695
957
546
417
Kirovograd
219
Nikolaev
24
Odessa
27
Rovno
9332
181
Sumy
491
Ternopol357
Cherkasy3233
72
Chernigov
2221
135
Chernovtsy
500
14
Kharkov
31.4
16
Chmelnitsk
319
Total
37205
3177
882
571
Table 16. Caesium-137 contaminated areas in Belarus, the Russian federation and the Ukraine withlevel 10-37 kBq/m2 [6].
Countries
Area ( in 1000 km2) contaminated above specified levels
10-20
20-37
Belarus60
30
Russia300
100
Ukraine1506580

Table 17. Minimal deposition of caesium-137 on territories of Belarus, the Russia Federation andthe Ukraine
Range of contamination,
Ci/km2
0.27-0.54 (10-20 kBq/m2)
0.54-1 (20-37 kBq/m2)
1-5
5-15
15-40
> 40
Total deposition
Rounded total deposition, Ci

Table 18.

Q, Ci
Russia
81000
54000
48915
27250
31950
12400
255515255000Belarus
16200
16200
29915
50850
63150
86000
262315260000

Ukraine
40500
35100
37205
15885
13230
22840
164760165000Calculated average contamination levels in different affected areas of Belarus.

Range of contamination levels, Ci/km2
0.27-0.54 (10-20 kBq/m2)
0.54-1.0 (20-37 kBq/m2)
1-5
5-15
15-40
> 40

Average contamination level, Ci/km2
0.405
0.77
2.98
8.58
24.30
52.7

Table 19. Total deposition of caesium-137 on territories of Belarus, the Russian Federation and the
Ukraine.
Range of contaminationlevels, Ci/km2
0.27-0.54 (10-20 kBq/m2)
0.54-1 (20-37 kBq/m2)
1-5
5-15
15-40
> 40
Total deposition, Ci
Rounded total deposition, Ci

A s0 =

A s0, m i n + A s0, m a x
2

.

Q, Ci
Russia12162277027
145767
46761
51759
16337
459273460000Belarus
24300
23100
89147
87259
102305113305439414440000

Ukraine
60810
50066
110871
27259
21433
30092
300531300000given in Table 19 as well as the data on the depositionof this isotope outside of the former USSR (1.2 MCi[20]) one can assess the approximate amounts of 137Cs
that was discharged from the destroyed Chernobyl
reactor. It reaches 2.87 MCi. Summing up this number
with the amounts of 137Cs deposited in the Baltic
States and Countries of the CIS other than Russia,
Belarus and the Ukraine one can assess the total
discharge of 137Cs to the environment as a result of theChernobyl accident equal to about 3 MCi of the core
inventory of this nuclide before the accident. The last
figure coincides with upper limit of the estimations
given in publication [7].

(50)

By use of the data given in Tables 13-16 and 18 dataon the initial contamination of the affected areas in
Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine were calculated.
Table 19 shows the results of this calculation. The
data given in Tables 17 and 19 show that thedescribed method of calculation has given increased
amounts of deposited 137Cs in Belarus, Russia andthe Ukraine by factor 1.7 (Belarus) -1.8 (Russia,
Ukraine) estimations made on the basis of theequation (45).
One needs to notice that the amount of 137Cs
deposited in the Ukraine which is shown in Table 19
does not include big amounts of this isotope in the 30
kilometer zone. According to the Ukrainian National
Report [7] there is about 470 thousand Ci of 137Cs in
temporary storages of radioactive materials, in thesoil, in hydrosystems, etc.
By taking into account this value and the data on thedeposition of 137Cs in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine

COLLECTIVE DOSE ASSESSMENT
As it was shown earlier, the collective irradiationdose can be calculated by means of the equation (1). It
is possible to use for this purpose the equation:

H τcoll = N ⋅ H τ* ⋅ A s0

81

(51)

Russia and the Ukraine.

Insertion of the value A s given by (6) into theequation (51) gives the following:

0
coll
* Q
H τ = N ⋅H τ ⋅S

ASSESSMENT OF COLLECTIVE THYROIDDOSESThe assessment of collective thyroid dosesdelivered to the population of Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine can be performed on the basis of the data
established in the course of extensive studies by V.
Stepanenko, A. Tsyb, Yu. Gavrilin et al. [34].
By use of the experimental data on [31]accumulation in thyroid measured within the first days
after the nuclear explosion at the Chernobyl accident
these Russian specialists estimated the collective
thyroid dose of 3,674,000 residents of contaminatedterritories of 7 oblasts of Russia (Bryansk, Tula,
Kaluga, Orel, Riasan, Kursk, Leningrad) as 234,000
person·Gy. [34]. This value can be used for theestimation of the factor qth that determines thecollective thyroid dose commitment per unit
deposition of 131I.
In order to fulfill this task one needs to determine
the total deposition of 131I in “7 oblasts” of theRussian Federation. It can be done by means of theequation:(55)
Q 0 (131I ) = ψ ⋅ Q 0 ,(52)

The total number of the inhabitants of the affectedareas N can be estimated by the following:N = ρ ⋅S,

(53)

where:

ρ= the average population density incontaminated areas (man/km2).
The combination of equations (52) and (53) gives:

H τcoll = ρ ⋅ H τ* ⋅ Q 0(54)
Results of the collective equivalent doses calculationthat can be delivered to affected population ofBelarus, Russia and the Ukraine within the period of
70 years after the Chernobyl accident are obtained on
the basis of the equation (54) and are given in Table
20. This table also contains data on the total
deposition of the isotope 137Cs in Belarus, Russia andthe Ukraine, the total areas of contaminated territoriesof these states as well as the data on the meancontamination levels, mean population density andmean dose delivered over 70 years on a territory withthe contamination level by 137Cs equal to 1 Ci/km2.
The data on population density presented in Table
20 were calculated for 1986 on the basis of data of thestatistical handbook of the USSR [33]. Analysis ofdata given in Table 20 shows that the highest
equivalent irradiation dose has to be delivered to the4
Ukrainian population. It can be estimated as 6.6 ⋅ 10
man·Sv over 70 years. The collective equivalent
irradiation doses of inhabitants of the affected areas ofBelarus and Russia according to our estimation are55. ⋅ 10 4 and 4.4 ⋅ 10 4 man·Sv respectively. At thesame time the highest mean individual equivalentdose can be delivered to inhabitants of thecontaminated territories of Belarus. It is practically 3
times higher than the respective values estimated for77

where:= total deposition of 131I in 7 oblastsof Russia,
0=
total deposition of 137Cs in 7 oblasts
Q7of Russia,= correlation factor averaged over theψtotal area of contaminated territoriesof “7 oblasts” expressed as a ratio of
surface contamination level by 131I tosurface contamination by 137Cs
Experimental values of the factor ψ at 23.05.1986
measured in different settlements of Belarus andRussia [35] are given in Table 21 of this report.
Table 22 shows the values of the factor ψrecalculated to 26.04.1986. On the basis of thesevalues we have estimated the mean values of factor ψ

Q 70 (131I)

Table 20. Collective equivalent irradiation doses of populations of Belarus, the Russian Federationand the Ukraine.
Parameter
Total deposition of caesium-137, Ci
Total area of contaminated territories with level of
caesium-137 ≥ 0.27 Ci/km2 (10 KBq/m2), in k m2
Mean contamination level, Ci/ km2
Mean dose equivalent commitment during 70 years
after the accident (normalized to 1 Ci/ km2), rem
Mean population density, person/km2
Total number of people living in contaminated areas
Collective dose, manrem
Collective dose in man Sv, rounded
Mean individual dose, rem

82

Belarus440000Russia460000

Ukraine3000001364453.2253489151.318

256835
1.168

0.26
48.2
65766495514520
5.5•104
0.84

0.26
36.6
12770289
4376123
4.4•104
0.26

0.26
84.5
21702558
6590633
6.6•1040.30

Table 21. Ratios of nuclide activities to Cs-137 activity in soil of different contaminated areas ofBelarus and the Russian Federation by 23.05.1986 [35].
Settlement

131

Gomel
Mozyr
Pinsk
Zhitkovichi
Khoiniki
Jurovichi

3.48
1.16
5.68
1.78
1.62
1.47

Barsuki
Makarichi
Novozybkov
Nikolaevka
Berezovka
Svjatsk
Bartolomeevka

0.64
0.74
0.88
0.82
2.05
1.17
0.68

Zhisdra
Mileevo
Kolodjassy

0.91
0.95
0.95

Belev
PlavskDubovka
Uzlovaja

1.03
0.55
0.63
1.26

I

103

95
Cs
Zr + 95Nb
Belarus
1.74
0.42
4.54
1.0
0.39
1.06
1.98
0.58
2.28
3.89
0.53
2.22
3.49
0.56
11.2
2.50
0.43
6.47
Russia, Bryansk oblast
0.86
0.54
0.13
0.93
0.4
0.08
0.85
0.46
0.07
0.83
0.55
0.09
1.58
0.55
0.14
1.11
0.56
0.13
1.0
0.63
0.14
Russia,Kaluga oblast
1.0
0.52
0.03
0.85
0.53
0.1
1.01
0.56
0.07
RussiaTula oblast
1.34
0.54
0.06
0.69
0.53
0.06
1.02
0.54
0.14
2.55
0.45
0.05

Ru

134

140

La + 140Ba

90

Sr

1.97
1.06
1.0
1.67
4.6
2.21

0.17
0.13
—
—
0.07
0.06

0.30
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.31
0.06

0.11
—
—
0.008
0.008
0.03
0.04

0.25
0.37
0.31

—
—
—

0.23
0.45
0.14
0.26

—
—
—
—

Table 22. Calculated values of I-131/Cs-137 activity ratio in contaminated areas of Belarus andthe Russian Federation by 26.04.1986.
Settlement

Gomel
Mozyr
Pinsk
Zhitkovichi
Khoiniki
Jurovichi
Barsuki
Makarichi
Novozybkov
Nikolaevka
Berezovka
Svjatsk
Bartolomeevka
Zhisdra
Mileevo
Kolodjassy
Belev
PlavskDubovka
Uzlovaja

I-131
Cs-137(23.05.86)
Belarus
3.48
1.16
5.68
1.78
1.62
1.47
Russia, Bryansk oblast
0.64
0.74
0.88
0.82
2.05
1.17
0.68
Russia, Kaluga oblast
0.91
0.95
0.95
Russia, Tula oblast
1.03
0.55
0.63
1.26
131

for Russia and Belarus as 10 and 20 respectively.
By use of factor ψ=10 and the data given in Tables
14 and 18 we have calculated the total deposition of

I-131
Cs-137(26.04.86)
38.9
12.96
63.45
19.9
18.1
16.4
7.15
8.27
9.83
9.16
22.9
13.1
7.60
10.2
10.6
10.6
11.7
6.14
7.04
14.1

I in “7 oblasts” of Russia as 2.24 MCi. By
estimation of this value we did not take into
consideration the contaminated territories in “783Table 23. Collective thyroid dose of the affected populations in Belarus, the Russian Federationand the Ukraine.
Parameter
Total deposition, Ci
Total area of contaminated territories, km2
Mean population density, person/km2
Collective thyroid dose equivalent commitment
per unit release, man.Sv/Bq
Thyroid collective dose, man.Sv
Collective effective dose equivalent resulted
from thyroid irradiation, man.Sv
Mean individual dose of thyroid irradiation, rem

Belarus
8800000
136445
48.2

Russia4600000
456805
36.6

Ukraine6000000
25683584.5

3.90·10-1212.7·105

2.95·10-12
5.0·1056.80·10-12
15.0·105

6.35·10419.3

2.5·104
3.0

7.5·104
6.9

Table 24. Contributions of different nuclides to collective effective equivalent doses of irradiation
during the period of 70 years after the Chernobyl accident.
NuclideShort lived isotopes other than 131I, man.Sv
134
Cs, man.Sv
137
Cs, man.Sv
131
I, man.Sv
Total collective effective equivalent dose,man.Sv

Belarus0.4·1040.86·104
4.24·104
6.35·104

Russia0.38·104
0.68·104
3.34·1042.5·104

Ukraine0.48·104
1.03·1045.09·1047.5·104

11.85·104

6.9·10414.1·104*) Notice: these values were estimated by multiplication of collective thyroid doses by organ weighting factor 0.05 [36].

Table 25. Collective effective dose equivalent commitments per unit release of caesium and iodine
nuclides.
Country,organization
Belarus
RussiaUkraineUNSCEAR, 1988

Period of time,
years
50
70
50
70
50
70
50

134

Cs

1.06·10-12
1.06·10-12
8.04·10-13
8.04·10-13
1.86·10-12
1.86·10-12
3·10-12137

Cs
man.Sv
2.42·10-12
2.61·10-12
1.82·10-12
1.96·10-12
4.23·10-12
4.59·10-12
6·10-12131I

1.95·10-13
1.95·10-13
1.47·10-13
1.47·10-13
3.38·10-13
3.38·10-13
1·10-13UNSCEAR [20] and by V. Stepanenko, A. Tsyb, Yu.
Gavrilin et al in estimation of collective thyroid doses
resulted from the Chernobyl accident. It also statesthat the numeric value of qth,7= 2.82 ⋅ 10 −12
man·Sv/Bq can be used as the reference value of thisfactor. It is necessary to notice that the factor qth,7 is afunction of population density. Therefore, one needs
to correct the numeric value of qth,7 in case of
population density ρ that differs from the average
population density in “7 oblasts” of the RussianFederation. It can be made by means of the following
equation:oblasts” of Russia with the contamination levels by
137
Cs less than 1 Ci/km2.
Division of the collective thyroid dose established
by V. Stepanenko, A. Tsyb, Yu. Gavrilin et al [34] forthe residents of “7 oblasts” by the assessed depositionof 131I one can obtain the value of qth factor equal toorapproximately282. ⋅ 10−12 ⋅ Gy / Bq
−12
.
282
. ⋅ 10 ⋅ Sv / Bq
In order to emphasize the fact that the numericalvalues of qth given above have been estimated on thebasis of the data established by [34] for residents of “7oblasts” we shall describe it as qth,7.
Multiplication of qth,7 by the thyroid weighting
factor 0.05 [36] converts it to the collective effective
dose equivalent commitment per unit release of 131I
equal to 141. ⋅ 10 −13 man·Sv/Bq. The last value only
insignificantly differs from the collective effective
dose equivalent commitment per unit release of 131I
estimated in 1988 by UNSCEAR in its assessment of
the Chernobyl accident consequences. This surprisingagreement is a very important evidence of soundscientific backgrounds of the methods used by

q th = q th ,7 ⋅

ρ
,
ρ7

(56)

where:
qth= the collective thyroid dose commitment perunit of 131I deposition (man·Sv/Bq) byarbitrary population density,
qth,7 = the collective thyroid dose commitment perunit of 131I deposition (man·Sv/Bq)established on the basis of “7 oblasts” data,84ρ[38] had obtained his value on the basis of the Vital
Tables of the USA population. However, the life
expectancy of the American population is 10-15 years
higher than the life expectancy in Belarus, Russia andthe Ukraine [33, 39].
So, even in case the UNSCEAR will in future
increase its estimations of the risk coefficient ofradiation-induced solid cancers one needs toremember that estimations of the UNSCEAR arebased on the data established for the atomic bomb
survivors that have been living in a country with avery high life expectancy in comparison to the life
expectancy of the people in Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine. One also needs to remember that in contrast
to the USA, Japan and other developed countries
characterized by a permanent increase of life
expectancy, Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine have apermanent decrease of life expectancy.

= population density in contaminated area
(persons per km2),= population density in contaminated areas of
ρ7“7 oblasts” of the Russian Federation.
Table 23 presents the data on the collective thyroid
doses estimated for population of Belarus, Russia andthe Ukraine by means of factor qth calculated on thebasis of the equation (56).
These data can be possibly considered as upper
limits of collective thyroid doses delivered to the
populations of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.
The total amounts of 131I deposited in thesecountries were calculated by means of the data on
137
Cs deposition presented in Table 19 as well as thefollowing numeric values of factor ψ: 10 for Russia
and 20 for Belarus and the Ukraine.
As can be concluded from the above-discussed
facts, the correctness of the collective thyroid dose
estimations is fully determined by the correctness of131
I depositions. This means that each improvement in
the estimation of the total amounts of 131I deposited inareas affected by the Chernobyl accident will improve
estimation of the collective thyroid doses.
The results of our estimations given in Table 23
show that the highest collective thyroid dose wasdelivered to the Ukrainian population and the lowest
to the population of Russia. On the contrary, as can beseen from Table 23, the highest mean individual
thyroid dose was estimated for the residents of thecontaminated territories of Belarus. It is higher byfactor 6.4 than the mean individual thyroid dose in
Russia and by factor 2.8 than the mean individual
thyroid dose in the Ukraine.
Table 23 as well contains the data on the collective
effective dose equivalents resulted from irradiation ofpeople by 131I in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine.
Table 24 shows the individual contributions ofdifferent isotopes to the total collective effective
equivalent doses calculated on the basis of data givenin the tables 20 and 23. The collective effective dose
equivalent commitments per unit release of caesium
and iodine nuclides are shown in Table 25.

PROGNOSIS OF STOCHASTIC
EFFECTSThe estimations of the possible stochastic effects
in the effected areas of Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine are given in Table 27. The data on morbidity
and mortality from radiation-induced thyroid cancers
were calculated by use of the data on the collective
thyroid doses presented in Table 23 and the risk
coefficients 160·10-4Sv-1 and 16·10-4Sv-1, respectively.
The latter coefficients were estimated by thefollowing method. According to the data given in the
Table B-17 of ICRP Publication 60 [36] (see p.132 of
Publication 60) the risk coefficient of fatal thyroid
cancer for low dose, low dose rate and Low LET
radiation (DDREF is equal 2) is 8·10-4Sv-1. For thecase of an acute or quasi-acute irradiation (Chernobyl
case) one needs to use as a risk coefficient of fatal
thyroid cancer a value 2 fold higher or 16·10-4Sv-1(DDREF=1). From here one can receive the lifetime
morbidity risk coefficient 160·10-4Sv-1 as used for
calculation of data shown in Table 27.
The data on mortality from solid cancers otherthan thyroid cancer were used on the basis of the risk
coefficient from solid cancers estimated in 1994 by
the UNSCEAR and “corrected” for fatal thyroid
cancers. The “correction” was in reality a subtractionof the value 16·10-4Sv-1 from the value 1,090·10-4Sv-1
estimated by the UNSCEAR. One can receive on thissimplified way the value 1,074·10-4Sv-1 as a risk
coefficient for fatal solid cancers other than thyroid
cancers. Such "corrected" risk coefficient was used inassessment of fatal cancers in Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine resulted from the Chernobyl accident.
By the calculation of leukaemia mortality we usedthe value 110·10-4Sv-1 determined by the UNSCEAR
in 1994 [37].

LIFETIME MORTALITY RISK FROMSOLID CANCERS AND LEUKEMIA
The latest estimations of the risk coefficient ofradiation induced solid cancers and leukemia areshown in the Table 26. In our prognosis of delayed
radiological effects we have used the data of the
UNSCEAR 94 [37] that are 2-fold less than the data
estimated in 1994 by J. Gofman [38].
We preferred the UNSCEAR 1994 risk coefficientof radiation-induced solid cancers due to thefollowing reason. It is well known that the risk
coefficient of solid cancers induced by radiation is
proportional to the frequency of spontaneous cancers
which is a function of the life expectancy. J. Gofman
85

Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine, as a result of theChernobyl accident as about 44,000 with 16,030 cases
in Belarus, 8,960 in Russia and 19,050 in the Ukraine.
As it was said above we have carried out ourassessment only for populations living in thecontaminated areas of these countries. We haveestimated the total deposition of 137Cs in these areas as
1.2 MCi (total deposition of 134Cs about 0.6 MCi).
The same amount of 137Cs deposited in the countries
outside the former USSR. If we assume that the
number of radiation-induced cancers and leukaemia
outside the former USSR caused by the Chernobyl
accident will be the same as the total number of solidcancers and leukaemia in Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine because of similar deposition of 137Cs, wewill also obtain about 44,000 additional cancers andleukaemia for the countries outside the former USSR
and about 90,000 fatal cancers for all the countries of
the world including the former USSR. This
assumption means that the Chernobyl accident will

According to our estimations the Chernobyl
accident will cause about 20,000 additional thyroid
cancers among children and adults of the affectedareas of Belarus. About 10 per cent of this number
can be fatal (2,000 fatal thyroid cancers). We haveestimated the number of radiation-induced thyroid
cancers in Russia as 8,000 (800 fatal thyroid cancers).
For the Ukraine we predicted 24,000 additional
thyroid cancers (2,400 fatal thyroid cancers).
Considering our method of collective thyroid doses
assessment one can believe that these data on thenumber of additional thyroid cancers are upper limitsof possible thyroid cancers.
As can be seen from this Table, the numbers ofadditional fatal thyroid cancers in each state is similar
to the numbers of additional leukaemia and about 10
times less than the numbers of additional fatal solidcancers other than thyroid cancer.
We have assessed the total number ofradiation-induced fatal cancers and leukaemia in

Table 26. Lifetime solid cancers and leukemia mortality risk following acute whole body exposure
to 1 Sv.
Projection method

Lifetime risk, %Solid cancers
10.9
9.2
7.5
9.7
37.31
26.64*
25.56**
23.37*
22.35**
Leukemia
1.1
1.0

Constant relative risk
Decline to risk for age at exposure 50 years
Decline to zero risk at age 90 years
Constant relative risk (UNSCEAR 1988)
Whole body Cancer Dose (J. Gofman - 1981)
Whole body Cancer Dose (J. Gofman - 1990)
Whole Body Cancer Dose (J. Gofman - 1994)

Linear-quadratic dose response model
Constant relative risk (UNSCEAR 1988)
Notice: *)**)Data source
[37]
[37]
[37]
[20]
[12]
[18]
[18]
[38]
[38]
[37]
[20]

values determined by using T65DR dosimetric data of the RERF
values determined by using DS86 dosimetric data of the RERF

Table 27. Forecast of stochastic effects in Belarus, the Russian Federation, and the Ukraine as aresult of the Chernobyl accident (DDREF = 1).
EffectThyroid cancer (morbidity)
Thyroid cancer (mortality)
Leukemia (mortality)
Solid cancers other than thyroid
cancer (mortality)
All cancers and leukemia (mortality)

Belarus
20300
2030
1300

Russia
8000
800
760

Ukraine
24000
2400
1550

12700

7400

15100

16030

8960

19050

Table 28. Forecast of stochastic effects in Belarus, the Russian Federation, and the Ukraine as aresult of the Chernobyl accident (DDREF = 2).
EffectThyroid cancer (morbidity)
Thyroid cancer (mortality)
Leukemia (mortality)
Solid cancers other than thyroid
cancer (mortality)
All cancers and leukemia (mortality)

Belarus
10150
1010
650

Russia
4000
400
380

Ukraine
12000
1200
775

6350

3700

7550

8010

4480

9525

86

data.
The difference in the change of the morbidity on
thyroid cancer can be explained very easy on the basisof the data shown in Table 23. As it was said earlier,the highest mean individual thyroid doses weredelivered by the Chernobyl accident to the residentsof the affected areas of Belarus and the lowest to theRussian population. It is known that the latent periodsof stochastic effects induced by the radiation depend
from the irradiation doses. The lower the irradiationdose is, the longer is the latent period. This is an
explanation why marked increase in the thyroid
cancer incidence was registered first in Belarus andthen in the Ukraine and later in Russia.
Our data can also answer the question why there
are no reliable data on additional leukaemia among
the residents of the affected areas of Belarus, Russia
and the Ukraine up to present time [45-47]. This
contrasts the data established among the Hiroshima
and Nagasaki inhabitants that survived the atomic
bombardment. Additional cases of leukaemia among
them were registered firstly, and only then theradiation-induced solid cancer.
We suggest the following explanation for thesedifferences in the manifestation of stochastic effects
among the irradiated populations of Belarus, Russia,
the Ukraine and the residents of Hiroshima andNagasaki.
The survivors of the atomic bombardment of these
Japanese cities received practically the same doses onbone marrow (the whole body dose) and on thyroid.
The more earlier manifestation of leukaemia thanthyroid cancers by inhabitants of Hiroshima andNagasaki indicates that the latent period of leukaemia
is shorter than the latent period of thyroid cancers
when doses on bone marrow and thyroid are equal.
Another situation arises in the case when thyroid
doses are much higher than doses on bone marrow.
Such situation has place by the people affected by the
Chernobyl accident. Tables 20 and 23 demonstrate
clearly that thyroid doses among the affected
populations of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine arepractically one order in magnitude higher than doseson the whole body. This is according to our pointview the reason of earlier manifestation of solidcancer (thyroid cancer) than leukaemia in Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine.

cause in the affected countries the number of fatal
cancers and leukaemia which is similar to the death
numbers resulted from atomic bombardment ofHiroshima or Nagasaki.
One may also assume that the total number ofpotential victims in case of such accident in a country
with very high life expectancy and high population
density, for example in Japan, will be much higher asin the case of the Chernobyl accident.
The data discussed above have been estimated byuse of the factor DDREF=1, which is recommended
by the ICRP for the case of acute irradiation by highdoses and dose rates [36]. For chronic irradiation of
the population by low doses the ICRP recommends
the value of the reduction factor DDREFF equal to 2.
In the light of new data [37, 40, 41] it seems thateven in cases of low doses and dose rates this factor isvery close to 1 for solid cancers. But for leukaemia
the DDREF factor is about 2.5 or even higher [37,41]. For comparison only we have also carried out theestimations of additional stochastic effects assumingthat DDREF=2. The results of such estimation arepresented in Table 28.
We understand that the results of our assessment
have rather qualitative than quantitative characterbecause of many limitations in our study. For example
we did not consider the possible interaction ofradiation and chemical contamination in the affectedareas of Belarus, Russia, and the Ukraine. This can bea reason for the very significant difference inpredicted and manifested stochastic effects among thepeople affected by the Chernobyl accident. However,at present, there is no such quantitative informationthat could be used in assessment of radiologicalconsequences of this accident in the areas having avery strong chemical contamination. Because of alack of necessary information we also did not consider
deterministic effects that could be even more
important as radiological consequences in comparison
with stochastic effects as well as genetic affects andeffects of a very strong increase in the incidence ofgeneral somatic diseases in the affected areas
established by Belorussian, Russian and the Ukrainian
specialists soon after the accident. At the same time
we believe that our data are quite accurate for solvingof some problems that arose due to the Chernobyl
accident. It is well known, that the reliable data on theincrease of the morbidity on thyroid cancer amongchildren of the affected areas of Belarus were
established already at the end of the 80’s [42,43].
Now, practically all specialists in the field of radiation
biology and medicine recognise that this increase is
the result of the Chernobyl accident [44]. However, atthe end of 80’s no such increase in the morbidity on
thyroid cancer was established in Russia or in the
Ukraine. This fact was considered by specialists ofmany countries as an evidence of incorrectly assessed

SUMMARY
An assessment of radiological consequences(stochastic effects) caused by the Chernobyl accident
in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine on the basis ofexperimental data on 131I and 137Cs in these countries
has been carried out.
Results of this assessment show that the Chernobyl
accident can be considered a real disaster. It can cause
about 44,000 additional fatal cancers and leukaemia
87

O’Connor).
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19. A.A. Abagian, V.G. Asmolov, A.K. Guskova et.al.
Information about the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP
and Its Consequences prepared for the IAEA.
Atomnaja Energia, vol. 61, N5, November 1986, p.
301-320 (in Russian).
20. UNSCEAR. Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing
Radiation, UN, New York, 1988.
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Health Care of the Republic of Belarus. Minsk, 1992
(in Russian).
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fourth edition. Moscow. Energoatomizdat, 1991 (inRussian).
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Radioanal.Nucl.Chem.Letters,vol.154,N2,p.111-9,
1991.
24. M.Y. Orlov, A.N. Silantjev, V.P. Snykov.
Contamination with Radionuclides and Dose Rate on
the Territory of Russia and Belarus after the Accident
at the Chernobyl NPP. Atomnaja Energia, vol. 73, N3,
September 1993, p. 234-238 (in Russian).
25. V.I. Ternov, A.G. Kondratjev. Gamma-Background
Radiation of the Belorussian SSR in 1991-1982.
Zdravookhranenie Belarusi. N6, June 1991, p. 61-63(in Russian).
26. Retrospective Dosimetry and Dose Reconstruction.
Final Report of the Experimental Collaboration
Project N 10 of the International ScientificCollaboration on the Consequences of the Chernobyl
Accident (1991-95) carried out by European
Commission, Belarus, the Russian Federation, theUkraine. EUR 16540 EN, Brussels, Luxemburg, 1996.
27. Kevin M. Miller, John L. Kuiper, Irene K. Helfer.
137
Cs Fallout Depth Distribution in Forest Versus
Field Sites: Implications for External Gamma Dose
Rates. J. Environ. Radioactivity, vol. 12, p. 23-47,
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28. H.L. Beck, G. De Planque. The Radiation Field in
Air Due to Distributed Gamma-Ray Sources in the
Ground. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Report
HASL-195. New York, 1968.
29. UNSCEAR. Sources and Effects of Ionizing
Radiation, UN, New York, 1977.
30. D.L. Preston, D.A. Pierce. The Effect of Changes
in Dosimetry on Cancer Mortality Risk Estimates in
the Atomic Bomb Survivors. RERF TR 9-87, 1987.
31. Y. Pokumeika. Radiological Situation on theamong the affected populations of Belarus, Russia
and the Ukraine.
On the basis of the data established in the courseof this study explanations of some contradictions in
manifestation of stochastic effects as a result of theChernobyl accident have been suggested.

Acknowledgement
Fruitful discussion of this work with T. Imanaka
and H. Koide as well as financial support from the
Toyota Foundation are gratefully acknowledged.
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Vienna, Austria, 8-12 April 1996.

89

Relationship between 131I and 137Cs Deposition on Soil in the Territory of Belarus
after the Chernobyl Accident.
Vladimir. A. KNATKO, Igor I. IVACHKEVICH, Valentina D. ASIMOVA
Institute of Radiobiology, National Academy of Science of Belarus
Zhodinskaya Str., 2, 220141 Minsk, Republic of Belarus.
As a result of the Chernobyl accident a large part of
territory of Belarus had been contaminated withradioactive fallout. One of important radionuclides was131
I which caused significant thyroid exposure in themost affected areas. Direct measurements of 131I
activity in thyroid and determination of 131I
concentration in foodstuffs and air were performed
only in limited areas regions of the contaminatedterritory. Therefore, reconstruction of thyroid doses
resulting from 131I intake is important problem solutionof which needs information of 131I deposition on soil
[1].
Izrael [2] noted expediency of using an isotope ratioof 131I to 137Cs content in soil for assessment of 131I
deposition in the areas where measured data on 131I areabsent or limited. The relationship between 131I and137
Cs deposition had been obtained by Mahonko et.al.
[3] on the basis of data on 131I and 137Cs activity
concentration in more than one hundred soil samples
taken in the area located between cities Kiev (Ukraine)and Tula (Russia) (north-eastern direction from
Chernobyl). The regression function derived by
Mahonko et.al. [3] predicts an approximately linear
increase of 131I content in soil with a growth of 137Cs
deposition (131I ~ [137Cs]0.85).
The analysis of measured data performed by Orlov
et.al. [4] shows that the 131I/137Cs isotope deposition

ratio R on soil in the European part of the former USSR
increases in western regions. In particular the ratio R in
the western part of Belarus is larger by 4-5 times thanin the eastern part. The inhomogeneous deposition ofradioactive dispersed materials makes it necessary totake a regional approach to dose reconstruction. In thisconnection the relationship between 131I and 137Cs
content in deposition on soil in various contaminatedareas of Belarus is studied in the present paper.
The data for the analysis of 131I and 137Cs activity
concentration in soil have been taken from the reportby Slizov et.al. [5]. Their samples were collected in thesouthern and the eastern parts of the territory of Belarus
during May-June 1986. The location of the areas where
samples were taken is shown in Fig. 1. Radionuclide
activity was determined by gamma-ray spectrometerwith semiconductor Ge(Li)-detector at the Institute of
Nuclear Energy of Belarus Academy of Sciences(Minsk). All results of the measurements were given as
values of activity on 10th May 1986. The numbers ofsoil samples taken in the southern and the eastern areas
were 139 and 213, respectively.
The southern area includes five administrative
districts of the Gomel region. The distance of thefarthest west point of this area is about 190 km from
Chernobyl. The eastern area is located in the territoryof the Gomel and the Mogilev regions, including 6 andMINSK

MOGILEV

Eestern area

GOMELSouthern area

CHERNOBYL

Fig. 1 Location (shaded) wher soil samples had been taken in the Belarus territory:
the southern area and the eastern area.
90

eastern areas are characterized by similar mean values.
The observed behavior of parameters means that theisotope ratio of 131I/137Cs in deposition on soil in thestudied areas can be characteristically different.
The empirical data presented in Figs. 2 and 3 wereused to derive the relationships between 131I and 137Cs
deposition on soil in the studied areas. It is noted that131
I and 137Cs activity concentration in soil are strongly
variable. To minimize this variability and elucidate therelationship between 131I and 137Cs concentration, theempirical data were ln-transformed. As the 131I and137
Cs data follow the log-normal distribution, theln-transformed quantities will obey the normal
distribution which is more convenient for statisticaltreatment. Calculation of the relationship between 131I
and 137Cs activity concentration have been performed
without regard to the contribution of 137Cs global
fallout which is comparably small (~0.06 Ci/km2) andhas not remarkable influence on results. The
relationships between 131I and 137Cs deposition are
given in Fig. 4. The corresponding regression functions
describing dependence of 131I concentration on 137Cs
contamination level in soil of the southern and theeastern areas are written as

5 administrative districts, respectively. The extent of
the eastern area from the south end to the north end isabout 110 km. The level of 137Cs contamination in soilof the studied areas varies from tens to thousands ofkilo-becquerels per square meters and the distributionof 137Cs deposition is highly non-uniform. The wide
variability of deposition provides an opportunity toinvestigate the relationship between 131I and 137Cs
content in soil over a wide range of contamination.
Relative frequency distributions of 131I and 137Cs
activity concentration in soil of areas underconsideration are presented in Figs. 2 and 3. The resultsof performed calculations show that empirical data canbe described by log-normal distributionf ( x) =( 2πax) exp[− (ln x − b) 2a ] (1)
−1

2

2

The parameter a in (1) characterizes skewness ofthe distribution and is defined asa = [2(ln E − ln M)] ,12

where E is the mean value, and M=eb is the median ofthe distribution.
According to estimated parameters, the 137Cs meanvalue characterizing the distribution of data obtained
for the southern area (westward radioactive trace from
Chernobyl - WRT) is larger by two times than the meanvalue in the case of the eastern area (northernradioactive trace — NRT) (see Figs. 2 and 3). At thesame time the 131I data obtained in the southern and the(131

I = 14.58 ⋅ 137 Cs

)

0.605

(2)

and

0,50
0,40
Model:LogNorm al
a = 0.827 (0.042)
b = 4.24 (0.037)
Mean = 97.71
Med = 69.41

0,40

0,30

Model:LogNorm al
a = 0.912 (0.038)
b = 4.10 (0.027)
Mean = 91.46
Med = 60.34

0,30

0,20
0,20

131

0,10

131

0,10

I

I

Ci/km 2

Ci/km 2

0,00

0,00
0

100

200

300

400

0

500

100

200

300

400

500

600

0,50

0,50
0,40
0,30

Model:LogNorm al
a = 1.11 (0.046)
b = 3.09 (0.027)
Mean = 40.69
Med = 21.98

0,40

Model:LogNorm al
a = 1.23 (0.050)
b = 2.39 (0.039)
Mean = 23.25
Med = 10.91

0,30

0,20
0,20

137

Ci/km

137

Cs

0,10

Cs

0,10

Ci/km 2

2

0,00

0,00
0

20

40

60
131

80

0

100

137

50

100

150
131

200
137

Fig. 3 Distribution of
I andCs activity
concentration in soil of the eastern area of
Belarus.

Fig. 2 Distribution of
I andCs activity
concentration in soil of the southern area of
Belarus.
91

131

I = 8.85 ⋅

( Cs)
137

0.627

(3)

respectively, where levels of contamination are
expressed with activity (Ci/km2) on 10th May 1986.
The similar function was derived from analysis of
the joined set of data including measurements for bothstudied areas (see Fig. 5). In this case the obtained
regression equation is131

I = 1147
. ⋅

( Cs)
137

0.591

.

(4)

Using the regression equations (2), (3) and (4), theisotopic ratio R can be taken to be(

R = C ⋅ 137 Cs

)

−0.40

,

(5)

where the coefficient C is equal 14.15, 8.85 and 11.47
for the southern, the eastern and the joined(southern + eastern) areas, respectively. According tocoefficient C values, the isotope ratio R in deposition
on soil in the southern area is larger by 1.6 times thanin the eastern one.
The relationship (5) predicts that R values increaseby a factor of about 4.8 with decreasing 137Cs content
of soil from 50 to 1 Ci/km2. The observed behavior isin agreement with the data of Orlov et al. [4] whoshow that R values obtained in the western regions ofBelarus where the level of soil contamination with
137
Cs is low (1-5 Ci/km2) are higher by 3-5 times thanin the strongly contaminated areas of the south-easternand the eastern parts of Belarus.
Thus the results of the present study performed fora wide range of soil contamination with 137Cs predicts
non-linear behavior of 131I/137Cs isotope ratio in thestudied areas of Belarus. Use of the obtained
non-linear relationship between 131I and 137Cs content
in soil may provide a more realistic regional estimationof 131I deposition and help to improve radiologicalassessments.
REFERENCES
1. Likhatev I.A., Gulko G.M., Sobolev B.G. et al. Thyroid
dose assessment for the Chernobyl region (Ukraine):estimation based on 131I thyroid measurements andextrapolation of the results to districts without
monitoring. Radiat. Environ. Biophys., 33 (1994)
149-166.
2. Chernobyl: Radioactive Contamination of Environments.
Ed. by Y.A. Izrael. Lenigrad, 1990 (In Russian).
3. Mahonko K.P., Kozlova E.G., Silantiev A.N. et al.
Contamination of Regions with 131I after ACCIDENT AT
THE Chernobyl NPP and Assessments of Upper Dosesfrom 131I. Atomic Energy, 72 (1992) 377-382 (InRussian).
4. Orlov M.Y., Snikov V.P., Hvalenski Y.A., Volokitin
A.A. Contamination of the Soil in European Part ofTerritory of USSR after Accident at the Chernobyl NPP.
Atomic energy, 80 (1996) 466-471 (In Russian).

Ln 131I
7

A
Linear Regression
Y=A+B*X--------------------------------ParamValuesd--------------------------------A
2,68
0,13
B
0,605
0,05
--------------------------------R = 0,71
SD = 0,75, N = 139

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Ln 137Cs

-1
-2
Ln

131

-1

0

1

I

7

2

3

4

5

B
Linear Regression
Y=A+B*X--------------------------------ParamValuesd--------------------------------A
2,18
0,09
B
0,63
0,03
--------------------------------R = 0,82
SD = 0,62, N = 213

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Ln 137Cs

-1
-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 4 Relationship between 131I and 137Cs activity
concentration (Ci/km2) in soil of the southern (A)and the eastern (B) areas of Belarus.
A+B

Ln 131I
7

Linear Regression
Y=A+B*X--------------------------------Param Value sd--------------------------------A
2,44
0,08
B
0,59
0,03
--------------------------------R = 0,75
SD = 0,71, N = 352

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Ln 137Cs

-1

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 5 Relationship between 131I and 137Cs activity
concentration (Ci/km2) in soil of the Belarus
territory including both the southern (A) and theeastern (B) areas.
5. Slizov V.P., Ananich P.I., Shekin Y.K. et al. Bank of
Data on Isotope Analysis of Soil Samples Taken at
Territory of BSSR and Processing Programs. Report ofInstitute of Nuclear Energy, Academy of Sciences ofBelarus, № 4616, Minsk, 1987 (In Russian).

92Isotope Fractionation of Uranium in the Process of Leaching of Nuclides ofDispersed Fuel of RBMK of the Chernobyl NPP
German N. BONDARENKO and Emlen V. SOBOTOVICHState Scientific Center of Environmental Radiogeochemistry NAS,
Palladin av. 34, 252680 Kiev, Ukraine, tel. (044) 444-12-15, fax (044)444-00-60
SUMMARY
The particles of fragmented nuclear fuel containing
uranium of different degree of oxidation were found as
the parts of conglomerates in the premises of the IVunit and in soils of the Chernobyl NPP Industrial site.
When leaching uranium from contaminated soils,
fractionation of the nuclides of 235U and 238U between
solid and liquid phases may take place. Fractionation
was not indicated in leaching of uranium from theparticles patched into graphite fragments.
Fractionation of uranium nuclides is due todifference in energies of these nuclides bonds in crystal
lattice of solid phase of the products of fuelfragmentation. Two hypotheses are accepted. The firstone supposes heterogeneous composition of nuclear
fuel of RBMK reactor consisting of fractions withdifferent enrichment by 235U, uranium isotopes of themore enriched fraction having higher mobility due tofeatures ofpreparation technology. Anotherhypothesis bases on the assumption of selective
loosening of bonds of separate 235U atoms takes placein the solid body under action of slow neutrons.

1. Fuel-containing products of accident on the IVunit core of Chernobyl NPP.
Unit cores of the Chernobyl NPP are equipped withreactors of channel type (RBMK), that use graphite asreaction moderator and light water as heat-carrier.
Reactor core is an vertical cylinder 11.8 m in diameterand 7 m in height. It contains fuel assemblies,
moderator, heat-carrier, technological channels,
neutron absorber rods. Graphite brickwork makes up
vertical columns with through holes for placement oftechnological and control channels. Graphite density is
1.65 g/cm3. Fuel assembly consists of two sequentiallyconnected sections 3.5 m each in length. Each section
includes central tube from zirconium alloy, steel
distanced grid, 18 fuel rods.
Initial enrichment of fuel is 2%. If the designburn-up is taken as 18.6 MW/ton, then nuclide contents
are: 235U — 4.1; 236U — 2.1; 238U — 969.3; 239Pu —2.4; 240Pu — 1.7; 241 Pu — 0.5; and 242Pu — 0.3 kg per
tone of initial uranium [5]. So spent nuclear fuel should
contain 0.42 % of 235U.
On the moment of the accident the reactor active
zone of IV block of the Chernobyl NPP contained 1659
fuel assemblies (FA). Their nuclear fuel total mass was
190.2 tons [4]. The bulk of the FA was enclosed in thefirst charge cassettes with the burn-up of 11 to 15
MW⋅day/kg of U. Some amount of “fresh” nuclear fuelwas in the active zone too. Calculations of mass andactivity of fission products and transuranium elementsthat took account of factors of irregularity of the fieldof energy emission in RBMK-1000 were carried out foreach cassette. The total mass of each accumulated
nuclide was estimated by summing over all fuelassemblies in the reactor core. According to theseestimates 235U content conformed to effectiveenrichment of 1.1% [2]. Plutonium nuclides contents
were estimated in: 239Pu — 2.166, 240Pu — 0.925, 241Pu— 0.257, and 242Pu — 0.074 kg per ton of uranium [8].
More than 180 tons of nuclear fuel are considered to
be enclosed in the object “Ukrytiye” (“Sarcophagus”).
Irradiated fuel inside “Sarcophagus” has the following
modifications:- fragments of the reactor core - fuel tablets, fuelassemblies and their fragments, radioactive graphite,fragments of technologic channels;

INTRODUCTION
Works on study of uranium isotopic composition in
the products of accidental ejection from the Chernobyl
NPP by its scope take up rather modest place among
other studies on consequences of 1986 accident in spiteof obvious connection between 235U distribution in theprocess of fuel destruction and nuclear safety ofSarcophagus. Studies on the uranium isotopes
distribution in dissolution, leaching of dispersed fuelgave discrepancy results: some experiments showed235
U enrichment of uranium in water solutions relative
to the solid phase [1,2], others showed an identity of
the isotopic composition of the both of phases [2-4].
The results were explained by the heterogeneouscomposition of fuel component of Chernobyl ejection.
Detailed analysis of the performed studies has enabled
to establish the regular connection between thepossibility of uranium isotopes fractionation andconditions of dispersed fuel formation and to propose
the version of rise of weakening of 235U bond in thesolid phase of fragmentation products of fuel.

93

Sampling of hot particles from the soils in thefloodplain of the Prypiat (5-7 km distant from the unit)
and those from soddy-podzolic soils from st.Yanov(2-3 km from the unit) was presented by
microconglomerates and fragments of reactor graphite[2]. Several types of particles can be separated by theircomposition and structure:- quartz-feldspar, clastogeneous, having grains
predominantly of sharp-angle profile cemented bymicaceous-kaolinic mass;- clastogeneous substantially micaceous-silicate,consisting of entangled fibrous aggregates of sheet
crystals;condensation-clastogeneous,consistingof
microgeodes, spherules of condensation genesis
with admixture of clastogeneous matter.
Predomination of small sharp-angle clastic
fragments, cementation, presence of
implanted
uranium particles, condensation formations haveenabled to assume that the microconglomerates as theradioactivity carriers were formed mainly in result of
agglutination of particles of fluid materials used during
fire fighting, dispersed materials of reactor unit
constructions, fuel and graphite at high temperatures[10, 12, 15].
One of the fragments, 2x3 mm in size, sampled in
the premise of the IV unit consisted of grains ofgraphite and small fragments of concrete. Grains ofquartz and microcline were cemented with fineCa-containing material. Particles with high atomic
mass that had substantially uranium composition were
found in that fragments by vision of preparates inreverse reflected electrons. Uranium particles of 1-50
µm in size were placed on the surface of graphite
aggregates or were slightly implanted into them.
Two types of particles were separated by themorphology:- shperules and their fragments of 3-90 µm,
irregular-shaped
particles,
predominantly
sheet-shaped, with dimensions of fractions of
micron to 50 µm.
Spherical particles showed microdifraction picture
corresponding to UO2 structure with diminishedparameter of elemental cell (à0 = 0.535 ± 0.005 nm). It
was attributed to the partial oxidation of U(IV) to
U(VI), that increased number of defects in crystals anddecreased effective dimensions of blocks of coherent
scattering of electrons. Mixture of uranium dioxide andelemental uranium was identified by characteristic
X-ray emission in number of plate-shaped particles.
Hypothesized process of UO2 sublimation at hightemperatures in the authors view could be accompanied
by formation of pre-stoichiometric oxide UO2—õ andfollowing disproportionation to UO2 and U.
Among the synthesized uranium oxides used as anuclear fuel in the modern energetic units the series of- finely dispersed fuel - “hot” fuel particles that werethe main radioactive components of dispersed phaseof aerosols and solid precipitates on different
surfaces;- lava-like masses containing nuclear fuel;- crystalline nova-formations that are bright-yellow
spots and figures;- water solutions.
Finely dispersed fuel of micron dimensions wascharacterized form of accidental ejection of theChernobyl NPP into the environment. In the earlymonths and years after the accident they were theobjects of numerous studies. “Hot” particles were
sampled in the premises of the IV unit, in close
proximity to the Chernobyl NPP, on the area of theChernobyl NPP industrial site and sanitary zone, on the
territories of Ukraine, Byelaruss as well as
Scandinavian countries, Central and West Europe.
The most of works were limited by studies ofradionuclide content of particles. Studies concerningwith radionuclide state in particles are not numerous.
Works on study of chemical and structural compositionof particles, on kinetics of dissolution and leaching ofradionuclides, and on distribution of radionuclides inthe system “solid phase - solution” [1-3, 12-14] areamong them.

2. Elemental and structural composition of hot
particles.
Some particles contained radioactive substancesthat had low boiling temperature (131I, 137Cs and 134Ñs),others contained radionuclides with rather high boilingtemperature (isotopes of Sr, Ce, Zr, Pu, Am, Cu, Npetc.) as the parts of uranium matrix [3]. At morphology
fibre-like and spherical microconglomerates and that ofirregular habitus. Density of the heaviest of theparticles reached 8 g/cm3 [2, 6].
In one of samplings hot particles of two varieties 30 µm and 1 to 2 µm in size - predominated. Particlesof the first variety were identified as fuel ones, those of
the second variety were recognized to becondensational particles formed during burning ofgraphite. In the sampling of particles that deposited in
the premises of “Sarcophagus” maximum of dimension
distribution was in the region of 15-20 µm [6].
At a distance of more than 1 km from the accident
unit, separate hot particles were found on the surface ofthe earth, buildings and constructions as the parts ofconglomerates of particles of different substantial
composition. Oxides of U(IV) and U(VI) as well as
blobs of carbonaceous matter, small fragments ofquartz, aluminosilicate matter, ferrous minerals,
rounded titanic fragments were detected in these
conglomerates by the methods of microscope probing
and X-ray-structural analysis [19].

94radioactive isotopes of Sr and Cs in the outer layers anddecreasing of their activities up to the centers ofparticles. Plutonium contents in the upper layers of
spherical particles were from 1×105 to 1.5×105 Bq/g
when mass concentrations of uranium were of 0.5 to
7.5%. Plutonium contents in other layers of theparticles were less by some factors and in some casesby several orders of magnitudes. 238Pu/ 239+240Pu ratios
were stable in all these cases and corresponded to thoseof the “mean” nuclear fuel of the IV unit.
Above-mentioned data testify that the processes ofhigh-temperature atomizing of elements andsubsequent spontaneous solid condensation of vapour
resulted in the formation of spherical particles,
proceeded in the active stage of the accident at least insome point of the IV unit. Recrystallization of thenuclear fuel material accompanied with establishing ofcontents of Pu, 144Ñe, 241Am, 90Sr, and U in different
layers of spherical particles that rather differed by theirratios from the “mean” nuclear fuel of the IV unit. The
growth of fiber-like particles proceeded obviously inthe active stage of the accident too from the gas phaseat the temperatures higher than 3,000 0Ñ.

phases were established that transfer one into anotherfrom UÎ2 to UÎ3 gradually or abruptly as uraniumoxidation occurred from U(IV) to U(V) and U(VI).
Synthetic UÎ2 oxide has cubic crystal structure withelemental cell dimension of 0.548 nm. As uraniumoxidation occurs, at first diminishing of this dimensionthat is recognized as a result of isomorphous
replacement of U(IV) (ion radius is 0.1 nm) by U(VI)(r=0.08 nm), and than decreasing of oxide symmetry totetragonal U4Î9 are observed. More oxidized phase U3Î8
is known to have two polymorphous modifications(rhombic and hexagonal), maximally oxidized phaseUÎ3 - five modifications, one of them is amorphous.
Oxidation series consists of the next discrete phases:
UÎ2 — U4Î9 — U3Î7 — U2Î5 — U3Î8 — UÎ3.
In the sampling of particles aspirated from theaerosols from the object “Sarcophagus” about 10% of
the total activity were contained in fraction < 1 µm,
about 70% of it - in fraction 1-5 µm, and about 20% ofactivity were concentrated in the rough-dispersed
fraction. The main input into activity of the dispersed
matter deposited on the surfaces fraction 1-10 µm has
made (~70%), rough-dispersed fraction (>10 µm)
contained about 20% of the total activity,
fine-dispersed one - about 10% [8]. The finest particles
sampled from the soils of the south Byelaruss had thehighest specific activity [15].
All the long-lived products of nuclear fuel fission
were detected in the dispersed phase of aerosols. 238Pu
and 239+240Pu were found in all the separated fractionsof dispersed phase of aerosols. 238Pu /239+240Pu ratios
were close to those of the “mean” nuclear fuel of the IV
unit. There was no correlation between 144Ce and241
Am [4,7]. Activities of 144Ce in the separate particlesof the sampling of 17 to 55 µm in dimension were (8.1
- 9.6) × 109 Bq/g that was close to “mean” radionuclide
content in the fuel at the moment of the accident.
Rather large-sized spherical particles up to several
millimeters in diameter were collected on the surfacesof steam-dumping valves in the steam-distributing
premise of the accidental unit [6]. Study ofradionuclide distribution with depth in these particles
showed the maximal contents of plutonium as well as

3. Leaching of fission products from hot particles
in soils.
Radioactivity of soils in the industrial site of theChernobyl NPP was attributed to fallout of irradiatedfuel in the next principal forms:
1) fragmented fuel of different grain size; its particles
differed in their degree of oxidation, due tointeraction between the heated fuel and oxygen in
the course of explosive release. The U(VI)/U(IV)ratios in the fuel fallouts of near-field zone varied
from 0.6 to 1.7;
2) fuel-graphite conglomerates; the main part offragmentary nuclides in the near-field zone wasattributed to these fallouts. According to the X-ray
microanalytical data, a spatial association between
uranium and carbon was found for many particles;3) nuclear fuel embedded into the matrices of
construction materials (iron, zirconium, copper);4) extremely fine (≤ 1 µm) hot particles ofaluminosilicate composition, as a rule with a regular

Table 1. Vertical distribution of plutonium and 238U/235U atomic ratios in total uranium in the soils of
the nearest zone of the Chernobyl NPP.
239(240)
238
Pu contents in layers, %U/235U atomic ratios
Index
0-1cm 1-2 cm
2-3 cm 3-4 cm 4-5 cm 0-1 cm 1-2 cm 2-3 cm 3-4 cm 4-5 cm
1
92.0
7.4
0.4
0.2
79.9
128.2
134.7
137.4
137.6
2
91.2
7.9
0.6
0.2
0.1
80.3
129.6
129.6
137.3
137.7
3
95.9
3.8
0.3
89.6
135.8
137.3
137.8
137.8
4
96.7
2.9
0.3
0.1
96.1
126.7
134.8
137.1
137.6
5
91.8
7.8
0.3
0.1
98.4
131.5
136.9
137.8
137.8
6
96.0
3.4
0.4
0.1
0.1
103.5
132.9
137.1
137.6
137.6
95

immobilization, and remobilization of radionuclides
sequentially.
The constant of radionuclide mobilization rate k1 isa characteristic of the resistance of solid-phase fallout
in the soil. Its value first of all depends on thesolid-phase particles qualities (material composition,
degree of dispersion, way of formation) as well as on
physical-chemical characteristics of the soil. The
constants of radionuclide immobilization rate k2 andremobilization rate k3 are determined by radionuclide
chemical properties, and for each radionuclide theyessentially depend on physical-chemical characteristicsof the soil. Numerical values of constants oftransformation rates of 90Sr and 137Ñs forms were
estimated by calculations on the base of comparison of
the data on radionuclides forms in the soils in the
different moments of post-accidental period.
The kinetic curves of 90Sr and 137Ñs mobile forms
accumulation in soddy-podzolic soils in the Chernobyl
exclusion zone as well as experimental data on theircontents are presented in Figs. 1 and 2.
In the first years after the accident, sharp increasingof 90Sr mobile forms content took place, and then theirstabilization was observed. So immobilization was notsubstantial in 90Sr forms transformation. Dynamics ofchanges of 137Cs mobile forms activities insoddy-podzolic soils was characterized by maximumthat was observed in 1987-1988 and subsequent
decreasing of ion-exchangeable form content at theexpense of advancing immobilization.
The mean value of constant of radionuclide
mobilization rate was evaluated in 0.195 year-1 withvariations of 0.12 to 0.30 year-1. Hot particles that werein the air-dry state preserved fission products in theircompound for a much longer time.

carbon admixture;5) so-called condensation particles enriched withvolatile nuclides, foremost by 137Ñs and 134Ñs, morecharacterized for the distant zone.
In the first months after the accident more than 99%
of uranium and plutonium radionuclides wereaccumulated in the upper 2 cm-layer of the soil in thenearest zone of the Chernobyl NPP (Table 1).
Vertical distribution of the fission products in thefirst weeks and months after the accident was the same.
Their activity was localized in form of hot particles,that was confirmed by the autoradiography data [15].
In soils hot particles are exposed to destruction due
to effects of soil solutions and products of bacteria
action. In the result of leaching of radionuclides anddissolution of matrix, products of uranium fission werecarried out from the particles and their water-solublecompounds were formed. This process and following
transformations of radionuclide forms can be presented
by processes of mobilization, immobilization,
remobilization of radionuclides:

W
k1

k2

Ap

F
k3
E
A0 = Ap + W + E + F

where : À0 is bulk radionuclide activity; Àp - part ofradionuclide in solid-phase particles; W - part ofradionuclide in water-soluble form; Å - part ofradionuclide in ion-exchangeable form; F - part ofradionuclide in fixed form.
Mobilization is identified with carry-out ofradionuclides from solid-phase particles and formationof water-soluble and ion-exchangeable forms ofradionuclides that are subjected to water migration.
Immobilization is connected with formation ofrelatively conservative (fixed) forms of radionuclides.
Remobilization is an opposite process toimmobilization.
According to deterministic kinetic model oftransformation [14], activity of the mobile form ofradionuclide (AM) is :k 1 - k3
AM = A0 {-----------------[(exp(-k1t) - exp(-k2 - k3)t]-k1 + k2 + k3
k3
+ ---------[1 - exp(-k2 - k3)t]}k2 + k3

4. Mobility of uranium isotopes in the soils
containing hot particles.
The radionuclide status in solid substances iscommonly studied by leaching procedure and researchof its distribution between different phases andchemical forms. Solutions that don’t dissolve matrix
matter are used. So admixtures elements residing out ofnodes of crystal lattice are leached. Nuclides ofdaughter radioactive elements are leached fromuranium and thorium minerals. Atoms resided inside acrystal or in the narrow capillaries migrate to the crystal
surface in the result of diffusion over vacancies,
internodes and capillaries. Desorption of the elementfrom the surface depends on the concentration of
displacing element in the solution and proceeds toattainment of equilibrium. Parent radionuclides moveinto solution only in the result of destruction of crystal
lattice, i.e. dissolution of the matrix matter.
Mobility of uranium isotopes and fission products
in soils contaminated by solid-phase accidental fallouts

where AM and A0 - activities of radionuclide mobile
and initial forms, kn - constants of rate of mobilization,

96

1,00

M obile form s

0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
0,00
0

5

10

15

20

t,years-1-2-3-ourdata-lit.data-lim its

Fig. 1. Kinetic curves of 90Sr mobile forms accumulation in soddy-podzolic soils in the exclusion zone:
1 - k1 = 0.195, k2 = 0.02; 2 - k1 = 0.12, k2 = 0.02; 3 - k1 = 0.30, k2 = 0.02 year-1.
0,16

Mobile for

0,12

0,08

0,04

0,00
0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

t, years
-1

-2

-3

-lit.data-our data-lim its

Fig. 2. Kinetic curves of 137Cs mobile forms accumulation in soddy-podzolic soils in the exclusionzone:
1 - k1 = 0.195, k2 = 1.7; 2 - k1 = 0.195, k2 = 1.0; 3 - k1 = 0.195, k2 = 2.7 year-1.
plutonium activity were carried out with Si (Au) detector within a 2% error. Content of uranium in thesoil was estimated by the mass-spectrometric isotopic
dilution method within a 0.8% error. Standard 235U
solution with 238U/235U isotope ratio equal to 0.1022
was used as an isotopic label. Limiting relative errors
for all the experimental measurements were estimatedwithin 95% confidence interval.
To check of the obtained 238U/235U ratios, a seriesof duplicate analyses were performed at the
mass-spectrometric laboratory by Prof. N.P.Tsherback,which confirmed validity of the previous results.
Extraction of uranium from the soils was carried out
in these experiments with concentrated hydrochloric
acid. After solid phase separation isolation of theuranium from the solution and its preparation towas evaluated by leaching method in series of works[1-3, 14, 15]. For these purposes sequential leaching of
nuclides from solid phase by water solutions of salts
and acids was performed.
Experiments on leaching of uranium isotopes fromthe top layer soils, which contained hot particles, werecarried out at the laboratory of transuranium elements
geochemistry of Department of Environmental
Radiogeochemistry of Institute of Geochemistry andPhysics of Minerals [14]. Soils were sampled in 1986
mainly at the industrial site of Chernobyl.
Determinations of atomic (mass) ratios such as
238 235
U/ U and 235U/236U were carried out by the
MI-1320 and MI-1201T mass-spectrometers with 0.2%
limiting
relative
error.
Alpha-spectrometricdeterminations of 234U/238U activity ratios as well as

97

Table 2. Uranium isotopic composition and content in soils in the near-field zone of the Chernobyl NPP[1].
238 235 *235 236 *234
No Soil sampling point
U/ U
U/ U
U/238U** 238U (µg/g) 235U,%
1.38
2.46
1
Site of the IV unit
39.68
16.08
3.06
0.796
2.18
2
North-western part of the cooling pond
44.82
26.12
2.75
1.173
1.92
3
Vicinity of Yanov railway bridge
51.21
14. 282.38
4Left bank of the Prypiat
53.3
8.16
2.00
0.745
1.84
5
Yanov railway station
52.6
13.05
3.96
0.910
1.87
6
Red forest
57.8
26.77
2.32
0.848
1.70
7
v. Yanov
62.8
35.72
2.57
0.764
1.57
8
v. Leliv
77.5
83.2
2.39
1.092
1.27
9
Paryshev channel
93.8
140. 3
3.22
0.632
1.06
10 v. Burakivka
102.4
47.26
2.18
0.826
0.97
11 v. Tolsty Lis
106.3
76.6
1.94
0.911
0.93
12 town of Prypiat
108.4
92.4
1.82
2.14
0.91
13 Chernobyl
112.9
103.7
1.86
0.948
0.88
1.013
0.79
14 v. Cherevach
126.3
194.8
1.69
*
Ratios between mass concentrations of uranium isotopes;**
Ratios between activities of uranium isotopes.
Table 3. Isotopic composition of uranium in leachate solutions before and after oxidation of uranium.
Solution without
Oxidized solution
Leaching
Soiloxidation
No
Sampling pointagent
238 235
235
238
235
235
238 235
U/ U
U, %
U/ U
U, %
U/ U 235U, %1 Cooling pond
8 Ì HNO3
44.82 2.18 %
28.42
3.4 %
11.74
7.85 %
2 Yanov railway station 2 Ì HNO3
1.86
%
40.61
2.4
%
12.17
7.6
%
52.6
3 v. Yanov
6 Ì HNO3
62.8
1.57 %
48.4
2.02 %
20.32
4.69 %
4 v. Leliv
7 Ì HCl
77.5
1.27 %
47.9
2.04 %
23.68
4.05 %
5 v. Leliv
2 Ì HNO3
77.5
1.27 %
51.1
1.92 %
31.22
3.1 %6 Paryshev channel
7 Ì HCl
93.8
1.05 %
15.64
6.0 %
2.744
27 %
7 Paryshev channel
1.04 %
61.4
1.6 %
18.93
5.0 %
8 Ì HNO3
95.4
acids with admixtures were used (Table 3). It was
found that the 238U/235U ratio for the first leachates
ranged from 15.6 to 61.4, whereas in the case of more
complete extraction of uranium from the same soils it
varied from 44.8 to 93.8. On these grounds the authorsof the work assumed that the reduction in the 238U/235U
isotopic ratio in solutions might be explained by thefact that the technogeneous fuel uranium (or at least
some part of it) differed from the natural one in its
higher ability to leaching. Dependence on the238
U/235U ratio value on leaching conditions testified
that the mobile uranium both of natural and fuel origin
is not completely transferred into a solution. In such acase a dynamic equilibrium should be establishedbetween the solid and liquid phases of the system.
Subject to the changes in the physico-chemicalleaching conditions such an equilibrium should be
disturbed resulting in changes in the uranium isotopic
composition of the leachate solution.
To estimate an effect of oxidation of the liquid
phase upon the displacement of uranium isotopic
composition oxidation of the aliquot part of theleachate solution was performed with persulphuric

mass-spectrometricanalysiswasperformed.
Experimental data on isotopic composition of uranium
and its content in liquid phase are presented in Table 2.
Obtained data on the uranium contents in soils did
not exceed the Clark values varying from 0.632 to 2.14µg/g. This testified at least to comparability oftechnogeneous uranium content in soils to the natural
one. The 238U/235U ratio in the uranium extracted fromthe soils varied from 44.82 to 126.3; 235U/236U ratio
varied at more greater extent. Shifts in the isotopic
composition relative to natural and even totechnogeneous uranium were pronounced: 238U/235U
isotopic ratios for some leachate-solutions were foundto be considerably lower than that of the initial fuel.
Besides, dependence of uranium isotopic
composition in soils upon their distance from thesource was observed: uranium enrichment by 235U
isotope increased with approaching to the IV unit, i.e.
with enrichment of soils by technogeneous (fuel)uranium.
Mobility of uranium isotopes in the solid phase was
evaluated by the method of their sequential leaching in
the variable physico-chemical conditions: different

98ammonium in presence of Ag+ cations. When uranium
was leached from the soil by hydrochloric acid,evaporation of the solution aliquot, conversion of thesalt residual into NO3-form (removing of Cl- ion traces)
and its dissolution in 1 M HNO3 preceded to theoxidation operation.
Values of 238U/235U ratio in leachate solutions
before and after oxidation of uranium are presented inTable 3. In the case of oxidation of the solution
uranium in the leachate solution was more enrichedwith 235U isotope in comparison with unoxidized
solution. The minimal detected 238U/235U ratio reached2.7, that corresponded to ∼27% enrichment by 235U.
Experiments to estimate the contents of uranium
valency forms in the leachate solutions were also
carried out. U(VI)/U(IV) ratios were found to varyfrom 0.6 to 1.7 [2].
In the experiments on absorption of uranium fromhydrochloric acid solutions by the anion-exchange
resin AV-17, the authors of the work [2] have found theanionic form that is characterized to U(V1) to beenriched by 235U isotope relatively to U (1V) form.
In the other series of experiments, processes ofleaching of fragmented radionuclides as well as fueluranium from the contaminated soils from left-bankflood-plain of the Prypiat river were studied. Soils were
sampled in the right bank of Murovka channel on
20.03.91. By this moment solid-phase fallouts
underwent destruction to some extent. (see Part 3).
The levels of surface contamination by 90Sr in thesampling site were from 3.7 to 7.4 MBq/m2.
Radionuclide compositions of the studied samples arepresented in Table 4.
Gamma-spectrometric analysis and radiochemical
determination of 90Sr content were carried out from thesame sample. Then the samples were sequentiallytreated by water with natural hydrochemicalcomposition, 1M solution of ammonium acetate, andconcentrated acid solutions. 90Sr and uranium contents
and uranium isotopic composition were determined ineach of leachate-solutions. Solid to liquid phases ratio
was 1:1, the mixture was stirred for 24 hours, thenseparation of the phases on the Buchner funnel withmembrane filters of 0.2 µm in diameter was carried out.
Acid leaching was carried out in teflon dishes underlight heating and periodical stirring during 24 hours.
Stringent regime of acid leaching resulted indissolution of uranium matrix and in partial orcomplete breakdown of natural uranium-containing
minerals, but, because of low uranium concentrations,the applied procedure did not make available
determination of its content in a number ofleachate-solutions (Table 5). High 235U contents were
found in water, salt and acid leachate-solutions.
Insoluble residue from the sample 2 after mineral
breakdown by hydrofluoric acid was the mixture ofaccessories (mainly zircon-rutile) and graphite
particles. Presence of 90Sr pointed to the definite
influence of graphite fuel-containing particles on theuranium isotopic composition.
In the leachate-solution from the mineral
concentrate [15], sampled at the cooling-pond bank,mass contents of heavy nuclides were determined by
the mass-spectrometer“Plasma Quad” (“VG
Instruments”) with ionization of the material in
inductively connected plasma. The relative contents ofmasses from 233 to 242 were the next: 233 − 6.29; 234− 45.1; 235 − 2712.2; 236 −455.69; 237 − 5.54; 238 −237999; 239 − 112.61; 240 − 9.68; 241 − 9.11; 242 −8.38. Ratio of mass of 235 to 238 corresponded here to
the enrichment of uranium with 235U isotope up to
1.126%, that is close to “mean” composition of ejected

Table 4. Radionuclide composition of soil samples from left-bank flood-plain of the Prypiat on 20.04.91 [3].
Radionuclide content, kBq/kg
Sample
144
106
137
134
90
Ce
Ru
Cs
Cs
Sr
1
2
3

57.4
8.5
16.2

18.1
2.5
3.0

134
18.2
34.6

13.7
1.82
3.57

Table 5. Uranium isotopes in the leachate-solutions from the soils [3].
Sample 1
Sample 2
Agent
238
235
90
*
238
235
90
H2O
NH4Ac
6N HNO3
HNO3+ HCl
HNO3+ HF
6N HNO3

U/ U

10 (9.1%)
1.4 (41.6%)
36 (2.7%)
45 (2.17%)

U, µg/g

Sr, %

U/ U

0.39
0.11

3.0
4.2
91.7
1.05

22 (4.3%)110(0.9%)

154
15.7
38.3

Sample 3U, µg/g

Sr, %*

238

U/235UU, µg/g

-

1.7
4.5
91.4

22 (4.3%)
3.3(23.2%)
30 (3.2%)

0.015

5.4 ⋅10--4

90

Sr, %*
1.9
3.3
84

2.4
9.9

* 90

Sr content is given as percentage of bulk activity in the soil

99

Table 6. Extent of radionuclides leaching from the graphite hot particles in the experiment withsubsequent treatment with water and mineral acids [3].
Time of exposition, hours
for separate
total
fraction
Water 1
1
1
Water 2
4
3
Water 37
3Water 413
6
Water 523
10
Water 640
17
Water 7
67
27
HNO3
**
**
HF
**
**
HCl
**
**
** Has not been controled

Total leaching, %Treatment

90

137

Cs

U

32.7
52.9
66.4
75.1
85.7
90.5
94.3
**
**
**

75.7
89.3
92.4
93.5
94.5
95.6
96.0
**
**
**

69.0
69.1
69.2
79.6
80.3
80.5
99.1
99.75
99.98

Sr

Table 7. Uranium isotopic composition in water leachate-solutions from the graphite hot particles [3].
Conditions of leaching
Isotope ratios
235
234 238238
236
Time, hours
Leaching agent
U, %
U/ U
U/235U
U/238U
-4
91.70
1
H2O
1.078
1.8 ⋅ 10-3
1.6 ⋅ 10
-4
3
H2O
1.088
90.91
2.3 ⋅ 10
1.8 ⋅ 10-3
6
H2O
1.107
89.29
1.6 ⋅ 10-4
1.9 ⋅ 10-3
-4
10
H2O
1.068
92.60
1.5 ⋅ 10
1.8 ⋅ 10-3
-4
17
H2O
1.099
89.96
1.4 ⋅ 10
1.9 ⋅ 10-3
27
H2O
1.088
90.91
2.5 ⋅ 10-4
1.6 ⋅ 10-3
-4
HNO3
1.010
97.96
1.5 ⋅ 10
1.6 ⋅ 10-3
-4
HF
1.906
51.47
2.6 ⋅ 10
1.7 ⋅ 10-3
-4
HCl
1.986
49.36
2.4 ⋅ 10
1.7 ⋅ 10-3
138.6
Natural uranium
0.721<2 ⋅ 10-6
6 ⋅ 10-5
235(*) Table was drawn up after [3], % U was calculated for the convenience of discussion.
fuel. In groundwater in the “Red Forest” near the
Chernobyl NPP, the presence of uranium with mass
ratios 238U/235U from 50 to 54 was fixed in 1987 [16].
It corresponds to 1.8-2.0% enrichment of the fuel.
Comparison of the data from the cited works makes
it evident that the intervals of variations of uranium
isotopic composition in water phase in its leachingfrom soils in natural conditions and in the laboratory
are actually identical.

Leaching of radionuclides from graphite particles
was carried out in the hermetically sealed vessels undercontinuous stirring. After set time expiration solid
phase was separated on the membrane filter of 0.2 µm
in diameter and then was treated by the water or acidsolution again to continue the process of leaching.
Sequential effect of mineral acids HF and HCl in
different conditions, including under high temperature(200 0Ñ) was carried out in the hermetically sealed
teflon cylinder.
Nuclide composition of leachate-solutions fromgraphite hot particles was determined bymass-spectrometer“PlasmaQuad”(“VG
Instruments”). Solution of the natural uranium has astrictly constant 238U/235U ratio equal to 137.88. A
series of 10 measurements showed the 238U/235U ratioin 138.6 ± 2.0 when the time of the single measurement
was 3 min. Uranium content and its isotopic
composition were determined in the experimental
leachate solutions from hot particles.
Experimental results are presented in the Tables 6
and 7. Experimental results testify the difference in therates of dissolution of strontium, cesium, and uranium
nuclides in the process of their leaching from graphite

5. Leaching of nuclides from dispersed fuel ofgraphite composition.
Ability of uranium and fission products to leachingfrom hot particles ofpredominantly graphite
composition sampled in the premises of the“Sarcophagus” was studied in the work [3].
Radionuclide composition of sampled particles varied
noticeably. 90Sr content in some particles varied from37 to 814 kBq/g, that of 137Cs - from 2 to 12 MBq/g.
Radioactivity of a number of particles was caused
exclusively by nuclides of 134Cs and 137Ñs. These data
testified predominantly condensation genesis of theparticles.

100uranium-containing compounds:- natural minerals and soil compounds, containing
uranium with composition of about 0.7 % 235U;- technogeneous fuel-containing particles withuranium of about 1.1% 235U composition;- technogeneous fuel-containing particles containing
uranium of fresh fuel charged immediately before
the accident and enriched up to 2% of 235U;
statistical expected contribution of that particles isless than 1% of technogeneous uranium.
Relationship between technogeneous and naturaluranium in the studied soils increases with approachingnear the source (Chernobyl NPP Industrial site ) up to
their comparable contents [1, 15]. 235U contents could
not exceed in the most contaminated samples 1.1%
(238U/235U ratio was about 89.5). Part of 235U inslightly contaminated soils should be close to 0.7%.
According to work [1] 238U/235U ratio in the waterphase after extraction of uranium from contaminatedsoils varied from 126 to 40 (Table 2). The mostsignificant enrichment by 235U isotope (up to 2.4%)
was reached in the soil sampled directly near the IV
unit. Differences between expected isotopes ratios andthose obtained experimentally exceeded substantiallythe error of mass-spectrometric analysis. Finding of
high-enriched uranium presents the presumption thatisotopic heterogeneity of nuclear fuel in the IV unit
existed before the accident.
Isotope fractionation in leaching of uranium
observed in the work [1], confirmed by the work
[15]and probably by the other one [6], showed that
correspondence of uranium isotopic composition in thesolution to that of the soil could be reached provided
that the analyzed element was completely dissolved.
But hot particles are rather resistant to action of acids.
Complete dissolution of hot particles was observed
only after roasting of the samples at 650 0Ñ withparticles and their independence (Fig. 3). It is
explained by authors by the distinctions of formation of
uranium-containing particles: recrystallization of
uranium compounds following the “release” offragment radionuclides took place under conditions ofeffects of high temperatures and interaction between
construction materials and air oxygen.
Isotopic composition of uranium in sequential
water leachate-solutions from graphite particles was
uniform varying in ranges of 1.07-1.11% enrichment,
which was rather close to calculated values for the bulk
mass of the fuel. Only insignificant part of it, i.e. themost resistant to dissolution, corresponded to 2%enrichment.
Authors of the work [3] distinguish two groups ofuranium-containing phases in graphite particles by
their resistance to action of leaching agents:- depleted fuel with 235U content about 1%; itconstitutes the main mass (∼99%) of uranium that iscontained in the particles and dissolves readily in thewater and nitric acid;- uranium-containing phase with 238U/235U isotopes
ratio corresponded to that of the “fresh” 2% reactor
fuel; its content is quite insignificant, and its
dissolution requires high temperature and pressure.
The both phases contain 236U, formed in result of
nuclear processes.

6. Hypothesis for fractionation of uranium
nuclides in its leaching from fuel-containing
soils.
Heterogeneous composition of uranium-containing
compounds should be taken into account in an attempt
to explain the results of determination of uranium
isotopic composition in the soils contaminated bysolid-phase radioactive fallouts. The contaminatedsoils may be expected to contain the next100

L each in g , %90
80
S r-9070

Ñ s-137
60

U

50
40
30
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

t, h

Fig. 3. Kinetics of leaching of 137Cs and 90Sr radionuclides, and fuel uranium from the graphite hotparticles [3].
101

independent experiments on determination of isotopic
compositions of the valent forms of uranium [2], whichshowed enrichment of U(VI) form by 235U isotope.
Different mobility of 235U and 238U isotopes causedby their unequivalent energetic position in the solid
phase should be assumed to explain satisfactorily thefractionation of uranium isotopes: nuclides with thelower energy of bond in the solid phase passpredominantly into liquid phase.
It is still unclear which of the uranium-containing
fractions in soil has unequivalent energetic bonds of235
U and 238U isotopes, and how that difference could
be generated.
Since fractionation of uranium isotopes in leachingfrom natural minerals usually does not take place, so
observed isotope separation in the experiments is due
to presence of technogeneous uranium of dispersed
fuel (solid-phase fuel-containing fallouts, formed inresult of the IV unit accident). Comparison of theresults of leaching of uranium from graphite particles(Table 7) and that from the soils (Tables 3 and 5) shows
the difference in the isotope enrichment of uranium.
Fuel-containing fragments of graphite particles formed
through condensation of evaporated fuel did notexhibited practically the isotope fractionation inleaching. Rebuilding of the structure took place inrecrystallization of uranium. Defects of the lattice thatwas characterized by the difference in the mobilities ofuranium isotopes were eliminated, even if they existed
in the initial substrate. Thus, only the particles formedby mechanical fragmentation of the fuel can containuranium with different mobility of isotopes.
Two kinds of the particles, therefore, can be
distinguished by the uranium isotopes mobilities in thedispersed fuel formed as the result of the Chernobyl
accident. They are the particles formed by mechanicalfragmentation of tablets and the particles formed inrecrystallization of the fuel.
It enables to assume the presence of at least two
beings of uranium in irradiated dispersed fuel:
1) Uranium of irradiated fuel in products offragmentation of the fuel - particle of indefinite

subsequent treatment with nitric acid at heating or with
mixture of chlorate and hydrofluoric acids [2]. In thecited work [1] completion of uranium extraction into
liquid phase was not qualified, so statement of uranium
isotopic composition in the solid phase (in soil)presented in Table 2 was not quite correct. However,this circumstance does not influence upon basic resultsof experiments on leaching of uranium fromcontaminated soils that testify the possibility offractionation of uranium isotopes 235U and 238U
between solid and liquid phases.
Factors of separation may be used for numericalrepresentation of fractionation effects. If 235U and 238U
contents in the mixture of uranium isotopes are
expressed in mole parts, the relative isotope contents inthe solid and liquid phases would be presented asfollows [16]:R= x /(1 − x) ,where: x is the mole part of 235U isotope, and (1 −x) is the mole part of 238U isotope.
Coefficient of the single separation is given by theequation:

α = R*/ R ,where the index * is attributed to the liquid phase.
Factors of separation calculated on the data of Table
3 are presented in the Table 8. Presence of any otheruranium isotopes which contents did not exceed 0.3%
by mass, was not taken into account in calculation of
the mole parts of 235U and 238U isotopes.
Factors of separation of uranium isotopes inleaching of uranium from different soils by the acids
are in the range 1.3 - 1.6; in leaching by the same but
oxidated solutions the factors vary in the range 2.5 - 5.
Result of uranium leaching from the soil sampled on
the bank of Paryshev channel (Table 8, No. 6) was the
exception. Fractionation of isotopes in oxidation with
7M HCl in this case exceeded by an order of magnitude
the effects of the rest experiments. Authenticity of themore high separation of isotopes in leaching byoxidated solutions was confirmed by the results ofTable 8. Factors of separation of uranium isotopes between solid phase and solution in its leachingfrom the soil.
No

Sampling site

Leaching
agent

R 235Uin soil

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Cooling pond
st. Yanovv. Yanovv. Lelivv. Leliv
Paryshev channel
Paryshev channel

8 Ì HNO3
2 Ì HNO3
6 Ì HNO3
7 Ì HCl2 Ì HNO3
7 Ì HCl
8 Ì HNO3

0.0223
0.019
0.016
0.013
0.013
0.01060.0105

102

Solution
without oxidation
R*1
α1
0.035
1.58
0.02461.29
0.0206
1.29
0.021
1.61
0.019
1.51
0.064
6.0
0.016
1.55

after oxidation
R*2
α2
0.085
3.82
0.082
4.32
0.049
3.09
0.042
3.27
0.032
2.48
0.36
34.2
0.053
5.04

of Chernobyl NPP. - Kiev, Naukova dumka, 1992. 144 p. ( in Russian).
3. Sobotovich
E. V. ,
OlkhovickYu.À.,
Koromyslichenko T. I. et. al.
Plumbago hot
particles from Sarcophagus of Chernobyl NPP //Dokl. AN Ukraine. - 1993. - ¹ 11. - p. 170-174. ( inRussian).
4. Chernobyl Disaster. -Ed. by V.Barjakhtar. - Kiev.
-Naukova dumka.-1996.-575 p. (in Ukrainian).
5. Gerasimov A.S., Zarizchkaj T.S., Rudik A.P.
Reference book of formation of the nuclides in the
nuclear reactors. Energoatomizdat, M. , 1989. — 575
p. ( in Russian).
6. Kuzmina I.Å., Toêàrevsêij V.V. Destruction of
nuclear fuel after disaster in Reactor No 4 ofChernobyl NPP // Obninsk, 1996. - FEI-231.
7. Begichev S.N., Borovoj A.A., Burlakov V.V. et al
Fuel of reactor of 4 unit of Chernobyl NPP. -Ì.,1990ã., -21p.- -(preprint Atomic energy Institute;5268/3). ( in Russian).
8. Belyaev S.T., Borovoy A.A., Demin V.N. et al: The
Chernobyl Source Term. Radiation protection-53.
Proceedings of Seminar on Comparative Assessmentof the Environmental Impact of Radionuclides
Released during Three Major Nuclear Accidents,
Commission of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, 1-5 October 1990, v. 1, Report EUR
13574.
9. USSR State Committee on the Utilization of Atomic
Energy “The Accident at the Chernobyl NPP and its
Consequences” IAEA Post Accident Review
Meeting, Vienna, 25-29 August 1986.
10. Kuzmina I.E. Experimental Research into theContent of Particle Releases from the Sarcophagus. In: Proc. Symp. “Sarcophagus Safety`94”,
Chernobyl, Ukraine, March, 1994. OECO
Documents - 1995, France: Nucl. En. Ag. Org. foreconomic co-operation and Development. 850 p., p.
409-418.
11. Kuzmina I.E., Lobach U.N. Nuclear fuel andpeculiarity of formation ofaerosols of theSarcophagus // Àtomnaja Energija. - 1996. ( inRussian).
12. Bondarenko G.N., Dolin V.V., Valter À.À. et al :Composition and structure of solid-phase carriers ofactivity in soils of the exclusion zone of Chernobyl
NPP // Problems of Chernobyl exclusion zone, v. 2.Êiev, Naukova dumka, 1995, p. 147-152. ( inRussian).
13. Sobotovich E. V. , Valter À.À., Olkhovick Yu.À.,
et al. Solid radioactive fallouts in Chernobyl
exclusion zone // Dokl. AN Ukraine. - 1993. - ¹ 8. - c.
173-177. ( in Russian).
14. Bondarenko G.N., Kononenko L.V. The kineticsof transformation of 90Sr and 137Cs forms in soils //Mineralogicheskij Jurnal.-1996.- v.18.- No. 3.- p.
48-57. ( in Russian).
15. Olkhovick Yu.À. et al. Report RGE NACU, Kiev,
1993 ( in Russian).
16. Shemlj M., Perje G. Separation of isotopes. Ì.:Àtomizdat, 1980. - 169 p. ( in Russian).

habitus. It may be partially oxidated. Uranium
isotopic composition is close to 1-2% enrichment.
2) Uranium of irradiated fuel in form of spherical or
fiber-shaped particles that undergone therecrystallization in result of evaporation andcondensation. Recrystallization fuel uranium as a partof graphite particle may be in oxide form or probably
metallic uranium. Isotopic composition should beclose to 1% enrichment, and insignificant part of thisuranium has isotopic composition close to 2%enrichment.
Fractionation of uranium isotopes between liquidand solid phases is not observed in exposure of thesecond type fuel particles to water solutions. When thefuel particles of the first type are exposed to water
solutions, uranium in liquid phase may be enriched by235
U isotope relative to the uranium of the solid phase
exposed to leaching.
What is the reason of different mobility of 235U and238
U isotopes in dispersed fuel? Two hypotheses areworth an attention.
The first one supposes heterogeneous compositionof nuclear fuel of RBMK reactor consisting of fractions
with different enrichment by 235U, uranium isotopes ofthe more enriched fraction having higher mobility due
to features of preparation technology.
Another hypothesis is based on the assumption that
selective loosening of bonds of separate 235U atoms
takes place in the solid body under action of slow
neutrons, to which 235U nuclei have relatively large
values of capture cross sections. Energy of the nuclei inexcited state is probably sufficient to loosening of thechemical bonds of 235U in the solid phase for a longtime. In this case the probability of the process of
excitation of 235U nuclei due to reversible absorption ofneutrons without fission is yet uncertain. It is also not
clear whether the excitation of 235U nuclei takes place
in a standard mode of operation of RBMK reactor, or it
is somehow connected with the emergency state of the
IV unit of the Chernobyl NPP.
Acknowledgments: the authors are grateful toprof. V.Barjakhtar for helpful discussion of the natureof fractionation of the uranium isotopes, toYu.Olkhovick and Yu.Slupizcky for giving some
unpublished data and to L.Kononenko for help inediting the paper. Authors also thank Dr.T Imanaka
and O.Nasvit for their attention to this work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Sobotovich E. V. , Chebanenko S. I. Isotopic
composition of uranium in soils of near zone ofChernobyl NPP // Docl. AN SSSR. - 1990. - ¹ 4. - p.
885-888 ( in Russian).
2. Sobotovich E. V. , Bondarenko G. N. , Olkhovick
Yu.À. et. al. Radiogeochemistry in zone of influence103Impact of Radiation on the Population during the First Weeks and Months after
the Chernobyl Accident and Health State of the Population 10 Years Later
Alla YAROSHINSKAYA
Yaroshinskaya Charity Fund
20/2 Beresnevskaya Naberezhnaya, Moscow 103790, Russia; yaro@glas.apc.org
After the nuclear catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP
on the 26th of April 1986, the USSR government
immediately took all measures to classify the fact of
the accident itself and its consequences for the
population and the environment. The USSR
government released instructions marked with “topsecret” to classify all data on the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP, especially on those related to thehealth of the population that suffered from theaccident. Then followed instructions by the USSR
Ministry of Health and the USSR Ministry of Defence
to classify irradiation doses accumulated by the
population, liquidators (people that had been involved
in liquidation of the accident consequences) and themilitary personnel. These regulations demanded that
medical staffs should not make the diagnosis of “acuteradiation syndrome” in the files of themilitary-liquidators and replace it by something else.
The classified documents have not been accessible
for many years. Only in 1991, when the Soviet Union
was collapsing, the author of this material had
managed to obtain secret protocols [1] of the Operative
Group of the Politic Bureau of the Central Committeeof the CPSU (the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union). These protocols stated a number of persons
were subject to irradiation and hospitalised during thefirst days after the Chernobyl accident.

A.Ya.) allocated a special health centre inMichailovskoye near Moscow for the persons
suffering mild forms, and health centres in cities
Odessa and Evpatoriy with total 1,200 places. A totalof 6,000 beds in health centres institutions and 1,300
beds in pioneer camps were allocated near Kiev."
Protocol on the 5th of May 1986: "It is reported.. by
Mr. Stchepin that the total number of hospitalised
persons amounted to 2,757 among which 569 werechildren. 914 have symptom of radiation syndrome
and 18 out of them are in critical state."
Protocol on the 6th of May 1986: "It is reported.. by
Mr. Schtepin that by 9-00 on the 6th of May the total
number of hospitalised persons is 3,454. 2,609 of themare on stationary treatment, including 471 children.
According to the updated information, the number of
persons suffering acute radiation syndrome reached
367, including 19 children. 34 of them are in criticalstate. In the 6th Moscow Hospital there are 179 persons
on stationary treatment, including 2 children."
The cynicism of the authorities shown in the
document is striking: "The proposal of the Ministry of
Health Care of the USSR on the expedience of
publishing data on the number and state of persons
hospitalised in the 6th Moscow Hospital should be
accepted, taking into account that there are working
American specialists in this hospital." If the Americans
were not working in this hospital, the world would
have never learned about the number of people
suffering from the Chernobyl accident and undergoingtreatment in the 6th Moscow hospital.

Secret protocols of the Operative GroupIn the protocol of the 4th of May 1986, the firstdescription about the health state of population
appears: "The report of Mr. Stchepin (First Deputy
Minister of Health Care of the USSR - A.Ya.) on
hospitalisation and medical treatment of the
population subject to radiation effect: It is noted thatby the 4th of May a total of 1,882 persons have been
hospitalised. The total number of persons examinedreached 38,000 persons. 204 persons have been foundsuffering radiation syndrome of different seriousness.
Among them 64 are children. 18 persons are in criticalstate. 1,900 beds in medical institutions of the
Ukrainian SSR have been allocated to hospitalise thepersons suffering from the consequences. The
Ministry of Health Care of the USSR along with the
VCSPS (The USSR Central Soviet of Trade Unions -Protocol on the 8th of May 1986: "It is reported.. by
Mr. Schtepin that in the course of the last day the
number of hospitalised increased by 2,245 persons
including 730 children. .... By 10.00 on the 8th of May
the number of persons on stationary treatment
amounted to 5,414 including 1,928 children. The
diagnosis of radiation syndrome has been concluded in
315 cases."Protocol on the 10th of May 1986: "It is reported..
by Mr. Schtepin that in the course of the last 2 days
4,019 persons have been hospitalised including 2,630
children. The total number of persons in hospitals is
8,695, including 238 persons with diagnosis ofradiation syndrome, 26 of which are children. In theThis report was published in Gijutsu-to-Ningen, No.
275, pp.28-34, Apr. 1997 (in Japanese).

104

course of the last day 2 persons died, and 33 are in
critical state."

including 7 children. The total number of deceased
persons is 17. 28 persons are in critical state."

Protocol on the 11th of May 1986: "It is reported..
by Mr. Schtepin that in the course of the last day 495
persons have been hospitalised. .... The total number of
persons undergoing treatment and medical
examination in hospitals constituted 8,137 including
264 persons with diagnosis of acute radiation
syndrome. 37 persons are in critical state. 2 persons
have died during the last day."

Beginning from the 26th of May 1986 thedescription on the number of hospitalised persons inthe secret protocols of the Operative Group of the
CPSU Central Committee Politbureau became
irregularly, not at every meeting.
Protocol on the 28th of May 1986: "It is reported..
by Mr. Schtepin that 5,172 persons are undergoingtreatment in hospitals, including 182 persons with theconfirmed diagnosis of radiation syndrome. The total
number of deceased persons by the 28th of May
constituted 22 persons (plus 2 persons had perished in
the accident)."

Protocol on the 12th of May 1986: "It is reported..
by Mr. Schtepin that in the course of the last day 2,703
more persons have been hospitalised, generally in
Byelorussia. 678 persons have been discharged from
hospitals. 10,198 persons are undergoing treatment
and medical examination in hospitals."Protocol on the 2nd of June 1986: "It is reported.. by
Mr. Schtepin that 3,669 persons are undergoingtreatment in hospitals, including 171 persons with theconfirmed diagnosis of radiation syndrome. The total
number of deceased persons by the 28th of May
constituted 24 persons (besides, 2 persons had
perished in the accident). 23 persons are in criticalstate."

Beginning from the 13th of May 1986, the numberof hospitalised persons in the reports of the Deputy
Minister of Health Care of the USSR sharply
decreased, while the number of discharged persons
started to increase.
Protocol on the 13th of May 1986: "Make note thatin the course of the last day 443 persons have been
hospitalised, 908 persons have been discharged from
hospitals. 9,733 persons including 4,200 children are
undergoing treatment and medical examination in
hospitals. Diagnosis of radiation syndrome has beenconcluded in 299 cases including 37 children."This is the last mentioning about the number ofhospitalised persons in the secret protocols of the
Operative Group, although the Group itself continued
to exist until the early 1988. Its last meeting was heldon the 6th of January 1988.
A question arises: why did the process ofdischarging people from hospitals become so rapid
after the number of persons hospitalised for treatment
had exceeded 10,000? The answer to this question canbe found in the same secret documents.

Protocol on the 14th of May 1986: "It is reported..
by Mr. Schtepin that in the course of the last day 1,059
more persons have been hospitalised. 1,200 persons
have been discharged from hospitals."Protocol on the 16th of May 1986: "It is reported..
by Mr. Schtepin that by 16th of May 1986 the numberof hospitalised amounted to 7,858 persons including
3,410 children. Diagnosis of radiation syndrome has
been confirmed in 201 cases. The total number of
perished and deceased persons is 15, including 2
persons that have died on the 15th of May."

Protocol No.9 on the 8th of May 1986: ".... The
Ministry of Health Care has confirmed the new normsof acceptable levels of the population irradiation 10
times higher than old norms. Increase of these norms tolevels 50 times higher than the previous is possible inspecific cases." And further: "By these means thehealth safety of the population of all ages isguaranteed, even in case the current radiation situation
remains for 2.5 years." These norms have been
confirmed even for pregnant women and children.
Such action means that, by applying the new norms
exceeding the old ones by 10 to 50 times to more than
10,000 people hospitalised for treatment due toirradiation by the accident, these people had become
healthy automatically and were discharged from
hospitals and clinics. It as well explains the sharp
decrease in the number of people suffering the acuteradiation syndrome. It explains the fact that at all
further meetings of the Operative Group on Chernobyl
no information appeared on the hospitalised persons. It
goes without saying that the Soviet party leadershipincreased the acceptable irradiation doses by 10 to 50
times in order to conceal the true number of the

However, as the documents show, these data were
not thorough and exact. At the meeting of the
Operative Group on the 16th of May, the following
decision was taken: "The task should be given to Mr.
Schtepin to obtain more exact information on thenumber of persons hospitalised and suffering radiation
syndrome, that are in hospitals in Moscow and other
cities of the RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federative
Socialist Republic), the Ukraine, and Byelorussia,
including military personnel and Ministry of Inner
Affairs staff."
Protocol on the 20th of May 1986: "It is reported..
by Mr. Schtepin that over the last 4 days the number ofhospitalised increased by 716 persons. Diagnosis ofradiation syndrome has been confirmed in 211 cases,

105

affected people. To a significant extent theysucceeded.

Chernobyl accident, including lung and stomach
cancer, as well as the genitourinary system problems.
The data of the Ukrainian officials state that 148
thousand people have died due to the consequences of
the Chernobyl catastrophe over the ten years after thecatastrophe.
Special attention is needed in the situation ofchildren in the Ukraine. According to the report of the
Ukrainian Research Institute of Paediatrics, Obstetrics
and Gynaecology of the Ministry of Health Care of the
Ukraine, the statistical data bear evidence of acontinual increase in infant mortality as compared tothe period before the Chernobyl accident, while in therest of the Ukraine it has even decreased by 6 percent.
In some regions the primary morbidity has increasedby 1.5-2 times over the last ten years. In particularly
affected territories the morbidity of endocrine system,
blood and blood-forming organs, as well as the numberof hereditary malformations, neoplasms haveincreased by 2-3 times. There are areas where theprimary morbidity is 14-20 times higher than the
average rate in the Ukraine. The incidence of childthyroid cancer has significantly increased. While only
2-3 cases of thyroid cancer were registered annually
before 1986, 200 cases were registered in 1989 in the
Ukraine.
The most widely spread children diseases in theaffected territories are: thyroid hyperplasia of 1st and2nd degrees, diseases of digestive organs, caries,
diseases of throat and nose, diseases of the nervous
system, anemias, vegetovascular dystonia, diseases of
respiratory organs, heart diseases, allergic diseases,
and rachitis [3].
The birth rate in the Ukraine has decreased from 15
per 1,000 persons in 1986 to 11.4 at present (the death
rate 13.4). The situation has worsened especially in 75
districts of strict radiation control in the Kiev,
Zhitomir, Chernigov and other (total 11) regions of thecountry. The indices of children mortality in these
districts are 1.6-2 times higher than the Ukrainian level[4, 5].
According to the data of the same institute, medical
examinations of women show increases of different
complications during pregnancy as well as increases in
the number of pathological birth and birth withcomplications. The number of anemias and pregnancy
interruption threats has increased 1.5-2 times. Alreadyduring the first year after the Chernobyl catastrophe, a
two-fold increase in the number of bloodying at birth
was registered (from 3.5 to 7.5 percent). Over thefollowing years this rate has increased to 9.2 percent.
The morbidity has increased for cardiovasculardiseases, diseases of the liver, and neurocirculatory
dystonia by pregnant women in the strict radiation
control districts [6].
Delay of foetus growth is registered in its mainindices. This means the possibility of hypotropia
development.

As the process of democratic transformation began
in the USSR, however, the truth about the real scale of
population irradiation due to the Chernobyl
catastrophe gradually started to emerge. In theparliamentary hearings in the USSR Supreme Council
in 1990, Academician Ilyin, the director of the Instituteof Biophysics, one of those who were concealing thetruth about the health of people in the affected
territories, had to admit under the pressure of deputies'
inquiries and the facts in the affected territories(including mine — A.Ya) that "1.6 million children
received irradiation doses that are worrying us; thedecision should be taken on how to act further [2]." Healso admitted that "if the dose limits were lowered to 7
rem per 35 years (of life — A. Ya.), we would have toincrease the number of 166 thousand people that are
now planned to be relocated approximately by 10times. Relocation of a total of 1.6 million people would
have to be considered. The society must balance all therisks and profits of such an action." As one can see,neither the health of people nor the real state of things
was considered, but only the economic side of the
problem was. The USSR was not able to relocate such
number of irradiated people. Thus, the officials were
trying to conceal the truth about the health of the
population from the people itself.

Health state of the people ten years later
The results of studies conducted by conscientious
scientists ten years after the Chernobyl accident are
striking. According to the estimate of the World HealthOrganisation, the number of liquidators - people who
took place in liquidation of the accident consequences- amounts to 800,000. Russian scientists estimate thisnumber as approximately 600,000. Nobody knows theexact figure because, according to the documents thepresent author obtained already in 1989, "Persons who
had taken part in the extermination of the accident
consequences after the 1st of January 1988 should not
be included in the registry from 1989 by the order ofthe Ministry of Health Care of the Ukrainian SSR."
However, all-union organisations about health carereport that morbidity and mortality increase among theliquidators. They mainly suffer from vegetovascular
dystonia, heart diseases, lung cancer, gastrointerstinal
diseases and leukaemia. According to the data of the
Ukrainian officials, approximately 8,000 liquidators
have died over the ten years after the Chernobyl
catastrophe. The official data states that a total of
2,000 liquidators in Russia have died within the same
period. In newspapers this number reaches 50
thousand people.
According to the reports of the Ministry of HealthCare of Belarus, the total morbidity in the mostcontaminated areas of this country has increased by 51
percent in comparison to the period before the106Health state indices of children in the Zhitomir
region (Ukraine) have significantly worsened over thelast three years. According to the report of theZhitomir official medical authorities, the number ofpremature-born children has grown. Every second
child in the first year of its life belongs to the risk
group. Only 38 percent of children, born before theChernobyl catastrophe, were found to be healthy. The
morbidity among these children has increased by 27
percent.
The group of children with infant-cerebral
paralysis and oncological diseases has grownsignificantly. In 1992-1994 2 children withbrain-cancer have been registered every year in
Zhitomir, while in 1994 it was already 8. Thyroid
hyperplasia, autoimmune thyroiditis among theZhitomir children are registered by 4 times as often ascompared to the republican average [7].
In the capital of the Ukraine - Kiev, children
irradiated at the moment of the accident constitute a
special group of population. The morbidity amongchildren up to 14 years was 1,554.5 per 1,000 children(the average rate in the Ukraine is 1,308). One needs tonote the higher morbidity of Kiev children in mental
disorders - 40.2 per 1,000 children (the Ukraine 30.0); diseases of respiratory organs - 995.4 (theUkraine - 743.1); chronic bronchitis - 8.4 (the Ukraine- 4.7); bronchial asthma - 4.6 (the Ukraine -2.8); as
well as in diseases of digestive organs in comparison to
the average Ukrainian rates.
However, a dramatic tendency common in the
Ukraine, Russia and Belarus should be noted,
particularly in the increase in the number of thyroid
cancer among children. Most of these cases are foundin Belarus. According to the data of the World HealthOrganisation, 21 cases were registered in the period
from 1966 to 1985. After 1986 the number of cases
amounted to 379. Within the period from 1986 to
1989, 18 cases have been registered, in 1990 - 29, in
1991 - 59, in 1992 - 66, and 46 cases only in the firsthalf of 1995.
According to the data of the World HealthOrganisation, 680 cases of thyroid cancer amongchildren have been registered in Russia, the Ukraine
and Belarus by December 1995. The data of theEuropean Association for Studies of the Thyroid
Gland shows that this number is only the beginning of
the outbreak, and in the next 30 years thousands ofchildren will suffer from thyroid cancer.
The above mentioned data on morbidity andmortality development, especially among the children
residing in the affected territories, testify to the fact
that, in the first days after Chernobyl catastrophe,
millions of people have been subject to irradiation. It isfar beyond thousands of people reported in the secretdocuments of the Operative Group of the Politbureauof the CPSU Central Committee. As time passes moresince the catastrophe at Chernobyl, people will learn
more and more about the results of this catastrophe andits impact on genes of future generations of Russia, theUkraine and Belarus, as well as on the ecology of thewhole planet.
References
1. A. Yaroshinskaya, Chernobyl: Top Secret; Part II,
Drugie berega, Moscow, 1991 (in Russian)
2. ibid., Part I.
3. Report of the Ukrainian Research Institute ofPaediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the
Ministry of Health Care of the Ukraine. 9.02.1994.
Kiev. Author's archive.
4. Letter from the Ministry of Health Care of the
Ukraine to Suprime Soviet of the Ukraine.
9.02.1994, #4.40-13/16. Kiev. Author's archive.
5. Letter from the Ministry of Health Care of the
Ukraine to the Heard of National Committee onRadioactive Defence of Ukrainian Population.
9.02.1994. #7.00/50. Kiev. Author's archive.
6. Report by prof. T.Savchenko to National Committeeon Radioactive Defence of Ukrainian Population.
10.06.1994. Author archive.
7. Information by the main children's doctor of
Zhitomir city, V.Bashek about health of Zhitomir'schildren. 2.09.1994. (Prepared on requirment ofauthor.) Zhitomir. Author's archive.

107Chernobyl 1996: New Materials concerning Acute Radiation Syndrome
around Chernobyl
Vladimir M. LUPANDIN
Institute of Sociology, Russian Academy of Sciences
Parkovkaya 33-24, Moscow 105215, Russia
We have already reported that in March and June of
1992 we managed to discover 82 medical histories in
the Central district hospital (CRH) of the Khoiniki
district of the Gomel region (town Khoiniki) with thedescription of radiation injury, which emerged in thefirst days and weeks after the accident at the 4th power
unit of the Chernobyl NPP [1]. We have found thesymptoms of acute radiation disease in eight cases. A
brief account of this fact in the press has caused
interest in the Republic of Belarus, the USA and Japan[2, 3].
However, a more elaborate analysis of the data
found in the medical documents, compiled by the staffof the CRH in May-June 1986 was hampered by theabsence of reliable (not misrepresented) informationon the radiation situation in the Khoiniki district in thefirst days after the accident when, as one might expect,radiation dose could be so strong enough to induceradiation syndrome.
In 1996 we have succeeded in getting reliable dataon the radiation situation in the Khoiniki district.
These were data of the Civil Defence Headquarters of
the Khoiniki district, remaining in private notes of the
Chief of the Civil Defence Headquarters (all data havebeen submitted to the republican archives in Minsk
immediately after the accident).
According to the existing practice, all data on theradiation situation in the first days after the accident
have
been
concealed
by
the
USSR
Hydro-meteorological Committee, although these data
were of the greatest interest in order to assess the scaleof the accident. The same happened to the data of the
Civil Defence Headquarters of the Khoiniki district:they were concealed by the Belorussian
Hydro-meteorological Committee.
However, as we have compared the data onradioactive contamination presented by the Civil
Defence Headquarters with the data of the Medical andEpidemiological Station of the Khoiniki district, wefound that they coincided to a great extent.
The usual argument to reject the data acquired on
local areas has been that measurements wereconducted by semiskilled staffs using improperly
calibrated devices. However, in our case this argument
has no power.
The Chief of the Civil Defence Headquarters of the
Khoiniki district - Kayuda Alexander Ivanovitch had

previously worked as a nuclear submarine mechanicalengineer. He had been serving in the submarine fleet
until 1983. Besides technical maintenance of thenuclear reactor, he was responsible for measurementsin the reactor compartment. He has been holding thepost of the Civil Defence Headquarters Chief since1983. Even before the accident, he had been
conducting measurements of the radiation backgroundin the 10-20 km distance from the Chernobyl NPP bymeans of the DP-5V dosimeter. According to his data
in June 1985, exposure dose rate on the ground near
the village Radin was 240-250 µR/h (the same
dosimeter showed only 40 µR/h in the reactor
compartment of a nuclear submarine). The enhanced
radiation background in the vicinity of the village
Radin could not be explained by reasons other than(radioactive) discharge from the Chernobyl NPP.
According to the data of the Civil Defence
Headquarters, systematic dosimetric studies were notconducted on the 26th and 27th of April in the territoryof the Khoiniki district by any civil or militaryorganisation. The Civil Defence Headquarters started
to conduct the first dosimetric studies on the 28th ofApril at 8 a.m. Below are given some of the results ofthe ground radiation measurements conducted by the
Civil Defence Headquarters:
Town of Khoiniki — 8 mR/h;
Villages: Strelitschevo — 14 mR/h,
Dron'ki — 30 mR/h,
Orevitschi — 89 mR/h,
Borschevka — 120 mR/h,Radin — 160 mR/h,
Ulasy — 300 mR/h,
Tschemkov — 330 mR/h,
Masany — 500 mR/h.
According to the instruction on population
radiation protection existing at that moment, the majorpart of the Khoiniki district population had to be
evacuated because many residents of the district werelikely to suffer the whole-body doses of hundreds ofrem — such was the conclusion of the Civil Defence
Headquarters, announced at the district meeting in theevening of the 28th of April.
The conclusion about the necessity of immediateevacuation of the district residents was supported by
the Gomel region Civil Defence Headquarters Chief,
D.F. Zhukovskiy (mechanical engineer of special
power plants) and nuclear physicists from the Obninsk
NPP who were also present at this meeting. The
district administration rejected the demand of theThis report was published in Gijutsu-to-Ningen, No.284,
pp.59-69, Mar 1998 (in Japanese).

108

district and region Civil Defence Headquarters.
However, the evacuation of children and pregnant
women from the 30km zone began on the 1st of May,and on the 5th of May the evacuation of the rest of the
population. The number of evacuated residents totalled
to 5,200 persons. All of them underwent medical
examination at the CRH which has been reorganised
into a Military Field Hospital (MFH) on the 5th of May.
From this day military radiologists from Severomorsk,
Severodvinsk and the Far East started to work at the
CRH. The official symptoms for stationary
examination at the MFH were as follows:• The exposure dose rate of the thyroid gland is morethan 1,000 µR/h.
• Contamination of clothing, footwear, skin,underwear is more than 0.1 mR/h.
• Accumulation of radionuclides in internal organs(thyroid gland, liver, kidneys, genitals) from 800 to
1,000 µCi.
Approximately 12 thousand residents of the
Khoiniki district came within these factors: all of them
have undergone medical examination in the MilitaryField Hospital (there have been 32 thousand residents
in the Khoiniki district before the accident).
Medical histories (approximately 12 thousand)have been stolen from the hospital archive in
November 1990. After the loot, the records of thearchives have not been kept in order. At the time westarted to search for the remaining medical histories,
medical files were found to be huddled in a stack in theattic of an ancillary building. As it is alreadymentioned, we have found 82 medical histories ofpatients from contaminated territories, who entered thehospital within the period from the 1st of May and till
the middle of June 1986. These 82 histories are
considered to be only a small part of the total, most ofwhich were stolen from the archive in 1990.
22 medical histories of patients from the Bragin
district have been excluded from the present report.

4. Child from radioactive zone.
5. Hospitalisation for medical examination due to stayin the zone of increased radiation and changes inblood tests (leukocytes 2,500 mln/l).
6. Complaints of nausea, vomiting, salivation.
Exposure dose rate of thyroid gland is higher than
3,000 µR/h.
7. Radioactive contamination. Exposition dose rate of
the thyroid gland is higher than 3,000 µR/h.
8. Leukocytopenia: leukocytes — 2,300 mln/l.
Headache.
9. Directed by the primary medical service withradioactive contamination diagnosis. Dosimetricdata of the thyroid gland: more than 3 mR/h.
Leukocytes — 2,900 mln/l.
10. At the time of the accident the patient stayed within
300 meters from the Chernobyl NPP.
Leukocytopenia: leukocytes — 3,200 mln/l.
11. Radioactive contamination: liver 5-10 mR/h.
Thyroid gland — 1.5 mR/h.
12. Radiation burn of face and hands.
13. Radiation injury, nasal bleeding.
Apart from the reasons coming to the MFH,
complaints of the patients about their health state arealso of interest. The following complex of symptoms
was found most frequently: headache, strong
weakness, nausea — more than 30% of the total
number of patients. These symptoms are typical of
so-called vegeto-vascular dystonia (VVD).
Second was the complex of symptoms
characterised by vomiting, stomach ache, dizziness,poor appetite, pains in the heart area, dry and bitter
mouth — up to 10%. Neurocirculatory dystonia (VVD
+ pains in the heart area) — 13%.
Below is given the list of patients' complaints foundin the medical histories:
Headache — 33 cases,
strong weakness — 29,
nausea — 20,
dizziness — 10,
pains in the heart area — 8,
vomiting — 7,
poor appetite — 7,
dry and bitter mouth — 7,
salivation — 3,
arthralgia pain — 3,
scratchy feeling in the throat — 3,drowsiness — 2,
diarrhoea — 2,
disturbed sleep — 2,
pains in the right subcostal area (liver) — 2.
The following complaints have been registeredonly once: increased temperature, defecation andurination retention, retardation, nasal bleeding,vascular bleeding, ear noise, skin itch, sweating, dry
cough.
The patients were coming from the following
residential areas: Towns: Khoiniki, Pripyat. Villages:
Borschevka,
Orevitschi,
Ulasy,
Pogonnaya,
Molotschki, Kazhushki, Dron'ki, Chvoschevka,

The Military Field Hospital (MFH)
60 medical histories from the hospital archives
have been used for a retrospective analysis. All entries
in these histories are very brief, reflecting a factaccounted for by both the considerable amount ofwork and the inspective reasons. The diagnosis at thedischarge from the MFH had been subject to especiallystrict inspection: we have not found a single
mentioning of radiation injury.
However, the reasons coming to the hospital for
medical examination due to stay in the zone ofradioactive contamination were not subject toinspection. The contents of these reasons remaining intheir medical histories are of our interest.
Reasons coming to the MFH are as follows:
1. Radiation sickness Grade II.
2. The dose rate of thyroid grand — 10-16 mR/h.
3. Complaints of general weakness, headache, stomach
aches, nausea, vomiting, dropsy of lower
extremities.

109

Tschemkov, Veliki Bor, Vysokaya, Budovnik,
Novoselki, Lomatchi, Maleshev, Novopokrovka,
Klivy,
Amel'kovstchina,
Erapov,Pudakov,
Tul'govjtchi, Veletin, Tchechi, Dvorishtche, Rudnoe.
As a result of a retrospective analysis of 60 medical
histories, the cases have been divided into threegroups:1. Acute radiation syndrome (ARS).
2. Radiation reactions.
3. High exposure dose rate of the thyroid gland
without clear clinical symptoms.

The data of the Khoiniki district Civil Defence
Headquarters: the exposure dose rate on the ground in
the village Borschevka on the 28th of April was 120
mR/h. Air measurements on the 20th of May; 300
meters above the village Borschevka — 28 mR/h; on
the ground — 50 mR/h.
The data of the Khoiniki district Medical andEpidemiological Station: on the 29th of April 1986 theexposure dose rate on the ground in the village
Borschevka was 60-100 mR/h, Sr-90 — 13.4 Ci/km2.
The clinical characteristics of the disease
corresponds to Grade III ARS: the irradiation dose,apparently exceeds 300 rem. The patient had received
the main dose of ionising irradiation within two days
— 26th and 27th of April, which testifies to the fact thatduring these two days there was a very high radiationlevel in the area of the village Borschevka. As theradiation level on the ground on the 28th of April has
been 120 mR/h, one can draw a conclusion that thehigh level of ionising irradiation was contributed byshort-lived radionuclides.
The severity of radiation injury was determined not
only by high irradiation level, but also by the fact thatthe patient was getting sun-tanned (there weather washot). One can presume that there were many people
taking vacation on the bank of the river Pripyat during
the weekend (26th and 27th of April). We can state thatduring these two days high irradiation doses could bereceived by the people far outside the Khoiniki district,
especially by those who were getting sun-tanned, took
outer clothes off due to hot weather, spent much timein the open air.
2. Medical history N2505/467. Man, resident of thevillage Borschevka, milker, age: 47, works in thecollective farm "Pervoe Maya" (The First of May).
Admitted to the CRH on the 2nd of May, 2:45. Directedby the head physician of the Pogonyansk rural
hospital. Diagnosis: Grade II ARS.
By admission the patient complained of nausea,
vomiting, weakness, abdominal pains. He said that hehad fallen ill on the 1st of May, when pains inepigastrium area, nausea and vomiting came.
Medical examination on the 2nd of May, 16:30.
Vomiting did not recurred. Health state improved.
Abdomen painful.
Blood analysis: leukocytes — 4,700 mln/l. The
patient left the hospital on the 4th of May without
official permission.
3. Medical history N7539/464. Man, age: 82, residentof the village Borschevka. Admitted to the CRH on the
3rd of May 1986. Complaints of general weakness,headache, abdominal pains, nausea, vomiting. Dropsyof lower extremities was found by evening. The patient
left the hospital on the 4th of May.
4. Medical history N2520/476. Woman, age: 48.
Admitted to hospital on the 3rd of May from the village
Molotchki.
First symptoms of an ailment became apparent on
the 28th of April 1986: nausea, vomiting, strong
general weakness, diarrhoea (up to 4 times a day). The

Radiation Syndrome
1. Krychenko Nikolay Alekseyvitch (fictitious),man, age: 20, worker, from the village Borschevka.
Time of admission to the CRH: the 1st of May,
2:00. Complaints by admission: recurrent vomiting,general weakness, abdominal pains (in epigastrium
area, mainly left), headache, bitter mouth.
History: the patient came to the village Borschevka
to his relatives, intending to get sun-tanned and fishingin the river Pripyat. He spent two days — 26th and 27thof April on the bank of the river Pripyat. On the 28th ofApril vomiting came (up to six times a day), nausea,
abdominal pains, the temperature rose (to 39). Stool
retention was observed. The patient took antidote
according to the direction of a physician.
Results of medical examination: retardation,
flaccid. The tongue was coated with white fur. Stool
retention for three days. Temperature — 36.6.
Radiation gamma background (!): clothes werestrongly contaminated. Gamma dose rate from the sideof the liver — 1.5 mR/h.
Medical examination on the 1st of May at 5:30 a.m.
The patient complained of general weakness, nausea,
vomiting (once since admission to hospital), retentionof urination and constipation. Health state of thepatient in the afternoon of the 1st of May: confused
speech, complaints of headache, dizziness, recurrent
vomiting. Blood analysis: leukocytes — 3,600 mln/l,trombocytes — 260,000/ml. Analysis of urine: protein— 4.65 g/l.
The patient was transferred to the Gomel regional
hospital on the 3rd of May.
Additional data. On the 29th of April he was
examined by the Medical Service Chief of the Civil
Defence Headquarters, V.I.Kobylko: confused speech,complains of headache, weakness, recurrent vomiting.
The patient conveyed that he had come to get
sun-tanned and fishing in the river Pripyat on the 26thand 27th of April. He was subject to a second medical
examination at the CRH on the 1st of May: the patient
was still in an emergency state: retardation, confused
speech. Diagnosis: Grade II-III ARS.
The village Borschevka, where the patient hadcome, is situated at 17.5 km to the north of theChernobyl NPP on the right bank of the river Pripyat.
Number of inhabitants on the 1st of January 1986 —311 persons.
Radiation measurements in the village Borschevka.

110patient consulted a doctor on the 30th of April.
Medical examination on the 3rd of May: the patientcomplained of pains in epigastrium area, nausea,
vomiting, salivation. 7th of May: the exposure dose rateof thyroid — 3,000 µR/h. Blood analysis from the 9thof May: leukocytes — 3,500 mln/l. Discharged from
hospital on the 13th of May 1986.
Retrospective analysis:
Grade I-II ARS — might be substantiated bytypical clinical symptoms and stay in radiation
contaminated area, the exposure dose rate of thyroid
and leukocytopenia. The intestinal upsets draw theattention in the health state of the patient.
Clinical symptoms of ARS of the patient became
apparent on the 28th of April, which testifies to the factthat on the 26th and 27th of April she received a dose
higher than 100 rem.
The patient resided in the village Molotchki (20 km
from the Chernobyl NPP, number of inhabitants —124). According to the data of the Civil Defence
Headquarters, the exposure dose rate on the ground in
the village Molotchki on the 28th of April was 280
mR/h (two times higher than in the village
Borschevka). According to the data of the Medical andEpidemiological Station, the exposure dose rate on the
29th of April was 130-190 mR/h, on the 30th of April —60-70 mR/h, Sr-90 — 25 Ci/km2.
5. Man, age: 35, resident of the village Dron'ki, works
in the state farm "Orevitschi".
Admitted to the CRH on the 3rd of May 1986,
20.30. Complaints: weakness, dizziness, nausea,
vomiting. The patient had fallen ill on the 28th of April,when the symptoms (weakness, nausea, vomiting)appeared for the first time. These symptoms remained
for a week (from the 28th of April to 2nd of May). The
health state worsened on the 3rd of May.
Data of medical examination on the 3rd of May: thepatient shows slight retardation, he said that he hadreceived a dose of 60 rad.
Discharged from hospital on the 6th of May. The
village Dron'ki (35 km from the Chernobyl NPP, 232
residents). According to the data of the Civil Defence
Headquarters, the exposure dose rate on the 28th ofApril was 30 mR/h, and according to the data of theMedical and Epidemiological Station on the same day— 26-28 mR/h. Sr-90 — 2.7 Ci/km2.
6. Medical history N8977/438. Man, age: 55, residentof the village Amel'kovstchina. Admitted to hospitalon the 10th of May. The patient had fallen ill on the 4thof May, when general weakness, abdominal pains,diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting appeared.
Patient complaints: diarrhoea, abdominal pains,
weakness. Blood analysis: leukocytes — 3,200 mln/l.
7. Medical history N8302/602. Woman, age: 57,
village Klivy (70 km from the Chernobyl NPP).
Admitted to hospital on the 11th of June due to stay inradiation contaminated zone. She had been ill for 1
month. Complaints: pains in the right subcostal area,
nausea, vomiting, dizziness, general weakness,
abdominal pains, pains in the back, neck, feet.

20th of May: vomiting once. Blood analysis fromthe 10th of June: leukocytes — 2500 mln/l,trombocytes — 260,000/ml, erythrocytes — 3.63
mln/ml. Arterial pressure 210/115.
8. Medical history 7588. Infant, age: 2 years and 7
months, village Pogonnoye. Admitted to the hospitalon the 4th of May. Diagnosis: aphthous stomatitis, achild from the zone of increased radiation.
Complaints: refuses to take food, salivation. Objective
signs: dropsy lips, profuse aphthous ulcers on themucosa of mouth, lips and cheeks. Marked salivation,
temperature 37.8.
6th of May: stomatitis remained. The patient wastransferred to the regional children hospital.
The village Pogonnoye (1,503 inhabitants) lies at
27 km from the Chernobyl NPP (the exposure dose
rate on the 28th of April, according to the data of theMedical and Epidemiological Station was 30-35 mR/h,
Sr-90 contamination density — 10 Ci/km2).
We have attributed this case to radiation syndrome,
although vomiting is not apparent with the patient. The
aphthous stomatitis can be explained as beta-injury.
The refusal to take food, increased temperature andprofuse salivation indicate the severity of the healthstate.
Let us draw some conclusions. The patients stayedin the radiation contaminated areas and received a
relatively high dose of ionising radiation. Similar
clinical symptoms appeared in all the patients, which
are characteristic of ARS. The patient Krivenok takes acentral place in our list: his case may be called astandard ARS case for the 30 km zone.

Radiation Reactions
The following syndromes have been established:
1. Hemopathology — cytopenia, leukocytopenia.
2. Astheno-vegetative syndrome.
3. Neurocirculatory dystonia.
4. Syndrome of laryngitis.
5. Beta-injury of the mucosa and skin.
6. High gamma radiation of the thyroid gland
Leukocytopenia
9. Medical history N7784. Woman, age: 65, residentof the village Amel'kovstchina, admitted to hospital on
the 12th of May. Diagnosis: radioactive contamination.
Measurement on the 15th of May: clothes — 500 µR/h.
Thyroid gland — 1,200 µR/h. Blood analysis:
leukocytes — 2,200 mln/l. Discharged from hospitalon the 20th of May 1986.
10. Medical history N8011/554. Man, age: 21, townof Khoiniki. Admitted to hospital on the 23rd of May
with the diagnosis: "Hospitalised for medical
examination due to stay in increased radiation zone,
with changes in blood analyses."
Blood analysis: leukocytes — 2,500 mln/l.
Radiation of the thyroid gland — 130 µR/h. Treatment
according to the scheme used by Grade I ARS:
gluconat calcium, citric acid, multivitamins,
hypotisiad, mineral water, isophenin, cholagogue
medicines.
111

Discharged from hospital on the 2nd of June.
11. Medical history N8318/604. Man, age: 41, townof Khoiniki, driver. Admitted to hospital on the 13th ofMay. Radiation from the side of the liver — 80 µR/h,of the thyroid gland — 35 µR/h. Blood analysis:
leukocytes — 2300 mln/l, trombocytes — 144,000/ml.
Complaints: headache.
12. Medical history N7641/318. Woman, age:33,
resident of the village Pogonnoye, from the zone ofcontamination. Complaints: moderate headache, dry
and bitter in mouth on May 6. Blood analysis:
leukocytes - 2,200 mln/l on May 7. The exposure dose
rate of thyroid -1,400 µR/h.
Vegetative-vascular dystonia
13. Medical history N7868/533. Man, age: 64,
resident of the village Ulasy, worker on the collective
farm "Novaya Zhizn'" ("New Life"), resettled on the
5th of May to the village Strelitschevo.
Admitted to the CRH on the 20th of May 1986.
Complaints by admission: general weakness,sleepiness, discomfort, pains in the loin.
Directed by the medical service station with thediagnosis: radioactive contamination. Hospitalised
from increased radiation area. Dosimetric examinationof the thyroid gland: 1.9-2.0 mR/h. Gamma-radiation
intensity on the thyroid gland by admission to the CRH
higher than 2 mR/h. Blood analysis: leukocytes —2,900 mln/l. Discharged from hospital on the 5th ofJune 1986. From the 26th of April till the 5th of May,
the patient stayed in the village Ulasy, where theexposure dose rate on the 28th of April has been 300
mR/h. From the 5th of May to the 15th of May thepatient stayed in the village Strelitschevo.
14. Medical history N7805/496/539. Woman, age:
63, resident of the village Novoselki. Admitted to the
CRH on the 13th of May. Diagnosis: radioactive
contamination. Exposition dose rate: liver — 1,000µR/h, thyroid gland — 3,000 µR/h. During three days
(10-12th of May) the patient stayed in the open air in a
65 km distance from the Chernobyl NPP.
Complaints: headache, nausea, poor appetite,
general weakness, discomfort, sleepiness. Bloodanalysis from the 19th of May: leukocytes — 3,200
mln/l. Discharged from hospital on the 27th of May.
15. Medical history N7795/491. Woman, age: 59,
village Novoselki. Admitted to the CRH on the 13th ofMay. Diagnosis: VVD. The exposure dose rate on
clothes on the 14th of May — 700 µR/h. Thyroid gland— 2,000 µR/h. Complaints: headache, nausea,
scratchy feeling in the throat. The patient stayed within
60 kilometres from the Chernobyl NPP and spent
plenty of time in the open air. Discharged from
hospital on the 21st of May.
16. Medical history 7818/495. Woman, age: 49,
village Novoselki. Admitted to hospital on the 13th ofMay. Directed to hospital with diagnosis: radioactive
contamination. 14th of May: the exposure dose rate on
clothes — 900 µR/h. Thyroid gland — 3,000 µR/h.
Symptoms of an ailment have become apparent on the10th of May.
Before this, the patient stayed within 65 kilometresfrom the Chernobyl NPP. Complaints: weakness,
nausea, poor appetite, headache. Discharged from
hospital on the 21st of May.
17. Medical history N7815/502. Woman, age: 57,
village Novoselki. Admitted on the 15th of May. The
exposure dose rate on clothes — 700 µR/h. Thyroid
gland — 2,600 µR/h. Blood analysis on the 19th of
May: leukocytes — 2,900 mln/l.
The patient stayed within 65 kilometres from the
Chernobyl NPP in the open air. The patient drank milk
from her own cow. Complaints: headache, weakness,
discomfort, pains in the heart area.
Beta-dermatitis, radioactive burns
18. Medical history N7587/1060. Man, age: 35,
resident of the village Veliki Bor. Admitted to the
CRH on the 4th of May 1986. The patient was broughtfrom a radiation contamination area with thediagnosis: radioactive burn of the face, hands.
Exposure dose rate of the body surface — 300 µR/h.
Thyroid gland — 700 µR/h. Complains of discomfort,
headache.
19. Medical history N7655/461. Woman, age: 43,
milker, resident of the village Vysokaya. Admitted to
the CRH on the 6th of May, 23:00. Directed with thediagnosis: radiation injury, nasal bleeding. On the
1st-5th of May the patient had worked on cow-milking
in the Tchemkov-Ulasy area. Headache became
apparent on the 5th of May. Objective signs: skinintegument of face, neck, hands have the colour ofdark sun-tan, reddened cheeks. Blood analysis:
leukocytes — 3,000 mln/l. The patient left the hospitalon the 8th of May without official permission.
20. Medical history N7794/489/540. Woman, age:
64, resident of the village Novoselki. Admitted on the
13th of May. Directed with the diagnosis: radioactive
contamination. The exposure dose rate on clothes —1,700 µR/h. Thyroid gland — higher than 3,000 µR/h.
Complaints: headache, nausea, pains in epigastrium
area. The patient said that she lived within 60
kilometres from the Chernobyl NPP. The patient
worked in the garden. Exposed body parts —sun-tanned. Blood analysis from the 26th of May:
leukocytes — 2,800 mln/l. Discharged on the 29th ofMay.
Neurocirculatory dystonia
21. Medical history N8013. Woman, age: 21, town of
Khoiniki. She was working at the Bragin Medical andEpidemiological Station. Admitted to the CRH on the
23rd of May. The symptoms of an ailment had started
to become apparent a week before admission to the
CRH. The patient repeatedly worked in the areas ofincreased radiation.
Complaints: sharp pain in the parietal area, nausea,
weakness, arthralgia, pains in the heart area, headache,disturbed sleep, anorexia. Discharged on the 2nd ofJuly.
22. Medical history N8060/550. Woman, age: 49,

112

town of Khoiniki. Admitted to the CRH on the 23rd of
May. The symptoms of ailment first became apparent
on the 3rd of May: weakness, nausea, subfebriletemperature at night. The health state had worsened on
the 20th of May, when the temperature rose to 39.
Complaints:
headache,strongweakness,
discomfort, poor appetite, nausea, pains in the lumbar
area, arthralgia, dry mouth.
23. Medical history N 7806/498. Man, age: 67,
village Maleshev (lies on the outskirts of Khoiniki).
Admitted on the 14th of May.
Diagnosis: radioactive contamination. The
exposure dose rate of the thyroid gland — 1,700 µR/h.
Blood analysis: leukocytes — 2,400 mln/l,trombocytes — 100,000/ml. Complaints: weakness,headache, dull pains in the heart area. Discharged on
the 21st of May.
Syndrome of laryngitis
24. Medical history N 7783/512. Man, age: 50,
village Borschevka. Admitted on the 12th of May withthe diagnosis: radioactive contamination. The
exposure dose rate of the thyroid gland — higher than
3,000 µR/h. Complaints: headache, dry cough,scratchy feeling in the throat. By ENT examination:marked hyperaemia of mucosa. Discharged on the 23rdof May.
25. Medical history N 7785/490. Woman, age: 47,
village Nebytov. Admitted on the 13th of May with thediagnosis: radiation contamination. The patient had
stayed within 65 kilometres from the Chernobyl NPP.
The patient worked in the state farm. Exposed bodyparts — sun-tanned. Complaints: headache, weakness,itch of the skin, burning in the mouth, dry cough. The
exposure dose rate of the thyroid gland — 300 µR/h.
Blood analysis: leukocytes — 2,800 mln/l,trombocytes — 140,000/ml.
26. Medical history N 3637/363. Woman, age: 36,
village Pogonnoye. Admitted on the 5th of May. Bloodanalysis: leukocytes — 3,400 mln/l. The exposure
dose rate of the thyroid gland — 1,400 µR/h.
Complaints: aches, scratchy feeling in the throat.
Discharged on the 12th of May.
High gamma radiation of the thyroid gland
27. Medical history N 8239/588. Man, age: 57,
village Lomatchi, forest worker. Admitted on the 14thof May. Data of the thyroid gland exposure dose ratemeasurement — 16 mR/h. Complaints: general
weakness, bitter mouth, headache. Discharged on the
14th of May.
28. Medical history N 8011/554. Man, age: 21, townof Khoiniki. Admitted on the 23rd of May for
examination from the medical-sanitary field unit withthe diagnosis: "radiation level could not be measured(?)". The exposure dose rate of thyroid gland — 13
mR/h. Blood analysis: leukocytes — 2,500 mln/l.

Conclusion
Just a single case (the patient Krychenko) is enoughto reject the point of view which the IAEA, the Red
Cross, the WHO and other organisations confine to,namely that acute radiation syndrome cases could nothave occurred and did not occurred outside of theChernobyl NPP site. However, the case of the patient
Krychenko could not have been single. When in thevillage Borschevka ARS was observed with at least
1% of inhabitants, the same index must be even higher
for the villages Masany, Ulasy and others. It is known
that 5,200 persons were evacuated from the 30
kilometre zone of the Khoiniki district, while the total
number of inhabitants in this was more than 100
thousand persons. As a result we need to expect morethan 1,000 cases of ARS.
The obtained data testify to the fact that the highest
ionising irradiation levels was observed on the 26th and27th of April. Over these two days a dose from 100 to
300 rem could have been received in certain conditions(work in the open air, getting sun-tanned).
It has been also found that the number of irradiatedpersons in the 30 kilometre zone exceeds the numberof inhabitants of this district. This is accounted by asignificant number of people who came to spend theweekend (26th and 27th of April) in this area.
The fact that irradiation was at its highest on the
26th and 27th of April points to the possible irradiationof a significant number of Belorussian inhabitants,
including those, who lived far outside the 30 kilometrezone (in the first place, those who were getting
sun-tanned worked in the gardens and spent a longtime in the open air). This factor should be taken into
account in the analysis of all ailments registeredamong the Belorussian citizens in April-June 1986
with a number of peculiarities which were not clearly
explained so far.
References
1. V.Lupandin, “Invisible Victims”, NABAT, 36, October
1992 (Japanese translation was published in
Gijutsu-to-Ningen, April 1993, pp.24-31).
2. R. Hirokawa, “Chernobyl: Looking for Lost Medical
Records”, Gendai, Sep 1993, pp.118-129 (in Japanese).
3. Los Angeles Times, April 14, 1992.

113

Overview of Different Information about Acute Radiation Syndrome among
Inhabitants around Chernobyl
Alla YAROSHINSKAYA
Alla Yaroshinskaya Charity Fund
20/2 Beresnevskaya naberezhnaya, Moscow 103790, Russia
Tel: +7-095-959-0914 e-mail: yaro@glas.apc.org
the following: the population has experienced no healthchanges and will not experience any. This political
diagnosis was made considering the ideologicalconflict between totalitarianism and democracy. It did
not contain a shred of truth. The overall concealment of
truth on radioactively contaminated areas had lasted forthree years — till the first Congress of People's
Deputies of the USSR. The lies of both the authorities
and the medical officials were at first disclosed byspeeches of the deputies, acting on behalf of theaffected territories' electorate, of the Gorbachev period,and by thefirst open hearings at the parliament session
on the catastrophe at the ChNPP and its consequences
for human health and the environment.
The official medical documents from my archive
allow to trace easily the dynamics of changes in theposition of "fathers" of the notorious soviet 35-remconcept for safe living of the population in the affected
territories. Briefly, the essence of this concept lies in abelief that a person may receive 35 rem over 70 years
without health disorders. A month after the accident
this "ceiling" was increased to 70 rem over 70 years,
and several months later was decreased to 50 rem over
70 years, then to 35 rem. The same official scientists —L.A.Ilyin, E.I.Chazov and A.KGuskova had stated intheir book, written before the Chernobyl accident in
1982, that the threshold is 25 rem over lifetime. Hence,
we can conclude the "scientific" nature of thementioned official concept.
The first open report under the title"Radio-contamination Patterns and Possible HealthConsequences of the Accident at the Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Station" (70 pages typescript) waspresented by Academician L.A.Ilyin at the General
Session of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the
USSR in Moscow, which took place on the 21st-23rd of
March 1989 [1]. An important remarkable thing: thisopen report had taken place just on the eve of the first
Congress of the People's Deputies of the USSR (theCongress opened on the 25th of May 1989). The
Moscow authorities had no doubts that this question
was going to be raised by deputies at the Congress, thus
they decided to avoid the blow in advance.
Although the report was made by L.A.Ilyin, it was
signed by 23 official medical celebrities from Russia,
the Ukraine, Byelorussia. In the Soviet Union,
responsibility has always been collective and never

The Chernobyl nuclear catastrophe has divided
scientists of the world, studying the consequences of its
impact on the health of people, into two opposed, attimes irreconcilable blocks. The first block generallycomprises representatives of medical officials in thesoviet and post-soviet society. They have been
concealing the truth from the soviet and the world
public for years. This group advocates the point of view
that, except for firemen and several staff members whodied at the time of the catastrophe, the Chernobyl
accident has produced no practical impact on humanhealth and will not do any such effect also in future. The
second block consists basically of independentscientists. They are anxious about the facts ofconcealment of the truth on actual radiation doses,
received by inhabitants of the areas around theChernobyl NPP (ChNPP), as well as about impacts oflow radiation dose on human health. Scientists of thesecond block are convinced that doses received by the
population in the first days and months after thecatastrophe at the ChNPP have played and will playsignificantly negative roles in worsening of humanhealth years after the accident. The data on these doses
have been deliberately concealed by the authorities
from both the sufferers and the public. This fact has
been already proven (by the Procurator General of the
Ukraine as well).
I have official and unofficial documents in myChernobyl archive, which are demonstrating two
approaching ways to the problems of radiologicalconsequences due to the Chernobyl catastrophe. I
would like to emphasise that these documents havenever been published anywhere.
In searching the answer to the question about theacute radiation syndrome among inhabitants in theareas around the Chernobyl NPP in the first weeks andmonths after the catastrophe, we will compare
positions, arguments and conclusions of two blocks
based on the facts presented in these documents.

What has been publicly said about risks ofirradiation by soviet medical officials?
Official position of the party leaders of the Soviet
Union on the problem about the scale of the catastrophe
at the ChNPP and its impact on human health has been
known from the party press. Its main conclusion was114

as a Result of the Accident at the ChNPP", the authors
give, by means of the specified approaches, their"predictions for three levels of exposure of the whole
population and separately for children aged 0-7 years at
the time of the accident: 1) for 39 districts of 9 regions
where the levels of exposure were relatively high (total
population about 1.5 million, including 158,000
children); 2) for the entire population of these regions(15.6 million, including 1.666 million children aged 0-7
years); and 3) for the population of the central regionsof the European part of the USSR (75 million,
including 8 million children aged 0-7 years)". For the
first time after the catastrophe at the ChNPP these data
have been opened to the public. Bear in mind that thereport was made in 1989, three years after thecatastrophe had happened.
What are the official prognoses? "... according to
the linear (non-threshold) hypothesis, the projected
number of malignant thyroid tumour among children
aged 0-7 years is around 90 in the whole period of 30
years following the accident. This includes about 10
projected fatal cases." For the whole population ofthese districts (1.5 million) a possible 200 excess casesof malignant tumour over the 30 years period werepredicted without correction of the specified
hypothesis.
Investigation of the possible consequences ofirradiation of thyroid for the whole population in therelevant regions (9 regions — A.Ya.) and, in the firstplace Kiev, Gomel, Bryansk and Zhitomir regions
shows that malignant tumour may amount to 3.3*102,
including 3*101 incurable cases." The prediction for the
population of the Central regions of the European partof the USSR, including the whole territory of the
Ukraine, Byelorussia, Moldavia and several central
regions of the RSFSR (now Russian Federation ) — 75
million people, including 8 million children aged 0-7
years — are following. "The projected numbers of
thyroid malignant tumour caused by radiation in the 30
years following the accident are as follows: incurable
tumours in children — up to 20 and in the whole
population — up to 50; curable malignant tumours are
up to 170 and up to 400 cases, respectively."In the paragraph "Prediction of Possible Late
Effects of Whole Body Exposure in Various Groups of
the Population of the USSR as a Result of the Accident
at the ChNPP" of the report, the estimates of the
population irradiation are given. Here appears the
35-rem concept of the Ministry of Health of the USSR.
It is especially noted that for the population of the strict
control zones (SCZ) "the estimations of late effects was
based on the actual doses in the four years following theaccident and on the projected doses until 2060, thelatter having been calculated on the assumption that
restrictions on the use of home-grown products would
be lifted in the SCZs." Hence, two simple questions
arise. Firstly, the time of this report was three years, notfour, since the accident. If this is an error on the part ofbeen personal. This was more convenient and safe.
Many of the above-mentioned scientists still holdinfluential posts in science and, even 11 years after thecatastrophe, they continue to deny the obvious andproven facts about the impact of the Chernobyl
catastrophe on the health of the population.
In the paragraph "The Characteristics of Radiation
Exposure of the Population, and Theoretical Premises
for Prediction of Late Radiological Consequences" ofthe report, it was noted that "thyroid irradiation doses asa result of radioiodine incorporation were delivered
over a comparatively short period — two to threemonths after the accident. .... Immediately after theaccident, the Ministry of Health of the USSR
implemented a previously composed emergency
regulation on the maximum acceptable concentration of
131
I in milk (3,700 Bql-1), corresponding to a radiationdose to thyroid of children of 0.3 Sv (30 rem).
Preliminary assessments suggest that, due to a series ofmeasures recommended by the Ministry of Health of
the USSR to protect the population from radiation in
the early phase, and especially to prevent or reduceradioiodine intake by the human body, .... probableradiation doses were on average by 50% and in someplaces by 80% lower than they would have been had theprotective measures not been taken." The authors of thereport state that "absorbed doses were calculated bycomputer for inhabitants of each settlement in the strict
control zones for different times after the accident,
including prediction of radiation burden in humans up
to the year 2060." The authors specify that, although thewidely accepted hypothesis of non-threshold impact ofradiation on human health "exaggerates the actual riskof late effects", they have used this approach, "realising
its limitation for extrapolation and a need for prudent
interpretation of the results obtained." So, what are thelimitations that the authors bear in mind? In their report,
they state that "one of the main objections (to the
non-threshold hypothesis — A.Ya.) is that the values ofrisk factors e.g. probabilities of effect per unit of dose,
have in fact been deduced from observations at highdoses and high dose rates." And further on: "Nostochastic effects of somatic or genetic nature havebeen observed in the low dose range." These statements
are at least strange even for a non-specialist inradiobiology, because at that time the results of studies
on impact of low radiation doses on human health havebeen already published by such world-known scientists
as John Gofman, Rosalie Bertell, Ralph Greyb, Petko,
etc. Furthermore, one should consider that the United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation, which "legitimatised" on international scale
the non-threshold (not the threshold) concept of low
radiation doses impact on human health, had followed
scientific, not emotional estimates.
In the paragraph "The Prediction of Possible
Stochastic Effects in Different Groups of the
Population of the USSR after Exposure of the Thyroid115

irradiation dose of 62 percent of the population who
were subject to medical examination was found to be 1
to 5 rem. Out of 1.5 million people residing in areas
most contaminated with radioiodine, including 160
thousand children, thyroid irradiation dose of 87
percent of adults and 48 percent of children was at most
30 rem. Of 17 percent of children the dose amounted to
100 rem."the authors, it is very symptomatic. Secondly, WHO
and WHEN had ACTUALLY evaluated the doses
received by the population in the first 2-3 months? I
know very well about the efforts made by officials in
the Narodichi district of the Zhitomir region in order toeliminate primary medical documents representing the
ACTUAL doses. Instead, medical staffs were ordered
to register understated dose values. Are these"ACTUAL" dose estimates worth of belief? Of thesame nature are the official secret documents of the
Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR from myarchive. According to these documents, even autopsiesof those who died after the accident, including children,
have not been carried out in the strict control zone in
Zhitomir region. However, if the authors of the report
are confident in what they say, why were these "actual
doses" not accessible, and are still not accessible foranalysis not only to common people interested in these
problems, but also to doctors of medicine,radiobiology?
The conclusion, drawn by the authors in theprediction of the future of the population of the strict
control zones, is astonishing: "Despite a trend forincrease in spontaneous morbidity and mortality ofmalignant neoplasm, which is registered in data fromall over the USSR, values of these parameters are
assumed to remain stable throughout the investigated
70 years period. Hence, ratios of increase in the numberof excess fatal tumours over their spontaneous level canonly be corrected to their decrease." This idea isrepeated in the general conclusion: "The data presented
in this report provide evidence that the predicted levelsof the discussed radiogenic effects as a result of theaccident at the Chernobyl NPP, in the majority of cases
including the population in the strict control zones, will
likely be in the range of values which are less thanstandard deviations of spontaneous levels of thecorresponding pathology." In other words, among the
population and, in the first place, among the population
residing in the strict control zones and being exposed toirradiation every day since the catastrophe at the
ChNPP, the authors say, there will be less fatal cases of
induced cancers than among the population of all other
territories. Speaking of thyroid tumour, the authors
conclude that "excess incidence of radiogenic tumourof this organ may be noticeable." In short, it may or may
not be noticeable. Today, only 11 years, instead of 30
years, since the catastrophe at the ChNPP, it is obvious
what these collective soviet prediction are worth.
A year later, at the parliament sessions in theSupreme Soviet of the USSR, the same academician
L.A.Ilyin told deputies that "1 million 600 thousandchildren have received doses that are causing ourworries; we need to decide what is to be done further."
In 1990 in the meeting of the Supreme Soviet of the
USSR, the Chairman of the Government Commission
on Liquidation of the Consequences of the Accident at
the Chernobyl NPP, V.Ch.Doguzhiev said [2]: "... theWhat have soviet medical officials been saying
about radiation dose to the public?
As I was sorting my Chernobyl archive, whichaccumulated a great deal of various materials, I cameacross a very interesting document that may become asensation. Over 11 years after the catastrophe at
Chernobyl, many different secret official documents
have been published (by me, as well). However, I haveseen nothing of the kind so far. FOR THE FIRST TIME
concrete and ACTUAL doses, received by people in thefirst months after the catastrophe at the CNNP, areconcerned.
On the 26th of May 1987 the Minister of Health of
the Ukrainian SSR, A.E.Romanenko reported a letter
N428c "On course of implementation of the decreeN527-dsp of the Ministry of Health of the USSR fromthe 13.04.1987" to the Minister of Health of the USSR,
E.I.Chazov [3]. With stamps of "Secret" and "No rightfor publication" of the CPSU (Communist Party of theSoviet Union) Central Committee, there was noted:"215 thousand inhabitants, including 74.6 thousandchildren, reside in the districts with increased radiationlevels of the Kiev, Zhitomir and Chernigov regions. ....
39.6 thousand persons, that have not been registeredpreviously, were found ill. In cases of different somatic
disorders, patients are subject to continuous
observation, hospital and out-patient treatment. The
total number of hospitalised persons over the year is
20.2 thousand persons, including 6 thousand children."
And now — attention: "IN THE FIRST MONTHS
AFTER THE ACCIDENT AT THE ChNPP
DOSIMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THYROID
GLAND OF ALL CHILDREN HAVE BEEN
CONDUCTED. THE CONTENT OF IODINE
RADIONUCLIDES, EXCEEDING 500 REM WAS
FOUND AMONG 2.6 THOUSAND CHILDREN(3.4%)." Could it be that the group of soviet scientists,
who signed the above-mentioned report, as well as
Academician L.A.Ilyin, did not know about these
literally deadly facts? In that case, how is it possible toconsider the estimates ofradiation doses andpredictions of their effects, presented in the 70 pages of
the report on the session of the Academy of Medical
Sciences of the USSR, to be scientific?
It is still unknown to the public how many otherchildren have received thyroid irradiation less than 500
rem. The Minister of Health, E.I.Chazov in his
memorandum [4] to the CPSU Central Committee on
the 16th of November 1987 N3634s, with stamps of116

protocols indicate that the Politburo had urgently
revised the maximum acceptable doses and increased
them by several times. Just then all the hospitalised—according to the protocols their number was really
15,000 people — have been found healthy anddischarged. Is this what Professor Vorob'ev means? In
this case, contrariwise, his confession is just anotherindirect acknowledgement of the fact thatapproximately 15 thousand people have received ARS
during the first weeks and months, and only the special
regulation issued by the Politburo in concordance withthe court medics had helped the soviet government not
only for concealing this fact, but also not to hospitalise
new victims of the catastrophe by the new dose limits.
Further in his article the professor seems tocontradict himself. He reports that "In 40% of
examined inhabitants of the Chernobyl region no
irradiation doses have been found, 50% have received
50 rad, and more than 5% have received a dose of 50-80
rad. In the last group a marked increase in tumour
incidence may be expected. 2% of inhabitants in thecontaminated districts... have been irradiated with adose of more than 100 rad. Among liquidators, thisdose group is even larger." Vorob'ev also notes in his
article: "In some persons in Gomel and Bryansk
regions, such changes in some cells have been foundthat indicate the effects of highly intensive radiation! A
discrepancy is obvious: the whole body dose was 30-50
rad, while the exposure of some cells was about 1000
rad and more." The professor had reported this facts to
the Ministry of Health Care and the Academy ofMedical Sciences of the USSR, but had received noanswer to his scientific assumptions.
In 1989 the newspaper, Moscow News invited
several people's deputies (the author of this report aswell) to a round table on consequences of thecatastrophe at the Chernobyl nuclear plant [8]. A
deputy from Byelorussia Ales' Adamovich (deceased)
reported: "... autopsies of people, who had died of otherdiseases, for example from ischemia, revealed that theirlungs — this was registered by Professor E.Petryaev —contained enormous amounts of so-called "hotparticles". Up to 15 thousand! 2 thousand of suchparticles are enough for cancer!" As is noted in the
manuscript [9], which was sent from Israel to me by aformer soviet nuclear physicist, Sergey Titkin, such
effects of incorporation of solid particles has been
known long ago — tobacco smoke, coal dust, silica (atgreat amounts causing silicosis). In the cases ofChernobyl, particles of reactor fuel that have been in
the reactor, incorporated into lungs and have rigidly
stuck to the lung tissue are under consideration.
In the information of the USSR State Committee on
the Utilisation of Atomic Energy, compiled for the
IAEA Experts Meeting in Vienna on the 25-29 August
1986 "The Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant and its Consequences [10]", the following isreported about the results of gamma-spectrometric"Secret" and "No right for publication" of the CPSU
Central Committee, reports: "By 30.09.1987, 620,016
people are subject to hospital observation. 5,213 people
have been hospitalised for thorough medical
examination and specifying of diagnoses established,
but not related to radiation effects, during hospital
examination." It is not known whether the Minister hadtaken into account 2.6 thousand children in the
Ukrainian radiation zone with more than 500 rem of
thyroid irradiation. If he had, how could he explain thatthese truly crazy doses, unbelievable not only forchildren but also for adults, was not related to theimpacts of irradiation? The most reliable explanation,from my point of view, is that the CPSU Central
Committee wanted to hear their own "truth". And theMinister had not failed to present it.
In the draft of the decree of CPSU Central
Committee "On implementation of the resolution of the
XXVIII Congress of the CPSU "On political estimationof the catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP and the courseof elimination of its consequences", dated the 28th ofDecember 1990, reported by the Secretariat of the
CPSU Central Committee to the General Secretary of
the CPSU Central Committee, V.A.Ivashko, it wasnoted [5]: "The consequences of the accident continue
to produce effect on birth-rate and life-span. Thus, overthe past 4 years, birth-rate in the Belorussian SSR has
decreased by 10 percent; malignant tumour mortality
has increased. It has increased by more than 19 percent
in Mogilev and Gomel regions." These conclusions of
the CPSU Central Committee have nothing in common
with the optimistic conclusions on estimations of doses,
presented in the before-mentioned report, signed by 23
scientists of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the
USSR a year earlier.
This means that the following is quite real: theactual estimates of the doses received in the first 2-3
months after the catastrophe at the Chernobyl nuclear
plant are unknown to the public even after 11 years.
Some light was cast upon the classifying anddistortion of actual doses by an Academician of the
Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, thedirector of the All-Union Scientific HaematologicalCentre, Professor A.I.Vorob'ev. He wrote an article"Why Soviet Radiation is the Safest" in Moscow News
dated 18th of August of 1991 [6]. The author reported
that "in the first days 15,000 people have been
mistakenly hospitalised in the Ukraine because there
were no specialists in the accident area. However, on
the 2nd of May 1986, an instruction on diagnosing acuteradiation syndrome (ARS) was published, and then all
the people hospitalised by mistake have beendischarged from the hospitals." This discharge suggests
some affairs to be considered and concluded. In mybook "Chernobyl: Top Secret [7]" I have published 40
secret protocols of the Operative Group of the CPSU
Central Committee Politburo on liquidation ofconsequences of the accident at the ChNPP. These117

level has been 1 to 10 R/h. (Data that I have verified showthat the radiation level in Narodichi of the Zhitomir
region in the first days was 3 R/h, although Narodichi islocated at 80 km from the ChNPP — A.Ya.). The
relationship between the radiation level and the distancefrom the point of the explosion is very complex (winddirection, rain from the radioactive cloud and many otherfactors play important roles). However, the averageradiation level is assumed to be inversely proportional tosquare of the distance, i.e., the radiation is four times lessas the distance becomes two times larger (from the pointof the explosion).
The maximum radiation level that I have personallymeasured in Kiev in late May (1986 — A.Ya.) was
0.0018 R/h. I measured it with a standard army device,taken from a class of Civil Defence. According to themeasurements of my acquaintances in early May in Kiev,
the radiation level amounted to 0.003 R/h. The distancefrom the exploded reactor to Kiev is about 130 km, and to
Pripyat is about 5 km.
Thus, the average radiation level in the town Pripyat
must have been (130:5)2=676 times higher, i.e. about 2
R/h. Well, the values of 1 to 10 R/h are quite plausible for
Pripyat.
The evacuation had begun only 36 hours after the
explosion. Hence, the inhabitants of Pripyat havereceived a dose of 36 to 360 R. On the 26th of April they
were 45 thousand people. How many of them are still
alive? I do not know. (The manuscript of the article isdated May 1987 — A.Ya.) I know that approximately 15
thousand have died out of those who were being brought
to the Kiev hospitals at nights .... I can say only thefollowing: I was not collecting panic rumours. All
information presented in this article has been obtained
directly from those who worked on liquidation of theconsequences of the catastrophe: transport drivers,
hospital staffs, military personnel from the surrounding
and many others.
No attempt had been made to treat the people that werebrought to Kiev. There was no such possibility. It was
impossible to obtain blood for transfusion and marrow
for transplantation to several thousands of people. Thesepatients were lying not only in radiological departments,
but also in the wards, in the corridor, and in the basementof the hospital. In one of the hospitals, even a part ofmorgue was allocated for this purpose.
These 15 thousand people died from acute radiation
syndrome."

analysis of radiation, emitted from the body of those
who suffered from the accident: "practically, in all
patients, without evident relation to the presence or theseverity of ARS, uptake of a complex mixture of
nuclides, principally, isotopes of iodine, caesium,
zirconium, niobium, ruthenium into the body wasobserved." There is another mentioning aboutincorporation of radionuclides. Further: "Excess
fatality, related to the ChNPP accident discharge will
increase spontaneous mortality from cancer of theirradiated population by less than 2 percent. .... in thepresent stage, incorporation of radionuclides throughinhalation by inhabitants within the formed radioactive
tracks can be neglected in estimation of dose burdens."
It is also noted in this report that different radionuclides
were found in lungs of some of the deceased from acuteradiation syndrome after the catastrophe.
Obviously, a special study should be conducted inorder to evaluate the actual scale of the danger ofincorporated nuclear fuel dusts. From my own studies
and interviews with hundreds of people who were in theaffected zones immediately and several months after
the catastrophe, it becomes evident that the scale of theaccident was so enormous that ALL persons talked
about radioactive dust, scratchy feeling in the throat,
tractors lacking airtight, etc. People were associating
radionuclides deposited on the ground with dusts that
could be incorporated into their organism. They called
it radioactive dust. Apparently, no one considered theparticularity of so-called hot particles, penetrating into
the human organism and sometimes irradiating it
fatally. This is also one aspect of the problem of theradioactive contamination for inhabitants in the areas
around Chernobyl.

Missed lessons of Chernobyl
Igor Geraschenko, a specialist of nuclear physics,
which formerly lived in Kiev and lives in the West atpresent, has handed over to me a manuscript of his
article "Missed lessons of Chernobyl [11]". (It is
unknown if this article had been eventually published.)
From the point of view of unbelievable coincidences,
the article contains quite interesting facts. To make mypoint clear, I will go forth with rather a long quotation:"So what were the doses received by the people in thearea of the catastrophe? Nobody knows this for sure.
There have been almost no devices to measureradioactivity level in the area of the catastrophe. One of
my acquaintances, a captain of the MIA (Ministry ofInternal Affairs — A.Ya.) had spent a week in theencircle of the catastrophe area. He had no device formeasurement of radioactivity, and he does not know what
dose he had received. Transport drivers who worked forevacuation of the people had no measurement devices
either. Did this happen accidentally? By no means! It waseasier way to lie to one's own people and the trustfulworld public.
According to unverified data, in the town Pripyat (thenearest settlement to the nuclear station) the radioactivity

A surprising coincidence of different sources:
according to the secret protocols of the Operative
Group of the Politburo, approximately 15 thousandpeople have been hospitalised during the first weeks.
Academician A.I.Vorob'ev wrote in his article that 15
thousand people have been hospitalised by mistake and,after the medical staffs received the instruction for
ARS (acute radiation syndrome), the patients weredischarged. The witness by physicist, I.Geraschenko
mentions this number as well. With only one terrible
rectification: these people have died.
The further discussion of Geraschenko is alsointeresting:118

"Such number will not surprise an attentive reader. About
70 thousand people died in Hiroshima (only an
insignificant number of them died as a direct result of the
explosion — the majority died due to the consequencesof radioactive contamination), and in our case only 15
thousand by a discharge thousands of times larger.
Definitely, there have been much more victims. Firstly, I
mean only those who were mentioned in the data I haveobtained. Secondly, the consequences of irradiation are
long-term. Dozens and hundreds of thousands more will
die from cancer induced by radiation, but this is going tohappen later: the latent period can last for years."

thyroid of the Ukrainian children. According to theauthors, at present 2.4 million people, including morethan 500 thousand children under 14 years, are living in
the Ukrainian territory affected by the catastrophe at the
Chernobyl NPP. The most alarming, as is noted in thereport, is the fact that 150 thousand inhabitants havereceived thyroid irradiation doses by dozens or
hundreds of times higher than the acceptable level. In
particular, thyroid doses of 5.7 thousand children were
200 rad, and those of 7.8 thousand adults — higher than
500 rad [13]. At the same time, the establishedacceptable dose is 5 rad. In this group of the affected
population, 12 cases of malignant thyroid tumours inchildren have been registered only in 1991.
The experts note that diseases of respiratory anddigestive organs, endocrine and blood circulation
systems take a significant place in the structure ofillnesses of children in the radiocontaminated zone of
the Ukraine. As well, an increase in the number ofneoplasm has been noted.
Medical examination of 583 children of the firstclass of school in Kiev, has shown a retardation in bodydevelopment in a significant part of children in 1992 incomparison with 1982. Retardation is expressed moremarkedly among girls.
As the authors of the report state, the analysis ofrates of mortality from malignant neoplasm in the
population of the Ukraine residing in the territories
adjacent to the zone of the Chernobyl NPP for theperiods of 1980-1985 and 1986-1991 bears reliable
evidence of an increase in the mortality from cancer ofmammary gland, urinary organs and prostate.
Assessment of strontium-90 accumulation in theorganism of Belarussian citizens after the accident at
the ChNPP has shown that the evaluated absorbed
doses in red bone marrow turned out to be 2.5-3 times
higher than in the period before the accident. In 3
percent of the cases the doses have exceeded theaverage values by 4-8 times.
The Russian specialists note that iodine deficiency
in some regions of Belarus known for endemic goitre(there is a lot of areas characterised by anomalous
concentration of certain microelements, including
radionuclides present due to the accident discharge of
the ChNPP) had caused the maximum impact of acomplex of radiotoxic factors on developing thyroid
disorders. This may be a reason for more severe injury
of thyroid than expected on the basis of the known
dose-effect relationship.
The values of the plutonium concentration in hair of
inhabitants of the Gomel region has been an order ofmagnitude higher than in hair of residents of Minsk.
Medical examination of 902 children in Bragin,
Choiniki and Narovlya districts of the Gomel region
had shown that 218 of them suffer anemic syndrome.
Among them, goitre of the first degree was manifested
in 68.3 percent of girls and 52.6 percent of boys, goitreof the second degree in 24 and 18.2 percent,I.Geraschenko made the statement about the 15
thousands of deceased in an interview to the newspaper"New-York City Tribune", and in the hearings on theconsequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe in the US
Congress. He told that, instead of the "acute radiation
syndrome" diagnosis, "vegeto-vascular dystonia","vascular dystonia", etc., were diagnosed in the case ofpeople affected by the accident. This is already a
proven fact. In the medical records of the deceased,such words were written as "has undergone a course oftreatment", "needs no further treatment".

Recent status of the public health in the
territories affected by the catastrophe
A new concept of living in the affected territory has
been elaborated in the government of the RussianFederation, related with the radioactive contamination
as a result of the catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP. In
this regard, the Ministry of the Environment of Russia
and the Ministry of Labour of Russia are studying moredeeply the health problems in 16 regions of the RussianFederation affected by the catastrophe. The fact is taken
into consideration that the majority of people residingin this territories have learned that they live in a zone ofradiation danger only 7 years after the catastrophe in
Chernobyl. It is noted in the report of specialists of the
Ministry of Labour of Russia and the Ministry of theEnvironment of the Russian Federation, M.S.Malikov
and O.Yu.Zitzer [12] that the Chernobyl catastrophe
has affected 138 administrative districts, 15 cities ofregion subordination, and more than 7,700 settlementswith a population of 2.7 million people. According to
the data of April 1995, the number of Russian citizens,the death of which is attributed to involvement inliquidation of the consequences of the Chernobyl
catastrophe, amounts to approximately 7 thousand. The
number of people, whose living standards haveworsened due to the catastrophe, or who have become
invalid due to this reason, amounts to approximately 20
thousand people.
In the report of the specialists of the Ministry ofLabour of Russia and the Ministry of the Environmentof the Russian Federation, an unexpected confirmation
was found of the facts in the before-mentioned secretletter of the Minister of Health of the Ukraine,
A.E.Romanenko to the Minister of Health of the USSR,
E.I.Chazov on high accumulation of radionuclides in119months after the explosion at Chernobyl. We can only
guess that these doses were significant, judging fromtheir effects years later.
Eleven years passed since the nuclear explosion in
Chernobyl. However, the public still do not havereliable information on the ACTUAL doses received by
the people affected by the Chernobyl radioactive tracks
in the first weeks and months after the gravest
anthropogenic catastrophe which had ever happened on
Earth. In the first place, the world scientific and thesemi-scientific nuclear community, which serve theworld's political establishment and are not inclined todisclose the truth, should bear the responsibility forthis. The disclosure of this truth may lead to a radical
change of nuclear contribution in the world powersystem. The interests of "moneybag" — the world
nuclear lobby — have been shown to be more
important than the interests of the whole worldcommunity. However, shall it always be this way?

respectively, and goitre of the third degree in 1.4
percent of children. A higher level of illnesses of bloodand hemopoietic organs, endocrine system, respiratoryorgans, digestive organs and an increase in the numberof neoplasm have been found in children from thecontrolled areas.
The similar situation is also observed in the children
living in the controlled areas of the Kiev, Zhitomir,
Cherkasy and Rovno regions in the Ukraine.
The Russian specialists are also concerned about
neonatal mortality during pregnancy and child-birth by
women living in the areas of increased radiation risk
after the catastrophe at the ChNPP. As it is noted, thismortality tends to increase. The rate of normalchild-birth has decreased to a significant extent. The
number of congenital anomalies of newborn is
growing. (There is a restricted laboratory in Zhitomir in
the Ukraine with anomalous newborn humans andanimals stored in alcohol that have been born after thecatastrophe at the ChNPP in the territory of Zhitomir).
In the period before the accident the rate of abnormalchild-birth (for 100 pregnancies) had been 9.6. Afterthe catastrophe this rate increased to 13.4. A significant
relation was found between this rate and dose burdensof women. It is noted that adaptability of newborn to theenvironmental conditions, i.e. increased radioactivity
as well, has decreased substantially in the first 6 years
after the accident.
Here it will be pertinent to return to the manuscriptof the Russian immigrant, physicist from Kiev, Igor
Geraschenko "Missed Lessons of Chernobyl” that washanded to me in England in 1991. He also mentions this
topic. He wrote: "There are other victims of Chernobyl— those who had never seen nothing. These arechildren killed before birth. After the explosion
physicians recommended pregnant women in Kiev andother places to do abortion. I know of several cases inwhich these forced abortions were made in the 6thmonth of pregnancy officially by doctors in
hospitals. .... over the last year (the year underconsideration is the first year after the catastrophe at the
ChNPP — A.Ya.) no less than 20 thousand pregnancies
have been aborted due to the Chernobyl catastrophe
only in Kiev. And how about the women evacuatedfrom Pripyat?"
While I was travelling through the contaminatedvillages of the Zhitomir region several months after thecatastrophe, I heard the same: pregnant women wereadvised to make abortions, but were recommended not
to tell anyone about such advice. One should note thatsuch pieces of advice were given immediately after thecatastrophe at Chernobyl. Today, even 11 years since
the catastrophe, specialists refer to its severe
consequences for pregnant women. This is also anindirect confirmation of the fact that no one knows theactual doses received by the population, including
women of reproductive age in the first weeks andReferences
particularities and medical, biological
1. Ecologicalconsequences of the accident of Chernobyl nuclear power
plant. Report by 23 scientists (L.Il'in and etc.) for meeting of
USSR Medical Sciences Academy, 21-23 of March, 1989.
Copy of report from personal archive of author.
2. Report by V.Doguzhieva, Chief of Governm. Comm. on
elimination of consequences of Chernobyl catastrophe.
Shorthand of meeting of Supreme Union USSR Session. 1990.
Copy of shorthand from personal archive of author.
3. Letter by Min. of Health of Ukrainian SSR, A. Romanenko to
USSR Min. of Health, E.Chazov, May 26, 1987, #428. Copyof the let. from personal arch. of author.
4. Report by USSR Minister of Health, E.Chazov to Central
Committee of Communist Party of the USSR, November 16,
1987, #363c. Copy from personal archive of author.
5. Draft of resolution by Central Comm. of C.P. of the USSR
"About execution of resolution by XXVIII Congress ofCommunist Party of the USSR "About political estimation
Chernobyl nuclear power plant catastrophe and condition ofwork on elimination of its consequences", December 28, 1990.
Copy from personal archive of author.
6. A.Vorob'ev. Why soviet radiation is the securest. Moscow
news, #33, August 18, 1991.
7. A. Yaroshinskaya, Chernobyl: Top Secret, Drugie berega,
Moscow, 1991.
8. Big lie. A "round table" by "Moscow news", 1990.
9. S.Tiktin. About some particularities of "Chernobyl" radiation
syndrome. 1992. Copy of the manuscript from personal archiveof author.
10. Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. USSR Governm.
Comm. on atomic energy. Moscow. 1986.
11. I.Gerashenko. Missed lessons of Chernobyl. 1987. Copy ofthe manuscript from personal archive of author.
12. O. Zitzer, N.Malikov. Analyse of contemporary system ofsocial, economic and medical defence of population andworking up of proposals for its improvement. Copy of reportfrom archive of author.
13. National Rep. of Ukraine for UN Conf. on Environment andDevelopment, Evraziya, #7, 1992, Moscow.

120

Dose Assessment for Inhabitants Evacuated from the 30-km Zone Soon after the
Chernobyl Accident
Tetsuji IMANAKA and Hiroaki KOIDE
Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University
Kumatori-cho, Sennan-gun, Osaka 590-04, Japan
Apparently, findings by Yaroshinskaya andLupandin are in contradiction to the opinion of theauthorities. It seems to be difficult to reconcile the twodifferent opinions about the occurrence of ARS
among inhabitants around Chernobyl. So, we can only
say, which is true? In order to answer this question,
we come up to another question. How much was thelevel of irradiation for inhabitants? Could it be thelevel that causes ARS?
In this report we try to evaluate irradiation dose of
inhabitants around Chernobyl until their evacuation,
based on the data which became available recently.

Introduction
The first detailed report about the consequences of
the Chernobyl accident was presented to IAEA fromthe USSR government in August 1986, about 4
months later since the beginning of the accident [1].
According to this report, more than two hundred casesof acute radiation syndrome (ARS) occurred as aresult of the accident, among which 29 persons died(besides, two persons died on the day of the accident
by other reasons). All cases of ARS were stated tohave happened to firemen and workers involved
immediately in the accident, while there was no caseof ARS among inhabitants around the Chernobyl site.
This opinion of the former USSR authorities was
succeeded till now in reports of internationalorganization such as IAEA, WHO, OECD/NEA [2-4].
Along with the process of the collapse of the
USSR, there appeared several publications thatindicate a number of cases of ARS among inhabitantaround the Chernobyl site. Our attention should be
paid to the following two reports. The first one is thesecret protocols of the Operative Group of the Politic
Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union, disclosed in 1992 by Alla
Yaroshinskaya [5, 6]. Many pieces of information canbe found in this document about ARS among
inhabitants, including those for children. She
contributed herewith an article, ″Impact of Radiationon the Population during First Weeks and Months
after the Chernobyl Accident and Health State of the
Population 10 Years Later.″ One sentence is citedhere from the protocol on May 10, 1986: ″The total
number of persons in hospitals is 8,695, including 238
persons with diagnosis of radiation syndrome, 26 ofwhich are children.″ Another important report about
ARS was made by Vladimir Lupandin [7]. He
investigated in 1992 medical records made in
May-June 1986 at the Central District Hospital of the
Khoiniki district of the Gomel region of Belarus,
located adjacent to the Chernobyl site. Although atheft of the medical archive happened in November
1990, he found 82 medical records of inhabitants who
suffered from irradiation. Among them he confirmed
8 cases of ARS. Details of his finding are described in
his article ″Chernobyl 1996: New Materials
concerning Acute Radiation Syndrome around
Chernobyl”

Materials and methods
Under the tradition of the Soviet system, theinformation concerning the consequences of theChernobyl accident had been treated to be secret. As
also disclosed by Yaroshinskaya [5], for example, theSoviet government issued on June 27, 1986 an order,″To consider as secret: data about the accident; data
about results of treatment of sufferers; data on
irradiation of personnel involved in liquidation of theconsequences of the disaster.″ Although some data on
the radiation situation were included in the USSR
report in 1986, they were not enough to do
independent analysis or to check the validity of
estimates contained in it. Through the Soviet period,
we could only find fragmentary information about theradiation situation soon after the accident around theChernobyl site.
In 1996, interesting data were presented in reportsof the collaboration work between European
Commission and three affected CIS countries(Ukraine, Belarus and the Russian Federation) [8].
Dose rate on May 1, 1986
Fig. 1 shows the radiation situation at settlements
within the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl site on
May 1, 1986, five days after the accident [9]. It is
stated that these data were measured by special teamsof the Chernobyl NPP staffs and other specialist,
using GM counter at 1 m above the ground.
As seen in Fig. 1, a large variation is observed in
the spatial distribution of radiation situation. The
maximum of 3,306 µGy/h is observed at village
Krasnoe about 6 km north from the site. High valuesof dose rate are generally observed at settlements inthe north half of the 30-km zone, which corresponded

121

131

North-south distance from the Chernobyl NPP (km)

30

261
104
PogonnoeDernovichi
252
348
OrevichiRadin
696
Molochki
348

20

Kranosel 870
Borshchevka
122
Doblyadi

10 96Denisovich 174

0157
Puchin104

157
Vigrebnaya

Savichi

435
Ulasi

3045
Usov

70
Suvidi70

1044
Kulazhin
1914
Kryuki

ZaleseZimovishche
1053

ChNPP

Pirki
96

957
Mashevo
3306
Krasnoe

131 Khutor Les
252
KhatkiBenyovka
244
Rudki
261
139
Nov. Shepelichi
148
165
Yanov
Krasnoe3045
174 Nov. Krasnitsa
1740

70
Grushnoe 44

139 148
Chikalovichi
Chapaenka

870
Krivaya Gora

9
Chistogolovka 1044 331
Starocele
653
Kopachi174
87 St. Krasnitsa
435
87
Lelev Koshovka
Lubyanka
35
Stechaika
Ilintsi
26
78
61
87
174
Razezhnee
Parishev
Chernobyl
Korogod
122
35 Bichiki
96 Zalese
Lodizhichi
35
87
GlinkaCherevach78
122 Chipol
Rodinka
87
174

-10

-20

44

Rudnya Veresnya

Rossokha

-30
-30

-20
-10
0
10
20
East-west distance from the Chernobyl NPP (km)30

Fig 1. Dose rate in air at settlements within the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl site on May 1,
1986 [9], unit: µGy/h.
Belarus, maybe, with GM counter.
to the fact that radioactive clouds from the destroyed
In the solid line of our calculation (calculation 1),
reactor moved to north-west and north from thethe deposition of other nuclides (18 nuclides) thandestroyed in the first and second days after the137
accident [1, 10].
Cs were determined from their deposition ratios to137
It was reported that the first evacuation of 45,000
Cs reported by Izrael et.al. [13], values of which are
inhabitants in Pripyat, a city built next to theshown in Table 1 together with dose rate conversion
Chernobyl site for workers of the station, was carriedfactors per unit density of each nuclide on the ground.
out on April 27, 1986, the next day of the accident [1].
Calculation of exposure rate in air per unit deposition
The second evacuation of inhabitants who were livingof 137Cs was made by the next equation.
within the 30-km zone was made during the periodr(t ) =DFi ⋅ DRi ( t )(1)from May 3 to May 5 [11]. So, these people stayed inithe highly contaminated area for 7-9 days. The
where r(t): γ-ray exposure rate at time t calculated at 1
number of inhabitants evacuated in the stage wasm above the ground from the mixture of depositedreported to be 90,000 [1]. The evacuation was finallynuclides, densities of which are normalized to unit
completed on May 14 [11].
137
Cs deposition, (µR/h)/(Ci/km2 of 137Cs)
DFi: exposure rate conversion factor from unit density
Dose rate change during the first days in the
Khoiniki districtof nuclide i on the ground, calculated by us based
An interesting data on dynamics of dose rateon the infinite plain model, (µR/h)/(Ci/km2)
change measured in the Khoiniki district, whichDRi(t): density ratio of nuclide i to 137Cs at time t.
corresponds to the north-west part of Fig. 1, is also
If we can reconstruct dynamics of exposure ratepresented in the same EC/CIS report [12]. In Fig. 2 ischanges during the first days after the accident,
shown the measured change of dose rate normalized
external irradiation at each settlement can be
per unit deposition of 137Cs in the Khoiniki district
calculated by combining the dose rate data in Fig 1
together with calculated ones by us. The measurementwith their changes.
of dose rate was carried out by Civil Defence ofAs seen in Fig. 2, the solid line (calculation 1)∑

122

(µR/h)/(Ci/km2)

Dose rate per unit Cs137 deposition

gives a little higher exposure rate
than the measured one for the firsttwo weeks after the accident. This
Measurement
Calculation I
period is critical in dose formation of
Calculation 2
inhabitants who were evacuated fromMay 3 to May 5. So, in order to fit
1000
the calculated curve to the measured,
we reduced the deposition ratios for95
Zr and 140Ba to halves of them inTable 2. Thus, we calculated thedotted line (calculation 2), showing agood agreement with measurements
for the first two weeks.
100
In the curve of the measured data,
0
10
20
30
40
an increase of exposure rate is noted
Time after the accident (days)
from May 16 to May. 20. It can beconsidered to reflect the late phase Fig. 2 Dose rate change in the Khoiniki district normalized per
release from the destroyed reactor that isunit deposition of 137Cs [12].
recently reported by Dobrynin et.al. [14],which may support our reduction of deposition ratios
Table 1 Composition ratio and dose rate conversion
for 95Zr and 140Ba.
factor of nuclides deposited around the Chernobyl
Procedures for dose estimation
Dose values of external irradiation from deposited site (Cs137=1) [13].
radionuclides on the ground, external irradiation fromradioactive clouds in air, and internal dose throughthe inhalation path are evaluated for inhabitants whostayed in their settlements until evacuation, based on
the following procedures.
Step 1: Calculation of external dose equivalent from
deposited nuclides on the groundThe next two assumptions were made in order tocalculate external irradiation.
A. All deposition occurred at a time at 12:00 on
April 27, about 36 hr after the accident
B. Dose rate change at each settlement can be
expressed with the curve of the dotted line in Fig.
2. In other word, the composition of deposited
nuclides was same for all settlements.
At first, the deposited density of 137Cs, ACs137[Ci/km2] is calculated by the next equation,
A Cs137 =R m ( M ay 1)
0.0087 ⋅ r ( M ay 1)(2)

NuclideHalf life

Sr91
Zr95
Zr97
Nb95
Mo99
Ru103
Ru106
I131
I133
I135
Te132
Cs134
Cs136
Cs137
Ba140
La140
Ce141
Ce143
Ce144

9.7 h
65.5 d17 h
35 d2.75 d39 d
367 d
8.04 d21 h
6.7 h
3.25 d2.05 y13 d30 y12.8 d
1.67 d32.3 d1.38 d284 dRelative
Dose ratecomposition
conversion(at the time offactorthe accident) (µR/h)/(Ci/km2)
1.2*
20
3.3
29
1.6*
29
3.3*
15
7.5
2.8
5.3
9.6
1.3
3.7
20
7.6
40*
12
35*
34
33
46
0.5*
29
0.3*
39
1
11
3.6
43
3.6*
39
3.5*
1.8
3.1*
4.9
2
0.55

where Rm(May 1) : absorbed dose rate in air on May * These values are evaluated by the author, considering inventory
ratios.
1, shown in Fig.1, µGy/h,r(May 1): exposure rate calculated by (1) at 12:00
12:00 day of evac
Dexp = ACs137 r(t)dt
on May 1 per unit deposition of 137Cs,(3)
12:00 Apr 27(µR/h)/(Ci/km2),
The day of evacuation was obtained or assumed from0.0087: conversion factor from µR to µGy.
the information in the paper by Likhtarev et.al. [11].
By the way, density on the ground of i nuclide,
Finally accumulated exposure dose in air is
Ai,(t) other than 137Cs can be easily obtained fromconverted into the value of external dose equivalent,values of deposition ratios given in Table 1.
Dground [Sv], using the following relation.
Then accumulated exposure dose in air until the
Dground = 0.61⋅0.82⋅0.0087⋅Dexp (4)time of evacuation, Dexp [R] is calculated by the next
where 0.0087: conversion factor of R to Gy
equation,
0.82: conversion factor of Gy to Sv
0.61: apparent shielding factor of∫123

for 1 week after incorporation, Sv/Ci,
0.00022: breathing rate, m3/sec,
0.61: apparent shielding factor.
Values of FIi are specially calculated by us toobtain internal dose for the short period (1 week) afterincorporation, using the next equation.

inhabitants.
Values of theses three parameters were chosen
also from the data by Likhtarev et.al.[11]. The
apparent shielding factor of 0.61 can be applied torural people who spent outdoors for 0.42 faction of
day and stayed in wooden houses (shielding factor =0.33) for the rest of time.

FI i = FIicrpi

Step 2: Estimation of external dose equivalent fromradioactive clouds
Usually, in assessments of the consequences ofhypothetical nuclear accidents, the amount of grounddeposition is evaluated from air concentration ofradionuclides. Here, inversely, integral concentrations
in air of nuclide i, Ci, [Ci/m3⋅sec] is evaluated,assuming deposition velocity of deposited nuclides,

Ci

Ai
Vi

The contribution of external irradiation fromradioactive rare gases and internal dose from the pathof ingestion are neglected in our procedures.
Results and discussion
The main purpose of this report is to investigate
the radiation situation around the Chernobyl site fromthe viewpoint whether or not there was a possibility ofirradiation that caused acute radiation syndrome
among inhabitants until their evacuation. On the other
hand, it is difficult to say univocally the level ofirradiation dose that causes acute radiation syndrome
because definition of acute radiation syndrome itself
is of unclear nature and it depends on many factors
such as irradiation conditions and individual factors.
According to ICRP [18], acute irradiation of 0.5 Sv isevaluated to be a threshold of slight bone marrow
injury. Following the traditional conception about
ARS, however, we consider here 1 Sv of dose
equivalent as the criterion of ARS.

where Ci: integral concentration in air of nuclide i,
Ci/m3⋅sec,
Vi: deposition velocity of nuclide i, m/s.
0.005 m/sec for iodine
0.002 m/sec for other nuclides
Values of Vi are obtained from the Reactor Safety
Study [15, 16].
External dose equivalent from radioactive clouds,
Dcloud [Sv] is obtained from the next equation∑ FC ⋅ C
i

(6)

i

i

where, FCi: dose conversion factor of nuclide i
calculated based on submersion model [16],Sv/(Ci/m3⋅sec),
0.61: apparent shielding factor chosen as the sameas Step 1.

Average irradiation dose
We have applied the above procedures of dose
assessment to five settlements; villages Usov, Krasnoe,
Kryuki, Borshchevka and Chernobyl city. Krasnoe is
the highest point in Fig. 1. About Usov (10km to NW)
and Chernobyl (15km to SE), external irradiation is
also evaluated by Likhtarev et.al. [11]. The report of
Lupandin includes typical cases of acute radiation
syndrome in Borshchevka (18km to NW). Kryuki(17km to NE) is located in the area of most highest
level of 137Cs contamination [19].

Step 3: Estimation of internal dose equivalent frominhalation of contaminated air
Based on the integral concentration obtained in
Step 2, internal dose equivalent from inhalation, Dinh
[Sv] can be calculated from the next relation,∑ FI ⋅ C

Dinh = 0.61 ⋅ 0.00022

i

i

(8)

where FIicrpi: dose commitment conversion factor
from inhalation of nuclide i evaluated by ICRP [17]FIrssi(7day) and FIrssi(50 year): internal dose
equivalent conversion factor of nuclide i, for 7 days
and 50 years, respectively, given by the RSS [16].

(5)

Dcloud = 0.61

FIrssi ( 7day)
FIrssi (50year )(7)iwhere, Ci: integral concentration of nuclide i,
FIi: inhalation dose conversion factor of nuclide i

Table 2 Estimates of average dose for inhabitants at settlements in the 30-km zone until
evacuation
Dose rate
Deposition
Day ofon May 1of 137Cs
evacuation(mGy/h)(Ci/km2)
Usov
3.045
May 3
430
Krasnoe
3.306
May 3
470
Kryuki
1.914
May 5
270
Borshchevka
0.870
May 5
120
Chernobyl
0.174
May 5
25
* Contribution from cloud is not included．
Settlement

Accumulated
exposure inair (R)*
64
69
40
18
3.6

124

External dose (Sv）Ground

Cloud

0.28
0.30
0.17
0.08
0.02

0.04
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.002

Inhalation
dose
（Sv）
0.13
0.14
0.08
0.04
0.01

Total
dose
（Sv）
0.44
0.48
0.28
0.13
0.02

Frequency (persons/ƒ ¢Log(D))

Results of our calculation aresummarized in Table 2. As seen in Table
2, the highest dose of 0.48 Sv was
obtained for inhabitants at village Krasnoe.
About 60 % of the total dose were
external irradiation from deposited
nuclides on the ground. About 30 and
10 % were from external irradiation fromclouds and inhalation path, respectively.
According to the results of Table 2, theaverage dose of inhabitants in settlements
within the 30-km zone around theChernobyl site did not reach 1 Sv of thecriterion for ARS,

500
Evaluated distribution
Log-normal fitting

400
300
200
100
0

1

100 Log(D (mSv))

10

Fig. 3 Distribution of evaluated individual external
dose of evacuees from Paryshev [9]Distribution of irradiation dose for inhabitants
It should be noted that values in Table 2 aregiven as estimates for average doses of inhabitants ineach settlement. Actual doses to individuals were
naturally distributed around average doses. In order toinvestigate the possibility of ARS, therefore, thedistribution of individual dose among inhabitants
should be taken into consideration. Many factors are
considered to be related with possible distribution ofirradiation doses; inhomogeneity of contamination,
variation of individual behavior, difference ofshielding ability of buildings, etc.
In the course of the EC/CIS work, individual
external doses were evaluated for 335 inhabitants who
evacuated from village Paryshev [20], located about
20 km south-east from the Chernobyl site (26 µGy/h
on May 1, 1986, see Fig.1). Questionnaires on daily
behavior and living conditions of individuals until
their evacuation were used to estimate individual
external dose. The result of their dose distribution isredrawn in Fig. 3 together with a fitting curve of
log-normal distribution. As seen in Fig. 3, thevariation of external dose can be described very wellby the log-normal distribution. Based on the
log-normal fitting, the 95 percentile point of the dose
distribution is calculated to be 2.92*(average dose),where 2.92 = 100.284*1.64. Values of 0.284 and 1.64 are
the standard deviation and the multiplying factor to
get the 95 percentile point, respectively.
Here it is assumed that the distribution of external
dose in Paryshev can be applied to other villages. It isalso assumed that the distribution of inhalation dose
has a wider deviation than that of external irradiationby two times, giving its 95 percentile point as
5.84*(average inhalation dose). Thus, 95 percentile
doses and percentages of inhabitants dose of which is
expected to exceed 1 Sv are calculated in fivesettlements in Table 2 and shown in Table 3.
Table 3 shows that substantial parts of inhabitants
at Krasnoe (18 %) and Usov (15 %) could receive
irradiation exceeding 1 Sv before their evacuation. At
Usov 159 persons were reportedly there at the time of

the accident [11], which means 25 persons exceeded 1
Sv.
Comparison with other evaluations
Estimates of collective external does for evacuees
from the 30-km zone are given in the 1986 USSR
report [1]. Those values are divided into groups ofsettlements dependent on the distance from the
Chernobyl site. Average external doses are calculated
and shown in Table 4. The average external dose of
24,200 people who were at 3 - 15 km at the time of
the accident is calculated to be 0.45 Sv, and that of
65,700 people at 15 - 30 km is 0.05 Sv. These doses
are consistent with our estimates shown in Table 3
although the 1986 report denied the occurrence of
ARS among inhabitants.
A comprehensive work on external dosereconstruction for evacuees was made by Ukrainianscientists, Likhtarev et.al. [11]. Based on thequestionnaires on daily behavior to 36,000 evacuees,
they reconstructed individual external dose of about
31,000 evacuees from the 30-km zone, including
about 14,000 in Pripyat city. The average and the
maximum external doses of the evacuees (excluding
the people in Pripyat) were evaluated to be 0.00182
Sv and 0.383 Sv, respectively. Based on theseestimates, it is difficult to suppose the occurrence of
ARS among inhabitants around the Chernobyl site.
Table 5 is a comparison of external dose between by
the present author and by Likhtarev et.al. Ourestimates are lager than those by Likhtarev et.al. by
Table 3 Dose value of 95 percentile and fraction of
inhabitants exceeding 1 Sv
Settlement
Usov
KrasnoeKryukiBorshchevka
Chernobyl

125

Average
total dose
（Sv）
0.44
0.48
0.28
0.13
0.02

95 percentile
(Sv)
1.65
1.79
1.04
0.47
0.09

Fractionexceeding 1 Sv
(%)
15
18
6
<1
∼0

about 3 times. The reason of the difference is Table 4 Average external dose of evacuees
unknown so far although the same values of shielding
reported in 1986 USSR reportfactors and dose conversion are used.
Distance from
Average
Number of Population
Several points should be mentioned about the
the Chernobyl
external dose
Settlement(persons)
work by Likhtarev et.al. At first, they excluded about
site
(Sv)
4,000 persons from their dose reconstruction with the
3 - 7 km
5
7,000
0.54
reason that they stayed in highly contaminated areas
7 - 10 km
4
9,000
0.46
10 15 km
10
8,200
0.35
or visited the Chernobyl station. Secondly, their work
15 - 20 km
16
11,6000.052
is mostly related to the territory of Ukraine. As seen
20 - 25 km
20
14,9000.060
in Fig. 1, highly contaminated areas extended to the
25
30
km
16
39,2000.046
north part of the 30-km zone, which belongs to
3
15
km
19
24,2000.45
Belarus.
15
30
km
52
65,7000.050
Conclusion
3 - 30 km
71
90,0000.16
Our findings are summaized as follows:! Maximum dose evaluated as the average inTable 5 Comparison of estimates of external dosesettlements do not reach 1 Sv of the criterion forby the present study and by Likhtarev
ARS.
et.al.
! Taking into consideration the distribution of
Average external dose (Sv)individual dose, substantial parts (15 to 20 %) of Settlement
A/B
Present
work (A)
Likhtarev (B)inhabitants in highly contaminated settlements are
Usov
0.32
0.118
2.7
evaluated to have received doses exceeding 1 Sv.
Chernobyl
0.018
0.0060
3.0! Our results agree with those presented in the 1986
USSR report, while our estimates are by about 3
1996.
times larger than those by Likhtarev et.al.
3.“Health Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident:! Our results are consistent with the information that
Results of the IPHECA Projects and Related National
there were a number of ARS cases among
Programmes”, WHO, 1995.
inhabitants around Chernobyl.
4.OECD/NEA, “Chernobyl: Ten Years on Radiologicaland Health Impact”, November 1995.
It should be noted that our estimation does not
5.A. Yaroshinskaya, IZVESTIYA, April 24, 1992.
include contributions of external dose from rare gases
6.A. Yaroshinskaya, “Chernobyl: Top Secret”,
and internal dose from ingestion. Negligence of these
Drugie-berega, Moscow, 1992.
paths does not mean they were negligible. It is simply
7.V.
Lupandin, Invisible Victims, NABAT 36, Minsk,
because they are difficult to be evaluated.
October
1992.
It is also noted that a typical case of ARS in the
8.I.K.Baliff and V.Stepanenko ed., “Retrospective
report of Lupandin is observed in village Borshchevka,
Dosimetry and Dose Reconstruction”, Experimantal
where ARS is difficult to be expected from ourCollaboration Project ECP-10. EUR 16540, EC, 1996.
estimation. This case can be considered to be
9.ECP-10, p17.
examples beyond the method of our estimation
10.Yu.A.Izrael, Chernobyl: Radioactive Contamination in
because the patient is reported to have stayed on thethe Environment, Gidrometizdat, 1990 (in Russian)dike of Pripyat river from April 26 to 27 for fishing.
11.I.A.Likhtalev et.al., “Retrospective Reconstruction of
Lupandin mentioned the possibility of a lot of such
Individual and Collective External Gamma Doses ofcases.
Population Evacuated after the Chernobyl Accident”,
Finally, we have to say that there are still a lot of
Health Physics, 66(6), (1994) 643-652.
questions that should be answered about the12.ECP-10, p109.
13.Yu.A.Izrael et.al., Meteorology and Hydrology, 1987
Chernobyl accident. For example, the authors have
No.2, pp.5-18 (in Russian).
one question for more than ten years. How much was
14.Yu.L.Dobrynin and P.B.Khramtsov, Radiation
the irradiation level that was received by young
Protection Dosimetry, 50 pp.307-10 (1993).
soldiers of the Chemical Troops of the Soviet Army
15.Reactor
Safety Study, WASH-1400 Draft, USAEC,
who arrived at Chernobyl on the next day of the1974.
accident and supposedly took part in the first works
16.Reactor Safety Study, WASH-1400, USNRC, 1975.
for liquidation in the atmosphere of several hundreds
17.K.Kawai et.al., Table of Committed Effective Doseof roentgen per hour?
References
1.USSR State Commission on the Utilization of Atomic
Energy, August 1986.
2.“One Decade after Chernobyl: Summing Up theConsequences of the Accident”, STI/PUB/1001, IAEA,

Equivalents According to the ICRP Publication 30,
JAERI-M 87-172 (1987)
18.ICRP Publication 60, 1990.
19.Bulletion of Ecological Situation of Evacuated Zone,
No.1 1996, Chernobyl-Interform (in Ukrainian).
20.ECP-10, p.25.

126

Current State of Epidemiological Studies in Belarus about Chernobyl Sufferers
Vladimir P. MATSKO
Institute of Radiobiology, Academy Sciences of Belarus
Zhodinskaya st. 2, Minsk 220600, Belarus
Fax: +375-172-542315, e-mail: irb@irb.belpak.minsk.by
The responsible for holding the State Register andusing its data are the next:
On the republican level - Center of Medical
Technologies, Information, Management andEconomics of Health of the Ministry of Health ofRepublic of Belarus (BCMT);
On the regional level - offices and departments ofhealth of regional executive committees and
Minsk Municipal Executive Committee;
On the district level and level of medical
institution - local medical organizations, central
district hospitals of the system of Ministry of
Health, special medical institutions of other
Ministries and organs.
The Ministry of Defence, Ministry of the Interior,Committee of State Security, Administration ofBelarus Railway and Belarus Administration of Civil
Aviation provide the information to the State Register
about the persons under control at their institutional
medical organs.
The following groups of persons are to be included
into the primary account of the State Register:

Introduction
The present paper is an analysis of the results of
epidemiological studies in Belarus about theafter-effects of the accident at the Chernobyl atomic
power station (ChAPS), based on published data at
scientific institutes, organs and institutions of Ministryof Health. The special system in the Republic ofsanitation for the affected population and its statisticaloutcome allows to obtain annually the data on
morbidity and mortality of different cohorts of thispopulation. The health both of the affected by thecatastrophe and of the whole population of the
Republic is influenced by economic, environmental(i.e. of natural and social medium) factors connectedwith individual behaviours, medical and sanitarysituation. The higher level of disease incidence among
the affected people can be explained, in a certain
degree, not only by the ChAPS accident after-effects
but also by the established sanitary system andimproved diagnostics quality. Meanwhile, the adduced
data are of interest as a basis for long-term observation,
evaluation of tendencies and choice of directions ofpriority in further researches.
The adduced material indicates aggravation ofhealth state of the republican population, especially of
those who suffered as a result of the ChAPS
catastrophe. Undoubtedly, the higher disease incidenceof the affected people (which constitute a fifth part of
the total population) increases the morbidity in Belarus
as a whole.

First group (Group 1):- Group 1.1) those who took part in the liquidationof the Chernobyl APS accident consequences within
the evacuation zone in 1986-1987 or who were
engaged in that period in the exploitation or otherworks at the Station (including provisional staff),
including soldiers and civil citizens mobilized andengaged in works related to the liquidation of theaccident consequences;- Group 1.2) those who took part in the liquidationof the Chernobyl APS accident consequences within
the evacuation (alienation) zone in 1988-1989 or
who were engaged in that period in the exploitationor other works at the Station (including provisional
staff), including soldiers and civil citizens
mobilized and engaged in works related to theliquidation of the accident consequences;- Group 1.3) those who took part in thedecontamination, construction and provision of lifeof people in 1986-1987 in the zones of primary andfollowing resettlement including servicemen andcivil citizens mobilized and engaged in mentioned
works;
Second group (Group 2): those who were evacuatedfrom the evacuation zone as well as those who
independently left this zone after the catastrophe;

1. State Register of persons affected by radiation
due to the Chernobyl APS accident
The Belarus State Register was created upon the
Decree of Council of Ministers of Republic of Belarus
No. 283 of 5 May 1993 following the Article No. 63 of
the Law of Republic of Belarus “About Social
Protection Of Citizens Affected By Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe” [29].
The State Register is aimed at supervising healthstate of the people affected by radiation due to theChernobyl APS accident, as well as at obtaining
verifiable data on the bio-medical consequences of theaccident.
The State Register consists of four levels ofobservation: republican, regional, district and the levelof institution performing sanitation.

127

Third group (Group 3):- Group 3.1) those who live or work in the zone ofprimary resettlement as well as those who were
resettled or independently left this zone after thecatastrophe;- Group 3.2) those who live or work in the zone offollowing resettlement as well as those who were
resettled or independently left this zone after thecatastrophe;
Fourth group (Group 4): children born by persons
attributed to the Groups 1-3 of the primary accountexcept for children included into the 2nd and 3dgroups of primary account;
Fifth group (Group 5):- Group 5.1) those who live or work in the zone withright to resettle;- Group 5.2) those who live or work in the zone ofliving under periodic radiation control;- Group 5.3) those who live in the settlements where
the average equivalent dose or irradiation is higher
than 1 mSv/year;
Sixth group (Group 6): those who took part in theliquidation or suffered from accidents and theirconsequences at other civil or military nuclear
objects as well as who suffered from mentioned
accidents or as a result of tests, exercises and otherworks connected with any species of nuclear
installations including nuclear weapon. This fact is
to be acknowledged by the corresponding
documents of institutions which supervise
mentioned objects.

children and adolescents.
In connection with revision of pollution maps of therepublican territory with radionuclides (Decree ofCouncil of Ministers No. 116 of 19 February of 1996
“About the Confirmation of List of Territories(Settlements and Other Objects) Related to Zones ofRadiation Pollution”), the number of settlements
situated on polluted territories decreased from 3,221 in
1995 to 2,930 in 1996. The number of population
living there decreased correspondingly to 1,625,981(11.7%). The number of settlements in the zone offollowing resettlement decreased especially - 50.6%,
and the number of residents there - 40.8%. The
percentage of the children of 0-14 among those wholive on the polluted territories constitute 22.1% (23.7%
among townspeople and 19.1% among rural
population). By the regions, this rate is something
different: in the Brest region the share of children of
0-14 is 27.9% among townspeople and 21.2% among
rural people; in the Gomel region - 23.2% and 19.0%,
in the Mogilev region - 27.3% and 17.9%,
respectively. The share of children in towns on thepolluted territories is registered to be higher ascompared with total population. Whereas a lower shareof children is registered among the rural population of
the affected territories as compared with that of thetotal rural population.
In a considerable degree this may be attributed toso-called “ageing” of the rural population of theaffected territories as a consequence of movement ofworking-able people. In the majority of rural
settlements the population of 60 and elder constitutes
more than 40%.
In 1995, the tendency to growth of mortality anddecrease of birth rate continued in the Republic (Table
2.1). The natural growth of population decreased more

2. Demographic situation in polluted areasIn
1995,
1,840,951
peoplelived
onradiocontaminated territories, including 483,869
children and adolescents. 41,282 of them lived in thezone of following resettlement, including 9,821

Table 2.1. Coefficients of birth rate, mortality and natural increase of population in the Republic of
Belarus (per 1000 people)
Infantile death rate per
Number of
Number of deadNaturalYears
1000 of born alive
new-born persons
personsincrease
persons
1980
16.0
9.9
6.1
16.3
1981
16.2
9.6
6.6
16.7
1982
16.3
9.6
6.7
15.8
1983
17.6
9.9
7.7
15.0
1984
17.0
10.5
6.5
15.1
1985
16.5
10.6
5.9
14.5
1986
17.1
9.7
7.4
13.4
1987
16.1
9.9
6.2
13.4
1988
16.1
10.1
6.0
13.1
1989
15.0
10.1
4.9
11.8
1990
13.9
10.7
3.2
11.9
1991
12.9
11.2
1.7
12.1
1992
12.4
11.3
1.1
12.3
1993
11.3
12.4
-1.1
12.5
1994
10.7
12.6
-1.9
13.2
1995
9.8
12.9
-3.1
13.2
128

with soil pollution lower than 37 kBq/m2 are also
included, where, by the data of sanitary service, theradionuclide contents in food products produced inthese settlements are higher than the republican norm.
The analysis of annual effective equivalent dose
(EED) confirmed the conclusion that the isoline ofirradiation dose of 1 mSv/year passes in the majority ofcases through the territory with the density of pollution
with Cesium-137 of 148-222 kBq/m2. Besides, anumber of settlements of Belarus "Palesse" situated on
the areas with soil pollution of 37-185 kBq/m2 andlower are characterized by abnormally highcoefficients of cesium transfer in “soil-milk” chain,and, as a consequence, the level of annual EED in themis higher than 1 mSv.
The collective dose of Belarus habitants in the
post-accident period constituted nearly 22,000 man-Sv(Table 3.1). Whereas 16,625 man-Sv were obtained
from external irradiation, and 5,343 - from internal
irradiation. Nearly 80% of external irradiation of thecollective dose were realized on the territory of two
most polluted regions: the Gomel region with Gomel
city (60%) and the Mogilev region with Mogilev city(20%). The rural population of the Republic obtained
47% of the collective dose of external irradiation. The
corresponding figures in the Gomel region and in the
Mogilev region are 50 % and 70%, respectively [12,23, 34].

and constituted (-3.1) per 1000 people. The sametendency was registered in the Brest, Gomel andMogilev regions. The infantile death rate was still on
the level of 1994 and increased somewhat in the
Mogilev region [27, 2].

3. Dosage monitoring in Belarus
The highest average irradiation doses wereregistered in the participants of liquidation of ChAPS
accident consequences. The whole-body irradiation
doses within 50-100 mSv were obtained by 30% of“liquidators”, 100-250 mSv - 47%, 250-500 mSv 7.3%. The comparable doses were obtained by theevacuees from 30-km zone.
The residents of areas with pollution density of
555-1480 kBq/m2 obtained average doses ofirradiation of 50-60 mSv from the moment of theaccident. Those who live on territories with pollution
density less than 555 kBq/m2 obtained 20-40 mSv.
The external irradiation dosage of population ofradiocontaminated areas stabilized notably by
1989-1990. The average annual doses of internal
irradiation of the people in the areas under strict
control decreased by 10 and more times as comparedwith 1986, and, as a rule, do not exceed 0.2-0.5 mSv
per year. The internal irradiation is, however, still aleading dose-forming factor on the territories with
pollution density with Cesium-137 less than 185
kBq/m2 [8]. The dosage of irradiation with strontium
and plutonium radionuclides is not higher than 5% of
total effective equivalent dose and constitutes
0.02-0.06 mSv per year.
The Catalogue of Irradiation Doses in Belarus iscomposed of settlements situated on the territories withsoil pollution higher than 37 kBq/m2. Some settlements

The analysis of collective doses of internal
irradiation shows that nearly 50% of collective dose in
Belarus in the post-accident period were realized in theGomel region, and 20% - in the Mogilev region. 60%of the internal collective dose fall on the rural
population of the Republic though the number of rural
people constitutes 35% of the total Belarus population.

Table 3.1. Collective doses of irradiation of Belarus habitants in 1986-1994, man-Sv
Age groups of rural
Region, city
Age groups of townspeople, years
Sum
population, years
0-6
7-14 15-17 >18 0-6
7-14 15-17>18
Brest region
23
105
37
967
15
68
23
398
1,636
Vitebsk region
2
11
3
95
3
13
5
79
211
Gomel region
141693
239 6,276
99
499
172
2,886
11,005Grodno region
8
36
12
319
7
32
12
189
615
Minsk region
9
45
15
408
9
41
14
234
775
Mogilev region
67 315109 2,904
23
109
38
636
4,201
Brest city
2
10
3
58
73
Vitebsk city
2
8
3
46
59
Gomel city
71
335
115
1,950
2,471
Grodno city
3
13
5
78
99
Minsk city
11
50
17
289
367
Mogilev city
13
62
21
370
456
129

Table 3.2. Collective doses of thyroid irradiation, man-Sv
Age groups, years
Region
0-6
7-14
15-17
adults
Brest
7,279
3,137
985
17,651
Vitebsk
1,156
491
152
2,566
Gomel
80,797
34,73710913
189,301
Grodno
3,010
1,297
410
7,114
Minsk
5,983
2,579
806
13,048
Mogilev
18,8108,088
2,540
43,643

The analysis of values of thyroid irradiation doseshows that the highest collective dose had formed in
the Gomel region habitants (Table 3.2). The principal
contribution into the collective dose was made by threemostly polluted districts of the Gomel region: Bragin,
Narovlya and Khojniki. Their contribution constitutes
30% of the collective thyroid dose in the Gomel
region, while the contribution of the rest 19 districts 70%.
Almost 20 % of the children of 0.5-2 years and0.64 % of adults obtained thyroid doses over 1,000
cGy among the habitants of villages of the Khojniki
district of the Gomel region resettled before 5 May of
1986 [5].
The radioiodine influence over thyroid took placeagainst the background of endemic goiter(characteristic of many areas of Belarus, especially
Palesse) conditioned by the insufficiency of stableiodine in basic foods and water as well as by a numberof other factors, in particular, manganese and copper
deficit. This, probably, furthered the radioiodine
oncogenic effect [20].

regularly the current statistical information with a helpof automated registration.
The increase of oncological diseases incidence isregistered in the Republic during two decades (Table
4.1). For the 1976-1995 period, the standardized
indices in the Republic as a whole increased by 54.1%
in men and 35.4% in women; in the Gomel region 66.2% and 56.1%, in the Mogilev region - 40.3% and26.8%, respectively.
In the post-accident years, a tendency to increase ofcancer incidence of separate locations continues in theregionswhich
weremostlyaffectedbyradiocontamination. In the Gomel region, this is anincrease of frequency of thyroid cancer in children andadults, tumours of lungs, rectum, colon, mammary
gland, bladder and kidney. In the Mogilev region neoplasm of thyroid, bladder, kidney and mammary
gland. We must note therewith that acceleration of thedisease incidence growth is reported concerning all
forms of malignant neoplasm both in men and in
women of the Gomel region [25, 26].
By the end of 1995, 130,541 persons wereregistered in Belarus: 49,298 men and 81,243 women.
In the Republic on the whole, the number of
oncological patients by the end of 1995 overreached by
16% the level of 1991; in the Gomel and Mogilev
regions - by 29.8% and 24.9%, respectively.
The tumours of respiration and digestion organs are
the principal oncological pathology of male populationof Belarus (60.5% in the structure of oncologicaldisease incidence). For women - this is the neoplasm ofdigestion organs, mammary gland and genitals, whichconstitute 56.6% in the structure of disease incidence

4. Cancer-register and malignant neoplasm
incidence
The registration of malignant neoplasm in Belarus
has been carried out since 1953. However, theregistration was not complete in years 50's-60's
because the number of oncological hospitals was notenough. The perfectioning of account started at the endof 60's - beginning of 70's and for the first time the fullstatistical data were obtained in that period. In the lastyears, the oncological institutions have been receiving

Table 4.1. Absolute number of newly revealed cases of malignant neoplasm in Belarus, 1976-1995
Year
RegionBefore the accident
After the accident
Brest
Vitebsk
Gomel
GrodnoMinsk
Mogilev
Minsk city
Belarus1976 1978 1980 1982
2247 2472 2427 2621
2852 2712 2918 2941
2584 2945 3001 3313
1985 1980 1964 2189
2581 2900 2926 3063
2491 2527 2823 2836
1897 2277 2249 2691
16637 17813 18308 19654

1984
2781
3303
3257
2285
3304
3128
2902
20960

130

1986
3011
3556
3733
2672
3555
3310
3189
23026

1988
3150
3728
4004
2992
4002
3519
3702
25097

1990
3523
4179
4185
2995
4288
3685
4075
26930

1992
3741
4241
4477
3092
4811
3790
4529
28681

1994
3844
4376
4883
3529
5112
3788
4818
30350

1995
3949
4558
4964
3442
5061
3830
4634
30438

[9].
The indices of malignant tumours incidence
increased in men by 40.2 % and in women by 28.6 %during the 10 post-accident years [34]. The
townspeople fall ill with malignant tumours
significantly more frequently than the rural people do.
Nevertheless the pace of morbidity growth is higher inthe rural.
Taking into account the irradiation doses ofresidents of Belarus polluted areas, it is supposed thatin 70 years after the accident the additional deaths frommalignant neoplasm will constitute 4,250 cases. In thisperiod, 2,345 cases of thyroid cancer will take place;
234 of them - with lethal end [11]. It is necessary tonote that the real increase of this pathology presently ishigher than the prognoses.

Minsk city: 0.8 patients per 100,000 men and 2.7
patients per 100,000 women. Meanwhile the average
republican indices were 0.5 for men and 1.5 forwomen. The last place was occupied by the Brest and
Grodno regions. The level of morbidity in the Mogilev
region was something lower than the republican one
for account of female population (1.3 against 1.5). The
indices of morbidity in the Minsk, Vitebsk and Gomel
regions were near to the republican level; therewith theratio of incidence between women and men in theGomel region was minimum (2.3:1). The maximum
ratio of incidence between women and men in
pre-accident period was registered in Grodno (6:1) and
Brest (4:1) regions.
In the post-accident period, the situation changed
abruptly. Already in 1987 the standardized index ofthyroid cancer incidence in the Gomel region exceeded
for the first time the level of 2.0 and constituted 2.9,
against 1.7 in the Republic and 2.6 in Minsk city. This
was apparently connected with increased alert ofphysicians and perfectioning of diagnostic means.
During 1988-1989 the index of morbidity in the Gomel
region lowered to 2.3. Then in 1990 it increased up to
4.0, while it was the same value in Minsk city and 2.7
in the Republic. The abrupt rise of morbidity was
registered in 1991. The standardized index constituted
7.5 (4.6 for men and 10.6 for women) and was muchhigher than those in Minsk city (3.9) and in the
Republic (3.6). Significant rise of thyroid carcinoma
incidence was registered also in the Brest region: from
1.2 in 1988 to 3.4 in 1992 and to 6.1 in 1993,
principally, due to the increase of share of sick children
and young persons. In 1986-1994 the territorialdifference within the Republic changed both in men
and in women. The maximum morbidity level isregistered now in the Gomel region.
The velocity of increase of morbidity in the
post-accident period grew to be 1.5 times among themale population and 18 times among women ascompared with the pre-accident period. In the Gomel
region the velocity of increase of morbidity in men
grew to be 6 times and 73 times - in women. The
morbidity in the post-accident period increases more

5. Peculiarities of thyroid cancer incidence in the
Republic of Belarus
The Republic of Belarus in the middle of 80's
occupied a place among the countries with low levels
of incidence of thyroid pathologies. The average
standardized index (number of cases per 100,000
persons) of morbidity in 1983-1987 constituted 1.9 for
women and 0.6 for men. This was approximately thesame level of disease incidence in Denmark, England,
Slovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia and Latvia.
In the period from 1986 to 1994, there appeared atendency to increase of thyroid cancer incidence(Table 5.1), especially from 1991 to 1994. By the dataof Republican Oncological Thyroid Centre, only 3cases of thyroid carcinoma in children were foundduring 7 pre-accident years. The considerable growthof number of cancer cases in children in Belarus began
in 1990 (29 newly diagnosed patients). In 1991, 59
children were diagnosed and operated; in 1992 - 65; in1993 - 79; in 1994 - 82 children [34].
According to pre-accident studies of thyroid
carcinoma incidence in Belarus, there are considerable
differences in its registered frequency by territories.
The leading place on the frequency of this cancer
location in Belarus in 1977-1985 was occupied by

Table 5.1. Indices of thyroid cancer incidence in the Republic of Belarus in periods from 1977 to 1985
and from 1986 to 1994 (number of cases per 100,000 persons)Morbidity index
No.
Age
Sex
1977-1985
1986-1994
men
0.03
1.2
1
0-14
women
0.1
2.0
men
0.3
0.8
2
15-34
women
1.2
3.5
men
0.5
1.6
3
35-49
women
2.4
8.3
men
1.3
2.5
4
50-64
women
3.0
8.0
men
2.5
4.1
5
65 and elder
women
3.9
7.0
131

slowly in men in the Vitebsk and Grodno regions, inwomen - in the Vitebsk and Minsk regions [1].
The post-accident period is characterized by acuteincrease of morbidity in children and young persons.
The highest value of morbidity in women falls on theage group of 35-49 and constitutes 8.3. In men, like in
1977-1985, the peak is registered among the elderly
people and constitutes 4.1. In 1986-1994, 333 children
in Belarus fell ill with thyroid cancer. 180 of them
lived in the Gomel region at the moment of theaccident, 74 - in the Brest region, 19 - in the Grodno
and Minsk regions, 6 - in the Vitebsk region, 16 - in the
Mogilev region, 18 - in Minsk city. Due to migration,
the morbidity index in the Gomel and Brest regions
decreased somewhat and considerably increased in the
Minsk region.
The notable rise of number of new cases of thyroid
cancer among children began in the Gomel region in
the fifth post-accident year, and in Brest region - in theseventh year [1]. Verifiable increase of thyroid
carcinoma incidence is registered thereby in the
Republic of Belarus in the post-accident period both inchildren and in adults. The highest velocity ofmorbidity increase is observed in children, adolescentsand young adults. The mostly expressed increase isregistered in the Gomel region which has undergone
the pollution as a result of Iodine-131 release in thehighest degree [28, 33, 34].

regions and constituted in the pre-Chernobyl period
42.0 cases per 1000,000 children. After the Chernobyl
accident this index constituted 43.3 cases per 1000,000
children.
Regarding to sex dependency, the frequency ofacute leukemia in children before and after the
Chernobyl catastrophe is distributed as follows: 46(1979-1985) and 48 (1986-1992) cases per 1 mln ofboys, and 37 and 39 per 1 mln of girls, respectively.
Consequently, the boys fall ill with acute leukemia
more frequently than the girls.
During 1979-1992, the highest index of chronic
leukosis incidence in Belarus children was registeredin the Brest region (3-4 cases per 1 mln). It varied inother regions from 0 to 1.5 (up to 3.5 in Minsk city)and had different tendencies in pre- andpost-Chernobyl periods. Since 1992 the tendency toincrease of leukemia incidence in children became
stronger. The highest frequency of leukemia is in theGomel region (60 cases per 1000,000 children), but it
is followed by the Vitebsk region (48 cases) [22, 34].
The absolute number of children’s leukemia cases(acute and chronic) is adduced in Table 6.1.
According to theoretical forecasts, the 9th, the 10thand following years after the radiation catastrophe may
become critical for leukosis in children [11].

7. Hereditary pathology in Belarus and theChernobyl catastrophe

6. Haematological morbidity in the Republic of
BelarusThe national genetic monitoring of congenital
malformations (CM) has been functioning in Belarus
since 1979. Only CM of strict criteria were studied up
to 1994. Such CM are diagnosed in any institution
related to child-bearing without special methods ofstudy. The specialists in Belarus are quite familiar withthem and know their heredity type; unencephaly,
spinal cord hernias, cleft lip and (or) palate,polydactyly, reduction malformations of extremities,
atresia of esophagus, Downs syndrome, multiple
congenital malformations (without Downs syndrome).
Besides, by the beginning of the Chernobyl accident,
the monitoring of morphogenesis disturbances inembryos and early fetuses began to function in the
Republic (since 1980) as well as the monitoring of
syndromes of multiple congenital malformations(since 1983) and the monitoring of development

The scientific haematological epidemiology did notexist both in the former Soviet Union and in Belarus,
and the existing registers could not serve as a basis forany comparisons and conclusions of full value.
Therefore, in 1988, the Republican Haematological
Register was created at the Research Institute of
Haematology and Transfusion of the Ministry of
Health of Belarus, which is based on the requirements
of international scientific haematology. The section ofRegister related to children’s leukosology included
1,364 cases of acute leukemia from 1979 to 1992. In
1993-1994, other 156 cases of acute leukemia wereregistered in the Republic [34].
The frequency of acute leukemia in Belarus
children (up to 14 years old) varied in separated

Table 6.1. Leukemia incidence in Belarus children (absolute numbers)
Before the accident
After the accident
Year
NumberYear
Number
1979
119
1986
103
1980
97
1987
112
1981
99
1988
96
1982
86
1989
104
1983
94
1990
111
1984
92
1991
108
1985
91
1992
104
average 97
average 104132

disturbances in spontaneous abortuses (from 1968 to
1987) [18, 19, 34].
In order to study the possible genetic consequencesof the Chernobyl catastrophe, a wide range of study
was conducted on the people who had obtained
additional irradiation due to radioactive fallout of
ChAPS. That study included investigations of types
and levels of chromosomal mutations in somatic cells,
dynamics of development disturbance in embryos andfetuses, and analysis of congenital malformations(Table 7.1).
The frequency of dicentric and ring chromosomes
in women examined immediately after the accident andin their new-born children was practically equal, butthey were 10 times as high as in the control group.
According to a comparative cytogenetic examinationof the same persons before and after the Chernobyl
accident, a 6-times increase of frequency ofradiation-induced dicentric and ring chromosomes wasobserved too.
The level of dicentrics and rings in women andnew-born children from the Mogilev region who
stayed about two years on the polluted territories washigher than both the control level and the frequency ofaberrations in women and children evacuated from theGomel region two months after the accident. The
investigations have shown thus that the evacuatedpregnant women and their intrauterine fetuses obtained
the biologically effective radiation doses as well as thewomen who have lived for a long time on the polluted
territories. Those radiation dose manifested themselvesin the growth of number of dicentric and ring
chromosomes - the most important index of genetic
effects of ionizing radiation on the level ofchromosomes. The total mutagenic effect in theevacuated women turned out lesser than that in women
living in strict control zone during two years [17, 32].
It was established based on the study of legal
medical abortuses that the total frequency ofdevelopment abnormalities in embryos in Minsk and

Gomel cities remains on the pre-accident level. On thecontrary, the frequency of development abnormalities
in the mostly radiocontaminated districts of the Gomel
and Mogilev regions in 1986-1992 was significantly
higher than the control numbers. The frequency of all
malformations increased in the polluted districts; in thehighest degree - the frequency of cleft lip and palate,
duplication of kidneys and ureters, polydactyly andnervous tube defects [18, 19, 34].
From the point of view of a number of specialists,
the increase of hereditary pathology in Belarus can be
explained just partially by the growth of mutations
level under the action of additional ionizing
irradiation. Apparently, the complex of negative
factors in Belarus after the Chernobyl APS accident
made a considerable contribution into the increase of
CM frequency.

8. Morbidity and mortality of the people who
suffered the ChAPS catastrophe (by the data of
the State Register)
8.1. Analysis of morbidity of participants in the ChAPS
accident consequences liquidation (Group 1)
The analysis of the data of liquidators in 1993-1995
was made in comparison with the morbidity of adultsof the Republic in that period. 33,166 liquidators ofGroup 1.1 (workers in 1986-1987) in the State Register
were under observation of medical institutions of
Ministry of Health in 1993, as well as 19,052
liquidators of Group 1.2 (1988-1989). In 1994 - 39,682
and 20,556 liquidators, and in 1995 - 44,890 and
20,151 liquidators, respectively [3, 24].
In the assessment of health state of liquidators, it isnecessary to take into account that the men ofworking-able age without chronic diseases weremainly sent to the liquidation of the ChAPS accident
consequences. The average age of liquidators
constituted 30-35 at the time of the accident.

Table 7.1. Absolute numbers / frequencies (per 1000 births) of congenital malformations of strict control
in three zones of Belarus (1982-1992)
Zones of pollution
Year of observation
Control group (“clean” zone)
1-5 Ci/km2>15 Ci/km2
1982
170/5.74
30/3.06
196/5.62
1983
123/3.96
37/3.58
167/4.52
1984
131/4.32
38/3.94
150/4.17
1985
135/4.46
46/4.76
165/4.58
1982-1985
559/4.61
151/3.87
678/4.72
1987
160/5.54
62/8.14223/5.94
1988
134/4.62
73/8.61
190/5.25
1989
173/6.32
51/6.50
196/5.80
1990
199/7.98
40/6.00
221/6.76
1991
135/5.65
29/4.88
181/5.52
1992
141/6.22
47/7.77
175/5.89
1987-1992
942/6.01
302/7.09
1186/5.85
Coefficient of growth
1.3
1.8
1.2
133

Table 8.1. Comparison of morbidity of Belarus population (elder than 18) and liquidators (1995,
number of cases per 100,000 persons)DiseaseLiquidators
Belarus population
Ratio
Thyroid cancer
23.06
7.10
3.24
Cataract
462.78156.09
2.96
Malignant neoplasms of lymphatic and
26.14
18.59
1.40
blood-forming tissue
Respiration organs diseases
24780.91
23830.97
1.04
Digestion organs diseases
7784.201650.90
4.72
Endocrine system diseases, nutritional
3427.02517.536.62
disorders, metabolism and immunity disorders
Blood and blood-forming tissue diseases
304.42
69.42
4.38
Mental disorders3251.75
1090.11
2.98
Table 8.2. Comparison of morbidity of Belarus population and evacuees from alienation zone (1995,
number of cases per 100,000 persons)DiseaseEvacuees
Belarus population
Ratio
Thyroid cancer
12.66
7.05
1.79
Cataract
443.15147.34
3.01
Malignant neoplasms
215.24345.43
0.62
Respiration organs diseases
16599.1425656.22
0.64
Digestion organs diseases
4216.26
1817.14
2.32
Endocrine system diseases, nutritional
2367.69
583.864.05
disorders, metabolism and immunity disorders
Blood and blood-forming tissue diseases
278.5573.88
3.77
Mental disorders
2317.04
1124.55
2.06
Concerning neoplasms, there appears a high levelof anxiety among liquidators for thyroid cancer and its
increase in three years, especially among theliquidators of Group 1.1 (1986-1987).
The increase of benignant tumours in liquidators,
including thyroid, also attracts attention. It is moresignificant in Group 1.1.
The risk to fall ill with diabetes mellitus in all
liquidators in 1993-1995 was 1.9-2.2 times as high as
in the adult population on the whole. In liquidators ofGroup 1.1 it was 2.2-2.4 times. Mental disorders are aconsiderable problem for liquidators (relative risk
1.5-3.0) as well as the diseases of nervous system andsense organs (relative risk 1.5-2.1) including cataracts(relative risk 2.1-3.0), especially for liquidators ofGroup 1.1 (relative risk 2.7-3.4). The higher incidence
and its growth in liquidators, especially in Group 1.1,of cardiovascular system diseases composed of
hypertension, ischemia, stenocardia, cerebrovasculardiseases, endarterites and thrombocytes as well.
The most significant among the respiration organdiseases are chronic pharyngites, nasopharyngites,
sinusites, diseases of tonsils, pneumonias, bronchitis.
The risk of liquidators to fall ill with them is 1.4-5.7
times higher than the adult population on the whole [3,15, 34, 31, 7].
In 1995, 506 liquidators were recognized as
disabled (76.0 per 10,000). The disability of 276 out ofthem was connected with the Chernobyl accident
consequences [6].

Thus the liquidators constitute a group of risk ofmany diseases (Table 8.1).
The mortality of liquidators in 1993-1995 isregistered to be lower than that of men of 25-59. The
growth of mortality of liquidators is, however, noted.
The risk of death from malignant neoplasm for
liquidators Group 1.1 is 1.6-1.9 times higher than thatfor liquidators Group 1.2.

8.2. Analysis of morbidity of adults and adolescents
who were evacuated or independently left thealienation zone (Group 2)
By the end of 1995, medical institutions of Ministryof Health had under their observation 7,795
adolescents and adults who were evacuated or
independently left the evacuation (alienation ) zone in1986 (Group 2 in the Register) [3].
Like other contingents of the sufferers, theevacuees have the increased level of incidence ofendocrine system diseases, digestion disorders,metabolism and immunity disturbances, mainly foraccount of thyroid diseases (Table 8.2). The rise of
thyroidites including autoimmune ones is observed;
the diabetes mellitus incidence is increased. The
incidence of blood and blood-forming tissues diseases
is higher as well as of mental disorders (there is atendency to increase), diseases of nervous system andsense organs. The high number of cataract cases
attracts attention (in 1995 - 443.15 against 147.34 per

134

Table 8.3. Health state of evacuees from alienation zone: 1993-1995
Groups of evacuees
1993
1994
Healthy (D1)
16.6
13.5
Practically healthy (D2)
26.5
26.3
Those who have chronic diseases (D3)
56.9
60.2
100%
100%
100,000 of population on the whole). An anxious fact
is the high incidence of cardiovascular system diseases
and its growth. The risk of this disease for Group 2 inthe Registry during the analysed years was 3.1-3.9
times higher than that for the adolescents and adults of
the Republic; 3.3-3.7 times concerning hypertension,
3.9-5.7 times - ischemia and 2.0-2.9 times cerebrovascular diseases [3, 34, 7].
As an integrate assessment of health state of theevacuees, we can evaluate the ratio of health groups:
D1 (healthy), D2 (practically healthy) and D3 (those
who have chronic diseases). It is obvious that the shareof healthy people among the evacuees is lowering(Table 8.3).

1995
11.7
31.1
57.2
100%

than the adults and adolescents of the Republic by anumber of diseases [3, 10,34].
The malignant neoplasm of the residents of Group
3 who were living in “dirty” districts of the Gomel andMogilev regions was registered more frequently thanin persons of Group 3 in the Registry on the whole(461.55 against 369.55). The mortality of adults andadolescents of Group 3 was in 1995 reliably higher
than that of the adults and adolescents of the Republic
on the whole (1,777.63 against 1,638.32 per 100,000
persons). This includes, first of al,l cardiovascularsystem diseases (1,244.49 against 821.60), ischemia(625.16 and 525.72). This regularity was observed inevery of three registration years (1993-1995) [14].
In 1995, disability of 362 persons of Group 3 wasrecognized. In 1994 and 1993 - 391 and 472. 28 casesof disability were connected with the consequences of
ChAPS accident in 1995 (in 1994 - 48 cases, in 1993 46) [6].

Disability of 26 persons (32.5 per 10,000) was
recognized in 1995. The connection with the ChAPS
accident consequences was established in 8 cases ofthem [6].
The mortality of the evacuated adults andadolescents in 1993-1995 was higher than themortality of the adults and adolescents of the Republic
on the whole, principally, for account ofcardiovascular system diseases. The major causes ofdeath of evacuees in 1995 were the next: the first cause
was cardiovascular system diseases, on the second
place - neoplasm, on the third place - symptoms andundetermined states, on the 4th and 5th places diseases of digestion organs, traumas and poisonings,
on the 6th place - respiration organs diseases [4].

8.4 Comparative analysis of morbidity and mortalityof adults and adolescents of the Republic of Belarus
and of the people those who are living in the zones
with right to resettlement and with periodical
radiation control (Group 5)
By the end of 1995, 1,354,262 adults andadolescents who lived in the zones with right toresettlement and with periodical radiation control were
attributed to Group 5 in the Registry. 75% of thiscontingent lived in the Gomel region, 10.2% and10.0% - in the Mogilev and Brest regions, and 2.5%
and 2.3% - in Grodno and Minsk regions, respectively[3].
The comparative analysis of morbidity of Belarus
adults and adolescents and of Group 5 (Table 8.5) has
shown that morbidity in 1995 of the latter was reliably
higher than the former by all range of diseases as awhole (57,549.27 against 57,091.01 per 100,000
persons).
As compared with 1994, morbidity of Group 5 in1995 was higher by all range of diseases as a whole(57,549.27 against 56,827.63) [30, 16, 7 ,10]. The
tendency to increase of morbidity in three years(1993-1995) was registered by all range of diseases asa whole, by neoplasms, and by urogenital systemdiseases. The number of common unspecified goiterwas increasing constantly.

8.3. Analysis of morbidity and mortality of adults
and adolescents who lived or are living in the
territories of primary and following resettlement(Group 3)
Group 3 in the Registry who had undergone
radiation exposure as a result of Chernobyl APS
accident constituted 66,440 persons by the end of
1995. 60.8% of them lived in the Gomel region, 15.6%- in the Mogilev region, 8.6% - in Minsk city, 4.4% - inthe Vitebsk region, 4.1% - in the Minsk region, 3.3% in the Grodno region and 3.2% - in the Brest region[3].
The comparative analysis of morbidity of Belarus
adults and adolescents and Group 3 in the Registry(Table 8.4) shows that morbidity in 1995 of the adults
and adolescents who live or lived in the zones ofprimary and following resettlement was reliably higher

135

Table 8.4. The comparison of morbidity of Belarus population and of Group 3 (residents or migrants
of primary and following resettlement) (1995, cases per 100,000 persons)
Residents or migrants
Diseases
Belarus population
Ratio
from polluted zones
Thyroid cancer
2.92
7.05
0.41
Cataract
321.55147.34
2.18
Malignant neoplasms
369.55345.63
1.07
Respiration organs diseases
17479.77
25656.22
0.68
Digestion organs diseases
3298.18
1817.14
1.82
Diseases of endocrine system, nutritional
1272.24
583.862.18
disorders, metabolism and immunity disorders
Diseases of blood and blood-forming tissue
175.2873.88
2.37
Cardiovascular system diseases
4859.63
1629.90
2.98
Diseases of bone-muscle system and
5166.373720.13
1.39
connective tissue
Symptoms and undetermined states
365.17134.092.72
Mental disorders1326.281124.55
1.18
Table 8.5. Comparison of morbidity of Belarus population and Group5, residents of zones with rightto resettlement and periodic radiation control (1995, of cases per 100,000 persons)
Residents of polluted
BelarusDiseases
Ratio
zones
population
Thyroid cancer
9.72
7.05
1.38
Cataract
194.34147.34
1.32
Malignant neoplasms
328.25345.63
0.95
Respiration organs diseases
24292.87
25656.22
0.95
Digestion organs diseases
2283.211817.14
1.26
Diseases of endocrine system, nutritional
722.54583.861.24
disorders, metabolism and immunity disorders
Diseases of blood and blood-forming tissue
100.8473.88
1.36
Mental disorders
1014.961124.55
0.90
Urogenital system diseases
4176.902891.15
1.44
The mortality of adults and adolescents of Group 5
was in 1995 verifiably higher than the republican levelby urogenital system diseases (20.50 against 16.67 per
100,000 persons) and blood and blood-forming tissues
diseases (2.92 and 1.11). The verifiable growth ofdeath rate in 1995 as compared with 1994 wasregistered in the adults and adolescents of Group 5
from all causes as a whole (1,605.10 and 1,556.79) andespecially from the following four classes of diseases:- neoplasm (228.16 and 216.80), including malignant(212.30 and 190.26);- digestion organs diseases (28.13 and 23.77);- urogenital system diseases (20.50 and 15.77);- symptoms and undetermined states (194.87 and153.56).
The principal causes of death of Group 5 in 1995
were the diseases of cardiovascular system (53.9% in
the structure of mortality), neoplasm (14.2%),
symptoms and undetermined states (12.1%), traumas
and poisonings (9.2%), respiration organs diseases(4.8%). The number of patients with chronic diseases
in Group 5 grew during last three years.

8,112 persons were recognized as disable in 1995
(in 1994 and 1993 - 7,780 and 8,952, respectively).
The connection with radiation effects was found in 129
invalids in 1995, in 81 - in 1994, in 27 - in 1993 [6].

Conclusion
In the last years the affected population showed
thereby more significant - as compared with republicanindices - growth of incidence in the majority of
diseases (first of all: digestion, urogenital, nervous,
endocrine systems, diseases of ear, throat, nose both
among adults and among children). Aggravation ofhealth state continues in the participants of liquidationof the ChAPS accident consequences and the evacuees
from the alienation zone which have obtained
considerable radiation load to organism (rise ofincidence of diseases of endocrine, cardiovascular,
nervous system etc.).
Considerable growth of thyroid cancer incidence isregistered in Belarus children and adolescents,
especially in the Gomel and Brest regions. This isconditioned by dose commitments on thyroid gland
due to iodine radionuclides in first period after the136

with Chernobyl APS catastrophe//Biomedical aspects ofChernobyl APS accident. 1996. No. 1, p. 30-32 (inRussian)
7. Drobyshevskaya I. M., Krysenko N. A., Stezhko V. A.
State of health of Belarus population after the Chernobyl
catastrophe//"Zdravookhranenie". 1996. No. 5, p. 3-7 (inRussian)
8. Drozdovich V.V., Minenko V.F., Ulanovskij A.V.
internal irradiation conditioned by the consumption offood polluted with radiocesium//Biomedical aspects ofChernobyl APS accident. 1996. No.2, p.12-16 (inRussian)
9. Zhakov I. G., Okeanov A. E. Dynamics of incidence ofmalignant neoplasms in Belarus after the Chernobyl APS
accident//Chernobyl catastrophe: medical aspects(Proceedings). Minsk. 1994. P. 31-42 (in Russian)
10. Zhakov I. G., Stezhko V. A. State of health of
population living on territories polluted withradionuclides//Nine years of Chernobyl. Medical
consequences: Proceedings. Minsk, "Adukatsyya I
Vykhavanne". 1995. Issue 2, p. 3-10 (in Russian)
11. Ivanov E. P., Gorelchik K. I., Lazarev V. S., Klimovich
O. M. Forecast of remote oncological andhaematological diseases after the Chernobyl APS
accident//"Zdravookhranenie Belarusi". 1990. No. 6, p.
57-60 (in Russian)
12. Kenigsberg Ya. Eh., Minenko V. F., Buglova E. E. at al.
Collective doses of irradiation of Belarus population after
the Chernobyl APS accident and prognosis of stochastic
effects//Nine years of Chernobyl. Medical consequences:
Proceedings. Minsk, "Adukatsyya I Vykhavanne". 1995.
Issue 2, p. 61-69 (in Russian)
13. Kolominskij Ya. L., Igumnov S. A. Peculiarities ofperception of radiation hazard by children of different
ages//"Fiziologiya Cheloveka". 1995. V. 21. No. 2, p.
173-176 (in Russian)
14. Korzhunov V. M., Denisevich N. K., Metelskaya M. A.,
Lavrenyuk I. F. Morbidity, disability and mortality of
persons living on territories polluted with Cesium-137
higher that 15 Ci/km2 (third group of primaryaccount)//Biomedical aspects of Chernobyl APS
accident. 1996. No. 1, p. 47-52 (in Russian)
15. Korobko V. I., Korytko S. S., Bletko T. V., Korbut I. I.
Peculiarities of interferon system functioning in theparticipants of liquidation of Chernobyl APS accident
consequences. Correlation of interferon status indiceswithimmuneandhormonal
statusesindices//”Immunologiya”. 1996. No. 1, p. 56-58 (inRussian)
16. Kulkova L. V., Ispenkov E. A., Gutkovskij I. A. et al.
Epidemiological monitoring of children living on
territories of Gomel region polluted withradionuclides//”Meditsinskaya
Radiologiya
I
Radiatsionnaya Bezopasnost’”. 1996. V. 41. No. 42, p.
12-15 (in Russian)
17. Lazyuk G. I., Bedelbaeva K. A., Fomina Zh. N.
Cytogenetical effects of additional radiation action of
low doses of ionizing radiation//”Zdravookhranenie
Belarusi”. 1990. No. 6, p. 38-41 (in Russian)
18. Lazyuk G. I., Nikolaev D. L., Novikova I. V. Dynamics
of hereditary and congenital pathology in Belarus// Nine
years of Chernobyl. Medical consequences: Proceedings.
Minsk, “Adukatsyya I Vykhavanne”. 1995. Issue 2, p.
94-95 (in Russian)accident, incorrect iodine prophylaxy, and goitre
endemic,. The rise of hereditary pathology is registeredtoo. An expressed increase of oncological diseases isobserved therewith mainly in the Gomel region,
especially in the districts with high level ofradiocontamination and, consequently, significant
radiation load. First of all, this relates to the growth ofincidence of cancer of lungs, mammary gland, bladder.
The analysis of epidemiological studies performedin Belarus after the ChAPS catastrophe andcomparison of them with data obtained in the
pre-Chernobyl period testify to the aggravation ofhealth state of Belarus population. The specialists
unambiguously recognize the direct influence ofradioactive pollution in the environment on rise of
thyroid pathologies, hereditary and congenital
diseases, and cancers of different localizations. Thereis no unique opinion about the dynamics ofhaematological diseases and their causes. The increase
is observed therewith of those diseases which can not
be simply attributed to radiation-induced ones.
Probably, the cause of this is concluded in the
combined action of the complex of unfavourable
factors existing in Belarus such as;radiation factor,
general aggravation of social-economical
situation, decrease of level of life, irrational
nutrition,
psycho-emotional stresses,
unfavourable ecological factors with non-radiation
nature etc.

References
1. Ankudovich M. A. Peculiarities of thyroid cancer
incidence in the Republic of Belarus//Biomedical aspects
of Chernobyl APS accident. 1995. No. 1, p.24-31 (inRussian)
2. Antipova S. I., Antipov V. V., Karpovich V. A.,
Shimanskaya A. A. Change of demographic situation in
the Republic of Belarus after the Chernobyl
catastrophe//Biomedical aspects of Chernobyl APS
accident. 1996. No. 2, p. 3-9 (in Russian)
3. Antipova S.I., Korzhunov V.M., Rozina I.V. at al.
Analysis of morbidity of adults and adolescents affectedby the ChAPS catastrophe in 1995//Biomedical aspects
of Chernobyl APS accident. 1996. No.4, p.3-49(inRussian)
4. Antipova S.I., Lomat L.N., Denisevich N.K. at al.
Morbidity and mortality of population evacuated fromalienation zone// Nine years of Chernobyl. Medical
consequences: Proceedings. Minsk, "Adukatsyya I
Vykhavanne". 1995. Issue 2, p. 55-59 (in Russian)
5. Gavrilin Yu. I., Gordeev K. I., Ivanov V. K. at al.
Peculiarities and results of determining the dosage ofinternal irradiation of thyroid for the population ofpolluted areas of the Republic of Belarus//”Vestnik
Akademii Meditsinskikh Nauk”. 1992. No. 2, p. 35-43(in Russian)
6. Grakovich A. A., Kravtsova L. V., Shcherbina O. F.,
Lagun A. V. Assessment of dynamics of primarydisability in the Republic of Belarus in the connection13726. Okeanov A. E., Yakimovich G. V., Zolotko N. I.,
Kulinkina V. V. Dynamics of malignant neoplasms
incidence in Belarus, 1974-1995//Biomedical aspects ofChernobyl APS accident. 1996. No. 1, p. 4-14 (inRussian)
27. Peculiarities of demographic situation after the
Chernobyl APS catastrophe//Ibidem, p. 3 (in Russian)
28. Pel’o I. M. Study of influence of radioactive pollution ofenvironment on the incidence of thyroid diseases in
population//Biomedical aspects of Chernobyl APS
accident . 1996. No. 2, p. 17-19 (in Russian)
29. Regulations on the Belarus State Register of persons
irradiated as a result of Chernobyl APS
catastrophe//Biomedical aspects of Chernobyl APS
accident. 1995. No. 1, p. 4-17 (in Russian)
30. State of health of adults and adolescents living on the
territories with right to resettlement and periodic
radiation
control(fifthgroupofprimary
account)//Biomedical aspects of Chernobyl APS
accident. 1996. No. 1, p. 53-58 (in Russian)
31. Stozharov A. N. Some tendencies in general somatic
morbidity of Belarus population after the ChAPS
catastrophe//”Zdravookhranenie”. 1996. No. 5, p. 8-11
(in Russian)
32. Unzhakov S. V., Lvova G. N., Chekova V. V. at al.
Reparation activity of DNA in children which obtained
low doses of ionizing radiation as a result of Chernobyl
APS accident//”Genetika”. 1995. V. 31. No. 10, p.
1433-1437 (in Russian)
33. Furmanchuk A. V., Cherstvoj E. D., Demidchik E. P. et
al. Morphological characteristics of thyroid in Belarus
children// “Zdravookhranenie Belarusi”. 1992. No. 10, p.
13-16 (in Russian)
34. Konoplya E. F., Rolevich I. V. (editors). Ecological,
biomedical and socio-economic consequences of ChAPS
catastrophe in Belarus//Minsk. 1996. 281 p. (in Russian)

19. Lazyuk G.I., Nikolaev D.L., Khmel R.D. Absolute
number and frequency of congenital malformations ofstrict account (CM SA) in some Belarus regions//
Biomedical aspects of Chernobyl APS accident. 1996,
No.1, p.15 (in Russian)
20.
LukashovK.
I.,
Komrakova
S.
G.
Landscape-geochemical investigations in Byelorussian
SSR in the connection with endemic goiter// “Izvestiya
VGO”. 1986. V. 118. Issue 1, p. 75-83 (in Russian)
21. Lyubchenko P. N., Nilova T. V., Dubinina E. B.,
Levantovskaya O. M. State of hemocoagulation inliquidatorsof
ChAPS
accident
consequences//”Meditsinskaya
Radiologiya
I
Radiatsionnaya Bezopasnost”. 1996. V.41. No.3,
p.15-18 (in Russian)
22. Manak N. A., Rusetskaya V. G., Lazyuk D. G. Analysis
of incidence of cardiovascular system diseases in
population of the Republic of Belarus//Biomedical
aspects of Chernobyl APS accident. 1996. No. 1, p.
24-29 (in Russian)
23. Minenko V. F., Drozdovich V. V., Tret’yakevich S. S.,
Ulanovskij A. V. Irradiation of Belarus population after
the Chernobyl APS accident: collective doses andprognosis of stochastic effects//Biomedical aspects ofChernobyl APS accident. 1996. No. 4, p. 50-64 (inRussian)
24. Okeanov A. E., Antipova S. I., Korzhunov V. M. at al.
State of health of participants of liquidation of Chernobyl
APS catastrophe consequences//Nine years ofChernobyl. Medical consequences: Proceedings. Minsk,“Adukatsyya I Vykhavanne”. 1995. Issue 2, p. 11-30 (inRussian)
25. Okeanov A. E., Zhakov I. G., Yakimovich G. V.
Dynamics of malignant neoplasms incidence in the
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Epidemiological Studies in Russia about the Consequences of the Chernobyl
APS Accident
Igor A. RYABZEVInstitute of Problem of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences
Leninsky st. D-33, Moscow 117071, Russia
1. Introduction

1.1 General assessment of radionuclide release into
the environment by the Chernobyl accident

The final purpose of all efforts to study and mitigate
the consequences of the accident at the 4th reactor of
the Chernobyl atomic power station (ChAPS) is
protection of health of the people who were more orless exposed to radiation action. This situation has notanalogs in terms of scale and character. Certain
experience was accumulated earlier through the studiesof biological and medical effects of atomic bombing in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, other radiation catastrophes,
diagnostic and therapeutic application of radiation, andthe control of health state of professionals in atomic
industries. However, these experiences can be usedjust partially in the assessment and the forecast of
possible negative after-effects of the Chernobyl
accident for the present and future generations.
The long-term irradiation of a large number of
population at low doses is to be considered theprincipal peculiarity of the Chernobyl accident. The
medical activities are complicated significantly by theabsence of verifiable individual dosimetric
information, natural or forced migration of the
population, insufficient development of radiation
epidemiology, complicated social-economic situationin the country, and other factors which are inevitable atlarge-scaled catastrophes. Besides, many fundamental
questions related to biological effects of action of low
doses of ionizing radiation are still being studied.

According to the official estimations, the total
release of radioactivity constituted 50MCi (without
noble gases) - near 4% of the total in the reactor. Thisis 1,000 times as high as it was at the accident atThree-Mile-Island APS (USA) in 1979.
Radionuclide releases were assessed by
calculations using models of admixtures transfer in theatmosphere. The input information for calculation was
taken from the results of study of radionuclide
composition of aerosol samples picked up over the 4threactor of ChAPS since 26 of April 1986, as well asfrom the results of gamma-aerosurvey around the APS
area,
analysisofprecipitation
samples,
meteo-observations in the areas of polluted air mass
moving. The data on radioactive pollution of theenvironment over the USSR territory were used
therewith. The precision of the results of calculation
was appraised in the report [1] as ± 50%. The
radioactive noble gases were not taken into accounthere. The composition of released radioniclides as awhole corresponded to the isotope structure of fuel inreactor. The short-living radionuclides were dominant
in them, first of all - 131I. From the long-living
radionuclides - 137Cs. The release of 90Sr was
significantly lesser. Much lesser was 239Pu which is themost dangerous in long-term aspect and enters into theTable 1. Estimation of composition of major radionuclides released from ChAPS [1]Release activity
Nuclide26.04.1986*
06.05.1986**
MCi
1015 BqMCi
1015 Bq
Iodine-131
167
4.5
270
7.3
Cesium-134
5.6
0.15
18.5
0.5
Cesium-137
11.1
0.3
37
1.0
Ruthenium-103
22.2
0.6
118
3.2
Ruthenium-106
7.4
0.2
59.2
1.6
Cerium-141
14.8
0.4
104
2.8
Cerium-144
16.7
0.45
88.8
2.4
Strontium-89
9.2
0.25
81.4
2.2
Strontium-90
0.6
0.015
8.1
0.22
Plutonium-238
3.7 x 10-3
0.1 x 10-3
0.03
0.8 x 10-3
Plutonium-239
3.7 x 10-3
0.1 x 10-3
0.026
0.7 x 10-3
-3-3
Plutonium-240
7.4 x 100.2 x 100.037
1 x 10-3
Plutonium-241
0.74
0.02
5.2
0.14
* Release on the 1st day of the accident. Activity is decay-corrected to 06.05.1986.
** Total release until 06.05.1986.
139

composition of hot particles with extraordinary highspecific activity (Table 1).
The assessment of released quantity of long-living
137
Cs is worth attention because it is determining now
the radioecological situation on the major part of theChernobyl trace territories. The report [1] - on the basisof data of radiocontamination on the USSR territory gives an estimation of the total release of 137Cs: 1 MCi(37 x 1015 Bq) or 13 ± 7% of its activity in the reactor
core. The UNSCEAR experts - on the basis of analysisof data on precipitation in the Northern hemisphere estimated 137Cs release from ChAPS as 1.9 MCi (70 x1015 Bq), i.e. 27% [2]. According to [3], up to 23% of
its activity in the reactor fell into the atmosphere. By
the estimation on the basis of analysis of quantity andradionuclide composition in the fuel remaining in“Shelter” object, 2.3 ± 0.7 MCi (85 x 1015 Bq) werereleased, or 33 ± 10% of primary activity of 137Cs in
the reactor [4].

creation of the Register, as well as a large number ofscientific and practical institutions [6].
At present, the National Radiation-Epidemiological
Register is acting in Russian Federation. The Russian
Ministry on Emergencies is the general customer of theRegister. The head organization is Medical
Radiological Scientific Center of RAMS (Russian
Academy of Medical Sciences). It fulfils collection ofprimary medical and dosimetric data through 24
regional centres [7].

2.1 Russian State Medical-Dosimetric RegisterThree principal data bases consist of the National
Radiation-Epidemiological Register:
Registration List of those who underwent
irradiation. It is created according to special
dosimetric categories;
Chernobyl Register. In 1992, it was officiallynamed Russian State Medical-Dosimetric Register(RSMDR);
Register of inter-institutional expert councils.
In the present paper we will dwell on theradiation-epidemiological analysis of data of theChernobyl Register of Russia.
During all years of functioning, the data bank of
RSMDR was filled constantly with medical-dosimetric
information. By 1 of December 1994, it comprehended
370,120 persons from all the Russian Federation. All
persons registered in RSMDR are divided into 5groups of primary account (GPA):
1 GPA - liquidators - 159,027 (43.0%);
2 GPA - evacuees - 8,091 (2.2%);
3 GPA - those who live or have lived on controlled
territories - 185,912 (50.4%);
4 GPA - children born by liquidators of 1986-1987- 16,226 (4.4%);
5 GPA - migrants from the zones of alienation(after 1986), resettlement and with right toresettlement - 864 (0.2%) [8].
Special attention is paid to observation of healthstate of the liquidators which have obtained the highest
radiation loading as a result of accident. RSMDR
contains data of external irradiation of 125,771
liquidators on the basis of certificates given in the zone
of works on liquidation of the accident consequences.
Regretfully, it is impossible now to establish types ofdose values- absorbed or exposure one - put down in
RSMDR. The maximum difference between exposureand absorbed doses for whole-body external
irradiation can reach 30%, i.e. absorbed dose canconstitute 0.7 exposure dose (this estimation was madeon the results of measurements by the Institute ofBiophysics of Minzdravmedprom of Russia in the
30-km zone of ChAPS). Considering that the error ofeach individual value of dose can be much higher than
30%, the mentioned possible difference due to dosetypes is not taken into consideration in further analysis.
The unit of absorbed dose (cGy) is used in the analysis.

1.2. Release of radioactive iodine as one of
peculiarities of the Chernobyl accident
The most important characteristic of this accident is
the release into the environment of significant quantityof radioactive iodine. However, there is uncertainty inthe assessments of the total release of this radionuclide
from the 4th reactor. The report [1] gives the value of
7.3 MCi or 20% of activity in core (calculation for6.05.1986). UNSCEAR experts [2] estimated the total
131
I release as 8.9 MCi being quite near to the data ofreport [1]. According to the proceedings of 1stInternational Task Force on severe accidents and theirconsequences, estimations of the total 131I release
ranged from 20 % to 60% of its content in the core of
the reactor [3]. By the WHO data, the release of thisradionuclide into the environment is equal to 44 MCi,
and, if we take into account the short-living 132I-135I
isotopes, this value is to be increased considerably [5].
Note that, due to the relatively short period of
half-decay, we have only the data on theseradionuclides which were obtained before July 1986.
Therefore, only the results of their analysis can be new
ones. Iodine and its isotopes affect thyroid, and theeffect on thyroid is one of principal consequences of
the Chernobyl accident.

2. Epidemiological studies in Russia after the
ChAPS accident
In 1986, immediately after the Chernobyl accident,
the USSR Ministry of Health undertook a large-scaled
programme to create All-Union Distributed Register of
persons affected by radiation. By 1992 (the moment of
USSR decay), the data base of the Register contained
medical and dosimetric information about 659,292
persons including 284,919 participants of liquidationof the accident consequences (liquidators). All the
republics of the former Soviet Union took part in the140equipped with necessary accident means of IDS as wellas the firemen which came to put out the fire on the 4threactor. Meanwhile, exposure dose rate (EDR) on the
ChAPS roof and in premises reached after the
explosion several hundreds of R/h.
The equipment and methodical provision of
dosimetric services of involved Ministries andinstitutions were different each other. The precision ofindividual dose values is thus different too. Besides,
nonuniformity of radioactive precipitation is to betaken into account, which complicated the radiation
situation significantly. In consequence, participants ofliquidation of the accident were situated in
non-uniform radiation field of β- and γ-radiation
during the works within and out of the 30-km zone
(especially in 1986-1987). Therefore, exposure dosecan be assessed with admissible precision only byusing IDS data, although they were practically absent
in first weeks after the accident.
By the level of reliability, the dosimetric data for
liquidators can be divided into three principal groups
in dependence of the used methods for dosage
assessment:
Exposure or absorbed dose obtained by using
individual dosimeter: maximum error is near 50%(supposing its correct use);
Group dose attributed to groups of people working
within the zone based on individual dosimeter of
one of them: maximum uncertainty by the group
can reach 300%;
Itinerary dose evaluated based on the average
exposure dose rate in the zone of works and theperiod of stay there of group of persons: maximum
uncertainty by the group can reach 500%.
At present, the quality of dosimetric data for asignificant number of liquidators can thus be low due
to absence in the Register of additional information
about the character, locality and time period of theworks by each liquidator. All this justifies the extreme
necessity to verify the dosimetric data for liquidatorsand other persons who underwent irradiation as a resultof the ChAPS accident [10]. In spite of the difficulty ofdosage assessment, some average statistical

2.2 Dosimetric data of Russian State
Medical-Dosimetric Register for liquidators
In order to understand clearly the character ofdosimetric information put down in RSMDR, it isuseful to describe briefly when and how the dosimetricsurveillance of radiation loading was organized in thezones of liquidation of the accident consequences.
After the ChAPS accident, the USSR Governmental
Commission charged on 28 of May 1986 with theindividual dosimetric surveillance (IDS) three
institutions: USSR Ministry of Defence (MD),Ministry of Middle Machine-Industry and Ministry ofEnergy. The dosimetric surveillance was also carriedout independently by USSR Ministry of Interior,
USSR KGB (until September 1987), Academy of
Sciences of Ukrainian SSR.
The staff of more than 600 organizations of 49
ministries and institutions of USSR was under IDS
since 1986. The biggest share of them fell on units of
USSR Ministry of Energy.
Since October 1986, the dosimetric data were put
down in data base of computer of SM 1634 type. The
automated information-reference system of IDS wasformed on the basis of Administration of Dosimetric
Surveillance (ADS) of science-production association“Pripyat” in April 1988. This system contained
information about 103,800 participants of liquidationof the accident consequences. Since 1987, IDS of
ChAPS personnel was carried out by the Service ofControl of Radiation Safety of ChAPS. IDS of
personnel engaged in works within alienation zone wascarried out by ADS of science-production association“Pripyat”.
Before the ChAPS accident, condenser dosimeterof KID type and individual film dosimeter (IFD) wereused for controlling irradiation of ChAPS staff. These
dosimeters were created at the Institute of Biophysics
of USSR Ministry of Health. The measured dose rangeof them was from 50 mR to 2 R. 400 persons were
working in ChAPS at night shift on 26 April of 1986.
They were equipped only with IFD [9]. Thereby, at the
moment of the accident, ChAPS personnel was not

Table 2. Average characteristics of dose commitments for liquidators [10]N -number of liquidators, men;D - average absorbed dose, cGy;
T - average period of stay in polluted zone, days;
R - average EEDR, mR/h;
σ - standard deviation of distribution D, T, R

Year ofentering
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990

N
men
46575
48077
18208
5475
1004

D,
cGy
15.9
9.0
3.3
3.2
3.7

σ
cGy
8.3
5.8
3.5
3.6
2.9
141

T,
days
70
79
106
102
86

σ
days
72
59
58
60
58

R,
mR/h
19.2
6.8
2.0
1.9
2.5

σ
mR/h
45.5
19.8
14.8
6.7
7.3

characteristics of dosage distribution contained in theRegister are used here, because average values are
considered to be more useful than individual values.
Table 2 contains average values and their standard
deviations of doses of liquidators, terms of their stay inthe zone of works, and “effective exposure dose rate”
in dependence of entering in the polluted zone.
The conclusion can be made by the data of Table 2
about the dynamics of average irradiation loading
during the principal works within the accident zone.
There was certain increase of average dose forliquidators who had come to the zone in 1990. This canbe explained by the next: the mass works in the zone
were concluded, therefore just professionals were sent
there in order to fulfil special tasks. This can be
confirmed also by the data on average period of stay (itis something less than that of 1989) and average EEDR
(it is by 50 % higher than that of 1988-1989). The
spread of D, T, R distributions is quite big because
standard deviations are close to mean values andsignificantly exceed it in the EEDR distribution. Thisfactor testifies also to the acceptable reliability of
dosimetric data of the Register on the whole. It is
impossible yet to make any conclusions about thereliability of every individual value [10]. Anotherestimations of irradiation dose for liquidators also
exist, e.g. in the data base of the register of All-Russia
Centre of Ecological Medicine (St. Petersburg).
According to these estimations, the average dose ofirradiation of liquidators constituted in 1986: 0.1207 ±0.0025 Sv, in 1987 - 0.0838 ± 0.0009 Sv, in 1989 0.0312 ± 0.0012 and in 1990 - 0.0494 ± 0.0022 Sv. As
a result of mathematical-statistical analysis, it wasestablished that the time of coming to the zone ofaccident works was the most significant factor in theirradiation dose formation. The coefficient ofcorrelation between irradiation dose and the time ofcoming constitutes 0.487 for all data. The dependence
of individual irradiation doses on the time of coming of
liquidators to the radiation zone turned out stepwise.
Irradiation doses vary substantially and significantly
by four time intervals: 0-15th day from the moment of
the accident, 16-350th day, 351-700th day and morethan 700 days. The average dose for liquidators whichcame in the first 15 days constituted 0.145 Sv, from16th to 350th day - 0.119 Sv, from 351st to 700th day 0.065 Sv, after 701 days - 0.03 Sv. The dependence
between dose and the time of coming within eachperiod is insignificant. From the point of view ofauthors [11], these time intervals must be the basis offorming risk groups of liquidators for scientificanalysis of biological consequences of the ChAPS
accident, and classification of medical and social
assistance.

As a result of the explosion of the 4th reactor of theChernobyl APS, the territory of Russia was intensively
polluted with radioactive substances released into theatmosphere. In the composition of mixture ofradionuclides precipitated over the Russian territory,
isotopes of iodine, cesium, strontium and transuranium
elements are the most radiologically significant. A spotof high radioactive pollution formed in 6 western
districts of the Bryansk region. The territory withdensity of soil pollution for 137Cs over 15 Ci/km2
stands out there. There are areas with radioactive
pollution density up to 5-15 Ci/km2 in the Bryansk,
Tula, Kaluga and Orel regions. Besides, separate areas
with pollution density from 1 to 5 Ci/km2 for 137Cs
were found in the Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk,
Leningrad, Lipetsk, Penza, Ryazan, Smolensk,
Tambov, Ulianovsk regions and the Republic ofMordovia. The 90Sr content in soil of polluted areas of
Russia is 10-100 times as low as that of 137Cs. By thedata of State Committee of Russian Federation on
Hydrometeorology for 1991, the total area ofradioactive pollution (more than 1 Ci/km2 for 137Cs)
constituted in Russia 55,000 km2 being bigger thanthat in Ukraine or Belarus.
From the moment of radioactive pollution of area,
the population is subjected to external irradiation withgamma- and beta-radiation of mixture of radionuclides- products of nuclear fission and activation. The initial
dose rate in the air has decreased tens of times by July
1986 and is determined thereafter mainly by
gamma-radiation of 137Cs and 134Cs. 131I was theleading factor of internal irradiation of people in May
1986. It entered the organism with food, principallywith local milk and vegetables. Radioactive iodine
gathered in human thyroid and irradiated it selectively.
137
Cs and 134Cs are leading factors of internal
irradiation since the summer of 1986. They enter theorganisms of residents of polluted areas with milk andmeat, natural products (mushrooms, forest berries andfish) and - in lesser degree - with vegetables and fruits.
The content of cesium radionuclides in plant andanimal products made on "chernozem" soils (Tula,
Orel and other regions) is 10-100 times as low as thaton soddy-podzolic soils with the same pollution level(Bryansk, Kaluga regions). These indices decreased 2
times every 1-1.5 years, and, in general, from thesummer of 1986 to 1992 - tens of times.
Beside of cesium isotopes, 90Sr is transferred fromsoil to plants and then to animals. This radionuclide
also enters the organisms of habitants with milk (notwith meat) and plant products. Its quantity, however, ismuch smaller than the quantity of cesium isotopes.
Unlike the cesium and strontium isotopes,
transuranium radionuclides exist in soil in thecomposition of low-soluble fuel particles and do notparticipate almost in biological processes. Theseradionuclides can be inhaled with dust into humanorganisms in small quantities. The contribution of 90Srand radionuclides of transuranium elements into

2.3 Long-term irradiation of population of RussianFederation as a result of the Chernobyl APS
accident
142

irradiation doses of people is not big and constitutes intotal 1-5% [12].

measurements were carried out in Ulianovsk,
Khvastovichi and Zhizdrin districts using movable andstationary calibrated whole-body counters with
one-channel analysers, which gave calculation ofannual irradiation doses in the last years. Near 60,000
measurements were held by 1994. Children andadolescents were mainly studied. The results ofmeasurements show that the cesium radionuclides
content in organism on the whole has decreased
substantially in past years. The average doses ofinternal irradiation by different districts were nothigher than 0.8 mSv per year since 1987 and weredecreasing in the course of time. In 1990-1991, they
were not higher than 0.25 mSv even in the mostly
polluted Ulianovsk district. Nevertheless, individual
doses up to 3 mSv/year were registered for separate
persons (1990-1991). The highest irradiation levels
took place in 1986. Though the average annual doses
of internal irradiation did not overreach 20 mSv, theindividual doses for separate persons (near 2.5%) werehigher and reached 60 mSv [13].
By the estimations, the collective dose of external
and internal whole-body irradiation from the momentof the accident for the average duration of life can beequal to 5,000 man-Sv (for the districts of the Kaluga
region where radioactive precipitation took place).
This value constitutes near 10% of expected collective
dose for all Russian territories polluted by the accident.
Individual examinations with TL-dosimeters were
held also on the territory of western districts of the
Bryansk region with pollution density from 0.6 to 4.0
MBq/m2. 8,000 individual measurements were held in
1986-1993 in 44 settlements. This number of habitants

2.4 Doses of irradiation of thyroid of Russian
population
The results of calculations, based on the data of
direct measurements of 131I content in thyroid, show
strong age dependence of absorbed doses for thyroid.
The average thyroid doses estimated for different
age groups in dependence of the level of pollution ofareas in the Bryansk and Kaluga regions were within
the range from 10 mGy to 2.2 Gy. Individual thyroid
dose reached in separate cases 10 Gy and more. The
statistical distribution of individual doses ischaracterized by a long “tail” in the area of high dose
as well as by a big share of persons for which values ofthyroid dose were assessed as zero within the limits ofmeasurement errors. So far as the calculations in 1986of individual absorbed dose were pointwise, presently,
in order to determine the errors of calculations, theoverall assessment of factors able to influence doses
values is carried out. The results of assessment ofvalues of average and collective thyroid doses ofhabitants in various Russian settlements with pollution
density over 3.7 kBq/m2 are adduced in Table 3.

2.5 Doses of whole-body irradiation of Russian
population
The measurements of 137Cs and 134Cs radionuclides
content in human bodies were carried out during
annual examinations of the population in Kaluga
region of Russia since September 1986. The

Table 3. Doses of thyroid irradiation in different regions of Russian Federation [13]Soil pollution
Mean thyroid dose Collective thyroid dose
Population,
Regiondensity for 137Cs,
per population,
for all population,
thousands
kBq/m2mGy
103 man-Sv
Bryansk region:
3.7 - 37
670.0
12.4
94.34
37 - 185227.0
76.5
185 - 555
147.0
229.0
>= 55593.1
376.0
Tula region:
3.7 - 37
370.0
30.6
92.34
37 - 185770.0
77.4
185 - 555
170.0
126.0
Kaluga region:
3.7 - 37
120.0
28.4
10.12
37 - 18578.0
65.5
185 - 555
15.5
103.2
Orel region:
3.7 - 37
100.0
22.6
21.37
37 - 185330.0
54.5
185 - 555
18.0
95.1
Kursk region:
3.7 - 37
111.0
17.0
5.80
37 - 185
134.0
29.3
Ryazan region:
3.7 - 37
110.0
27.1
9.22
37 - 185
182.0
34.3
Leningrad region:
3.7 - 37
10.0
24.0
0.54
37 - 185
182.0
27.9
143

Table 4. Average accumulated doses for population of polluted districts of in Bryansk region [13]Average accumulated dose of external
Settlement with different levels
Districts
and internal whole-body irradiation
137
of pollution with Cs
for1986-1993 period, mSv
Novozybkov
t. Novozybkov
30
Zlynkav. Zlynka
50
villages with > 555 kBq/m2
90 - 140< 555 kBq/m2
20 - 90
Krasnaya Gorav. Krasnaya Gora
20
villages with > 555 kBq/m2
90 - 160< 555 kBq/m2
20 - 90
Gordeevka
v. Gordeevka
60
2
villages with > 555 kBq/m
90 - 130< 555 kBq/m2
20 - 90
Klintsyt. Klintsy
10
villages with > 555 kBq/m2
90 - 110< 555 kBq/m2
20 - 90
constituted 90% of all population in the strict controlzone.
The results of evaluation of accumulated doses ofexternal and internal irradiation in 1986-1993 period
are adduced in Table 4 for the territories of the Bryansk
region with various pollution levels. These evaluations
were made from one side - on the basis of results ofcalculations of internal irradiation using verified
measurements of 137Cs content in organism in various
years after the accident; from other side - on the basisof results of calculations using measurements ofγ-radiation dose rate in air in various years after theaccident and extrapolations of these results forsettlements with different levels of pollution with 137Cs[13].
The highest value of average irradiation dose for
adult population was registered in village Vyshkov of
the Zlynka district (236 mGy). This settlement issituated close to the zone of increased pollution (1480
kBq/m2) and is of interest in terms of dosimetricstudies. The averaged dose for children in given
settlement is substantially less (103 mGy).
Considerable differences between irradiation doses ofadults and children are observed also in other small
settlements where the activity of population isconnected mainly with agriculture, they do not differ
practically among children in different settlements..
For Klintsy town the values of averaged dose for
adults are considerably less than those for small
settlements (123 mGy) and differ few from the values
for children (105 mGy). Incidentally, low level ofpollution with radionuclides (near 100 kBq/m2 for137
Cs [14]) is registered in Klintsy town as a whole, andthe calculated averaged irradiation doses by thesettlement are much less than measured ones.

2.6 Mortality, morbidity and disability of liquidators
In the analysis of mortality of liquidators living in
Russian Federation, it is important to take into accountthat, in last years, negative demographic processes areobserved on the territory of the country on the whole(increase of death rate and decrease of birth rate). The
structure of principal causes of mortality of liquidators is
also important.
RSMDR contains reports on 78 territorial regions of
Russia: republics, lands, regions, Moscow, St. Petersburg,
and compiled reports (annual) for all Russian Federationand for 5 regions (Bryansk, Smolensk, Tula, Kaluga andOrel) entering the zone of radioactive pollution of Russia- so-called “Chernobyl zone”.
It is stated - on the basis of data of these reports - thatthe mortality of participants of the ChAPS accident
consequences liquidation from all causes (total mortality
or simple mortality) increased from 4.6 to 6.9 per 1,000
persons in 1990-1992 period, i.e. the mortality index
increased by 50%. This index increases by years for one
regions and decreases for other regions, but does not on
the average exceed the control level for Russia [13]. For
example, until 1991, the death rate among liquidators in
the Ryazan region was not higher than regional indices ofdeath rate for the same age. In 1992-1993, the death rate
among liquidators was higher than the regional indices1.3-1.5 times and constituted 12.4 and 15.3 per 1,000
persons per year [14].

144Table 5. Comparison of disease rate per 100,000 persons by the principal classes of diseases among Russian
population and among liquidators in 1993 [16]Population ofClasses of diseases
Liquidators
Ratio of indicesRussiaNeoplasms
788
747
0.9
Malignant neoplasms*
140
233
1.6
Endocrine system diseases
327
6036
18.4
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs
94
339
4.3
Mental disorders
599
5743
9.6
Diseases of blood circulation organs
1472
6306
4.3
Diseases of digestion organs
2635
9739
5.7
All classes of diseases
50785
75606
1.5
* - The standardized index on age distribution of liquidators for 1993 is adduced for malignant neoplasms.
Table 6. Comparison of disease rate per 100,000 persons by principal classes of diseases among liquidatorsof different dose groups in 1993 [16]Classes of diseases
0-5 cGy
5-20 cGy
more than 20 cGy
Neoplasm
690
648
747
Malignant neoplasm
217
232
225
Endocrine system diseases
5270
6120*
6075*
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs
213
354*
450*
Mental disorders
5178
5490
5472
Diseases of blood circulation organs
5287
6090*
6648**
Diseases of digestion organs
9106
9743
9515
All classes of diseases
69831
75346*
75785** - indices differ significantly (p < 0.001) from corresponding indices in group of 0-5 cGy;** - indices differ significantly (p < 0.01) from corresponding indices in group of 5-20 cGy.
Table 7. Dynamics of invalids (per 1,000 persons) among liquidators by dosage groups in 1990-1993. Data of
RSMDRYears of observation
0-5 cGy
5-20 cGy
more than 20 cGy
1990
6.0
10.3
17.3
1991
12.5
21.4
31.1
1992
28.6
50.1
57.6
1993
43.5
74.0
87.4
According to the results of study of 814 deaths in
1989-1995 of liquidators, the share of oncologicaldiseases (12%) among the causes of death is not higher
than the mean indices for Russian population.
Cardiovascular pathology occupies the first place among
somatic diseases (35%). The most frequent causes ofdeath (over 50%) are accidents among which suicides,
alcoholic intoxications and road accidents prevail. By thedata of study, 34% of liquidators were at the moment ofdeath in state of middle or strong stage of alcoholic
intoxication. Among those who committed suicide,alcohol was found in blood only in 28% of cases, another
72% did it consciously. These data indicate the necessityof deep examination of liquidators in the field of
psychoneurological sphere [15].
The forecast and interpretation of data on morbidityand disability indices of liquidators are much more
complicated. Comparison of morbidity indices by theprincipal classes of diseases among liquidators andRussian population as a whole is adduced in Table 5. This

table shows that the indices of morbidity amongliquidators in a number of cases are many times as high as
those among the population of Russia. Undoubtedly, thelevel, completeness and quality of medical examination ofliquidators differ significantly from all-Russia practice.
The most modern methods of diagnostics are applied in
examining liquidators, and mostly skilled and competentspecialists are engaged. By the data of MRSC RAMS, therevealing rate of primarily registered diseases by means ofspecialists of this institution is several times as high as thatby the means of local medical personnel. In such situation
it is quite difficult to pick up the adequate control groupfor comparing.
It is known that factors of social and psychologicalcharacter connected with the Chernobyl accident havegreat importance in the formation of pathological statesand morbidity among liquidators. All this combined withradiation influence can be determined as “Chernobyl
syndrome”. Attempts to analyse the weight of radiation
factor from this very complicated syndromes are of great145

importance. Therefore, the authors [16] evaluated theindices of morbidity and disability by dosage groups - 0-5
cGy, 5-20 cGy and more than 20 cGy - grounding on
dosimetric data of liquidators included in RSMDR. As
internal control group the contingents of liquidators
irradiated within 0-5 cGy interval were taken therewith.
As it is seen from Table 6, morbidity indices by anumber of classes of diseases in groups of 5-20 cGy andmore than 20 cGy turned out statistically higher thanthose in group of 0-5 cGy. It was established therewiththat the group of more than 20 cGy consisted by 99.1% ofliquidators of 1986-1987.
The liquidators of 1986-1987 constitute 91.2% of
dosage group of 5-20 cGy and the smaller half of group of
0-5 cGy (48.9%). Therefore, 2 factors were studied within
the framework of standard multifactor analysis: dosage(with 3 grades: 0-5 cGy, 5-20 cGy and more than 20 cGy)and date of entering the radiation zone (with 3 grades:
liquidators of 1986, of 1987 and of 1988-1990). By the
analysis of indices of rate of 3 classes of diseases(endocrine system, blood circulation organs and mental
disorders), it was established that the factor of date ofentering the radiation zone (1986, 1987, 1988-1990) is
undoubtedly the determining one as compared withdosage factor from the point of view of its influence on
morbidity. It means that first of all the health state ofliquidators of 1986 and 1987 is of special worry.
The indices of disability of liquidators in dependenceof obtained external irradiation doses are adduced inTable 7. The disability indices in second and third dosegroups are significantly higher than the corresponding
coefficients in first group (0-5 cGy). The fact is also worth
attention that the index of disability of liquidators on thewhole is 2.8-3.2 times as high as the index of all Russia.

radionuclides and, as a result, impetuous growth of
thyroid cancer cases among children and adolescents ofboth sexes and women of genital age.
In the process of screening of children and adolescentsfrom south-western districts of the Bryansk region in
1991-1995, the primary clinico-laboratoy information on
25,000 persons was obtained including the examinationof pediatrist, endocrinologist, ultrasonic investigation of
thyroid, analysis of TTH, FT4 content in serum as well asof antibodies to thyroglobulin and microsomal fraction,and the data on 137Cs content in organism.
It was stated that thyroid pathology in given groups of
persons occupies the leading place in general morbidity
structure. Out of all thyroid pathology, 75-80% fall on
euthyroid goiter, 0.2-3.7% - on nodal formations in
dependence of age group, 0.32-1.7% - on autoimmune
thyroidites, 0.1% - on hypothyrosis with clinicalmanifestation and 5.0-7.8% - on that with subclinicalcourse. As a result of screening, 14 cases of thyroid cancer
were first discovered and confirmed histologicallythereafter.
In total, 48 cases of thyroid cancer have beenverified presently in the Bryansk region among children
and adolescents who were children at the moment of the
ChAPS accident. 33 girls and 15 boys are among them
(Table 8).
Nearly 50% of children and adolescents withdiagnosed thyroid cancer have lived on areas with
pollution level as 15 and more Ci/km2 for 137Cs, i.e. in
the resettlement zones.
Medical-dosimetric investigation is carried out
concerning all cases of thyroid cancer. It has beenfound that the reconstructed individual dose on thyroid
due to radioactive iodine depends on the zone of living
and ranges from 1 to 270 cGy. Dose dependence wasdiscovered of thyroid cancer incidence on the densityof soil pollution with 137Cs. 11.9 cases per 100,000 ofchildren population were revealed on territories with
pollution density from 0.1 to 1.0 Ci/km2, 18.5 cases on the territories with 1.0-5.0 Ci/km2, 29.7 cases - on
the territories with 15 and more Ci/km2 [17].

2.7 Thyroid cancer among the population of the
Bryansk and Kaluga regions
Against the background of general aggravation ofhealth state, decrease of birth-rate and duration of life ofRussians in the last 10 years, Chernobyl brought a strong
additional factor of immediate and mediate effect ofionizing radiation on present and following generations.
The direct result of radiation influence on humanorganism - beside of acute and sub-acute radiation
sickness - is the injury of thyroid tissue by iodine

2.8 Malignant neoplasm on territories polluted as aresult of the ChAPS accident

Table 8. Number of cases of thyroid cancer in children and adolescents of Bryansk and Kaluga regions of
Russian Federation [13]RegionBryansk region
Kaluga region
Russia

1987
1
1

1988
-

1989
-

Year of diagnosing
1990 1991 1992 1993
4
4
8
12
1
4
4
8
13
146

1994
19
3
22

Total
48
4
52

Table 9. Standardized indices of general oncological morbidity per 100,000 persons in different
regions of Russian Federation [18]Increase in 1994
Region1994
compared with 1981, %Bryansk
336.2
38.6
Kaluga
294.3
29.6
Orel
313.3
40.1
Tula
339.3
21.4
Ryazan
357.1
Kursk
300.0
Russian Federation
278.0
19.1
on all radiocontaminated territories, and the pace ofincrease is much higher than in Russian Federation.
The highest levels of thyroid cancer incidence inRussian Federation were registered in 1994 in the
Bryansk, Orel and Ryazan regions; the indicesconstituted 7.8, 7.7, 7.7 per 100,000 of population
respectively [18].

Moscow Research Oncological P. A. Gertsen
Institute
analysedthedynamics
ofonco-epidemiological situation in the six polluted
regions by the Chernobyl accident: Bryansk, Kaluga,
Orel, Tula, Ryazan, Kursk, in 1981-1994 period.
Uninterrupted rise of malignant neoplasm incidence
was registered in all territories and the whole RussianFederation as well. Since 1987, the levels of malignant
neoplasm incidence were permanently higher in six
mentioned regions than in Russian Federation (Table
9).
The structure of malignant neoplasm incidence did
not change substantially in the post-accident period.
On all areas, except for the Bryansk region, neoplasmof lungs, trachea, bronchi occupied the first place inthe structure, and tumours of stomach - the second
place. In the Bryansk region, the most frequent
nosological form was cancer of stomach; and tumoursof respiration system organs were on the second place.
The malignant neoplasm of stomach, blood-forming
and lymphatic tissue, thyroid gland, and larynx have abigger specific weight in the morbidity structure of the
Bryansk region than in that of Russian Federation. The
share of malignant neoplasm of thyroid in morbidity
structure of the Orel region is more significant thanthat in Russian Federation.
The dynamics of disease incidence among the
population of studied territories with cancer of lungs,
trachea, bronchi is characterized by positive trend. The
highest levels of morbidity are characteristic of the
Bryansk, Tula and Ryazan regions. The stomach
cancer incidence which is higher than in RussianFederation was registered on radiocontaminatedterritories both in the pre- and the post-accident
periods although the uninterrupted trend of decrease ofthis index is observed. In 1994, the Bryansk region
occupied the second place in Russian Federation by thelevel of morbidity among men (index - 55.4; Russia 40.3) and the third place among women. The incidenceof malignant neoplasm of blood-forming andlymphatic tissue is higher in the Bryansk, Tula, Ryazan
regions than that in Russian Federation. The highest
indices in 1994 were registered in the Ryazan region:
18.0 for men and 13.5 for women. The rise ofincidence of thyroid malignant neoplasm is observed

Conclusion
More than 10 years passed since the Chernobyl
catastrophe. The biggest technogenic accident inmankind history attracted attention of the worldsociety. However, the problem of assessment of total
integral damages for life and health of the irradiatedpeople is still extremely complicated. The negative
influence of Chernobyl included the entire range offactors which are causing their mutual strengthening.
In particular, neither theoretical models nor practical
recommendations for the integral assessment of socialand psycho-emotional factors by radiation
catastrophes exist at present. From the other side, inorder to rehabilitate efficiently the sufferers, it isneeded to range and to determine objectively thecontribution of both radiation and non-radiation
components of influence. Therefore, it is of greatpractical value to continue many-years studies and toobtain new scientific data in the field of radiation
epidemiology .

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1988, UNO, New York, 1988 (in Russian)
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Nesterenko V. B., Firsova D. S. Minsk: MS
SEhNMURV, 1993 (in Russian)
10. Pitkevich V. A., Ivanov V. K., Tsyb A. F. et al.
Bulletin “Radiation and risk”. Special issue, no. 2,
1995 (in Russian)
11. Nikiforov A. M., Shantyr I. I., Romanovich I. K.,
Makarova M. V. Inter. Conf. One decade after
Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of theAccident. Austria Center Vienna. 1996.
12. . Reference book on radiation situation and irradiation
doses in 1991 for population of areas of RussianFederation subjected to radiation pollution as a resultof Chernobyl APS accident. Editor: Balonov M. I.
St-Petersburg, 1993 (in Russian)
13. Medical consequences of Chernobyl accident/Resultsof pilot projects of IFECA and corresponding national
programs. World Health Organization. Geneva, 1996
(in Russian)
14. Buldakov L. A., Lyaginskaya A. M., Smirnova O. V.
et al. 3d Congress on Radiation Research. (Moscow,
14-17 Oct. 1997). V.1 (in Russian)
15. Zubovskij G. A., Peskin A. V. Ibidem.
16. Tsyb A. F., Il’in L. A., Ivanov V. K. All-Russia
Science-Practical Conference “Radioecological,
Medical And Socio-Economic Consequences ofChernobyl APS Accident. Rehabilitation of
Territories And Population”. Golitsino, 1995. P. 37-52(in Russian)
17. Parshkov E. M., Tsyb A. F., Stepanenko V. F. Ibidem.
P. 57
18. Remennik L. V., Mokina V. D., Kharchenko V. V. et
al. Ibidem. P. 100

148

Dynamics of Health Status of Residents in the Lugyny District after the
Accident at the ChNPS
Ivan GODLEVSKY and Oleg NASVIT*
Hospital of the Lugyny Territorial Medical Association;
23 Chervonoyi Girky str., Lugyny village, Lugyny district, Zhytomyr Region, Ukraine*Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine;
12 Geroev Stalingrada, Kyiv 254210, Ukraine
Introduction

1. Radiation situation within the Lugyny district

The Lugyny district lies in the northern part of theZhytomyr region of Ukraine within 110-150 km fromthe Chernobyl nuclear power station (ChNPS). Its
territory is crossed by the southern and south-western
tracks that were formed by the Chernobyl accident inApril 1986. The total territory of the district constitutes
approximately 900 km2, the territory of agriculturalland — more than 300 km2, and about 190 km2 of themarable land. Practically all agricultural land in the
district have the 137Cs contamination density higher
than 1 Ci/km2 (Table 1).
Prior to the Chernobyl accident about 30 thousand
residents were living in the Lugyny district. By thepresent moment the population of the district has
dropped to approximately 22 thousand people due toresettlement from the most contaminated territories andthe decrease in the birth-rate (Table 2).

All settlements of the Lugyny district (50 in total)
according to [1] are categorised as zones of radioactive
contamination II, III and IV (see Table 3), andpractically all population are qualified for different
categories of the accident sufferers (Table 4).
Local authorities constantly have been taking
measures to resettle the inhabitants in the zone ofobligatory resettlement (zone II). However, many ofthese inhabitants refuse to leave, others return to theirhomes after resettlements. The number of resettled
from the 1st of January 1996 to the 1st of July 1997, as
well as the number of inhabitants of 4 settlements in thezone of obligatory resettlement on the 1st of July 1997,
are given in Table 5.
In 48 settlements of the Lugyny district, i.e. in all
except the completely resettled Granitny Karier, andMoschanitsa where only 5 inhabitants are remaining, aregular dosimetric monitering of lands is performed.

Table 1. Territory of agricultural land of the Lugyny district with different 137Cs
contamination density levels, km2
Agricultural landContamination density Ci/km2
Total agricultural land
Arable land
up to 1
5
2
from 1 to 5283
162
from 5 to 15
42
25
higher than 15
02
1
Total
332
190
Years
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

Table 2. Population of the Lugyny district in 1984-1996
Total
Children total
Infants under 1 year
30,0496,536
445
29,5756,500
401
29,2766,500
456
29,2256,296
296
28,467
5,809
359
27,9625,819
300
27,4205,595
200
25,0464,799
317
24,803
4,643
335
24,8834,700
352
23,903
4,525
304
23,1254,389
264
22,552
4,327
269
149

Table 3. Number of settlements and population size in territories categorised as different zones ofradioactive contamination
Zones
Number of settlements
Number of inhabitants
Zone ofobligatory resettlement (zone II)4314
Zone of guaranteed voluntary resettlement35
18,815(zone III)
Zone of intensified radio-ecological11
3,423
control (zone IV)
Total
50
22,552
Table 4. Number of inhabitants of the Lugyny district qualifying for different categories ofsufferers
Categories
Total number of inhabitantsChildren
I
232
49
II
18,949
2,666
III
3,173
608
Total
22,354
4,323
Table 5. Number of inhabitants of settlements in zone II by 01.07.97
Number of inhabitants
Number of inhabitants
Settlement
resettled from 01.01.96 toremaining on 01.07.97
01.07.97
village Malahovka
34
64
village Rudnya Povtchanskaya
22
194
village Rudnya Zherevtsy
13
51
village Moschanitsa
2
5
Total
71
314
8-year period (from 1989 to 1996) a total of 33,085
adults and 11,016 children has been examined.
Radionuclide accumulation exceeding the control
norm is found by 3,026 adults and 1,029 children(Table 6). The control norms of 137Cs in the organism
are 0.5 µCi for adults and 0.2 µCi for children.
Dynamics of the relative number of cases with 137Cs
accumulation in organism of adults and children inexcess of the control norms is indicated in Fig.2. A
significant increase is observed in 1994 in the
background of a general trend towards a decrease.
Such splash is explained in the first place by changes

According to its results, the registered annual dose rate
(Fig. 1), in 7 settlements of the district does not exceed
0.5 mSv/year, i.e. the criterial limit of qualifying aszone of intensified radiological control. None of theregistered dose rate reach the value to be qualified forof obligatory resettlement (>5mSv/year). 22 and 19
settlements are qualified to be zones of guaranteed
voluntary resettlement and intensified radiologicalcontrol, respectively.
Regular examinations of inhabitants in settlements
qualified for zones of radioactive contamination are
performed with use of whole-body counters. Within the

N um ber of settlem ents

25

22
19

20
15
10

7

5
0

0
<0.5

0.5-1.0
1.0-5.0
Annual doses, m Sv

>5

Fig. 1. Number of settlements of the Lugyny district which fit the criteria to be qualified for different
zones of radioactive contamination (according to [2])150

Table 6. Results of dosimetric control of internal irradiation of the district population living insettlements with soil contamination from 5 to 15 Ci/km2 and higher
Number of examined
Found with doseFound with dose exceeding norm,
persons
exceeding norm, persons%
Years
AdultsChildren
AdultsChildren
AdultsChildren
Total
1989
3,198
696
417
103
13
14.7
13.3
1990
8,432
2,296
809
280
9.5
12.1
10.2
1991
5,550
2,685
603
192
10.8
7.1
9.6
1992
3,892
1,636
432
186
11.1
11.3
9.3
1993
3,164
1,037
167
42
5.2
4
4.9
1994
2,156
534
372
164
17.2
30
19.9
1995
1,697
1,415
41
38
2.4
2.6
2.5
1996
4,996
717
185
24
3.7
3.3
3.6
Table 7. Results of dosimetric examination of the internal irradiation of the inhabitants of the
district, living in settlements in zones II-IV
Zone II
Zone III
Zone IV
Year
With excessive
With excessive
With excessive
Total
Total
Total
dose
dose
dose
1996
155
103 (66%)
4,755
104 (2%)803
2 (0.2%)1997
24
3 (13%)
1,749
21 (1%)
283
30%
adultschildren

25
20
15
10
5
0
1989

1990

1991

1992
1993
Years

1994

1995

1996

Fig. 2. Dynamics of changes in the relative number of cases with 137Cs accumulation inorganism of adults and children in excess of the set control values
According to the data of the UKP "Truskavets"1
2,020 children and parents living in the radiation
contaminated territory of the district have been
examined. In 80% of children the radio-caesium
activity was found to be higher than 1,000 Bq, in 15%— higher than 5,000 Bq.
The relative number of inhabitants with excessive137
Cs accumulation is significantly higher in zones withhigher levels of radioactive contamination (Table 7).
According to the data of the thyroid dosimetricconditioning of settlements in the Zhitomir region
performed by the UNCRM in 1994 by the request of
the Ministry of Chernobyl of the Ukraine, inhabitantsof the Lugyny district had received high thyroidin natural conditions, in particular in the rainfall
amount and cropping capacity of wild mushrooms andberries. According to the data of radiometric control offoodstuffs in the district, radionuclide accumulation inhuman organisms is contributed by consumption ofmilk, mushrooms and berries by the population of the
district. Excess of all-union Tentative Acceptable
Levels (TAL-91) is 3-5% for milk, 1-5% for meat, 50%
for mushrooms and berries for the period of
1993-1995.
Comparison of the internal irradiation dose year by
year shows the following: until 1990 maximal
registered values of 137Cs in adults exceeded 10 µCi,
and beginning from 1991 the maximal values ingeneral constituted 2 µCi in adults and 0.6 µCi inchildren.

1"Truskavets" is a resort in the Carpathians which
receives children from zones of radioactive
contamination for recreation in summertime.

151

20

10
8
5

>240

1

210-240

180-210150-180

90-120120-150

1
60-90

1
30-60

3
1
0-30

Num berofsettlem ents

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Ranges ofdoses,cG yFig. 3. Distribution of the number of settlements in the Lugyny district according to thyroid
irradiation doses for children born in 1986 (according to [3])Lugyny Territorial Medical Association (which is thecentral district hospital) district where one of thepresent authors is working.
As indices of the health status, we shall analysestate of the immune system, spread of endocrine
pathologies,
morbiditybynewly-born,
psycho-neurological status of the population,premature ageing, and structure of mortality.

irradiation doses during the first stage after theaccident, especially children (Fig. 3). In 38 of 50
settlements in the Lugyny district thyroid irradiation
doses by children born in 1986 exceed 90 cGy.
The population is divided into seven age-groups in
the thyroid dosimetric registration and the relative
distribution of thyroid irradiation doses for different
age-groups of the population residing in the same
settlement is given in Fig. 4.

The immune system
2. Health status indices of the Lugyny district

The state of the immune system is one of the mostimportant indices of the health status. According to thedata of the Central District Hospital of the Lugyny
district, depression of reactivity of the immune system
is found practically by all patients. This depression isclinically manifested through the increase in thenumber and duration of infectious diseases, growth ofdestructive forms of tuberculosis, relapse of diseases,
increase in the number of frequently ill people,
reduction of remaining life of oncology patients after

R elative dose

The medical system of the former Soviet Union was
succeeded by the Ukrane, as well as its merits anddemerits. It constitutes one kind of hierarchy structureof medical institutions, ranking from national medical
centres down to hospitals in regions, districts, andtowns (villages). Within the structure of this system,
one central hospital is distributed in each district. In the
Lugyny district we can, therefore, collect all medical
information of the population at the Hospital of the

Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

1,00
0,90
0,80
0,70
0,60
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10
0,00
1

2

3

4

5

6

Year of birth
1986
1983-1985
1979-1982
1975-1978
1971-1974
1968-1970
before 1968

7

A ge groups

Fig. 4. Relative thyroid gland irradiation doses for different age-groups of inhabitants residing inthe same settlement
152

Table 8. Remaining life of patients in the Lugyny district with grade III-IV malignant tumours of thestomach and lungs after the moment of diagnosis before and after the Chernobyl accident,(in months)
Remaining life by cancerYearsstomach
lungs
1984
62
38
1985
57
42
1992
15.5
8.0
1993
11.0
5.6
1994
7.5
7.6
1995
7.2
5.2
1996
2.3
2.0
Table 9. Dynamics of the number of the first detected tuberculosis cases in the Lugyny district, per
100 thousand inhabitants
All forms, per 100
Destructive forms among firstYears
thousand inhabitants
detected cases, %
1985
75.8
17.2
1986
84.5
28.7
1987
64.0
17.7
1988
54.7
14.5
1989
91.2
37.5
1990
12.2
66.6
1991
28.4
42.3
1992
49.8
33.3
1993
53.9
54.5
1994
59.8
50.0
1995
73.3
50.0
1996
84.0
41.7
in contraction of incurable infection and associateddiseases, that are generally the cause of death of suchpatients
Special concern of physicians is also caused by thegrowth of the number of destructive forms oftuberculosis among the first detected tuberculosis cases(Table 9), which is also an evidence of the depressionof the immune system.
By an order of the administration of Health Careauthorities, the number of roentgeno-photography
examinations in the framework of sanitary observation
programmes was sharply decreased in 1990 in order toprevent unjustified additional irradiation of the
population. Namely this fact explains the drop in thenumber of the first detected tuberculosis cases in 1990
as compared to the previous year (Table 9). The drop in1990 was not the actual decrease in the number oftuberculosis patients. Subsequently, after renovation of
the roentgeno-photography rooms and installation of
more up-to-date equipment, the roentgenophotography
examinations have been resumed to the initial extent.

their diagnosis, a more severe course of diseases,
increase in virulence of infecting agents, as well as
growth of the number of allergic diseases.
Investigation of medical records of the patients
suffering from malignant tumours has disclosed thefollowing regularity: after the accident at the
Chernobyl NPS the remaining life of such patients after
the moment of their diagnosis decreases with every
year. Before the accident, in 1984-1985 the remaining
life of patients with grade III-IV cancer of stomach was
about 60 months after the moment of diagnosis, withgrade III-IV pulmonary tumours — about 40 months.
In 1992 the remaining life made up 15.5 months in thecase of grade III-IV cancer of stomach and 8 months in
the case of grade III-IV lung cancer, and in 1996 — 2.3
and 2 months (!!!) respectively (Table 8). At the sametime the detection techniques, diagnostics andtreatment remain at the level of the pre-accident years.
Where does the reason of such difference in theremaining life lie? The importance of the immune
system for viability of organism has become especiallyevident after the accident at ChNPS. The immune
system plays an important role in maintenance of stableinternal environment of the organism and is involved inanti-tumour protection. Effects of radiation expose theimmune system to extreme stress with subsequentdevelopment of immune deficiency, which in turnresults in progressing of malignant diseases, as well as

Endocrine pathology
Endocrine pathology includes diffuse goitre,
nodular goitre, diabetes mellitus, liposis and others.
Special concern is the growth of endocrine pathology
in children. Beginning from 1990-1991 a stable
increase in the number of endocrine system diseases in

153

14
Endocrine pathology
G oitres128
6

G oitres

10

4
2
1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

0
1988

Endocrine pathologies

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Years

Fig. 5. Dynamics of the growth of endocrine pathology and goitres in children after the Chernobyl
accident (per 1,000 children)
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1988

1989

1990

1991 1992
Years

1993

1994

1995

Fig. 6. Dynamics of the number of thyroid gland hyperplasia in children (per 1,000 children)
tendency in the post-accident period. However, as Fig.
8 shows, their average level in the period after 1988 isseveral times as large as the pre-accident level.

children is observed (Fig. 5). Prior to 1986 morbidityof endocrine pathology did not exceeded 10/1000.
Nodular and diffuse goitres had not been registered in
the district at all. By analysis of thyroid morbidity, it isnoted that the sufferers are mainly children who were
subject to the iodine strike in 1986, when noprophylactics was performed. Iodine potassium
prophylactics was started 3 weeks after the accident.
Thyroid gland pathology is also observed in adults.
Unfortunately, there are practically no medical
facilities and financial means to conduct specialised
examinations of the population aimed at detection of
nodular goitre. Tumours of thyroid gland have not beenregistered within the period since the accident.
However, a significant increase in the number ofthyroid gland hyperplasia is established (Fig. 6).
Hyperplasia (enlargement) of thyroid gland is not an
illness proper, but indicates the reaction of theorganism to external injurious effects. Before 1988
hyperplasia of thyroid gland was not registered in the
district; at present it is typical of almost half of thechildren in the district.

Psycho-neurological disorders
Of the most important problems which physicians
had to face suddenly and which have been
continuously aggravated — is psychologicalpathology. More and more patients go to physicianswith anxiety-depression syndromes and different
phobias. Predominant symptoms are neurosis-like
conditions, and asthenic and psycho-chondric
symptoms that are manifested by way of anxiety, fearand emotional imbalance.
Apparently, as a result of the combined effect ofionising radiation and psycho-emotional stress on theorganism, its homeostasis is impaired and an
endogenic intoxication emerges, which are leading to
psycho-neurological disorders. It is possible as wellthat low radiation doses determine dysfunction of brain
structures, which are being manifested throughsignificant increase of vegeto-vascular dystonia with
diencephalic syndromes. Before the accident,
practically no cases of vegeto-vascular pathology wereregistered. At present, this pathology is one of the mostwidespread causes for people to see physicians.
Physicians
faced
the
problemofpsycho-neurological disorders only in the last 4 years.

Morbidity in newly-born
A growth of the morbidity in newly-born (age of up
to 7 days) is marked after the Chernobyl accident, as
well as the number of their anomalies (Fig. 7).
Dynamics of newly-born anomalies (they are cleft lip,
atresia of internal organs), shows a more complex
154

96

95

94

93

92

91

90

89

88

87

86

85

84

M orbidity of new -born

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Years

35
30
25
20
15
10

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

0

1984

5
1983

A bsolute num ber of anom alies

Fig. 7. Morbidity in newly-born (age of up to 7 days), including inherent development anomalies inchildren (per 1,000 newly-born)

Years

Fig. 8. Dynamics of inherent development anomalies in newly-born (absolute number)processes in organs and systems of the organism
Today, one needs to realise the responsibility to cope
determining premature ageing and death. Averagewith these psychosomatic disorders and diseases
life-expectancy of the Lugyny district population
because an increase in the number of suicides andbefore the accident at the Chernobyl NPS (1984, 1985)
severe psychic diseases is to be expected in the future.
has been 75 years, after the accident (1990-1996) — 65
Premature ageing
years.
In the course of life process, more and more cells
are decaying due to effects of internal and external
Mortality structureirradiation factors. This leads to premature ageing andAccording to the mortality data, after the accident
shortening of life span. The fact of early ageing isdeath has become 10 years "younger" than before theconfirmed by markers of ageing in younger ages. These
accident and the mortality peak falls on the age ofmarkers include different tests that determine
65-69 years (Fig. 9). Women live approximately 8capabilities of all systems of the organism, e.g. for theyears longer than men. The total mortality of the
cardiovascular system — blood pressure, rapid pulse inpopulation in 1985 in the district was 10.9 per 1,000
young ages, statistically reliable increase in the number
inhabitants with maximum mortality in the age of moreof hypertension and ischemic cases in young ages; forthan 80 years. Oncologic diseases occupied the third
nervous system — increase in the number ofplace in the mortality structure with an index of 0.7.
anxiety-depression syndromes, phobic neurosis-like
The first and second places were occupied byconditions arising on somatic grounds and others. All
cardiovascular diseases (6.5) and diseases of theof these phenomena can be easily checked in clinicalrespiratory organs (1.7), respectively. In the age
observation.
structure of mortality a smooth rise of the curve wasWhat has been influencing on the increase offound to the 80-years age in both men and women, withageing pathologies and associating premature deaths?
a 10 year longer life expectancy for women.
The major factors are — the increased level of
In 1990 the total mortality was 12.9 per 1,000
radiation and presence of permanent stress situations.
inhabitants. As seen in Fig.9, a mortality increase of
Mechanisms of the effects of these factors are
step character can be noted in the 50-54 years interval
practically the same: their direct or indirect impact on(0.8 per 1,000), and a second peak in the 65-69 years
the systems and organs impairs metabolism andinterval (1.9). As compared to 1985, thecirculation of blood, which results in dystrophic
life-expectancy for men in 1990 has dropped by 10
155

4,50
4,00

1984-1985
1991-1996

M ortality

3,50
3,00
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
1519

2024

2529

3034

3539

4044

45504954
A ge,years

5559

6064

6569

7074

7579

>80

Fig. 9. Age structure of mortality in the Lugyny district in the pre- and post-accident periods
In the third place is a yet incomprehensible for us
years. In the case of women, the mortality curve is still
physicians psycho-neurological aspect with its
smoothly rising with a peak on the 65-69 years interval.
The life-expectancy for women was 10-15 years longer
anxiety-phobic depression syndromes, which will leadto unpredictable consequences in future.
than for men. Mortality from oncologic diseases was
A growth of the morbidity in newly-born is
1.9 per 1,000 inhabitants and moves to the second
established, to be more exact — the prenatal morbidity
place after cardiovascular diseases (5.7).
of the foetus (e.g., inherent pneumonia, etc.).
The total mortality in 1991 has increased and was
15.5 per 1,000 inhabitants. The mortality curve of men
More and more cases of vegeto-vascular dystonia
sharply stepped up with a peak in the 50-54 years
with diencephalic syndromes are registered.
interval (0.8) and kept the increased level till 65-69
Premature ageing and a significant reduction ofyears. In women the mortality curve is still smoothly
life expectancy is found in inhabitants of the district.
rising with a peak on the 60-64 years. On the average,
References
the life expectancy for men was 15 years shorter than
1. Decree of Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR
for women. Mortality from oncologic diseasesof July, 23, 1991, No.106, with changes andoccupied the second place (1.6) after cardiovascular
additions introduced by the Instructions of Cabinet of
diseases (7.3).
Ministers of January, 12, 1993, No.17-p and of
The age-profile of mortality of men in 1990-1992
January, 27, 1995, No.37-p.
as compared to 1985 clearly indicated that death came
2. General dosimetric passport registration system of
15 years earlier in men than in 1985. Peak of thesettlements of Ukraine, which were subjected tomortality curve of men has moved to younger ages,
radioactive contamination after the Chernobyl
indicating that more younger men will die in the future.
accident. Generalised data for 1996. Collection 6.
As far as mortality of women is concerned, theHealth Ministry of Ukraine, AMSU, Ministry ofmortality curve has been moving slower and in
Emergencies of Ukraine, SCRM of AMSU, Inst.
comparison with 1985 the life expectancy was 5-8
Radiol. Protect. of ATSU. - Kyiv, 1997. - 103 p.
years shorter.
3. Thyroid dosimetric passport registration system ofConclusion
settlements of Zhytomyr region. Approved by Chief
At first it should be noted that the immune systemsanitary inspector of Ukraine, Health Ministry ofof inhabitants in the Lugyny district is depressed. This
Ukraine and NCRP of Ukraine. - Kyiv, 1994. - 45 p.
fact is indicated by the followings: drop in remaining
life of oncologic patients, reduction of the periods
between stages of oncologic diseases, a more severe
course of diseases, increase in the destruction of lungs
on the background of growth of tuberculosis of lungs,
increased morbidity of children, and increase in thenumber of infectious diseases.
The increase in the number of nodular goitres inthe background of a significant growth of thyroid
gland hyperplasia in children occupies the second
place.

156

Radiation Situation and Health Statistics of the People in the Tula Region of
Russia after the Chernobyl Catastrophe
J. Socorro DELGADO ANDIA
The Federal Assembly - Parliament of the Russian Federation - the State Duma2, Geogievsky per., r. 1426, Moscow 1-3265, Russia
in 1986, 70% of hay and 80% of milk were rejected in
the Bryansk region. Part of population received a
considerable level of additional irradiation. According
to the data of EMERCOM of Russia, as a result of
countermeasures and natural processes, theradiation-hygienic situation on the polluted territories
became better significantly. Recently contents ofradionuclides in food products are below
regulation limits in general. Nearly 100,000 people
are, however, still subject to additional exposure in
doses higher than 1 mSv/year, and in 4 settlements (inthe mentioned regions) the average additional
irradiation dose exceeds 5 mSv/year [7].
Compensations and supports in the affected areasfrom the government were sufficient until 1992.
However, since the end of 1992, the situation got worse
abruptly. Negative consequences of the accident ineconomic development and social sphere are clearlyseen in the Bryansk, the Kaluga, the Orel and the Tularegions. In late years there appear in the affected areas
greater reduction of industrial and agricultural
production, aggravation of demographic situation,
lowering of citizens’ income, and slow adaptation to
the social-economic changes than in the country on thewhole.
According to sociological studies of last years, inspite of the complicated ecological situation in theseareas, people are concerned more about heavy living
conditions, inflation and the critical state of economy
rather than about the environmental and medical
problems due to the Chernobyl accident. Objective
grounds exist for it. Indices of mean wages and total
income are substantially lower there than the
Russian average, and the level of salary is lower
than the price to buy principal food products.
The social consequences of the accident are alsoquite significant. Already in first years there appeared atendency to migration of a part of population from
polluted areas; first of all, intelligentsia (teachers,
physicians, rural specialists) and youth. This tendency
later on became a mass phenomenon. The government
activities related to resettlement promoted this trend.
The migration process led to a significant aggravationof the demographic situation in rural areas. The shareof pension age people in villages of polluted districts
reached 40%, and the number of pre-pension age
among the able-to-work population reached 30-40%. It
should be noted that a new tendency began to appear in

General view of the situation in Russia after the
ChAPS accident
The Chernobyl APS accident was the greatest
technogenic catastrophe. According to the latest data of
the Ministry of Russian Federation for Civil Defence,
Emergencies and Elimination of Consequences of
Natural Disasters (EMERCOM of Russia), over 30
million people living in the territory of 19 subjects of
the Russian Federation are undergoing radioactive
pollution [7].
Large-scale consequences of the accident
profoundly affected the policy, economy and social lifeof the country. Several principal factors arehighlighted:! Radiation effects on man and the environment;! Problems of information about the accident and its
consequences - real and imaginary;! Psychological impact on population, conditioned byinformation about the accident, implemented
countermeasures, social privileges, compensations
and so on;! Social-economic impact on the whole country andthe affected territories.
Regretfully, the processes which took place in the
USSR and, later on, in Russia did not promote thesuccessful liquidation of negative effects of thementioned factors. Moreover, during 11 years after theaccident, an increase of negative consequences has
been observed.
As a result of the Chernobyl APS accident, the areaof territories in Russia polluted with 137Cs of higher
than 37 kBq/m2 (1 Ci/km2) amounted to 57,000 km2.
Nearly 3 million people are living there. The territoriesof the Bryansk, the Kaluga, the Tula and the Orelregions suffered most, where nearly 1.8 million people
are living. Almost 300 km2 of territories with levels
over 1,480 kBq/m2 (40 Ci/km2) were put out of
economic use. All inhabitants there were resettled.
Nearly 30,000 km2 of agricultural land, including 1,710
km2 with 555 kBq/m2 (15 Ci/km2) or higher, and nearly
5,900 km2 of forest were covered with radioactive
pollution [6].
Within the affected territories, a series of protective
activities were carried out in different terms after thecatastrophe. In the first years after the accident, theradiation-hygienic situation was urgent. High level
pollution of local agricultural products was observed:

157

situation in the region for the first time on 26.12.1990.
17 districts and Donsk city entered the zone ofradiocontamination (>1 Ci/km2 with 137Cs) as a resultof the Chernobyl APS accident. These are districts ofArsenievsk, Belevsk, Bogoroditsk, Venevsk, Volovsk,
Efremov, Kamensk, Kimovsk, Kireevsk, Kurkinsk,
Novomoskovsk, Odoevsk, Plavsk, Teplo-Ogarevsk,
Uzlovsk, Chernsk and Shchekino. In total: 2,048
settlements with 930 thousand population (including
750.6 thousand adults and 165.6 thousand children). At
present, the number of population constitutes near
916,000 including 159,689 children. Various districtsof the Tula region are situated at 500-600 km from the
Chernobyl APS. The total area of radioactive pollution
constitutes 14.5 thousand km2, i. e. 56% of the region
area (Table 1).
By 01.01.1997, 16 settlements were excluded fromthe category of radiocontaminated as compared with
1991; 3 of them - in the zone of 5-15 Ci/km2, and 11 - inthe zone of 1-5 Ci/km2. The number of residents of theabove mentioned districts decreased for the observed
period by 23,667: 340 of them - in the zone of 5-15
Ci/km2, and 23,324 - in the zone of 1-5 Ci/km2 [1].
It is also noted that, within separate settlements,
there are spots which are not representative for all thearea of the given settlement and show high levels ofpollution areas even from one to several square meters.
As a rule, such increased pollution are observed underdrains from roofs, in places of storage of manure orashes, in low parts of earth etc.
The area of agricultural land in the region, polluted
with radionuclides is 8,950.77 km2, details of which are
as follows.
1) 1-5 Ci/km2 - 7,685.55 km2 of agricultural land
(50.1% of total area) including 6,269.23 km2 ofploughland, 185.87 km2 of hayfield, 1,230.45 km2
of fodder land.
2) 5-15 Ci/km2 - 1,260.82 km2 of agricultural land
(8.2% of total area) including 1,044.92 km2 ofploughland, 32.31 km2 of hayfield, 183.59 km2 of
fodder land.
3) 15-40 Ci/km2 - 4.40 km2 of agricultural land
(0.003% of total area), all of which belong toploughland. The districts with the largest polluted
areas are the next: Plavsk (2.20 km2), Uzlovsk (2.20km2).
The radioactive pollution of forest (State Forest
Fund) in the Tula region amounts to 707.13 km2, over aquarter of the total forest (2,706.14 km2) of the region.
Out of them, 109.31 km2 and 597.82 km2 are situated in
the zones of 1-5 Ci/km2 and 5-15 Ci/km2, respectively.
According to the data of Committee for Liquidationof Radiation Catastrophes Consequences of the Tularegion, the pollution of forests is something higher thanthat of open places and adjacent settlements. This is
attributed to lesser migration of radionuclides due tothe existence of leaf litter in the forest.

early 90’s, and since 1994 it become clear. A stable
increase of population in rural districts in the polluted
regions is observed. In the Bryansk region the
migration-related increase is already over 2 times ashigh as the natural decrease of population. The cause ofthis phenomenon is related with social processes which
are taking place in Russia and CIS countries. Objective
causes exist; people are immigrating from northern andeastern territories of Russia, and from zones of racial
and military conflicts both inside Russia and in the
republics of the former USSR. This considerable
influx of population into the radiocontaminatedterritories can cause new problems including
increase of social tension.
It used to be considered that medical consequencesof the accident are dominating factors. In fact, morethan 100 cases of thyroid cancer were discovered in
Russia among those who had been children andadolescents at the time of the Chernobyl accident. This
index exceeds by tens of times the average. However,
the health state is determined not only by radiation
exposure or the ecological situation, but also by the
totality of social-economic factors and tendencies of
their changes. All these factors determine the observed
multiple health disturbances of the population living on
the polluted territories. Perspectives of liquidation of
the accident consequences are indissolubly
connected with perspectives overcoming thecurrent economic crisis in Russia. An optimistic
forecast says that the medico-demographic after-effectsof the accident can be overcome in 10-15 years on all
polluted territories. A pessimistic forecast says that the
medico-demographic situation in the polluted districts
will get worse far more quickly than in Russia on thewhole.
It is necessary to mention that a substantial loss ofthe health of the people was caused not only as a resultof irradiation, but also due to the absence (in the firststage after the ChAPS accident) of information about
radiation pollution and, later on, its imperfection anddistortion. Consequently, psychological disadaptation
is observed in the overwhelming majority of adults
living on polluted areas. The insufficient and imperfect
information to the public and to medical personnel
about irradiation effects on organism and prophylactic
methods also worsened the harmful consequences of
the ChAPS accident .
These can be seen through the analysis of the healthstate of residents in the Tula region, significant part ofwhich is polluted with radiostrontium and radiocesium
from Chernobyl.

TULA REGIONRadioactive pollution in the Tula region
The Inter-institutional Commission on radiation
control of the environment at the USSR
Goskomgidromet approved the map of radiation
158

Table 1 Radioactive contamination in 17 districts and Donsk city of the Tula region by the Chernobyl accident (01.01.1991) [1].
Number of settlement
Zone of contamination
District

District
total

Total

Arsenievsk

106

106

94

Belevsk177

151

Bogoroditsk

80

Venevsk

Area (1000 km2)

Population (persons)
Zone of contamination
District
total

Total

12

13015

13015

6799

50

101

30200

28999

80

13

67

68558

201

33

-

33

Volovsk

125

125

-

Efremov

205

147

Kamensk

100

Kimovsk

Zone of contamination
District
total

Total

6216

1.099

1.099

0.993

0.106

3730

25269

1.19

1.078

0.295

0.783

68558

5089

63469

0.94

0.94

0.095

0.845

39100

9789

-

9789

1.88

0.063

-

0.063

125

18550

18550

-

18550

1.07

1.07

-

1.07

-

147

81900

75587

-

75587

1.6

0.785

-

0.785

66

-

66

11100

7518

-

7518

0.934

0.327

-

0.327

152

147

-

147

59100

58754

-

58754

1.45

1.23

-

1.23

Kireevsk

176

176

39

137

93619

93619

12624

80995

0.930

0.930

0.072

0.858

Kurkinsk

119

61

-

61

15600

10975

-

10975

0.95

0.482

-

0.482

Novomoskovsk

99

65

-

65

172300169355-169355

0.69

0.357

-

0.357

Odoevsk

135

88

-

88

15500

5185

-

5185

1.18

0.637

-

0.637

Plavsk

108

108

54

54

29418

29418

23553

5865

1.02

1.021

0.624

0.397

T-Ogarevsk

116

116

-

116

15628

15628

-

15628

1.01

1.01

-

1.01

Uzlovsk

103

103

22

81

102400102400

84081

18319

0.617

0.617

0.122

0.495

Chernsk

270

270

21

249

22283

22283

3129

19154

1.62

1.62

0.027

1.593

Shchekino

239

198

18

180

1296001229501484

121466

1.39

1.181

0.23

0.951

Donsk (city)

8

8

-

8

77200

77200

-

77200

0.03

0.03

-

0.03

2519

2048

311

1737

995071

92978314048978929419.6

14.4772.458

12.019Total

Cs-137 level
5-15
1-5
Ci/km2
Ci/km2

159

Cs-137 level
5-15
1-5
Ci/km2
Ci/km2

Cs-137 level
5-15
1-5
Ci/km2
Ci/km2

Novomoskovsk, the Uzlovsk and the Shchekino
districts does not exceed the level of preceding years
and is lower than the admissible levels (122.1 kBq for
adults). The average and the maximum values ofcesium content in the organisms of adults were 0.96 k
Bq and 9.3 kBq, respectively. For children, they were0.74 kBq and 4.4 kBq, respectively.
A group of persons (machine-operators,
cattle-breeders, plant cultivation workers) has been
examined with direct measurements of external
irradiation doses with thermoluminescent dosimetry in
the Plavsk, the Arsenievsk, the Uzlovsk, the Chernsk
districts and Donsk city. The mean external dosage ofthe examined people, including the contribution fromthe natural background (2.2 mSv/year), was 2.32
mSv/year. The maximum was 3.66 mSv/year.
According to calculation of the St. Petersburg
Research Institute of Radiation Hygiene and theRegional Centre of Gossanepidnadzor, the averageannual effective dose of population in 1996 (in 2,041
settlements of the radiocontaminated zone) was nothigher than the admissible level of 1 mSv/year. The
maximum value of the average annual effective dose
(0.71 mSv/year) was registered in Rozhdestveno-1
village of Samozvanovsk rural administration of the
Plavsk district.

In 1996, the pollution of agricultural land decreased
something as compared with preceding years, and it
decreased by more than 100 times as compared with thesituation in 1986 (for ten years). Radiocesium transfer
to agricultural crops decreased notably both for accountof natural decay of radioactivity and due toagrochemical activities (soil liming, introduction ofphosphoric and potash fertilizers). According to thedata of radiation surveillance of food products andanimal fodder on 01.01.1997, the maximum
concentrations of cesium radionuclides in milk, meat,
vegetables and fruits were 38.4, 22.6, 17.0 and 6
Bq/l(kg), respectively. All of them did not exceed
values of TAL-93 (Temporarily Admissible Level) for
milk (370 Bq/l) and for meat, vegetables and fruits (600
Bq/kg). By the spectrometric data, the maximum
concentration of strontium radionuclides in foodproducts was 0.4 Bq/l(kg) against admissible levels
from 37 to 100 Bq/l(kg).
Last year, however, an increase of cesium
radionuclides was registered in 5 out of 26 samples
of mushrooms collected in autumn inneighborhoods of the following settlements:! village Krasnopolskoe of the Kimovsk district,! village Lugovoe of the Kimovsk district,! village Bogoroditsk (Dachi station);! farm Beloozero of the Kimovsk district.
Two-times excess over TAL-93 was observed insamples.
In this connection, further and permanentlaboratory studies are necessary for samples ofmushrooms that are now the principal path of internal
exposure of the population in radiocontaminated areas,
as well as development of recommendations on theirconsumption.

Health statistics of population
Large-scale industrial centers are situated on thepolluted territories of the Tula region, including
chemical ones. These are as follows: “Tula-Chermet”
company,
Kasacharsk
MetallurgicalGroup,“Novomoskovskij Bytkhim” company, Aleksinsk
Chemical Group, “Azot” (Novomoskovsk andShchekino), Efremov Chemical Group, Efremov
Synthetic Rubber Plant, and others. These enterprises
pollute the environment with heavy metals, dioxins,
oxides of nitrogen, sulfur, carbon, aromatichydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds,
cyanides, pesticides, herbicides etc. [3].
It was noted in the State Report “On the State of the
Natural Environment of the Russian Federation” of
1994-1996: “...Moscow and Tula regions arecharacterized by the largest releases of pollutants into
the atmosphere. Their contribution constitutes
respectively 24% and 21% of the total release in central
regions of the Russian Federation”, “...from thesubstances polluting the natural water resources in the
Tula region the followings can be noted: nitrogen andphosphorus compounds, iron (8.5% of total release in
the RF), aromatic hydrocarbon (26% of total release in
the RF)...”. “Azot” company (Novomoskovsk) was
noted as the biggest enterprise polluting the surface
reservoirs; 51.4 mln m3 of polluted waste waters werereleased by it [3].”Dosimetric surveillance of population
The results of radiation surveillance of theenvironment on 01.01.1997 show that the level ofgamma-background has stabilized in last years and iswithin the limits of fluctuations of natural characteristic
in middle latitudes of the Russian Federation (15-25µR/h). Exceptions are some settlements of theArsenievsk, the Uzlovsk, and the Plavsk districts where
the average level of gamma-background is up to 30-40µR/h (the temporarily admissible value: 60 µR/h).
There are also separate local spots in these districts
where the level of gamma-background exceeds 60µR/h, reaching up to 260 µR/h.
Regretfully, the specification of radiation situationin 118 settlements planned in 1996 by the Tula Center
on Hydrometeorology and Monitoring of Environment
was not implemented due to the lack of finance fromthe Federal budget.
According to the data of the State
Sanitarian-Epidemiologic Inspectors, cesium content inorganisms of residents in the Arsenievsk, the160

the age structure is considered emigration of young
people from the contaminated areas. This trend is
influencing indices of various diseases.

All the above mentioned factors undoubtedly havebeen influencing the health state of the population anddemographic indices, together with radiation factors
due to the Chernobyl accident

Neoplasm in adults
Morbidity of neoplasm in adult population is shownin Fig. 2. In addition to the data of two groups (18contaminated areas and 7 clean districts), separate datain 4 districts are plotted. Districts of the Plavsk and the
Uzlovsk are chosen from the most contaminateddistricts, while the Venevsk has the least level ofcontamination within the 18 contaminated areas (Table1). The Novomoskovsk is the district where heavy
industries are located. All data in Fig. 2 have a slight
trend of increase of neoplasm morbidity. The morbidity
in the 7 clean districts is somewhat larger than in the 18
contaminated areas. Within the 4 districts, the data of
the Novomoskovsk tends to show a higher value.

Annual rate per 1000 persons

Birth rate and death rate in the Tula region
In Fig. 1 are shown the dynamics of birth rate (thicklines) and death rate (thin lines) observed during 1985 1995. The data are divided into three groups: the whole
region, 18 contaminated areas (17 districts + Donskcity), and 7 clean districts. In this case, ′clean′ merelymeans that the level of contamination is below 1 Ci/km2
of 137Cs
As can be seen from Fig. 1, there are observed
continuous opposite trends of increase of death rate anddecrease of birth rate in all three groups. Natural
increase of population in the region turned to minus
since 1988 and the minus trend continues to becomelarger with time. At first, this trend can be explained by
the change in the age structure of population. The Tularegion is becoming “older”: nearly 30% of inhabitants
are now over 60. One of the reasons for such change of25

Alldistricts in the Tura region
18 contam inated areas
7 clean districts

20
15

Death rate

10Birth rate
5
0
1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

Fig. 1 Birth rate and death rate in the Tula region (1985-1995): all districts, 18 contaminatedareas and 7 clean districts [5].
Annual rate per 1000 persons

60
18 contam .areas
7 clean dist.
PlavskUzlovsk
Novom oskovsk
Venevsk

50

40

30

20

10
1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

Fig. 2 Morbidity of neoplasm in adults in the Tula region (1988-1996): 18 contaminated areas, 7clean districts and 4 districts (Plavsk, Uzlovsk, Novomoskovsk, Venevsk) [4].
161

Annual rate per 1000 children

600

18 contam. areas
7 clean dist.
PlavskUzlovsk
Novomoskovsk
Venevsk

500
400
300
200
100

0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Annual rate per 1000 children

Fig. 3 Total morbidity of children in the Tula region (1985-1996): 18 contaminated areas, 7clean districts and 4 districts (Plavsk, Uzlovsk, Novomoskovsk, Venevsk) [5].
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

18 contam. areas
7 clean dist.
PlavskUzlovsk
Novomoskovsk
Venevsk

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Annual rate per 1000 newborns

Fig. 4 Morbidity of anemia in children in the Tula region (1985-1996): 18 contaminatedareas, 7 clean districts and 4 districts (Plavsk, Uzlovsk, Novomoskovsk, Venevsk) [5].

30
25
20

18 contam. areas
7 clean dist.
PlavskUzlovsk
Novomoskovsk
Venevsk

15
10
501988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Fig. 5 Incidence rate on congenital anomaly of newborns in the Tula region (1988-1996): 18
contaminated areas, 7 clean districts and 4 districts (Plavsk, Uzlovsk, Novomoskovsk, Venevsk)[5].
the Novomoskovsk and the Uzlovsk are at the highest
Total morbidity in children
level.
Total morbidity in children is shown in Fig. 3. There
are also seen apparent trends of increase. The averages
Anemia in children
Fig. 4 shows morbidity of anemia in children. The
both in the 18 areas and the 7 districts show a similar
increase in the Uzlovsk after the Chernobyl accident istrend of increase, while the values in 4 districts are at
remarkable as compared with increases in other data.
different levels. As a whole, the statistical data
On the other hand, the level in the Plavsk decreased
indicates that the number of ill children has doubled
after the accident. The difference between the Uzlovsk
over 11 years. The Venevsk keeps the least level, and
162

and the Plavsk is about ten times in 1994-1996
although both districts are heavily contaminated.

Table 2 Death causes of liquidators in the Tularegion (1986-1995) [5].
Cause of death
Cases%
Injury and poisoning
54
43
Disease of respiratory organ
11
8.7
Malignant neoplasm
17
13
Disease of urine system
3
2.4
Disease of blood circulating
35
28
systemDisease of nervous system
10.8
Disease of ingestion system
2
1.6
Disease of endocrine system
1
0.8
Others
3
2.4
Total
127
100

Congenital anomaly in newborns
Incidence of congenital anomaly in newborns isshown in Fog. 5. Remarkable and stable increases areobserved in the Uzlovsk and the Novomoskovsk after
1991. Until 1991, the average in the 18 contaminatedareas was the same level as in the 7 clean districts, thenthe former showed a departure from the latter. It is also
noted that values in the Plavsk and the Venevsk remain
at the stable levels.
All data shown above about the health statistics in
the Tula region are telling us that the health state of thepeople are worsening, including the health of children
and newborns. It is difficult at present to prove thecauses of these deteriorating trends because, as
described before, there are a lot of factors that are
influencing the health state of the people. Besides, thequality of the data for health statistics should be also
reviewed; some statistics among ordinary diseases
show unbelievable difference of morbidity between
districts, sometimes reaching several tens of times.

are the following: diseases of blood circulation organs(38.4%),
functional
encephalopathy (37.7%),
neurocirculatory dystonia with mental disorders(10.2%), neoplasm (2.5%).
Long-term psychological stress caused rise both ofpsychological, somatic diseases and of physicaldisadaptation. This led to the formation of syndromes
such as headache, giddiness, lowering of memory andquickness of wit, depression, obtrusive disorders,phobias, pain in muscles, bones, metallic smack inmouth, and absence of ability to work in the second halfof day.
Structural changes in thyroid appeared after 4-6
years. They are manifested by latent hypothyroidism
without changes in thyroid hormones. The autoimmune
thyroidites are the earliest consequences of Chernobyl
accident.
Out of 2,240 liquidators registered in the Tularegion, 127 persons had died until the end of 1995,
including 19 deaths 1995. Causes of their deaths areshown in Table 2. The percentage of suicides andaccidents connected with abuse of alcohol is high andconstitutes 50% of these deaths.
By the end of 1995, 1,176 liquidators (53 % of thetotal) were recognized as disabled persons. In Fig. 6 are

Liquidators
A large number of specialists from the Tula region
participated in the liquidation of the ChAPS accident,
including groups of volunteers - miners who worked indrifting tunnel under the 4th reactor of the ChAPS.
The total of 2,240 persons are registered asliquidators in the Tula region. The data of external
exposure dose established with 1,826 liquidators
indicates the following distribution of external
exposure (cGy): 732 men (0-5), 224 men (5-10), 170
men (15-20), 702 men (over 20) [1].
According to the data of the State Report “About
the State of Health of Population of the RussianFederation”, morbidity among the liquidators is 2-3
times as high as that in ordinary population [2]. The
most frequent diseases among this category of citizens

Number of disables

500
369

400
319

302

300
200
74

100
1

4

3

2

90

12

0
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Fig. 6 The number of liquidators recognized as the disabled in the Tula region [5]1636. Implementation of educational programs on
problems of environmental and radioecologicalsafety, and introduction of ecological knowledge andskills which promote self-adaptation of different age
groups to stress factors.
7. All above mentioned recommendations will nothave positive results without improvements ofsocial, ecological and economic situations in the
country.

seen the dynamics of their registration. Drastic increaseof the number of the disabled is observed since 1990. It
can be said that all liquidators may soon fall into thecategory of the disabled.

Conclusion
Long-term programs are necessary in order tominimize the medical consequences and to increase theefficiency of medical assistance to those who haveundergone radiation action as a result of the Chernobyl
catastrophe. It is also necessary to evaluate objectively
the state of health of the sufferers, to obtain
scientifically grounded conclusions on effects of “low”
radiation doses on human organism, and to estimate thegenetic consequences for future generations. These
programs must foresee the implementation of various
activities, including:
1. Provision of further monitoring of persons attributed
to the groups of risk, especially:! those whose thyroid was irradiated when they werechildren and adolescents;! children born by mothers whose thyroid wasirradiated in their children-adolescent age;! children whose thyroid was irradiated in pre-natal
period;! pregnant women;! liquidators of 1986-1987 and their children bornafter 1986.
2. Provision of medical-prophylactic institutions on thepolluted territories (of district and regional levels)and clinics of research centers with modern
medico-diagnostic equipment, as well as regularsupply of necessary reagents and medicines tohospitals and clinics.
3. Development of system of rehabilitation medical
activities and sanatorium bases for the Chernobyl
sufferers, especially for children.
4. Supply of food products with radioprotective
properties; fresh vegetables, fruits etc., especially forchildren in the polluted territories.
5. Scientific study of radiation action combined withaction of other carcinogens including chemical
pollutants.

References
1. Reports about countermeasures to mitigate theconsequences of the Chernobyl APS accident in the
territory of the Tula region in 1991, 1992, 1993,
1994, 1995, 1996. Tula region administration.
Committee for mitigation of radiation catastrophe (inRussian).
2. Government report, ″Health status of the populationin the Russian Federation in 1995 and 1996 (inRussian).
3. Government report, ″Current situation of theenvironment in the Russian Federation”, 1994, 1995,
1996 (in Russian).
4. Information bulletin of principal indices ofpediatristics in the Tula region, Statistical handbook,
Department of Health and Medical Industry of theTula Region, Tula, 1997 (in Russian).
5. Information bulletin of the population health in 18
contaminated territories and medical help toliquidators of the Chernobyl consequences in
1985-1996, Department of Health and Medical
Industry of the Tula Region, Tula, 1997 (in Russian).
6. L.I.Anisimovsa, R.M.Barfdorov, P.I.Linge,
Ecological, social and demographic aspects of theChernobyl accident, Chernobyl and othercatastrophes: humanitarian collaboration of sufferers
by the technogenic natures, UN seminar, Moscow
1997 (in Russian).
7. Results and problems in eliminating theconsequences of Chernobyl accident in Russia.
Emercom of Russia. Final report. Moscow. 1997ã.

164

Present Status of Childhood Thyroid Carcinoma in Belarus
following the Chernobyl Accident
Akira SUGENOYA, Yuri E. DEMIDCHIK, Evgeny P. DEMIDCHIK
Belarus National Thyroid Cancer Canter,
Skoriny av. 64, Minsk 220600, Belarus
according to the final report of the Vienna
international conference, several thousands of patientswith thyroid cancer, who were less then 15 years oldat the time of the Chernobyl disaster, may appear in
the future although scientific proof is difficult.
Considering seriousness of the prediction, appropriate
measures should be taken as soon as possible in thesehighly contaminated countries.
In the present report, we provide the resent statusof pediatric thyroid cancer in Belarus. In 1990 after
the Chernobyl breakdown, the government of Belarus
established the National Thyroid Cancer Center
following a rapid increase of childhood thyroid
carcinoma, as a special institute for not only clinicalservices but also basic researches. Dr. Demidchik E.P.,
a professor of the department of Oncology, Minsk
Medical Institute was elected the director of theCenter. Additionally, it has been also decided thatsurgery for all cases of the pediatric thyroid cancer in
Belarus

Introduction
In April, 1996, a joint international conference("One Decade after Chernobyl") was held in Vienna,
Austria in cooperation with the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), the World HealthOrganization (WHO) and the European Commission(EC).
In this meeting, they came to the conclusion thatthe abnormality of health condition definitely related
to the Chernobyl accident was only thyroid cancer inchildren for the moment. On the other hand, theyreported that it would be too early to give commentsscientifically on leukemia and other disorders.
It has been already known that the incidence ofpediatric thyroid cancer in Belarus, Ukraine and theRussian Federation is rapidly increasing after 1990.
About 800 children in these 3 CIS countries havebeen treated surgically until the end of 1995. Morethan half of them were found in Belarus. Furthermore,

Table 1. Number of thyroid cancer in Belarus before and after the Chernobyl Accident
Period1975-1985
1986-1996

Adults(more than 15)
1,342
4,006

Children(under 15)
7508

Table 2. Age distribution of children with thyroid cancer in 1986-1995 (age at the time of theaccident)
RegionTotal
population*,thousands

Brest region
Vitebsk region
Gomel region
Grodno region
Minsk region
Mogilev region
Minsk city

1,520
1,300
1,670
1,160
1,410
1,270
1,630

Belarus9,960

Number of
thyroid cancer
children

%

0-4

5-9

10 14

97
7
225
24
20
21
26

68
4
149
12
14
14
17

27
3
72
11
5
6
8

2
0
4
1
1
1
1

420

278

132

10

100

66.2

31.4

2.4

* Adult people is included (data in 1986).
This report was published in Gijutsu-to-Ningen, No.281,
pp.36-40, Nov. 1997 (in Japanese).

165

Number of cancer by age

pre-accident, at the time of the accident andpost-accident, 497 cases belong under the
pre-accident group (97.8%), 6 under the time of theaccident (1.2%), and 5 under the post-accident group(1.0%). It has been clarified that most of the children
are grouped into the pre-accident category.
The age distribution at the time of the Chernobyl
breakdown in 420 children operated until 1995,
demonstrated as follows: 0-4 years old was 66.4%,
5-9 years old - 31.4%, and 10-14 years old - 2.4%.
More then half of the patients were classified into
markedly young-aged population (Table 2 and Fig. 2).
Four children born after the accident were excluded.
The annual frequency of the pediatric thyroid
cancer in Belarus before the accident was 0.1 per
100,000 children, which is almost the same level as allover the world. However, after the accident, thoselevels were gradually elevating: i.e., 1.2 in 1990, 2.8
in 1992, 3.5 in 1994, 4.0 in 1995, and 3.8 in 1996. In
the highly contaminated Gomel Region, the yearly
incidence after the breakdown was as follows: 3.6 in
1990, 11.3 in 1991, 13.4 in 1995 and 12.0 in 1996,
respectively. All of these values after 1991 were morethan 100 times compared with that of the world. In
Brest region, the incidence in 1996 was also high, 7.3.
On the other hand, in Vitebsk Region, the lesscontaminated area, no pediatric thyroid cancer has
been found since 1993.
These several clinicoscientific data shown here
strongly suggest that childhood thyroid carcinoma
rapidly increasing in Belarus has been attributed toradioactive contamination by the Chernobyl accident.
In particular, radioactive iodine would be a main
carcinogenic factor on the thyroid gland.
Physiologically, the thyroid gland concentrates iodine
for the synthesis of thyroid hormone. It is, therefore,
generally accepted that radiation-induced thyroid

should be performed here at the Center. The data
described herein were composed of the operative
results in those children with histopathological proofof thyroid cancer after surgical treatment at theCenter.

Childhood thyroid carcinoma in Belarus after
Chernobyl
The number of patients with thyroid cancer in bothchildren and adults in Belarus is shown in Table 1.
During the 11 years before the Chernobyl explosion(1975-1985), there were only 7 cases of pediatricthyroid cancer. However, in the same duration after
the accident (1986-1996), the number of pediatricpatients was 508 with remarkable increase, which was
72 times compared with the pre-accident period.
Meanwhile, with respect to adult patients, the numberof thyroid cancer in the former period was 1,342 andin the latter - 4,006. It increased in about 3 times
compared with the pre-accident duration. In cases ofadults, the increase of the incidence of thyroid cancer
might be due to not only the recent improvement of
diagnostic procedures, but also the frequent medical
examinations after the accident. It is, therefore,
necessary to continue more precise and detailed
investigations in the future.
When all of the 508 children with thyroid cancer
are classified with accord to their birth places(Regions in Belarus) as depicted in Fig. 1, there isfound an apparent geographical feature proving thatthe majority of pediatric patients was born in thehighly contaminated areas; 268 patients in Gomel
Region (52.8%) and 122 in Brest Region (24.0%).
Furthermore, dividing their birthday into 3 groups; i.e.

Vitebsk●7● Grodno

29
●

●

●

Minsk
56

Mogilev 26
Gomel ●
268

Brest 122★
Chernobyl NPP

Fig. 1 Geographical distribution of child thyroid cancer in Belarus (1986-1996: 508 cases)
166

2.4%
31.4%

420
66.2%

Fig. 2

Age
0-4
5-9
10-14

Age structure of children with thyroid cancer (age at the time of the accident)
about marriage, pregnancy and delivery. Moreover,they really fear hereditary effects on their new-bornbabies. Some of them, therefore, are considering to
avoid marriage and/or delivery.
Judging from these sad matters, healthconsequences of the Chernobyl disaster havedefinitely just emerged. Hence it appears thatsocio-psychosomatic cares will become exceedingly
crucial means in the near future for not only children
in the growing-up stage, but also their parents. We
should keep in mind that there is a need for
educational programs of this aspects as a trial of
humanitarian medical supports.

cancer after a radionuclide-releasing event would beinitiated through this pathway. However, the exact
and precise mechanisms of carcinogenesis have notbeen elucidated yet. Moreover, it is also extremely
difficult to prove the initiation process of carcinoma
directly. Further basic investigations should be
extensively continued.
The recent change in childhood thyroid carcinoma
has demonstrated a gradual decrease of the patientnumber showing 91 cases in 1995, 84 in 1996 and 27
till the end of May 1997. On the contrary, teenager
patients with thyroid cancer older then 15 years old
are apparently increasing since 1993; i.e., 4 cases in
1990, 1 in 1991 and 1992, 25 in 1993, 21 in 1994, 25
in 1995, and 26 till the end of October 1996,
respectively. In this teenager group, the samegeographic characteristic is also observed as thechildren previously described; that is, 70% of theoperated patients have been sent to this Center fromboth Gomel and Brest Regions. These facts suggestthat the incidence of thyroid malignancy in teenagers
and young adults progressively is increasing insteadof children.

References
1. ONE DECADE AFTER CHERNOBYL: Summing
Up the Consequences of the Accident, Proceedingsof an International Conference, Vienna, 8-12 April
1996, IAEA STI/PUB/1001.
2. Kazakov V.S., Demidchik E.P., Astakhova L.N.
et.al., Thyroid Cancer after Chernobyl, Nature 359,
21-22, 1992.
3. Socalow E.L., Hashizume A., Nerishi S. et al.,Thyroid Carcinoma in Man after Exposure to
Ionizing Radiation, N.Engl.J.Med., 268, 406-410,
1963.
4. Maron H., Thomas S., Saenger E., et al., Ionizing
Radiation and the Induction of ClinicallySignificant Disease in the Human Thyroid Gland,
Am.J.Med., 63, 967-978, 1997.

Problems for the near future
At present, those patients with thyroid carcinoma
who had undergone radical surgery at the time of theirchildhood are reaching adolescence or youth. They
are carefully thinking over their own future life.
Particularly, young women are seriously worrying

167

Lens Opacities in Children of Belarus Affected by the Chernobyl Accident
A. N. ARINCHIN and L. A. OSPENNIKOVA
Research Clinical Institute of Radiation Medicine and Endocrinology,
Ministry of Health, Republic of Belarus; Aksakovschina, 223032 Minsk, Belarus.
changes in dark adaptation of visual irritation threshold[5, 11].
The process of the lens growth has a number of
peculiarities: new lens fibers are being formed due tocell-division of single layer epithelium located on theinterior surface of the lens bag covering the anteriorlens surface. Each newly developing lens fiber islocated under the lens bag both on the anterior andposterior lens surface. Taking into account that the lensis surrounded by the bag from all the sides, previously
formed fibers cannot be torn away from the tissue
component and remain in its structure for the whole oflife. At the same time, constant formation of new fibers
from the peripherally located epithelium layer leads tothe following: older fibers are being gradually pushedaside from the lens bag to the central part of the lens.
So, in the process of growth, the more consolidated
part of the lens is being formed, i.e. the nucleus
consisting partially from already atrophied lens fibers,
as well as surrounding it younger peripheral corticallayers. Cell-division of lens epithelium and theformation of new lens fibers is occurring during almost
the whole of life. Alongside with this, the increase inlens weight, the changes in its dimensions andchemical structure are observed with age. Averagewater content in the lens makes about 65% and issubject to considerable age fluctuations. Besides thelens, to such tissues also belong cartilage, cornea, teeth,
the wall of a large blood vessel, etc. In mineral lensstructure, univalent Na and K cations prevail
considerably over the two-valent Ca and Mg cations;among anions, sulfates prevail over chlorides andphosphates [1].
N.A.Vishnevsky (ref.[7]) distinguishes five stages
in the development of radiation cataract:
1. initial stage - accumulation of focal vacuoles andopacities between the lens capsule and the cortex in
the center of the lens;
2. clusters of focal vacuoles and opacities between thelens capsule and the cortex begin to extend andacquire the form of irregular disk which resembles
the tufa at biomicroscopy, the observed decrease invisual acuity being negligible in this case;
3. opacity acquires the form of a cup or a ring-shapedroll with darker optical edges. At biomicroscopy,
tufa-like opacity has the form of meniscus. Visualacuity decreases;
4. at electroophtalmoscopy, in the center of the lens,Introduction.
Eleven years following the Chernobyl accident, theincrease in the incidence of thyroid disease, thyroid
carcinoma in particular, has become evident anduniversally recognized. The mentioned pathology is
given much prominence by physicians and scientists
involved into the problems of oncology andthyroidology all over the world. Such great attention to
thyroid problems has both positive and negative sides.
In particular, in the majority of the research projects
conducted both in Belarus and outside the Republic,priority is given to thyroid disease, though othermedical aspects of the Chernobyl accident are studied
insufficiently.
Reports about the increase in cataracts among the
Ukrainian population living in the region of theChernobyl Atomic Power Plant have been met withcertain skepticism [14]. At the same time, American
specialists do not exclude the possibility of radiation
genesis of lensopathias revealed among the citizens of
the Ukraine at the result of complex joint
clinic-epidemiological study conducted by Americanand Ukranian specialists in 1991 [16].
It is well known that radiation cataract is one of thedirect effects of ionizing radiation. Organ of sight,
according to literature reports, is highly radiosensitive.
The most radio-vulnerable part of an eye is lens inwhich cataract is developing in response to both
external and internal exposure. In children, focal lens
opacities are localized in embryonic nucleus, but inelderly people, alongside with embryonic nucleus, they
are also localized in adult nucleus and cortical layers.
Lens opacity is the result of biochemical changes
occurring in it, and it is caused by lens fibers damage[10].
The data available in radiation medicine show thateye damage occurs, mainly, due to considerable dosesof radiant energy. Single effect of 200 rad X-ray,
induces the development of radiation cataract with longlatent period [8]. Skin, mucous membranes and cornea
respond to radiation earlier and at considerably lower
doses. During the acute period, conjunctivitis, keratitis
and eyelid dermatitis develop. In two years,
teleangiectasia is observed.
Retina, as well as nervous elements of an eye, aremore radio-resistant. The earliest radiation effect is
manifested by changes in the retina electrical potential
and in threshold phosphen values, as well as by168

disk-like opacity is seen with a tender rim within the
periphery. At biomicroscopy, focal vacuoles andopacities under the anterior capsule in the center ofthe lens, as well as anterior and posterior surfaces,
are getting more consolidated; the slot in the middle
is being filled with homogenic contents;
5. extensive, pelliculated opacities.
It has been ascertained that cataractogenic thresholdis determined not only by individual radiation
sensitivity and localization of radiation effect, but also
by the quality of exposure, its dose in the exposed focus
and the duration of the exposure [10].
Studies of the health status in individuals affectedby the atomic bombing in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
conducted by the research board of the Hannan Chuo
Hospital, the city of Osaka, Japan, showed that eye
disease was observed in 18% of the exposed population
which is 5 times more frequent than among thenon-exposed [17]. However, in this case, radiationinfluence differed considerably from that in Chernobyl.
In the late period after the accident, the main
dose-forming nuclide is 137Cs which penetrates into
the body with food-stuffs (milk, vegetables, meat) andis distributed in the following way: 80% ofincorporated radionuclide is being accumulated in themuscular tissue, 10% - in the osseous tissue, and theremaining part of it circulating freely in blood [2,3,4].
Cesium, as well as potassium, belongs to the group ofalkaline elements with the diffuse type of distribution
in the body and participates in intracellular metabolism[12]. With average beta-exposure energy of 170.8 keV,137
Cs is able to influence electric and metabolic
processes occurring in various tissues and organs.
Therefore, the aim of the investigation was to study
the frequency and character of lens opacities inchildren permanently residing in the contaminatedterritories of the Republic of Belarus with anomalously
high coefficients of transition of 137Cs radionuclides
through the food chain.

Selection of regions
During
1992-1995,
complexclinic-ophthalmological examination of 134 children
aged 6-15 permanently residing in Stolin and Luninets
districts of the Brest region, was conducted on the baseof the Clinic of the Research Institute of Radiation
Medicine and Endocrinology. The control group wasrepresented by 92 children of the same age
permanently residing in Braslav district of the Vitebsk
region who were examined under the same conditions.
Selection of study regions was determined by thecharacter of radiation situation and peculiarities of the
exposure dose formation. Stolin and Luninets districtsin the Brest region are located in the south of the
Republic of Belarus in the zone of wood-lands and arecharacterized by insufficient levels of local radioactive
contamination and by automorphic type of soils whichhave high coefficients of 137Cs radionuclide transition
into the food chain (Table 1). Actual dosimetric andradiation-hygiene characteristics of the examinedchildren is given in Table 2.
All the examined children were permanently living
at the controlled territories. Each child was interviewed
about his/her dietary habits. The conducted interview
showed that milk, potatoes and leafy vegetables werethe most frequently consumpted food-stuffs.
Practically all of these food-stuffs were from privatehouseholds (private cows and personal plots) and wereconsumpted without any limitations. During thepost-accidental period, the consumption of mushrooms
and forest berries was observed among the examined
individuals. As it is seen from the given data, theexposure dose formation was realized, mainly, throughthe internal component and was caused byincorporation of 137Cs radionuclides. According to thedata of individual monitoring of 137Cs activity in thebody(conducted
with
the
help
of
Whole-Body-Counter), its constant level has been
ascertained in the examined children during thepost-accidental period.
Material and methods.
General clinical examination
Table 1.
Radiation characteristics of the examined settlements in 1992
137

RegionDistrict

Settlement

Brest

StolinLuninets

Vitebsk

Braslav

OlmanyBarsukovo
Perinovo
Akhremovtsy

Cs content insoil, kBq/m2
363
377
137
3.7

Local exposure dose rate, µR/hourminaverage
max
19.5
27.3
37.8
19.5
39.0
46.8
3.9
15.6
27.3
8
-

Table 2. Dosimetric and radiation-hygiene characteristics of the examined children
137
137

Cs excretion Annual effective radiation dose,mSv
level withurine, Bq/l external internal
total

Group

Cs bodyburden, kBq

Index of 137Cs
activity, kBq/kg

Main

24.4
(1.2-173.9)

0.56(0.03-3.03)

239.9(24-928)

Control

0.74(0.004-1.07)

0.02(0.00007-0.037)

4.4(3.7-7.8)

0.49
1.65
2.2
(0.32-0.72(0.09-8.8)(0.4-9.7)
)
0.05
0.06
0.009
(0.0002-0.1) (0.009-0.11)

Note: the figures in brackets give minimal and maximal values

169

Accumulated effective
radiation dose, mSv
external internal
total
3.4
(2.3-5.2)

12.0
15.4
(0.7-63.0) (3.2-71.0)

0.06

0.35
0.4
(0.002-0.8) (0.06-0.9)

Examination of children was conducted at the
Hospital of the Research Clinical Institute of Radiation
Medicine and Endocrinology and included clinicalexamination of a pediatrician, collection andassessment of life anamnesis, anthropometry,hematological,
hormonal
andbiochemical
investigations, ultrasound study of the thyroid gland
and abdominal organs, urine analysis on 137Cs
radionuclide content, measurement of 137Cs
radionuclide activity in the body using theWhole-Body-Counter.
Study of life anamnesis showed that in theexamined children no factors were observed that could
cause the development of lens pathology, i.e.
roentgenological investigations of the cranium,
exposure for medical aims, chemiotherapy, anddiabetes mellitus.

distinctions with the help of Student′s criterion;• calculation of 2 series correlation coefficient (withthe use of Fisher′s transformation for N<50);• calculation of correlation matrix (10*10
parameters);• calculation of coefficients and derivation of theequation of 2 series regression with representationof the correlation field on the chart;• methods of non-parametric statistics (signs test,
Spearman′s rank correlation, Mann-Witney′s test).

Results
At the result of the conducted ophthalmologicalexamination, lens changes have been revealed which
can be classified as opacities in the form of vacuoles,
flakes, dots and spokes (strokes). Vacuoles, as well as
flaky, focal and stroke-like opacities, were observed
both in the nucleus and in cortical lens layers and, as arule, were not accompanied by clinical changes, suchas, first of all, the drop in visual acuity. Their number ina lens varied considerably and ranges from 1 to 20.
While analyzing the obtained data, the following
gradation for the number of total opacities in two lenses
was used: 1-5, 6-10 and >10. Opacities also differed bytheir size which, due to measurement complications,were determined at the level of qualitative evaluation:
small, medium and large.
Table 3 shows the distribution of children with
lensopathias of the main control group.
From the given Table, it is seen that in the maingroup, the number of children with lensopathias
accounted to 82.1% which is by 12.5% more than in thecontrol. It should be mentioned that in the main group,
the number of children with lensopathias of both lenses
was by 24.4% more as compared with the control. At
the same time, prevalence of one lens opacities didn’t
differ significantly in children of the examined groups.
The number of children with large opacities in the formof flakes and strokes accounted to 34 (25.4%) in themain group, while in the control, only one child had a

Ophthalmological methods
Ophthalmological examination included theassessment of visual acuity of a patient, as well as
biomicroscopy performed with the help of a slit lamp at
maximal mydriasis. The revealed lensopathias were
determined in accordance with the 3-d International
Classification of lens opacities (lensopathias) [15]. The
obtained results were introduced into the protocol of
ophthalmological examination.

Statistical processing and data analysis
The data of clinical, laboratory, instrumental,
ophthalmological and dosimetric studies wereintroduced into the computerized data base [9].
Statistical programs accompanying the data base allow
to perform the retrieval arbitrarily with subsequentstatistical processing:• primary statistical processing of a variation series(N, arithmetical mean, root-mean-square deviation,mean error, confidence interval, mode, median,asymmetry and excess coefficients, character ofvariants′ distribution);• determination of the significance of 2 series
Table 3 Distribution of the examined children with lensopathias
Examined group
Presence of lensMain
opacitiesn%left lens
16
11.9
right lens
22
16.4
both lenses
72
53.7
Total
110
82.1

Control
n
20
17
27
64

%
21.7
18.5
29.3
69.6

Table 4. Distribution of the examined children with regard to multiplicity of total opacities in both thelensesNumber of total opacities in both the lenses
Examined
1-5
6-10
>10
group
n
%
n
%
n
%
Main
77
57.5
24
17.9
9
6.7
Control
56
60.9
7
7.6
1
1.1
170

Table 5. Distribution of the examined children with regard to lensopathias localization
Examined group
Part (zone) of lensControl
Main
Right eyeLeft eyeRight eyeLeft eye
Anterior capsule
2 (2.1%)1 (1%)
6 (4.5%)5 (3.7%)
Zone of splitting
1 (0.7%)
Anterior cortical zone
2 (2.1%)3 (3.3%)24 (17.9%)
15 (11.2%)
Adult nucleus
3 (3.3%)6 (6.6%)
12 (8.9%)4 (3.0%)
Embryonic nucleus
19 (20.6%)
13 (14.1%)
25 (18.7%)
24 (17.9%)
Posterior cortical zone
21 (22.8%)
25 (27.2%)
47 (35.1%)
48 (35.8%)
Posterior capsule
10 (10.9%)
12 (13.0%)
23 (17.2%)
26 (19.4%)

137

Cs body burden

38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22

from 1 to 5

from 6 to 10 from 11 to 15>15

Total number of opacities in bo

Fig.1. Relationship between the number of lens opacities and the level of 137Cs radionuclide
activity in the body of the examined children
cortical zone. Therefore, analogic transfer of thedamaged fibers and the increase in the number of actual
opacities in the posterior cortical zone at the expense of
the anterior one may possibly occur.
To determine the character of lensopathias
development with age, individual dynamic
ophthalmological examination of 21 children from themain group was conducted. The examination lasted
three years, with one year interval. The increase in thenumber of opacities in 9 children (42.9%) and lack ofdynamics in 12 children (57.1%) has been ascertained.
So,
lensopathia
progression
isobserved,
approximately, in half of the cases, which reflects theunfavorable dynamics of the given pathology inchildren with the enhanced risk of radiation effect.
The data about the relationship between the total
number of lensopathias of both the lenses and the levelof 137Cs radionuclide activity in the body, are ofparticular interest (Fig.1).
As it is seen from the given Figure, with the growthof the level of 137Cs radionuclide activity in the body,the total number of opacities in both the lenses
increases. This may be the indication of a certain
interrelation
existing between the radionuclide
incorporation and its influence on the organ of sight.
Primary cataract was diagnosed in 3 children

large stroke-like opacity (1.1%).
Frequency of occurrence of multiple lensopathias in
the examined children differs considerably (Table 4).
It has been ascertained that the number of children
with the total number of opacities from 1 to 5 was
identical in both the examined groups. With 6-10
opacities, the number of children in the main group was
2.4 times more than that in the control. More than 10
total opacities occurred 6 times more frequently also inchildren of the main group.
Location of opacities in different zones of lens isbeing assessed differently with regard to the indicationof radiation effect. Posterior cortical zone opacities are
considered to be more significant in this respect. In thisconnection, the data on opacity prevalence in all partsof the lens have been analyzed in the examinedchildren (Table 5).
As it is seen from Table 5, opacities of the posteriorcortical zone of lens occurred more frequently andwere more pronounced in children of the main group.
The second place was occupied by focal embryonicnucleus opacities. No significant distinctions between
the opacity prevalence in different zones of localizationof the right and left lenses were revealed. In theprocess of lens growth, fibers which are being formedin the anterior cortical zone, migrate to the posterior

171

first, but later, the bigger changes were observed inolder animals. Doses higher than 9 Gy, lead to lens
opacities more frequently in younger animals.
Sensitivity of mice lens to chronic radiation effect wasmore pronounced in the second half of the life ascompared with the first half of the life with 137Cs
incorporation. Though, it is hardly possible to transfer
these data on a human being. At the same time, taking
into account that lens radiosensitivity of animals andhuman beings is similar to a certain extent, the data ofthese experiments arouse concern.
Local fixation of incorporated radionuclides in lenstissues for the whole of their life may appear to be thepossible mechanism explaining their negative effect.
This leads to gradual destruction of neighboring lenstissues which tends to increase with age. As the result,less pronounced focal opacities may be formed first,
with subsequent development into larger - flaky andstroke-like opacities. Taking into account that the lenstissue lacks intensive metabolism, the possibility of
fixed radionuclide elimination is not large.
As a rule, the level of dose loads in the examinedchildren do not correspond to the universally
recognized dose level at which irradiation cataract
develops. According to the IAEA data, based on the
results of the studies conducted in Hiroshima andNagasaki, the dose of 200 mSv absorbed by lens is
considered to be clinically significant exposure dose
which induces the development of ophtalmologicaldisorders in children. From the above mentioned data it
follows that actual accumulated exposure doses in theexamined children were, approximately, 12.5 times
lower. Nevertheless, during the examination,
considerable structural lens changes have been
revealed in these children, such as an increase in thenumber of opacities and the degree of their diffusion.
In case of radionuclide incorporation, conditions of
exposure dose formation are being changed
considerably. These include physico-chemical
properties of radionuclide, its organotropy,
peculiarities of metabolism, character of its distribution
in the body, etc. From the point of view of
microdosimetry, protracted fixation of radionuclide in
the tissue may lead to the formation of high local
exposure dose which causes the development ofstructural and functional changes. It is not excluded
that such mechanism of radiation effect is functioning
in this case.

(2.2%) of the main group permanently residing in thevillage of Olmany, Stolin district, aged 11, 12 and 15
years, accordingly. The accumulated total effective
exposure dose at the time of diagnosis made 15.3, 17.1
and 25.9 mSv, accordingly. The disease could be
attributed to the 1-st stage of the irradiation cataract
development (according to N.A.Vishnevsky) and wascharacterized by vast accumulation of focal vacuoles
and opacities between the lens capsule and the cortex
not only in the center of the lens, but also within its
periphery. The reduction in visual acuity in the given
children was negligible.

Discussion
Questions of the effect of small radiation doses onlens and the mechanism of this effect remain to be open
for discussion. It is possible to assume the possibility ofrelatively high damaging effect of ionizing radiation
with internal exposure. V.I.Gerasimov [6] studied
quantitative value of possible non-stochastic effect in
the form of lens damage in mice at chronic internal
exposure from 137Cs and 90Sr. Statistically significant
decrease in light-transmitting eye capacity in animals
from experimental groups was observed, which may
testify to the cataractogenic effect of studied internal
exposure doses.
The above mentioned effect of small radiation
doses may be connected with the occurrence of
non-lethal damages in the genetic apparatus of lens
fibers which leads to the accumulation of functionallydefective cells with reduced vital capacity. It causes thedamage of normal regeneration of tissue and increases
the lens opacity.
Peculiarities of lens metabolism are characterized
by bradytrophia which means that some tissues have anegligible number of capillaries or do not vascularize
at all [13]. Bradytrophic tissues are characterized by
the following features:• progressing dehydration during the lifetime;• consolidation of structure;• formation of inclusions of organic and inorganic
substances in gradually consolidated parts oftissue;• concentration of tissue colloids due to progressing
consolidation of tissue;• loss of nitrogen contents as the result of
dehydration of substances;• lack of blood in dehydrating tissues of the body.
Numerous literature reports show the age-specificrelationship of lens changes in animals affected byradiation. With the exposure dose of more than 3Gy[6], the latent period of cataract development is almost
linearly dependent on age; and in younger
experimental animals, this period is shorter. With thedose of X-ray exposure of 2-3 Gy, the lens changes
occurred more frequently in old animals. Higher doses(3-9 Gy) caused the lens opacity in younger animals

Conclusions
1. Frequency of occurrence of lensopathias in children
from the main group made 82.1% which is by 12.5%
more than in the control, mostly due to opacities inboth lenses.
2. The number of children with large opacities
markedly prevailed in the main group (25.4%) ascompared with the control (1.1%).

172

4. I.Y.Vasilenko// About the damage from radioactive
cesium// Milit.-med.journal,-1989-N5.-P.37-39.
5. V.V.Volkov,
Z.M.Skripnichenko,M.A.Kalmetjeva// Chemical,
toxic, radiation and vibration eye damage and its
prophylactics// Rep. at the 4-th All-Union Congressof Ophtalmologists.-V.2.-P/291-305.
6. V.I.Gerasimov// The effect of chronic internal
exposure on the function of the organ of sight inmice// Rad.Hyg.-1985.-P.81-86.
7. A.K.Guskova, G.D.Baisogolov// Radiation diseasein human being.
8. Organization of dispensary observation over theindividuals working with sources of ionizing
radiation/
edit.by
A.K.Guskova//
M.-1975.-P/35-42.
9. S.A.Laptenok,
A.N.Arinchin//Commoninformation system for storage and processing of
medico-ecological data// Public Health inBelarus.-1993-11, P.35-39.
10. Y.M.Moskalev// Late consequences of ionizing
radiation// .M.:”Medicine”.-1991.
11. Z.M.Skripnichenko,
L.S.Zholnerovitch//
Functional disorders of visual analyser and theirimportance in early diagnosis of general
intoxication of the organism// Clinical picture,
diagnosis and treatment of diseases of chemical
etiology. Rep. at the 2-nd All-Union Symp.
12. S.P.Yarmonenko// Radiobiology// M. Higher
School. -1988. P.424.
13. M.Burger, G.Hevelke// Uber die Physiosclerose derArterien// Wiss.Annaln.,1955,Bd. 4, S.693-708.
14. Y.Chernousenko// Chernobyl: insight from theinside// New York: Springer-Verlag; 1991.
15. L.Chylack,
J.Wolfe,
D.Singer,
M.Leske,M.Bullimore, I.Bailey, J.Friend, D.McCarthy// Thelens opacity classification system, III (LOSC III)//
Arch.Ophthalmol. 111:831-836; 1993.
16. R.Day, M.Gorin, A.Eller// Prevalence of lenschanges in Ukranian children residing around
Chernobyl// Health Phys. 68(5):632-642; 1995.
17. The Investigation Committee of Atomic Bomb
Victims of Hannan Chuo Hospital// The Report of
the Second Global Radiation Victims Conference
and the World Uranium Hearing; Osaka,1993.

3. The number of children with multiple opacities(more than 6) was larger in the main group and made24.3% (8.7% - in the control).
4. Predominant localizations of lensopathias were:posterior cortical zone, posterior capsule and anteriorcortical zone.
5. Positive relationship between the level of 137Cs
radionuclide activity in the body and the intensity oflens opacity has been revealed in the examinedchildren.
6. Individual lensopathia dynamics in children of themain group was characterized by aggravation of thedisease in 42.9% of cases; no changes were marked
in 57.1%.
7. Primary cataract was revealed in 3 children of themain group (2.2%) and was characterized by a large
number of opacities between the lens capsule and thecortex, both in the center of the lens and within its
periphery, which explains the lack of pronounced
sight decrease.

Study perspectives
Taking into account the importance of the obtained
data, it is planned to continue the study in the following
main directions:
1. conduction of prospective observation over thechildren with lensopathias and the elaboration ofmodel of the development of lens pathology withage;
2. conduction of biodosimetric studies in the given
group of children;
3. to study the role of chemical factors of theenvironment in the formation of lens pathology inchildren;
4. elaboration of measures of lensopathia prophylactics
and correction in the given category of children.
References
1. V.M.Abdulova, E.A.Ivanova, E.I.Lvovskaya//
Quantitative characteristics of physiological lens
involution//
Humanphysiology.-1975.-V.1.-N4.-P.719-725.
2. I.Y.Vasilenko// Radiation damage by nuclear
fission products (clinical picture, pathogenesis)//Public Health in Belarus.-1986.-N10.-P.68-72.
3. I.Y.Vasilenko// Cesium-137 in food-stuffs//
Questions of nourishment.-1988.-N4.-P.4-11.

173

Genetic Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident for Belarus Republic
Gennady LAZJUK, Yukio SATOW*, Dmitri NIKOLAEV, Irina NOVIKOVA
Belarus Institute for Hereditary Diseases, Minsk 220053, Belarus
Hiroshima Bunka Women’s Junior College, Asaminami-ku, Hiroshima 731-01, Japan
uncertainties. Only direct methods, which count the
final effect, with all their drawbacks, can provide
accurate information on genetic losses. We haveestimated possible genetic consequences for the
residents of Belarus Republic due to the Chernobyl
accident by studying malformations found in legal
medical abortuses and by counting congenital
anomalies in fetuses and newborns.

IntroductionNumerous studies have shown that agreat number of residents in Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine were exposed to radiation due to radioactive
nuclides ejected from the Chernobyl reactor, which
increased genetic load, manifested in particular, as
chromosome aberrations (Lazjuk G.I. et al., 1990;
Pilinskaya M.A. et al., 1994; Sevankaev A.V. et al.,1995). The increase was registered for unstable andstable, chromatid and chromosome types of aberrations(Stepanova E.I., Vanyurikhina E.A. 1993, Vorobtsova
I.E., Bogomazova A.N., 1995, Sevankaev A.V. et al.,1995). Proceeding from the findings that the number ofdicentric and ring chromosomes (which are the mainindicator of radiation mutagenesis at chromosome
level) was increasing simultaneously with the increaseof other aberrations which are common for chemicalmutagenesis (Pilinskaya M.A. et al., 1994; Lazutka
J.R., 1996) and from the fact that actual mutation
incidences exceeded the calculated figures for thedoses obtained (Pilinskaya M.A. et al., 1992,
Sevankaev A.V. et al., 1995), one can not exclude thepossibility that chromosome aberrations found in the
population affected by the Chernobyl disaster arecaused not only by ionizing radiation but also by
various mutagenes, and the doses based on physicaldosimetry could be underestimated.
It is quite obvious that the level of chromosome
aberrations can be used as a biological indicator of
harmful mutagenic effects on the organism. However,
the method is not yet capable of (or only partially suitedfor) detecting the actual genetic risk even in the cases
when aberrations are found in gametes, not inperipheral blood lymphocytes as usually done. The
study of the dynamics of genetic losses, as spontaneousabortions and perinatal death due to inheritedanomalies, and the study of the dynamics of malformed
children births are probably the most reliable methods
to determine genetic risk due to any mutagenic factor
affecting the population, including ionizing radiation.
This is related to the fact that there are a great sequenceof events (gamete selection, preimplantation andembryonal death) occurring between gamete mutations(to say nothing about a somatic one) and births ofchildren with congenital diseases. It is nearly
impossible to count them and this leads to various

Dynamics of anomalies found in legal medial
abortuses
The incidence of anomalies has been studied inembryos and fetuses obtained from pregnant women in
Minsk-city (control) and in the areas under thoroughradiological control (TCA). Contaminated areas inGomel and Mogilev regions with 137Cs of 15 Ci/km2(555 kBq/m2) and more are placed into the category ofthoroughly controlled areas. Five to 12 week abortuses
were obtained through curettage and examined bypathoembryologists at Belarus Institute for Hereditary
Diseases. The investigation was carried out using
dissection under a stereo-microscope. If required, serial
histological sections were additionally studied. In allcases the age of embryos or fetuses was determinedusing the system developed at the Carnegie Institute.
Malformation frequency was determined not for thenumber of examined abortuses, but for the number of
examined organs, since after the curettage not allorgans were always suitable for the examination.
Moreover, since some anomalies are observed bypersistence of the structures characteristic of particular
stages of embryonic development, when counting
particular anomaly, only embryos whose age exceeded
the age of corresponding physiological persistence
were taken into consideration. All anomalies found at
dissection and histological examination have beenrecorded. In total, 33,376 abortuses, including 2,701
abortuses obtained from TCA, have been studied forthe period from 1986 (the second half) to 1996.
The results are partially presented in Table 1. As thetable shows, malformation frequency for legal medical
abortuses from TCA is considerably higher than thatfrom Minsk-city, which has been observed for both
periods of pre-Chernobyl 6 year and post-Chernobyl 11
year. It should be mentioned that the total frequency of
7.21 in TCA during 1986 to 1995 has been found lower
than it was in 1992 (9.87) (Lazjuk G.I. et al., 1996).
Significant increase has not been found forThis report was published in Gijutsu-to-Ningen, No.283,
pp.26-32, Jan/Feb. 1998 (in Japanase).

174

Table 1 Frequency of Malformations Found in Induced Abortuses in Belarus
Regions under study
Minsk
1980-1985
1986-1996

Malformations

TCA
1986-1995

The number of abortuses examined

10,16820,507

2,701

Malformation frequency to the number of examinedsamples (%)
including:

5.60

4.90

7.21*

CNS anomalies

0.32

0.53

0.54

polydactyly

0.63

0.53

0.79

reduction limb defects

0.07

0.10

0.28

*

- significant difference (P<0.05)

by ionizing radiation due to the Chernobyl accident.
However, dependence on contamination withradioactive Cs can not be excluded for the 1% increaseover the control (51-50) recorded in 54 regions and for
33% increase (83-50) in 17 regions.

anomalies most characteristic for radiation exposure;the central nervous system and anomalies with thegreatest contribution of de novo mutations (polydactyly
and reduction limb defects). However, tendency of
their number increase is rather obvious, especially for
reduction limb defects.

Such increase can be explained by at least 4 factors.
a) Higher birth frequency of malformed children after
the Chernobyl accident is considered to be not atrue increase of anomalies in embryos, but only an
artifact, the result of more complete registration, inother words, it is the result of closer interest in«disaster areas»,b) teratogenic effects of embryo exposure toradioactivity from the Chernobyl Nuclear Station,c) the result of gamete mutations in either parent due
to additional exposure on gonads, ord) the result of a complex of negative factors
including the Chernobyl disaster (radiation plus
chemical pollutants, poor nutrition, alcoholism).
Artifactual origin of increasing number of CM
under the long-term National Monitoring, as it is in
Belarus, is virtually excluded, firstly, by counting of
only unambiguously diagnosed CM, secondly, byconstant control of registration completeness by the
researchers from Belarus Institute for Hereditary
Diseases, thirdly, by practically equal frequencies
before the Accident in various regions and, finally, by
the correlation between the increase of CM frequency
and the level of contamination.
Teratogenic effect is excluded, since the doses
received by intrauterine fetus for a teratogenic
terminational (or crucial) period were below threshold.
No woman who gave birth to a malformed child, hasreceived over 55 mSv for the period starting from theaccident till the end of the 1st trimester. The 1sttrimester includes the terminal period of neural tube
defects,themostcharacteristic
congenital
malformation for radiation teratogenesis. No
significant increase of nervous system CM has beenfound in newborns and abortuses recorded in the
National Monitoring (Tables 1 and 2).

Dynamics of congenital malformations in
newborns
The birth frequency of children with congenital
malformations (CM) was studied based on the National
Monitoring which has been functioning throughout thewhole Republic since 1979. Congenital malformations
unambiguously diagnosed in neonatal period areregistered irrespective of the level of technical facilities
of a medical institution. In each case of congenital
malformation, the diagnosing physician fills in a
special form registration, which is sent to the Minsk
Genetic Center. The scientists of Institute for
Hereditary Diseases verify the record completenessand diagnosis during regular trips to the areas, or
during consultations with families at the Center.
Anencephaly, severe spina bifida cystica, cleft lips
and/or palate, polydactyly, reduction limb defects
leading to disability, esophageal atresia, anorectal
atresias,
Down’ssyndromeandmultiple
malformations are registered both in stillborns and infetuses obtained through induced abortion after
prenatal diagnostics. The results are presented in Table
2 for the 137Cs contaminated areas and for the control.
Thirty regions, where 137Cs contamination density was
found to be less than 1.0 Ci/km2, were taken as thecontrol.
It is clearly seen that the total CM frequency
increased both in the control and in the areas
contaminated with 137Cs. Moreover, as the level ofcontamination becomes higher, the greater increase of
malformed children birth is seen. While the 50%
increase is shown in the control, it is 83 % in the areas
with contamination over 15 Ci/km2. It is quite obviousthat the increase of CM in the control can not be caused
175

Table 2 Incidence of Obligatory Registered Malformations in Belarus for 1982 to 1995
(per 1000 neonates)
Malformation

Anencephaly
Spina bifida
Cleft lip and/or
palatePolydactyly
Limb reduction
defects
Esophageal atresia
Anorectal atresia
Down’s syndrome
Multiple
malformations
Total

Areas contaminated with Cs-137
2
2>1 Ci/km>15 Ci/km
17 regions
54 regions
1982-1985
1987-1995
1982-1985
1987-1995
0.28
0.44
0.24
0.64*
11
26
48
226
0.58
0.89
0.67
0.95*
23
53
132
335
0.63
0.94
0.70
0.92*
25
56
137
324
0.10
1.02*
0.30
0.66*
4
61
60
232
0.15
0.49*
0.18
0.35*
6
29
36
123
0.08
0.08
0.12
0.15
3
5
23
53
0.05
0.08
0.08
0.10
2
5
16
35
0.91
0.84
0.86
1.03
36
50
170
362
1.04
2.30*
1.41
2.09*
41
137
277
733
3.87
7.07*
4.57
6.90*
151
422
899
2423

Control(30 regions)
1982-1985
0.35
23
0.64
42
0.50
33
0.26
17
0.20
13
0.11
7
0.03
2
0.63
41
1.18
77
3.90
255

Percent increase
before and after
83
51
Chernobyl*Significant difference (p - 0.05) between the values for 1982-1985 and for 1987-1995.

1987-1995
0.49
63
0.94*
120
0.95*
121
0.52*
66
0.20
26
0.14
18
0.06
8
0.92*
117
1.61*
205
5.84*
744
50

Vitebsk region, which is considered the most safe forradioactive contamination. The values of average
cumulative dose were calculated at Institute ofRadiation Medicine for individuals of 18 years of age
and older in those regions. They represent the
combined external and internal exposure since theChernobyl accident.

Thus, the most probable cause leading to theincrease of birth of malformed children in Belarus is anincreased level of mutations due to chronic additional
exposure of the population or a complex of negative
factors. This can be indirectly evidenced by;a) an increased level of mutations in peripheral blood
lymphocytes in the population of Belarus, theUkraine and Russia, who has received additional
exposure (Lazjuk G.I. et al., 1995; Pilinskaya M.A.
et al., 1992; Vorobtsova E.A., Bogomazova A.N.,
1995);b) the most marked increase of CM frequency ingeneral and CMs with great contribution of de novo
mutations (polydactyly, reduction limb defects andmultiple CM) in the area with 137Cs contamination
density of 15 Ci/km2 and above. At the same time,
an increase of malformed children due to trisomies(Down’s syndrome is an example), which are denovo mutations, has not been found.
To determine a possible relation of increased CM
frequency with additional radiation, dependency ofCM frequency on additional radiation dose in Gomel
and Mogilev regions (excepting large industrial cities)
was investigated and compared with the control data in

Table 3 shows the result of the analysis. Average
cumulative doses per each 1% increase of CM in thecontaminated regions over the CM increase in thecontrol region are calculated to be 0.31 mSv and 0.20
mSv, for Gomel region and Mogilev region,
respectively. Based on these values we can estimate adoubling dose of genetic effects due to radiation
exposure to be 0.02 - 0.03 Sv. Our estimate of doublingdose is considerably smaller than the value of 1 Sv
adopted by ICRP and UNSCEAR. This suggests thatgenetic effects of radiation exposure is much higher
than it has been usually considered, or the physicaldosimetry used to obtain dose values of the population
significantly underestimated the real doses.

Conclusions
176

Table 3 Comparison of CM frequencies with additional radiation doses obtained by rural populationof Belarus at the age of 18 years and older
Region underobservation

Frequency of CM per 1000 births
1982-85

1987-95

4.06±0.39

7.45±0.24

Gomel region

Averagecumulative doseby Chernobyl(mSv)
1986-94

Cumulative
dose per %Increase of CM(mSv/%)

13.40

0.31

8.82

0.20

0.24

-

Increase: 83 %3.50± 0.53

6.41±0.30

Mogilev region
Increase: 83 %Vitebsk region

3.60±0.63

5.04±0.27

Increase: 40 %4. Sevankaev A.V. et al. Chromosome aberrations in
Lymphocytes of Residents of Areas Contaminatedby Radioactive Discharges from the Chernobyl
Accident. Radiat.Protect.Dosim. 1995, V.58, N.4,
P. 247-254..
5. Pilinskaya M.A., et al., Cytogenetic Indicator of
Irradiation among the People Suffering from
Affected Factors by the Chernobyl Accident,
Tsitologiya i genetika, 1992, V.26, N.6, P.6-9 (inRussian).
6. Pilinskaya M.A. et al., Cytogenetic Monitoring of
the People Affected by the Accident at the
Chernobyl NPP, Tsitologiya i genetika, 1994, V.28,
N.3, P.18-25 (in Russian).
7. Stepanova E.I. and Vanyurikhina E.A., Clinical andCytogenetic Characteristics of Children of thePeople Who Experienced Radiation Syndrome of 1
and 2 Level As the Result of the Chernobyl
Accident, Tsitologiya i genetika, 1993, V.27, N.4,
P.10-13 (in Russian).
8. Vorobtsova E.I. and Boromazova A.N., Stable
Chromosome Aberration in Lymphocytes in
Peripheral Blood of the Persons Affected As the
Result of the Accident at ChNPP, Radiatsionnaya
biologiya i ragioekologiya, 1995, V.35, N.5,
P.636-639 (in Russian).
9. J.R. Lazutka. Chromosome Aberrations and Rogue
Cells in Lymphocytes of Chernobyl Clean-up
Workers. Mutat.Res. 1996, V.350, P. 315-329.

Long-term studies have shown the evidence ofincreased frequency of anomalies in embryos of theresidents in Belarus. They are manifested as increased
malformation frequencies found in medical abortuses
and increased frequencies of CM revealed innewborns. The causes for such increases have not been
determined clearly. However, the correlation of
anomaly increase found in embryos with the level ofcontamination density of the areas, and the correlationof CM frequency with group average doses, as well as
the increase of CMs with great contribution of
dominant de novo mutations, evidence a radiation
factor playing a certain role in the dynamics of CM.

References
1. Lazjuk G.I. et al. Cytogenetic effects of additional
exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation.
Zdravoochraneniye Beloruss ii, 6: 38-41, 1990 (inRussian).
2. Lazjuk G.I. et al. Frequency changes of inheritedanomalies in the republic of Belarus after the
Chernobyl accident. Radiat.Protect.Dosim., 1995,
V.62, N.1/2, P.71-74.
3. Lazjuk G.I. et al. Possible Genetic Consequences of
the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident on Belorussians.
The Chernobyl Accident (Thyroid Abnormalities inChildren, Congenital Abnormalities and Other
Radiation Related Information. The First Ten Years.
1996. Hiroshima, P.177-185.

177

Monitoring of Cytogenetic Damages in Peripheral Lymphocytes of Children
Living in Radiocontaminated Areas of Belarus
Ludmila S. MIKHALEVICH
Institute of Genetics and Cytology, Academy of Sciences of Belarus,
F.Skorina st., 27, 220072, Minsk, Republic of Belarus.
Tel: (0172) 68-49-18. Fax: (0172) 68-49-17.
E-mail: igc%bas32.basnet.minsk.by@demos.su
The cytogenetic monitoring of Belarussianchildren was started by the Human Radiation
Cytogenetics Group of the Institute of Genetics andCytology of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus inJune 1986. Groups of children for cytogenetic
examination were formed on the basis ofadministrative division of the territory (Table 1).
The aims of the present work is to analyse the dataof 1986 as a practical case of cytogenetic method in
the assessment of absorbed dose in children from
Gomel region affected by the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe, and to compare the data of cytogenetic
examination of 1986 with the results obtained in thefollowing years.
In this connection, we examined children
evacuated from 10 villages within the 30-km zone of
Bragin district, Gomel region, exposed to short-time(2 weeks) radiation, mainly due to fallout ofshort-lived radionuclides, and children residing insettlements in Bragin and Khoiniki district, Gomel
region. The data of radiation monitoring of theradiocontaminated areas are given as of July 1, 1989
(7).
The results of cytogenetic examination of children
in Minsk, and Braslav of Vitebsk region, were used asa control. Selection of the children was random.
Significance of the differences was calculated by
t-Students test.
Conventional methods (9-10) were used for
preparing cytogenetic specimens. Blood samples weretaken and transferred to the laboratory for cultivating
within the same day. Fetal calf serum (10%, Minsk),
phytohemagglutinin Difco P, 100 IU penicillin/ml in
0.5 ml of blood were added to the culture medium,
consisting of Eagle's minimal essential medium(Moscow). For each individual 2-3 cultures were set
up. 200- 300 cells per child were examined forasymmetrical chromosomal aberrations (dicentrics,
centric rings, and excess acentric fragments) andchromatid aberrations (breaks, exchanges ).
In Table 2 are presented group-average data on
chromosome aberration yield for 60 children from 10
villages in the 30-km zone of Bragin district. The
children were evacuated on May 7-8, 1986 to a"clean" zone in Minsk region (two weeks after the

The complicated radiation situation in Belarus
conditioned by the large scale and irregularity ofradioactive precipitation as a result of the Chernobyl
APS catastrophe, resulted in a number of different
sources of irradiation to children.
In the first period after the catastrophe, short-lived
isotopes, mainly I-131, made the principal
contribution to the formation of irradiation tochildren. Dose values for thyroid in children turnedout 3-10 times as high as in adults /1-2/. The situation
having arisen after the Chernobyl disaster ischaracterized by different duration of contact withradiation and by diversity of pollution comprising
irradiation from external and incorporated
radionuclides. An intensive radionuclide mixture
discharge continued till 10th of May. Their large
quantity was released into the environment from thedestroyed reactor for 2 weeks more.
Regretfully, information on genetic important dosein children population based on the data of physicaldosimetry is practically absent. Counts ofchromosome aberrations in peripheral blood
lymphocytes (PBL) of the people who live inparticular radioecological conditions are at present themost objective biological indicator of radiation
effects. Chromosome injuries are the earliest and themost significant among intracellular reactions toionizing radiation; they can be calculated precisely.
Therefore, the WHO, IAEA and UNSCEAR
documents /3-5/ recommend to use cytogenetic
methods in order to estimate the value of doseabsorbed by organism.
The necessity of using methods of biologicaldosimetry and, in particular, traditional cytogenetic
analysis of unstable chromosome aberrations - such as
dicentrics and ring chromosomes - was confirmed
repeatedly in the studies of the consequences ofpeople's
overexposureindifferent
nuclearcatastrophes /6/. However, it is considered that the useof unstable type aberrations in biological dosimetry is
not possible in remote times after overexposure /7/. It
is connected with the fact that the frequency of cells
having dicentric and ring chromosomes is decreases
with the course of time after irradiation.

178

Table 1. Districts from which the study cohorts were sampled and their contamination levels
Radionuclide contamination (Ci/km2)
VillageCs-137
Sr-90
Pu-23930-km zone of Bragin district, Gomel region
v. Nudichi
18.38
3.02
0.0503v. Ilichi
22.03
3.44
0.0140v. Glukhovichi
13.26
1.81
0.0201v. Refalov
20.48
3.35
?
v. Kozeluzhtsy
20.43
3.60
0.0106v. Jasmentsy
9.00
3.69
?
v. Krug-Rutka
3.80?
v. Gorodistche
6.00
0.97
0.0030v. St. Urkovichi
1.40
v. Krivichi
3.45
0.98
0.0188Bragin districtt. Bragin
19.23
1.79
0.0418v. Burki
11.0
0.7?
v. Mikulichi
17.0
0.95
?
Khoinik district
t. Khoinik
6.0
0.93
?
v. Novoselki
19.1
1.97
?
v. Rudnoe
14.0
3.0
?
v. Rudakovo
10.0
1.83
?
Narovlya districtt.Naovlya
17.0
0.9
?
Control zonec. Minsk
0.04
0.02
0.0016t. Braslav
0.04
0.02
0.0016
Table 2. Cytogenetic damages in peripheral blood lymphocyte of children evacuated from the 30-km
zone of Bragin district and residing in Bragin town examined in 1986.
No. of Cells with aberr.
No. of children
No. of cells
No. of dic/ring(mean per 100
Settlement
examinedscoredper cellcells±SE)30-km zone (10 villages)
60
18000
0.00956.8±0.2
t. Bragin
15
3900
0.00537.7±0.4
Control
18
3000
0.00061.4±0.2
Chernobyl
nuclearaccident).
Cytogenetic
examinations were conducted in August, 1986.
A statistically significant increase of the level ofaberrant metaphases, aberrations per 100 cells,
including markers of radiation effect, namely,
dicentrics and centric rings, was revealed for all thegroups examined. Thus, the level of chromosome-typeexchanges in the spectrum of chromosome aberrations
in children's lymphocytes varied from 0.0065 per cell
to 0.0133 in different villages. The population average
number of dicentrics/rings per cell in the children
from the evacuation zone was 0.0095, being 0.0006 in
the control.
Because of poor organization of radiation
monitoring in the first months after the Chernobyl
accident, the data of biological dosimetry havebecome more and more important. Biodosimetry

179

Table 3. Whole-body dose of liquidators and of a group of children evacuated from the 30-km zoneof Bragin district
Liquidators (1)Children from 30-km zone (our own data)
Whole-body dose (rem)% of examined
Whole-body dose (rem)% of examined
5-10
30
1-20
10
10-25
47
20-30
26
30-40
32
25-50
7.3
40-50
32
Table 4. Distribution of children by Iodine-131 content in thyroid and liver according to theγ-radiation exposure dose rate measured on 7-8 May 1986
% of examined with exposure rate
γ-radiation exposurein area of neckin area of liver
rate (µR/h)
10-49
16.1
50-99
27.5
45.2
100-20045
35.5
200-350
27.5
700
1.6
Table 5.

Radionuclides in organisms of children from Gomel region
Concentration of minimum/maximum value, Ci/lRadionuclides
Blood
Urine
Cesium-134
0.127х10-9 - 1.17х10-9
0.199х10-9 - 9.751х10-9
0.57 х10-9 - 2.5 х10-9
Cesium-137
0.13 х10-9 - 6.86х10-9-9-8
1.586х10-8 - 6.7 х10-8
Potassium-40
2.073х10 - 6.70х10-9-90.973х10-9 - 0.34 х10-9
Zirconium-95
0.97 х10 - 1.46х10-9-9Antimony-125
2.45 х10 - 0.21х10
Silver-110
6.7 х10-10- 5.6х10-11
Ruthenium-106
0.648х10-9 - 2.162х10-9
Cerium-144
0.648х10-8 - 2.23 х10-9
Zinc-65
1.189х10-9 - 1.1 х10-10
district and born before the catastrophe represent thesame groups of high genetic risk as the liquidators do.
Based on the data of measurement of radioactive
Iodine-131 content (7-8 May 1986) with portable
γ-irradiation dosemeters, only 27% of examinedpeople had the indices of exposure dose rate from 50
to 100 µR/h, the rest - from 100 and higher (Table 4).
The comparison of distribution of children by thewhole-body irradiation dose (on the basis of
cytogenetic examination) with internal dose forthyroid and liver by intake of radioactive iodine
isotopes into the organism for the same period,
showed the qualitative correspondence of both
distributions, i. e. with the shift to the side of higher
doses.
In order to confirm the presence of radionuclides
in children organisms, the direct analysis was carriedout of γ-radiating radionuclides in their biologicalmedia. The radionuclides in blood and urine of 37
children from the age of 4 to 15 from controlled areas
were studied at the Institute of Nuclear Energy of the
Academy of Sciences of Belarus by means ofγ-spectrometer “ADKAM-300” of “ORTEC” firm(USA). It was established that the next radionuclides

carried out on the basis of our findings by using
different standard curves (4,12-13) to evaluateabsorbed dose has shown that the recorded level ofchromosome aberrations in children evacuated fromthe 30-km zone of Bragin District and residing in
Bragin town corresponds to the dose of 200-500 mSv.
According to the data of the Institute ofRadiological Medicine (Belarus) based on themethods of physical dosimetry, radiation doses
received by residents of those districts for 1986 to
1988 did not exceed 155 mSv. The reasons of thediscrepancies in the estimated doses require further
thorough investigation .
According to the estimations of EC/IAEA/WHO/1, 11/ the highest doses were obtained by theliquidators of the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe. The dose of whole-body irradiation
spreads as follows (Table 3): 30% of studied people
obtained 5-10 rem; the majority of liquidators namely, 47% - obtained 10-25 rem, and only 7.3% 25-50 rem /1/. Our data of biological dosimetry ofchildren from the 30-km zone show the shift of dose
distribution to the side of higher dose. Consequently,
the resettled children and the children living in Bragin180

Table 6.

Sample of the cohorts and observed yields of unstable chromosomal aberrations in 1986
No. of Cells with
No. ofAverage No. of children
No. of cells
aberr. (mean per
Settlement
dic/ring perage (y)examinedscoredcell
100 cells±SE)
Gomel region
Bragin district
v. Burki
7-14
6
1500
0.00555.7±0.6v. Mikulichi
7-14
17
4250
0.00636.8±0.4
Narovlya districtt. Narovlya
12
7
1750
0.00414.9±0.5
Minsk
Control 1985
18
3000
0.00061.4±0.2
Control 1986
174250
0.00061.5±0.2

Table 7.

Sample ofSettlement
Gomel region
Khoiniki district
t. Khoiniki
v. Novoselki
v. Rudnoe
Narovlya districtt. Narovlya
Control

the cohorts and observed yields of unstable chromosomal aberrations in 1987
No. of Cells with
No. ofAverage No. of children
No. of cells
aberr. (mean per
dic/ring perage (y)examinedscoredcell
100 cells±SE)

1-6
1-6
1-6

5
6
10

652
700
2050

3.7±0.7
7.6±1.0
9.8±0.6

0.00920.01430.0098

5
17

1250
4250

6.4±0.7
1.5±0.19

0.00640.0006by the liquidators. Regretfully, these dose
commitments were not taken into account before, andstill are not considered in recent assessment ofobtained doses values.
In the second stage (1987-1991), prolonged
external and internal irradiation for account oflong-lived radionuclides of cesium, strontium,
plutonium and others is the particularity of doseformation of the children living permanently on
radiocontaminated territories, in addition to the early
formed dose during the 1st stage including the thyroid
irradiation. It should be noted that in most cases thesame children were not examined in the samples.
The cytogenetic effect specific for radiation action
was also revealed in children in Bragin town
examined in 1988. A similar picture was observed in agroup of children in Bragin, examined in 1991 byusing the micronuclei method under cytokinetic block(10). The results confirmed the fact that an increased
level of chromosome aberrations remained inlymphocytes of the children. The number of detectedbinuclear cells with micronuclei was 5.3 times higher
than the number in the control. Such situation wasarisen, obviously, as a result of relatively balanced
state between formation of mutation anddisappearance both on the level of blood-producing
cells and on that of peripheral blood.

were present in blood: Cesium-134, Cesium-137,
Potassium-40,
Zirconium-95,
Antimony-125,
Silver-110. In the urine, the next radionuclides were
found besides above-mentioned: Carbon-14 (June1986), Ruthenium-106, Cerium-144, Zinc-65,
Zirconium-95 (1986-1987-1988). There were found intheexcrement:
Cesium-134,
Cesium-137,
Potassium-40 (Table 5).
Table 6 shows the principal results of cytogenetic
examination of children residing in Burki and
Mikulichi villages of Bragin district and Narovlya
town of Narovlya district of Gomel region. In allgroups, the number of cells with unstable aberrations dicentrics and centric rings - differed significantly
from the control one. The dose values calculated on
the basis of cytogenetic analysis of unstable
aberrations are proximate to the doses obtained by thechildren of Bragin town shown in Table 2.
Thus acute and prolonged irradiation obtained by
the children in Bragin district and Bragin town wereconsiderable in the first period (first weeks andmonths after the accident) and, obviously, conditioned
not only by short-lived isotopes (molybdenum,
technetium, lanthanum, barium), inert gases (xenon,
krypton) and I-131, but also by long-lived isotopes ofcesium, strontium and plutonium /1/. They arecomparable (and even higher) with the dose obtained181

time change of the dose structure due to increase ofinternal contribution to the total radiation dose.
According to available data, Cs-137 and Cs-134
contents in the examined children's organisms in
Khoiniki and Bragin districts, Gomel region, in
1987-1988 varied between 0.18 and 9.14 µCi (thedata were obtained by a whole body counter).
However, no correlation was revealed between the
total γ-activity of the organism and the yield ofchromosome aberrations. In this connection, thedecrease of dose rate from external (1, 17-18) andincorporated (1,18) γ-sources on one side, and theincrease of accumulation of α- (1, 19) and β-sources(1,20), on the other side, deserve attention.
The present results have shown that the level ofcytogenetic damages in human cells was higher in allradiocontaminated regions than in the control. Thus,
In the 2nd period the high tempo of mutation process
is characteristic in peripheral blood lymphocytes of all(100%) examined groups of children in Gomel region,
as well as the appearance of multiple aberrations incells of considerable part of children. The task offollowing surveys is the detailed characterization of
peculiarities in the 2nd and the 3rd periods ofmutation process dynamics in populations of somatic
cells of children in Belarus.

However, the more complicated picture ofmutation process was discovered in lymphocytes ofyounger children (age from 1 to 6). In the spring of1987 clinical and cytogenetic examination was carriedout of 21 children, aged 1-6 years, residing
permanently in the settlement of Khoiniki and in thevillages of Novoselki and Rudnoe, Khoiniki district,
Gomel region. The data obtained indicated anincreased level of chromosome aberrations in culturesof peripheral blood lymphocytes of these children's
groups: 3.7+0.7; 7.6+1.0; 9.8+0.5 % of aberrant
metaphases, respectively, as compared to 1.5-0.5% in
the control (Table 7). In all examined groups
chromosomal aberrations of exchange type were
found - dicentrics and centric rings - the frequency ofwhich was over one degree as high as that of control
group. The highest frequency of dicentrics and rings
as well as of cells containing such type of aberrations
was revealed in the children of Novoselki and Rudnoe
villages.
In spring of 1987 and 1988 cytogenetic
examination of the same children of Bragin and
Khoiniki districts was conducted in dynamics. The
first examination was carried out 12 months after the
Chernobyl nuclear accident. An interval between thefirst and the second examinations was also 12 months.
The increase of chromosome type aberrations from
5.2+0.5% in 1987 to 8.7+0.6% in 1987 (p<0.001) was
observed. A significant increase in the cell number
with 2-4 aberrations (from 16.4+3.3% in 1987 to
27.0+3.4% in 1988, p<0.01) was observed in the samechildren. Cells with 2 and more aberrations were notfound in the control.
It was shown experimentally that the external
irradiation dose of population in radiocontaminatedareas of Belarus had stabilized by 1989-1990;
meantime, strontium radionuclides content inorganisms of the people had increased 2.5-5 times ascompared with pre-accident period /1/. Probably, theincrease of the level of chromosomal aberrations withthe course of time and appearance of multiple injuries
in cells of small children are connected with thissituation.
Some "rogue" cells, which were named by Awa
and Neel (15) , were found by the present authors inlymphocytes of the children in Khoiniki and Bragin
districts almost a year after the Chernobyl accident.
Single "rogue" cells were detected by otherresearchers in various groups of children living in theradiocontaminated areas of Belarus (16). However,those authors do not ascribe emergence of "rogue"
cells to radiation exposure, though we consider thequestion doubtful.
More frequent occurrence of cells with 3 or 4
aberrations with increase of the time of children
staying in the radiocontaminated areas of Khoiniki
and Bragin districts seems to be associated with theConclusion
The presented data of cytogenetic investigation ofdifferent groups of children affected by ionizing
radiation as a result of the Chernobyl APS catastrophe
allow to make the following conclusions:- The use of cytogenetic method in theinvestigation of children born before the Chernobyl
accident made possible to reveal significant increaseof unstable chromosomal aberrations as comparedwith control groups.
- The absorbed dose of 200-500 mGy wasevaluated for the children from the 30-km zone of
Bragin district and Bragin town with the use ofmaterials of cytogenetic investigation conducted in
1986.
- It is shown that the level of unstable typeaberration in young children is rather increasing withthe course of time than decreasing. The appearance ofmultiaberrant cells in children several years after the
Chernobyl APS catastrophe, probably, testifies theeffect of dense ionizing radiation of plutonium and its
fission products on children.
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Accidentin
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Zdravookhranenie Belarusi, 1990.- P.8-11.
15. Awa A.A., Neel J.V. (1986). Cytogenetic "rogue"
Cells: What is Their Frequency, Origin and
Evolutionary Significance? Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci.,
USA, 83, 1021-1025.
16. Sevankaev A.V., Tsyb A.F., Lloyd D.C., Zhloba
A.A., Moiseenko V.V., Skryabin A.M., Klimov
V.M. (1993)."Rogue" Cells Observed in Children
Exposed to Radiation from the Chernobyl Accident.
Int. J. Radiat. Biol.63, 361-367.
17. Matyukhin V.A.(1992). Problems of theChernobyl Accident. Proc.: An Intern. Symp. on
Chernobyl Catastrophe.Minsk, 6-9.
18. Kazakov V.S., Matyukhin V.A., Kenigsberg
Ya.Z., Minenko V.F., Ispenkov E.A., Moshchik
K.V.(1991). Radioecological Situation in Belarus
after the Chernobyl Accident, MedicobiologicalConsequences and Scientific Basis of Measures forRadiological Protection of People. In: Scientific_and Practical Aspects of Health Safety of People
Exposed to Radiation as a Result of the Chernobyl
Accident. BSSR, Ministry of Health. Minsk, 3-6.
19. Khokhryakov V.F., Suslova K.K., Skryabin A.M.
(1992). Content of Pu Isotopes in Organisms of
Residents in Gomel Region. In: Scientific andPractical Aspects of Health Safety of People
Exposed to Radiation as a Result of the Chernobyl
Accident. BSSR, Ministry of Health, Gomel, 10-11.
20 .Loseva L.P.(1991). Estimation of 90Sr Content in
Human Organism In: Scientific and Practical
Aspects of Health Safety of People Exposed to
Radiation as a Result of the Chernobyl Accident
BSSR, Ministry of Health, Minsk, 16-17.
21. Mikhalevich L.S., Savchenko V.K.,Pavlova M.P.
et al. Chromosome Aberrations Yield under
Additional Irradiation of Children Lymphocytes in
Gomel Region .In: Proc. of Republican Scientificand practical Conference for Radiobiology andRadioecology. Mn.,1988.

3. United Nations. Ionizing radiation. Sources andbiological effects. UNSCEAR 1982, report to theGeneral assembly with annexes. UN sales
publication.T.82.1982. United Nations,NY,1982.
4. Biological Dosimetry: Chromosomal aberration
analysis for dose assessment. Technical reports
series N 260.IAEA, Vienna, 1986. p. 1-69.
5. Method of human chromosome aberration analysis.
Edit. by K. Bacon, H. Evens. WHO, Geneva, 1976.
64 p.
6. Shevchenko V. A., Snigireva G. P. “Cytogenetical
Effects of Ionizing Radiations on Human
Populations”, Consequences of the Chernobyl
Catastrophe: Human Health, Moscow 1996, p 24-49(in Russian).
7. Awa A.,Sofuni T., Honda T. et al. // J.of Rad.res.
1978 V.19.- P. 126-140
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(1989). The data on 137Cs and 90Sr Radioactive
Contamination of Belarus Settlements (as of June1989) - Minsk, Polymya.- 176p.
9. Moorhead P.C., Nowell P.C., Mellman W.J.,
Battips D.M., Hungerford D.A. Chromosome
Preparations of Leukocytes Cultured from Human
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613-618.
10. Fenech M., Morley A.A.(1985). Measurement ofMicronuclei in Lymphocytes. Mutat. Res. 1985.V.
147, P. 29-36.
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C.H. (1990). Dose Estimation by Cytogenetic
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Lymphocytes. Meditsinskaya Radiologia, 1978 23,
P. 26-33.

183

Study of Genetic Effects in Somatic Cells of Children Living on the ContaminatedTerritories in Belarus
Ludmila S. MIKHALEVICH
Institute of Genetics and Cytology, Academy of Sciences of Belarus
F.Skorina st. 27, 220072 Minsk, Republic of Belarus
Fax: +375-172-684917, e-mail: igc%bas32.basnet.minsk.by@demos.su
Due to the Chernobyl APS accident in April 1986, aseries of serious radiological consequences werebrought in Belarus: the pollution of her territory withradionuclides with gamma-, beta- and alpha-radiation,and “hot” particles found in human organisms [1]; thehigh irradiation doses obtained by children in first
period after the catastrophe; the chronic influence ofcomplex of radionuclides with various biologicaleffects on the organisms for many years. Constantexternal and internal exposure and their combined
action on organisms and their cells, including theblood formation system, required the development of
new approaches to evaluate mutation process inlymphocytes of peripheral blood of children [2].
The application of the conventional cytogenetic
method analysing chromosomal aberrations in
metaphase was necessary in the first stage of
examination of children population in 1986-1990
because it enabled to apply the biological dosimetry to
the estimation of radiation doses of individuals andgroups. In the course of time after the catastrophe, theinformation obtained by this method has decreased.
Besides, by this method of metaphase analysis, it isdifficult to study simultaneously both thechromosomal aberrations induced in a series of cellular
generations of lymphocytes and the hereditary
cellular-lethal effect, comparing the level ofchromosomal aberrations with that of gene mutations
based on comparatively small volumes of children
blood. We proposed and proved a new scheme
applying micronucleus technique to cytogenetic
examination. This method permits to take into accountall the above mentioned deficiencies of theconventional method [2].
We organised genetic monitoring of Belarus
children in the following two ways:
1. The monitoring (individual and group) was carriedout with the children in the same settlement (forexample, Bragin), which made possible to observe
the dynamics of mutation process in peripheral
blood cells.
2. The genetic examination (individual and/or group)
was carried out with the children in several
settlements with different radioecological situationin the same period of time (as it was in Komarinand Malejki settlements of the Bragin district),which made possible to fulfil comparative analysis
of mutation frequency.

1. Dynamics of in vivo mutation in lymphocytesof peripheral blood of the children in Bragin
town (1988-1994)
At the first stage of cytogenetic examination, bloodsmears were taken from the children in theradiocontaminated zones in order to study
non-proliferating lymphocytes in peripheral blood.
Presently, this method of blood analysis is one of themost popular laboratory tests used at the screeningstage without the process of cell cultivation. The
structural changes of lymphocyte populations obtainedby this method is considered a high-sensitive index ofirradiation at low doses [3,4].
It is known that cell division is necessary for
micronuclei to be formed. Consequently, we canconsider that the frequency of micronuclei registeredin circulating blood lymphocytes is governed by thedamages of blood-forming cells in vivo, possibly, as aresult of genetic injuries on the level of stem cells
and/or preceding cells of hemopoiesis which develop
to recognizable cells of peripheral blood.
We have been investigating structural changes inlymphocyte populations such as the level of mono- andpolynuclear cells with micronucleus, number ofmicronuclei in them, as well as of disturbances inblood cell morphology in all three groups oflymphocytes; small, wide-cytoplasmic lymphocytes
and lymphocytes with plasmatization of cytoplasm,
which represent the polymorphism of these cells inchildren [6,7].
In this connection, since 1988, the cytogenetic
monitoring of children in Bragin town has beenorganized based on two age groups: the first group (1-7
years old) and the second (7-15 years old). It isnecessary to note that there were different
characteristics of the same age groups examined indifferent years. The young group, examined in 1988,
consisted of equal number of children born before andafter the Chernobyl catastrophe, whereas the old group(7-15) wholly was born before the catastrophe. The
children of 1-7, examined in 1990, constituted a mixed
group, and the children of 7-15 were born before thecatastrophe. The groups, examined in 1994, were
uniform: the children in the young group were bornafter the catastrophe, and those in old group - before
the catastrophe.

184

Thus, comparison of the results of cytogenetic
examination of children “by horizontal” within one
year and “by vertical” in dynamics (1988-1994) allows
to answer the question concerning the differential
sensitivity of hereditary material of children
lymphocytes in dependence of age, period of birth
before or after the accident, period of living onradiocontaminated territory, and others.

qualitative but not quantitative characteristics [5]. Just
in 1976, Countryman and Heddel introduced
lymphocytes as the next cellular indicator of
micronuclei in man [8].
After the Chernobyl catastrophe, papers appeared
which indicated the increased micronuclei level inlymphocytes of peripheral blood of the affected people[9]. However, uncertainty of information about the
spontaneous level of in vivo mutation in lymphocytesof human peripheral blood restrains the advance of
population-genetic investigations.
Therefore, it is quite natural to do special studies
and analysis to know the spontaneous level ofmicronuclei in lymphocytes of children peripheral
blood. So, we carried out cytogenetic studies of
spontaneous level of structural and quantitative
chromosomal injuries in lymphocytes of the childrenof two principal age groups, living permanently in
Minsk. In 1988-1990-1994, we examined 139 childrenof age from 1 to 15 years. The summary data is shownin Table 1.
The analysis of cytogenetic structure oflymphocytes of the children in Minsk has shown thatpolynuclear lymphocytes represent only a small
fraction of the whole lymphocyte population. In thisconnection, mononuclear lymphocytes have beenchosen as the principal object of study. A complicated1.1. Study of the spontaneous level of in vivo
mutation in lymphocyte population of peripheral
blood of the children in the control group
The quantitative and qualitative assessment of
cytogenetic effects of ionizing radiation is impossible
without the knowledge of spontaneous level of in vivo
mutation observed in lymphocyte populations ofperipheral blood of the Belarus children. The
spontaneous level of mutation not only determines thereliability of increase of induced structural mutations
in lymphocytes of the children in Bragin town andother areas, but also create the basis to carry out the
population studies with the given method.
The first information about the spontaneous
frequency of micronuclei in erythrocytes in peripheral
blood of healthy people as compared with their level in
ill patients was obtained by hematologists. The
principal attention in those studies was paid to theTable 1. Dynamics of in vivo mutation mononuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of the children
in Minsk city.

Year

Age groupof children*/number of
examined

Number ofanalysed
lymphocytes

1 (n=20)
2 (n=18)
1 (n=15)2 (n=20)
1 (n=15)2 (n=18)

8705
3226
3974
1863
1339
769

1988
1990
1994

Number of cells withmicronuclei

Number of
micronuclei incells

Distribution of cells by
the number ofmicronuclei

Absolute
number(AN)

х ± Sx(%)

AN.

х ± Sx
(%)

1

2

3

4

5

61
28
21
25
21
15

0.7±0.1
0.9±0.2
0.5±0.1
1.3±0.3
1.6±0.3
1.9±0.5

61
28
21
25
21
15

0.7±0.1
0.9±0.2
0.5±0.1
1.3±0.3
1.6±0.3
1.9±0.5

61
28
21
25
21
15

-

-

-

-

*:1 - the young age group of 1-7 years, 2 - the old age group of 7-15 years.

Table 2. Dynamics of in vivo mutation in binuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of the children in
Minsk city.
Agegroup*

Number of
Number of
binuclear cells
analysed
lymphocytes
AN
x±Sx

Number ofcells withmicronuclei
ANx±Sx

1(n=20)2(n=18)

8705
3226

105
64

1.2±0.1
1.9±0.2-1(n=15)2(n=20)

3974
1863

24
43

0.6±0.1
2.3±0.3-1(n=15)2(n=18)

1339
759

38
38

2.8±0.4
4.9±0.8

-

1988
1990
1994
-

Number of
micronuclei in
cells
AN
x±Sx

1

2

3

4

5

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

*:1 - the young age group of 1-7 years, 2 - the old age group of 7-15 years.

185

Distribution of cells by the
number of micronuclei

picture has been revealed for mononuclear
lymphocytes with micronuclei. First of all, we are tonote that only cells with one micronucleus were foundduring the years examined. However, the variations in
the frequency of micronucleus cells were observed.
The significant difference in the level of micronucleus
cells between the young and the old groups was foundonly in 1990, whereas in 1988 and 1994 the levels ofsuch cells were approximately equal among two
groups. On the other hand, growth of the frequency of
micronucleus cells was revealed with time in bothgroups.
There were no substantial differences between thechildren born before and after the Chernobyl accident.
We also could not find dependence of micronucleus
induction on sex.
Regretfully, among all the analysed of lymphocyte
populations in vivo, a considerable number ofbinuclear cells were found, which are extremely rare in
healthy children (Table 2). In 1988, a increasing
tendency of binuclear lymphocyte frequency wasobserved in the old children groups compared with theyoung group. Then this difference turned out
statistically significant in the following years. The
highest indices were revealed in the children born
before the Chernobyl accident. As is seen in Table 2,cells with micronuclei were not found among binuclear
lymphocytes. Thus, lymphocytes populations inperipheral blood of the examined children in Minsk ischaracterized by increasing tendencies of the numberof mononuclear cells with micronucleus and thenumber of binuclear cells in vivo.
As we noted earlier, there are a limited number ofinvestigations dedicated to the quantitative andqualitative in vivo assessment of micronuclei inlymphocyte populations of human peripheral blood.
The data on the spontaneous level of micronuclei inlymphocytes were obtained in other researches inwhich a sufficient number of adults were examined in
China. Thus, when 183 persons of both sexes in the ageof 45.6±13.9 were examined, 0.16±0.35 micronuclei
were found per 1000 analysed lymphocytes [10].
Consequently, approximately equal frequency of
micronuclei was registered both in the children of
Minsk and in the adults of China. However, unlike in
the Chinese population, our investigations discoveredhigh occurrence of binuclear lymphocytes.
Apparently, the peculiarities of mutation process inlymphocyte populations of the children in Minsk arelinked to the unfavourable radioecological situation.
In 1996, one more article was published in which invivo micronuclei analysis of peripheral lymphocytes
was used in combination with an application of the

FISH method to an adult group of various ages [11].
Nevertheless, due to the fact that the number of
examined people is insufficient, it is not clear whether
the levels of micronuclei and polynuclear cells dependon age, sex and other factors. However, the dataobtained in the present study can be used to estimate
the levels of spontaneous and induced mutation in
lymphocytes of peripheral blood of the Belarus
children.
1.2. Dynamics of in vivo mutation in lymphocytes of
peripheral blood in the children of Bragin town
The cytogenetic monitoring of the children of
Bragin town in 1988-1994 discovered certain
regularities in the dynamics of mutation process inlymphoid cells in vivo (Tables 3-5).
The most substantial results of them are as follows:
1. Significant increase of the level of cytogenetic
injuries, as compared with corresponding control
groups, in lymphocyte populations of peripheral
blood of the children of all age groups regardlessof their birth date (before or after the Chernobyl
accident); the number of polynuclear lymphocytes,
the levels of micronucleus cells, and the number ofmicronuclei in them.
2. Statistically significant differences from thecontrol, not only in quantitative aspects - thefrequency of mutation in lymphocytes, but also in
qualitative one - distribution spectrum by the
number of registered injuries in one cell.
According to the results of micronuclei analysis,
the common phenomenon in the children groups in
the radiocontaminated areas is the presence of
subpopulation of cells with several micronuclei 2, 3, 4 and more, while they are absent in thecontrol preparations. This can serve as a proof ofcontact of the given children with dense ionizing
radiation.
3. Significant difference in the frequency of in vivo
mutation in lymphocytes of peripheral blood
between in the children born before the Chernobyl
catastrophe and in the children born onradiocontaminated areas of Bragin town after thecatastrophe. The number of cytogenetic injuries
grew with the course of time (i.e. depended on theaccumulated dose), and in 1994 it increased byabout one order as high as in 1986.
4. The level of mutation frequency registered in thechildren born after the Chernobyl accident also
increased with the course of time, or with theincrease of accumulated dose. But it is in a lesser
scale than in the children born before the accident.

186

Table 3. Dynamics of in vivo mutation in mononuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of thechildren in Bragin town.
Year

Age group ofchildren*/number of
examined

Number ofanalysed
lymphocyte

Number of cellswith micronuclei
AN

x±Sx

Number of
micronuclei in
cells
AN
x±Sx

1 (n=23)4444
113
2.5±0.2144
3.2±0.2
control (n=20)8705
61
0.7±0.161
0.7±0.11988
2 (n=22)7802
248
3.1±0.1345
4.4±0.2
control (n=18)3226
280.9±0.228
0.9±0.2
1 (n=18)6371
272
4.2±0.2397
6.2±0.3
control (n=15)3974
210.5±0.1
210.5±0.11990
2 (n=17)16622
677
4.0±0.1942
5.6±0.1
control (n=20)1863
25
1.3±0.325
1.3±0.31(n=15)1707
65
3.8±0.495
5.5±0.5
control (n=15)1339
21
1.6±0.321
1.6±0.3
1994
2 (n=25)1331
323
24.2±1.1 561 42.1±1.3
control (n=18)769
15
1.9±0.515
1.9±0.5*:1 - the young age group of 1-7 years, 2 - the old age group of 7-15 years.

Distribution of cells by the
number of micronuclei
1

2

3

4

5

91
61
175
28
180
21
484
25
41
21
164
15

16
55
64
131
18
98
-

4
12
23
54
6
48
-

1
6
5
6
8
-

1
2
5
-

Table 4. Dynamics of in vivo mutation in binuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of the children in
Bragin town.
Agegroup*

Number ofanalysed
lymphocyte

Number of
binuclear cells
AN

x±Sx

Number of
Number of cells
micronuclei inwith micronuclei
cells
AN
x±Sx
AN
x±Sx

1988
1(n=23)
4444
477
24
33
10.7±0.6
0.5±0.1
C(n=20)8705
108
1.2±0.12(n=22)7802
756
789.6±1.0
0.9±0.1 109
C(n=22)3225
64
1.9±0.1
1990
1(n=18)6371
629
98
9.8±0.1
1.5±0.1 122
C(n=15)3974
24
0.6±0.12(n=17)
16622
1515
282
9.1±0.2
1.6±0.0 396
C(n=20)1863
43
2.3±0.3
1994
1(n=15)1707
64553.7±0.4
0.2±0.0C(n=15)1339
38
2.8±0.02(n=25)
1331
247
36
44
18.5±0.8
2.7±0.4
C(n=18)769
38
4.9±0.7*:1 - the young age group of 1-7 years, 2 - the old age group of 7-15 years.

Distribution of cells by the
number of micronuclei
1

2

3

4

5

0.7±0.1
1.3±0.1
-

16
50
-

7
25
-

1
3
-

-

-

1.9±0.1
2.3±0.0
-

78
199
-

17
61
-

2
15
-

1
5
-

2
-

0.2±0.0
3.3±0.4
-

6
29
-

6
-

1
-

-

-

Table 5. Dynamics of in vivo mutation in trinuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of the children in
Bragin town.
Number of
micronuclei in
cells
AN
x±Sx

1

2

3

4

5

83
16
-

1.8±0.1
0.2±0
-

83
6
-

5
-

-

-

-

39
97
-

0.6±0
0.5±0
-

21
51
-

6
14
-

2
6
-

-

-

1(n=15)1707
28
1.6±0.3
C(n=15)1339
2(n=25)1331
9087
6.7±0.6 84
5.5±0.6C(n=18)769*:1 - the young age group of 1-7 years, 2 - the old age group of 7-15 years.

81
-

3
-

-

-

-

Age
group*

Number of
Number of
Number ofcells withanalysed trinuclear cells
micronuclei
lymphocyte
ANx±Sx AN x±Sx1(n=23)C(n=20)2(n=22)C(n=18)

4444
8705
8702
3226

83
130
49

1.8±0.1
1.6±0.1
1.5±0.483
11-

1(n=18)C(n=15)2(n=17)C(n=20)

6371
3974
16622
1863

198
455
-

3.1±0.2
2.7±0.1
-

29
71
-

1988
1.8±0.1
0.1±0
1990
0.4±0
0.4±0
1994
6.3±0.6

187

Distribution of cells by the
number of micronuclei

5. Significant differences found in the level and thespectrum of cytogenetic injuries of bi- andpolynuclear lymphocytes in the children born
before and after the Chernobyl catastrophe. It isnecessary to stress that the significant increase ofpolynuclear lymphocytes in peripheral blood of thechildren in Bragin town is also connected with thefactors of the radioecological situation.
From our point of view, in vivo cytogenetic analysis
of lymphocytes with use of peripheral blood smears
becomes an important part in the scheme of screening
examination of the children in the polluted areas ofBelarus. As it is seen from the results of our study, themost suffering part of the children population is those
who were born before the catastrophe. So, they are justto be the principal object of investigation andrehabilitation activities.

2. Ex vivo study of mutation in lymphocytes of
peripheral blood in the children of the Bragin
district (1992)(plus- or minus-trend) during the process of theirmitotic division?’.
In the same day of March of 1992, blood was takenfrom 2 children groups of 12-13 years old in Komarin
town and Malejki village in the Bragin district of theGomel region. The blood was transported to Minsk andanalysed immediately [2, 12]. In accordance with the
Law of Republic of Belarus of 12 November of 1991,
the territories polluted as the result of Chernobyl
accident were divided into zones in dependence of thedensity of soil pollution with radionuclides and thedegree of radiation effect on man [1]. Both settlements
belong to the zone of consequent resettlement, i.e. thezone on which the density of pollution is from 15 to 40
Ci/km2 with Cs-137 or 2-3 Ci/km2 with Sr-90, and theaverage annual effective equivalent dose canoverreach 5 mSv per year (over the natural andtechnogenic background). The density of pollution of
territory of Komarin town is 3.0 (Cs) and 2.8 Ci/km2(Sr), and that of Malejki village - 9.0 (Cs) and 2.8
Ci/km2 (Sr) [14].

The application of micronuclei analysis ofperipheral blood lymphocytes under the condition ofcytokinetic block during cell cultivation allows to
distinguish clearly the cells which have not passed themitosis and the cells after first and consequent mitoses[2, 12]. It is known that PHA reagent used for cell
cultivation stimulates mainly small T-lymphocytes tocell division [13]. Therefore, by analysing effects on
non-stimulated lymphocytes in cell culture, we canlook into a heterogeneity of examined lymphocyte
populations as compared with the results obtained by
the smear method. Besides, the micronuclei registeredin mononuclear T-lymphocytes in cell culture are also
the result of their expression in process of lymphoidcell divisions in vivo [2].
In this connection, micronuclei frequencies inmononuclear and binuclear T-lymphocytes of
peripheral blood were examined in order to reveal theeffect of low doses of external and internal irradiation
as well as of their combined effects, comparing theresults of in vivo condition with those of ex vivo ones.
Besides, such approach allowed us to follow to somedegree the transgenerational somatic effect. Both theelimination of cells from circulating blood after the“acute irradiation” in the early post-accident period
and the appearance of new ones containing unstable
aberrations were registered in our experiments in aseries of cell generations of lymphocytes. As a result ofsuch analysis, we tried to get an answer to the question:“what is the trend of selection for micronucleus cells

2.1. Ex vivo study of mutation in stimulated andnon-stimulated T-lymphocytes of peripheral
blood of the children in Komarin town
The results of micronuclei registered inmononuclear lymphocytes of the children in Komarin
town are presented in Table 6. A significant
inter-individual variation was observed in thefrequency of micronucleus cells and the number ofmicronuclei in mononuclear cells. The individual
cytogenetic examination showed that only in 3
children(No. 2, 4 and 9) significant increase of
micronucleus cells and of micronuclei frequency per
100 analysed cells was observed. These indices did not
differ from the control values in the rest of children.
However, the group average indices of mononuclear
cells with micronuclei and the indices of micronuclei
per 100 cells in children of Komarin town overreachedstatistical significant level over the corresponding
indices in the control (Minsk city).
It is substantial that cells with multiple micronuclei
were found in the children of Komarin town, whichappear in in vitro conditions under the quite high doses
or the action of dense ionizing radiation. It is necessary
to note also that the cells with chromatin pulverization
were found in the half of examined children. The groupaverage index of pulverization constituted 1.6±0.2%.
Such phenomena were never observed in the control.
This may be considered as confirmation of theirelimination and appearance de novo.

188

Table 6. Individual analysis of ex vivo mutation in non-stimulated mononuclear lymphocytes of
peripheral blood of the children in Komarin town (1992).
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Group total
Control

Numberofanalysedcells

Number of cells with Number of micronuclei
micronuclei
in mononuclear cells

Distribution of cells by the
number of micronuclei

AN

x±Sx

AN

x±Sx

1

2

3

4

>4

1
8
8
13
6
4
3
6
3
4
4
60
27

0.99±0.98
2.75 ±0.96
1.60 ±0.56
2.60 ±0.71
1.20 ±0.49
1.32 ±0.65
1.03 ±0.592.10 ±0.85
0.86 ±0.49
2.61 ±1.29
1.14 ±0.57
1.63 ±0.21
0.79 ±0.15

1
17
10
16
6
5
3
6
4
4
4
76
29

0.99± 0.98
5.84 ±1.37
2.00 ±0.63
3.20 ±0.79
1.20 ±0.49
1.64 ±0.73
1.03 ±0.592.10 ±0.85
1.15 ±0.57
2.61 ±1.29
1.14 ±0.57
2.06 ±0.23
0.85 ±0.16

7
6
12
6
6
3
3
6
2
4
4
54
25

2
1
1
4
2

-

1
-

1(10)
1
-

101
291
500
500
500
304
55
292
286
349
153
351
3682
3405

1
-

-

Table 7. Individual analysis of ex vivo mutation in binuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of thechildren in Komarin town (1992).
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Group total
Control

Number of Number of cells withmicronuclei
analysed
cells
AN
x±Sx
18
90
500
274
307
237
15
79
52
288
52
328
117
500
95
2952
16631

6
18
17
7
8
1
4
5
11
5
4
6
11
7
110
199

6.67± 2.63
3.60± 0.83
6.20± 1.46
2.28± 0.85
3.38± 1.17
6.67± 6.44
5.06± 2.47
9.62± 4.09
3.82± 1.139.62± 4.09
1.22± 0.60
5.13± 2.04
2.20± 0.66
7.33± 2.68
3.73 ±0.35
1.20± 0.08

Number of micronuclei
in binuclear cells
AN
x±Sx
6
19
23
7
9
1
4
8
11
5
5
8
15
8
129
217

Distribution of cells by the
number of micronuclei
1
2
3
4
>4

6.67± 2.63
3.80± 0.86
8.39± 1.66
2.28± 0.85
3.80± 1.24
6.67± 6.44
5.06± 2.47
15.38±5.0
3.82± 1.139.62± 4.09
1.52± 0.68
6.84 ±2.33
3.00± 0.76
8.42± 2.85
4.37± 0.38
1.30± 0.09

5
17
13
7
7
1
4
4
11
5
3
5
9
5
98
18

1
3
1
2
1
1
1
8
-

1
1
-

1
1
1
3
-

-

Table 8. Comparison of group average indices of ex vivo mutation in non-stimulated (mononuclear)and stimulated (binuclear) lymphocytes of peripheral blood of the children in Komarin town (1992).
Nuclearity oflymphocyte

Numberofanalysedcells

Number of cellswith micronuclei
AN

x±Sx

mononuclear
binuclear

3682
2952

60
110

1.63± 0.21
3.73±0.35

mononuclear
binuclear

3405
16631

27
199

0.79± 0.15
1.20 ±0.08

Number of
micronuclei inbinuclear cells
AN
x±Sx
Komarin
76 2.05± 0.23
129 4.37± 0.38
Control
29 0.85± 0.16
217 1.30± 0.09

189

Distribution of cells by
the number ofmicronuclei
1
2 3 4
>4

Morphologicalchanges ofnucleus
AN
x±Sx

54
98

4
8

- 1
1 3

66 1.79 ± 0.22
66 2.24 ±0.27

25
181

2
18

-

-

1(10)
-

1
-

0.03
-

The results of micronucleus analysis of binuclear
lymphocytes of peripheral blood with use ofcytocholasin B in cell culture of the same children [12]are adduced in Table 7. As shown in the Table, thegroup average indices of micronucleus in binuclear
cells are approximately three times as high as thecorresponding indices in the control (the difference isstatistically significant). However, the results ofindividual cytogenetic examination indicate only atendency of increase of mutation level in binuclear
lymphocytes in the majority of children of this group.
Two children of the experimental group (No. 5 and 12)
did not differ in the mutation level from the control,and in one child (No. 9) the index of micronuclei rate
per 100 analysed cells was significantly higher than thecontrol.
Regretfully, the obtained material does not allow tocarry out an exact quantitative assessment oftransgenerational somatic effect and individual
sensitivity because the proliferative activity oflymphocytes of the children in Komarin town turned
out to be extremely low. However, the comparison ofgroup average indices of the level of micronucleus
cells indicate their significant increase in binuclear
lymphocytes as compared with mononuclear ones, i.e.
as a result of one cell division in culture (Table 8).
The fact of unusually large decrease of proliferative
response of T-lymphocytes to PHA is worth attention.
It was not observed in our experiments with thechildren in other settlements of the Bragin district withhigher indices of territory pollution with cesium andstrontium, such as Malejki village of the Bragin
district. This lymphocyte reaction is apparently
connected with the factors of radioecological situationof this settlement which is situated immediately close
to the Chernobyl power station. Besides, thepulverization of genetic material was discovered andmorphologically
reproductive
perishingoflymphocytes (1.5% of cells) was registered as well.
Taking into account these high indices of mono- andbinuclear cells perishing, we can suppose that a
considerable share of micronuclei registered inbinuclear cells arose de novo.

mononuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of theexamined children with the data obtained by analysing
this cell populations with in vivo smear method. As
shown in Table 9, the level of micronucleus
lymphocytes in vivo in the children in Malejki village
is 5 times as high as the corresponding indices in thechildren in Minsk city, and that of micronuclei in them- more than one order. In both cases the differences are
statistically significant.
The comparison of micronucleus frequency in exvivo non-stimulated lymphocytes of the children of theexperimental group with the control also showedsignificant increase. But it is only two times higher
than the control in this case.
Taking into consideration the presence, among theexamined in vivo and ex vivo lymphocyte populations,of cells with various morphological changes of their
nuclei (apoptosis, necrosis, pulverization and others),
in other words, the strong selection in minus-trend of
the micronuclei frequency at mitotic divisions, we can
suppose that the micronuclei analysed in binuclear
cells, like in the respective experiments withlymphocytes of the children in Komarin town, wereexpressed de novo.
Table 10 shows the data of individual cytogenetic
examination of 15 children in Malejki village. The
results of cytogenetic examination allow to divide thisgroup into 2 subgroups: the 1st subgroup consists ofthe children in which the frequency of binuclear cellswith micronuclei and of micronuclei in binuclear cells
are on the level of control, and the 2nd subgroupconsists of the children in which the lymphocytes havethe frequency of binuclear cells with micronuclei on
the level of control whereas the second index micronuclei number per 100 cells - is statisticallyhigher than the control.
The 1st subgroup is also unequal by the spectrum ofregistered micronuclei. In children No. 3 and 4, thecells with 3-4 micronuclei were registered among 500
analysed cells, the child No. 10 had one cell with 15
micronuclei among 1000 analysed cells.
It is necessary to note a change observed in the
results of cytogenetic examination of lymphocyte
populations of peripheral blood in the children of theBragin district. According to our ex vivo individual
examination in 1986-1988, 100% of children showedsignificantly increased levels of mutation. In 1992,
however, only in vivo analysis at the individual level
allowed to register significant disturbances.
In theory of cytogenetic analysis, under thecondition of uniform exposure, the distribution ofchromosomal injuries in cells is considered to follow
the Poisson distribution [15]. The preliminary analysis
of our results showed that the hemopoietic tissue in the
majority of the children in Komarin and Malejki
received not uniform but non-uniform dose ofradiation.

2.2. Ex vivo analysis of micronuclei in stimulated
and non-stimulated T-lymphocytes of thechildren in Malejki village
At the cultivation of lymphocytes of peripheral
blood of the children in Malejki village, the contrary
picture was revealed referring to the proliferative
indices as compared with cell cultures of the children
in Komarin town. The proliferative response oflymphocytes to PHA was so high that we could analyse
only about 50 mononuclear among bi- and polynuclear
lymphocytes per each child. In this connection, we
could assess only the group average indices, and theresults are adduced in Table 9. However, we cancomplement the picture of mutation process in
190

Table 9. Comparison of group average indices of in vivo and ex vivo mutation in lymphocytes of
peripheral blood of the children in Malejki village (1992).
Nuclearity
Number Number of cellsofofwith micronuclei
lymphocytes analysed
cells
AN
x±Sx

Number of
micronuclei inbinuclear cells
AN
x±Sx

Distribution of cells by
the number ofmicronuclei
1
2 3 4 >4

Morphologicalchanges ofnucleusANx±Sx
584.76± 0.56

in vivo
MalejkiControl
Mononuclear
MalejkiMononuclear
Binuclear
Control
Mononuclear
Binuclear

1429

54

3.78± 0.50

156

10.91± 0.82

16

19

7

14

7945

57

6.72± 0.09

58

0.73± 0.10
ex vivo

56

1

-

-

-

-

-

1250
10000

27
126

2.16± 0.41
1.26± 0.1134230

2.72±0.46
2.30± 0.15

24
103

2
12

2

2

1(6)
7

23
23

1.84 ±0.38
0.23± 0.05

3405
16631

27
199

0.79± 0.15
1.20± 0.0829217

0.98± 0.16
1.30± 0.09

25
181

2
18

-

-

-

1
-

0.03
-

Table 10. Individual analysis of ex vivo mutation in binuclear lymphocytes of peripheral blood of
the children in Malejki village (1992).
No.

Number ofanalysed
cells

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Total
Control

500
800
500
500
1000
700
1000
800
500
1000
500
700
500
500
500
10000
7580

Number of cellswith micronuclei
AN

x±Sx

10
11
7
8
10
11
6
9
6
6
11
7
3
11
10
126
102

2.00± 0.63
1.38± 0.41
1.40± 0.52
1.60± 0.56
1.00± 0.31
1.57± 0.47
0.60± 0.24
1.12± 0.37
1.20± 0.49
0.60± 0.24
2.20± 0.66
1.00± 0.38
0.60± 0.34
2.20± 0.66
2.00± 0.63
1.26± 0.11
1.35± 0.13

Number of
micronuclei inbinuclear cells
AN
x±Sx
63
13
10
12
10
39
8
10
6
20
20
7
3
13
13
245
109

12.60±1.48
1.62± 0.45
2.00± 0.63
2.40± 0.68
1.00± 0.31
5.57± 0.87
0.80± 0.28
1.25± 0.39
1.20± 0.49
2.00± 0.44
4.00± 0.88
1.00± 0.38
0.60± 0.34
2.60± 0.45
2.60± 0.45
2.45± 0.15
1.44± 0.14

Thus, the results of cytogenetic analysis of thechildren in the Bragin district testify at present that,apparently, the leading dose-forming factor is internal
irradiation with complex of radionuclides including α-,β- emitters.

Distribution of cells by the number ofmicronuclei
1

2

3

4

>4

5
9
6
5
10
9
4
8
6
5
8
7
3
7
7
103
95

2
2
2
2
1
3
3
12
7

1
1
2
-

1
1
2
-

3(30)-1 c.
2(15)
1(15)
1(5)
7
-

chronic radiation at low doses. Therefore, beside of theindividual and group cytogenetic monitoring, it isimportant to pay attention to the problems of
mutagenesis connected with gene mutations.
The scheme of genetic examination of children,
proposed and developed by the Institute of Genetics
and Cytology of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus,
is based on the Norman’s method [16] which detects
mutations
in
locus
of
hypoxanthine-guanine-phosphoribosiltransferase(HPRT).
The short-term Norman’s method was chosen for
detecting mutant T-lymphocytes due to the next
reasons: the potential possibility to apply it to themonitoring of populations because of its relative
simplicity and lesser cost (as compared with othermethods of gene mutations account), the possibility to

3. Genetic examination of the children in
Komarin and Malejki settlements of the Bragin
district of the Gomel region
The ionizing radiation causes a whole range ofgenetic changes in somatic and sex human cells: genemutations, chromosomal aberrations, and genome
mutations. In this connection, the assessment ofgenetic risk of the children living on theradiocontaminated territories in Belarus depends onthe completeness of study about genetic effects of191

Table 11. Individual data of the frequency of TG-resistant lymphocytes in cells culture of the children
in Komarin town of the Bragin district
Group/child No.

Number of TG-resistant cells

Control
Komarin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Group average

6.1 * 10 - 6
260.2 * 10 - 6
211.2 * 10 - 6
485.9 *10 - 6
315.8 *10 - 6
214.3 *10 - 6
374.0 *10 - 6
410.7 *10 - 6
306.4 *10 - 6
314.4 *10 - 6

Table 12. Individual data of the frequency of TG-resistant lymphocytes in cells culture of thechildren in Malejki village of the Bragin district
Group/child No.

Number of TG-resistant cells

Control
Malejki
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Group average

6.1 * 10 - 6
2.2 *10 -5
4.2 *10 - 5
3.6 *10 - 4
8.0 *10 - 5
7.4 *10 - 5
1.6 *10 - 4
1.6 *10 - 4
1.8 *10 - 4
6.8 *10 - 5
5.8 *10 - 5
1.0 *10 - 3
3.9 *10 - 4
3.8 *10 - 4
1.6 *10 - 4
7.4 *10 - 5
2.2 *10 -4

radiocontaminated zones with the index in the control
group of donors in Minsk city reveals substantial
excess of mutant cells in the experimental group(approximately two degrees).
The obtained results conform the data by otherauthors of the examination of persons irradiated as aresult of the accident in Goiania (Brazil) in September
1987. The conditions of irradiation in Goiania werequite similar to those of some population groups due tothe Chernobyl catastrophe. In both cases, the people
were subjected to the external and internal irradiation.
The papers of Natarajan et.al. [17, 18] indicate theincrease of TG-resistant lymphocytes in irradiatedpersons 10 to 100 times higher as compared with thecontrol group.
Thus, the results of genetic examination of thechildren of 12-13 years old who live permanently on
radiocontaminated territories of Komarin and Malejki
settlements in the Bragin district of the Gomel region
have shown a necessity and a possibility to evaluate
radiation dose to individuals and groups after many
years since the Chernobyl catastrophe, based on thefrequency of gene mutations in HPRT locus.

analyse simultaneously the gene mutations and themicronuclei as chromosomal aberrations analog, thepossibility to use a series of parallel cultures because of
the difficulty to obtain from children big volumes ofvein blood as well as the possibility of full automationof research.
Tables 11 and 12 present the results of TG(thioguanine) -resistant induction in lymphocytes inperipheral blood of the children in Komarin andMalejki settlements as compared with these indices in
the control group of Minsk city.
As are shown in the results of Tables, the frequency
of TG-resistant T-lymphocytes in the control groupconstituted 6.1 x 10-6 cells. In 100% of examinedchildren from the given settlements, the level of mutant
lymphocytes was significantly differing from thecontrol. The significant quantitative inter-individual
variations were also observed within the groups of
examined children. So, the number of TG-resistantlymphocytes in the culture of cells of the children in
Malejki village varied from 2.2 x 10-5 to 1.0 x 10-3, thatof the children in Komarin town - from 2.1 x 10-4 to 4.8
x 10-4. The comparison of group average index of
TG-resistant lymphocytes frequency in the children in

192

Conclusion

Literature

The general conclusion of our study, which has tobe addressed at first, is the seriousness of discovered
genetic disturbances in the examined children in
Bragin town and other settlements in the Bragin
district of the Gomel region.
The results of seven-year monitoring of children
with use of in vivo micronucleus analysis oflymphocytes have shown that the highest level ofmutation was found in the children born before theChernobyl catastrophe. Consequently, the principle ofradiation protection according to the level of averageannual radiation dose is not acceptable to protect thechildren in the Bragin district because it does not take
into account the total radiation dose since 1986 which
conditions the radiation consequences for children
health.
The analysis of the results of 1988-1994 indicates
that, under the chronic action of ionizing radiation,complicated interactions between mutation pressure
and selective process against cells with genetic injuries
have been taking place in lymphocyte populations of
the children in the Bragin district. Substantial
differences between the examined children and thecontrol were found in the level of mutations registeredin peripheral blood lymphocytes both in vivo and ex
vivo. The micronuclei level in lymphocyte populations
in vivo did not decrease during 1988-1994. On thecontrary, it increased approximately one order,
whereas one mitotic division ex vivo in cell cultureindicated substantial changes in different trends.
The cells with gene mutations capable to continue
their life activity, apparently, undergo the selection inminus-trend to some extent but, probably, also
contribute to the plus-trend selection both in vivo andex vivo. As a result, in the last years we observe in exvivo examination the high level of gene mutations
against the background of relatively low level ofchromosomal injuries.
The results of genetic monitoring of the children
subjected to the long-term non-controlled radiation
action with different intensity and duration in the
Bragin district have shown that the frequency of genemutations in HPRT locus can be a highly efficientbioindicator to evaluate individual and group
irradiation. The obtained results confirm a principal
necessity to carry out genetic monitoring of Belarus
children with obligatory use of this method to accountgene mutation . Simultaneous registration of mutation
spectrum and frequency obtained with in vivo and exvivo examination of peripheral blood lymphocytes inchildren will give more reliability to the bioindicator ofchronic radiation effects.

1. Consequences of Chernobyl APS Catastrophe for The
Republic of Belarus//Chernobyl Catastrophe: Causes andConsequences. Part III. in Russian. Minsk, “Skaryna”, 1992.
P. 207.
2. Fenech M., Perepetskaya G.A., Mikhalevich L.S. - A More
Comprehensive Application of The Micronucleus Techniquefor Biomonitoring of Genetic Damage Rates in Human
Populations - Experiences from the Chernobyl Catastrophe.
Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis (in press). 1997.
3. Bebeshko V. G., Klimenko V. I. Clinical Aspects Of
Chernobyl Catastrophe. Blood Forming System//Chernobyl
Catastrophe. in Russian. Kiev, “Navukova Dumka”, 1995, P.
449-454.
4. Manual Of Radiation Hematology. in Russian. Ìoscow,“Meditsina”, 1974, P. 231-239.
5. Muller W.U., Streffer C. Advances in Mutagenesis Research.
5. Ed.by G.Obe. 1994.-Micronuckleus Assay.- P. 1-187.
6. Pavlova M.P. Manual of Hematological Diseases in Children.
in Russian.Ìinsk,“Vyshehjshaya Shkola”,1988, 271 p.
7. Mosyagina E. N., Torubarova N. A., Vladimirskaya E. B.
Diseases of Blood in Children. in Russian, Moscow,“Meditsina”, 1981, 179p.
8. Countryman P.I., Heddle J.A. The Production of Micronuclei
from Chromosome Aberrations in Irradiated Cultures of
Human Lymphocytes. Mutat. Res. 1986.- V. 41.- P. 321-332.
9. Chernobyl Catastrophe. In Russian. Kiev, “Navukova
Dumka”, 1995, 547 p.
10. Xue K.X., Wang S., Ma G.J. et al. Micronucleus Formationin Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes from Smokers and the
Influence of Alcohol - and Tea-Drinking Habits. Intern. J.
Cancer. - 1992.V. 50.- P. 702-705.
11. Surralles J.,Falk G., Norppa H. In Vivo Cytogenetic
Damage Revealed by FISH Analysis of Micronuclei in
Uncultured Human T Lymphocytes. // Cytogenetics And Cell
Genet.75.-N 2-3.-P. 151-154.
12. Fenech M.,Morley A.A. Measurement Of Micronuclei In
Lymphocytes // Mut.Res. 1985.-147.-P.29-36.
13.Evans H. Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes for the
Analysis of Chromosome Aberrations in Mutagen Tests //Handbook of Mutagenicity Test Procedures. 1984 .- P. 427.
14. Data On the Radioactive Pollution of Settlements of
Byelorussian SSR With Caesium-137 and Strontium-90 (byJune 1989). in Russian, Ìinsk, “Polymya”, 176 p.
15. Dolphin C.W. Handling of the Radiation
Accidents.1969.-Vienna.- P. 215-224
16. Norman A., Mitchell J.C., Iwamoto K.S. A Sensitive Assayfor
6-Thioguanine-Resistent
Lymphocytes//
Mut.Res..-1988.-208.- P. 17-19.
17.Natarajan A.T., Vyas R.C., Weigman J., Ñurado M.P. A
Cytogenetic Follow-Up Study of the Victims of a Radiation
Accident in Goiania ( Brasil ) // Mut.Res..- 1991.- 247 .- P.
103-111.
18. Natarajan A.T., Ramalho A.N., Vyas R.C., Bernini
L.F.,Tates A.D., Ploem J.S., Nascimento A.C.H., Curado
M.P. Goiania Radiation Accident : Results of Initial Dose
Estimation and Follow Up Studies // New Horisonts in
Biological Dosimetry. Progress in Clinical and BiologicalResearch .- 1991.- Vol. 372 .-P.145-153.

193

Results of Long-term Genetic Monitoring of Animal Populations Chronically
Irradiated in the Radiocontaminated Areas
Rose GONCHAROVA and Nadezhda RIABOKON
Institute of Genetics and Cytology, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus,
27, F. Skorina st., 220072 Minsk, Republic of Belarus
Tel: 375 (017) 268 49 01. Fax: 375 (017) 268 49 17
E-mail: igc%bas32.basnet.minsk.by@demos.su
The γ-radiation dosage rates were measured atheight of 3-5 cm from the ground surface by thedosimeters SRP-68-01T and DBG-06T (in 1991-1996)
manufactured in the former Soviet Union.
The total γ-activity of the whole-body animals in
1986-1987 was analysed using 32 crystal spectrometryof gamma-gamma coincidences (scintillation NaI(Tl)detector, 150 x 100 mm2) at the Institute of Physics ofBelarus Academy of Sciences. The radiometricanalyses of laboratory mice and wild animals havebeen carried out since 1988 using γ-spectrometer
ADCAM-300 (ORTEC, detector GEM-30185) at theBelarus Meteorological Centre and the Institute ofRadiobiology (Belarus Academy of Sciences). The soil
samples selected in 1989 were analysed using the same
spectrometer.
The content of 90Sr in bank vole populations insites 3 and 4 were estimated by radiochemical analysis
in the Belarus State University (Minsk).
The radiation load in animals due to the external
γ-irradiation was estimated in term of the value ofradiation dose rate and due to the internal γ-activity by
the radionuclide concentration in the rodents body.
Evaluation of mutation process levels in bonemarrow cells of bank vole was carried out by standard
metaphase test [1]; structural (chromosome
aberrations) and genomic (polyploid cells) mutations
were analysed. The levels of germ cells mutability inbank vole were estimated by the frequency ofabnormal sperm head (ASH) in males [28]. Embryonal
lethality was analysed according to D. Anderson [2].
Bank vole have a short lifespan and every year 2-3
new generations appear in the populations. It is thus
believed that there were approximately 20-22
generations of these rodents for 1986-1996.

Introduction
The artificial geochemicalland where allorganisms lived and will live under the conditions ofincreased level of radiation was set up due to theChernobyl disaster in 1986. An urgent necessity forstudying the various biological effects of chronic
influence of low intensity radiation on both individualorganisms and populations arose.
Combined cytogenetic and radioecologicalinvestigations in wild populations of terrestrial small
mammals (bank vole = Clethrionomys glareolus,
Schreber and yellow-necked mouse = Apodemus
flavicollus, Melchior) and in laboratory mice havebeen carried out by our laboratory since 1986. Our test
organisms have contacted closely with low intensity
radiation in the radiocontaminated areas of Belarus andabsorbed low whole-body dose.
We study the following problems: dynamics ofradionuclide concentration in wild populations ofsmall rodents; dynamics of mutation process insomatic and germ cells over many generations as wellas embryonal lethality; dynamics of population
density, age and sex structure of mammalian
populations. The large part of results obtained arepresented here.
Materials and methods
Wild populations of small mammals (rodents)
Bank voles and yellow-necked mouse werecollected in summer-autumn period from four forest
populations in sites chosen for long-term monitoringwith limited people activities and differing 137Cs
contamination density of soil:
1. - Priluksky reserve (near Minsk, 330 km north-west
from the Chernobyl power station, 8 kBq/m2);
2. - Berezinsky Biosphere reserve (Vitebsk region,
400 km NNW, 18 kBq/m2);
3. - the suburbs of Majsk village (Bragin district ofGomel region, 60 km N, 90 kBq/m2);
4. - the suburbs of Babchin village (Khoiniki districtof Gomel region, 40 km NNW, 1526 kBq/m2).
According to the official data of the Belarus
Meteorological Centre, the density of soilradiocontamination for 90Sr ranges up to about 70
kBq/m2 in sites 3 and 4.

Laboratory population of mice
The males of hybrid mice (CBAxC57Bl/6j)F1 were
kept in the radiocontaminated settlements A and B
under the conditions of low intensity of external andinternal (radiocontaminated food of local production
has been used) irradiation during 4 months in 1989.
The radiocontamination densities of soil for 137Cs insettlement A (village Lomachi, Khoiniki district ofGomel region) and B (Bragin city of Gomel region)
were 2351 and 825 kBq/m2, respectively. The average194gamma dosage rates in cages with animals were 43.71
x 10-12 and 8.24 x 10-12 A/kg (or 610 and 115 µR/h) in
A and B, respectively. The control group of animals
was kept in vivarium of Institute of Genetics andCytology (γ-radiation dosage rate was about 0.86 x
10-12 A/kg or 12 µR/h).
The radiometric analyses of whole-body animals
were carried out using γ-spectrometer ADCAM-300(ORTEC, detector GEM-30185). The absorbed dose
due to the external γ-irradiation was estimated using
thermoluminecent dosimeters placed in the cages ofanimals.
The frequency of chromosome aberrations,polyploid cells in bone marrow as well as thefrequency of reciprocal translocations and othercytogenetic injuries in spermatopcytes of the firstmeiotic division and abnormal sperm head (ASH) werestudied by the conventional methods [1, 28].

The mean radionuclide concentration in animal
populations in all areas under investigation (Table 2, 3)
were positively
correlated with mean grounddeposition of the trapping sites (Spearman, r=1.00,
P<0.05 for data obtained in 1989). 137Cs and 134Cs
made the main contribution to the total γ-activity ofsoil and animals samples. Besides two caesiums, werecorded other γ-emitters such as 106Ru, 144Ce and241
Am (since 1991 for site 4). 90Sr mean concentration
estimated in 1991 in bank vole populations from sites 3
and 4 made up to 114 and 298 Bq/kg, respectively.
In rodents with fast generation succession weannually detected radionuclide concentrations in thecompletely renewed populations. Dynamics ofradionuclide content in consecutive generations ofbank vole (and yellow-necked mouse) over the periodof 1986-1996 (and 1986-1989) was characterised bythree phases: an increase, a maximum (peak) and adecrease [9, 12, 14]. The peaks of radionuclide
accumulation in the populations in the areas withdifferent radiocontamination density fell not at the first
but in the next years (1987-1989) following theChernobyl disaster, i.e. the peaks were observed insubsequent animal generations (Table 2, 3). Thus in
populations of two mammalian species we observed
shifts of the maximum radionuclide content within 1-3
years. The revealed regularity of the time shift in the
maximum of population average radionuclide
concentrations in animals as against the maximum of
their fallout in 1986 seems to be the result of increasein biological accessibility of radioisotopes to plants
and thus to the whole biota. The peculiarity of theradionuclide content dynamics in small mammal
populations after the Chernobyl accident is inagreement with the known data on the same retardationin the concentration maximum of 90Sr and 137Cs fromthe global fallout in hoofed animals [27] and arecorroborated by similar results obtained for fish fromthe Baltic Sea [8] and for various groups of people andanimals in Norway [26].

Dynamics of radiation loads on wild populations ofmammals in the radiocontaminated areas
Over the period under consideration the radiation
dosage rate was greatly reduced in all sites (Table 1).
The most fast reduction of dose rate was recorded insite 4 in May - August, 1986.
It was revealed that over the first five months
following the catastrophe (i.e. over the average
lifespan of animals under investigation) the absorbed
whole-body dose from the external gamma-irradiationin the rodents inhabiting sites 1 and 4 (with contrastinglevels of radiocontamination) made up 0,1 and 15 cGy,
respectively; and the absorbed dose in animals in site 4
over the five months of 1987 ran to 1,23 cGy [9]. So,
daily average dose from the external γ-component in
the individuals from the highly contaminated site 4
hardly exceeded 1 mGy even in the first time after theaccident. As a whole, it may be said that the animal
populations under investigation were exposed to
low-dose irradiation from the external and internal
components. The research of Cristaldi et al. [6]corroborates this conclusion.

Table 1. Gamma radiation dose rate 10-12 A/kg (µR/h or R x 10-6 / h in brackets) on the ground surface
in four sites in 1986-1996
Site
1986
1987
1988
1989
1991
1992
1996
1.79
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
1
(25)
(12)
(12)
(12)
(12)
(12)
2

-

-

-

-

0.86
(12)

0.86
(12)

0.72
(10)

3

42.99
(600)

4.66
(65)

4.66
(65)

4.66
(65)

2.29
(32)

-

1.93
(27)

4

1218.05*-177.69(17000*-2480)

46.57
(650)

46.57
(650)

43.71
(610)

10.75
(150)

-

11.68
(163)

*This level was measured in May 1986, the others were obtained as the average data over the periods of capture. In 1986
the first catchings were initiated in August (about 120 days after the disaster).

195

Table 2. Dynamics of radionuclide concentrations in wild populations of bank vole in 1986-1996
Site
Year
Number of
Total gamma-activity (Bq/kg)
animals
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
U-test
1986
27
41
525
187
1987
46
38
926
274
*
1988
24
5
750
245
n.s.(1)
1
1989
75
5
429
118
*
1991
15
5
625
140
n.s.
1996
30
4
20
6
**
1986-1996
217
4
926
160
1991
20
5
1524
565
1996
40
4
108
25
*
2
1991-1996
60
4
1524
205
1986
34
38
78070
9293
1988
91
111
215196
23623
**
1989
142
1237
41501
10591
**
3
1991
53
757
25293
5587
**
1996
18
85
344
162
**
1986-1996
338
38
215196
12629
1986
42
67
78070
17202
1987
65
3885
145410
26503
**
1988
174
58
950100
81966
**
1989
176
3636
463741
44407
**
4
1990
13
4724
22016
13272
**
1991
129
654
55132
11191
**
1996
49
148
4528
1204
**
1986-1996
648
58
95010040429(1)nonsignificant;* Ð< 0.05; ** Ð< 0.01 in comparison with data obtained in every site in 1986.

Reduction in radionuclide concentration in bankvole populations under investigation was recorded in
1989. However, a significant decrease in radionuclide
content as compared with the initial increase in 1986

has been observed only beginning from 1990 (10generations) in population of bank vole from thehighly radiocontaminated site 4. Since both theradiation dose rate and values of the population mean

Table 3. Dynamics of radionuclide concentrations in wild populations of yellow-necked mouse in
1986-1989
Site
Year
Number of
Total gamma-activity (Bq/kg)
animals
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
U-test
1986
27
42
348
237
1987
17
63
365
279
n.s.
1
1988
21
5
309
59
**
1989
27
5
265
78
**
1986-1989
92
5
365
157
1986
5
820
11111
4196
1988
7
1146
48799
11174
n.s.
3
1989
52
441
7235
2677
n.s.
1986-1989
64
441
48799
3725
1986
11
1539
46990
11493
1987
27
1894
38480
8411
n.s.
1988
14
1382
36472
9391
n.s.
4
XX
1989
24
1371
61204
15559
1986-1989
76
1371
61204
11295
n.s. nonsignificant;** P<0.01 in comparison with data obtained in every site in 1986 andÕÕ

in comparison with data obtained in site 4 in 1987, 1988.

196

body burden considerably decreased in all sites by
1991, it can be stated that there was a significant
reduction in radiation load starting from the 12th
generation of animals.

P<0.05).
In populations of animals living in the highly
contaminated sites 3 and 4, the aberrations ofchromosome type (paired fragments, Robertsoniantranslocations, pericentric inversions) formed the greatpart in total yield of aberrations in contrast to the
populations in sites 1 and 2 with less grounddeposition [13; 14]. It should be emphasised that in oneof voles captured in site 3 in 1991, more than 50% of
analysed metaphases contained pericentric inversion.
We believe that this stable aberration had emerged inbone marrow stem cell producing the clone of changed
cells.
Additionally, the cells with 2 and 3 aberrations
were found in animals from sites 3 and 4 while no cellswith above 1 aberration were observed in populations
in sites 1 and 2.
Unexpectedly high cytogenetic effects wererecorded in bone marrow cells of bank vole by the testof genomic mutations [13] as against the test ofchromosome aberrations (Table 4). It turned out that in1986 the frequencies of polyploid cells were increased
in animals at all sites in comparison with the
pre-Chernobyl data (0.04 % according to Yeliseeva et
al. [29]. The average frequency of polyploid cells
during the whole period 1986-1991 significantly
correlated with the soil contamination and theγ-radiation dose rate (Spearman, r=1, P<0.05). The
level of the genomic mutations rose significantly inpopulations under investigation from year to year
(X2-test, P<0.01) with one exception: population fromsite 2 in 1992. The frequency of polyploid cells
reached 9-12 % in animals from sites 3 and 4 in 1991
and was 200-300 times higher than the pre-accident

Genetic injuries in mammals
A. Dynamics of mutation processes in somatic cells ofconsecutive generations of bank vole
The mean frequency of aberrant cells in bank vole
population inhabiting site 1 (with the least soilradiocontamination density, 8 kBq/m2) in 1986 didn’t
differ from the historical pre-Chernobyl control thatmade up 0.41 % in site 2 [29], and had the tendency toincrease the next years (Table 4). It became
significantly greater in 1991, i.e. in the subsequent
generations of animals.
In populations from more contaminated sites 2-4(18-1526 kBq/m2) there were observed significant
2.8-6.4 fold increased levels of aberrant cells in bankvole over all period under consideration as against theresults for rodents in site 1 and the pre-accident data
(Table 4). The tendency towards increase in thechromosome mutation frequency was also noted inthese sites. In 1991 the level of aberrant cells in
population in site 3 was significant highly (X2-test,
P<0.05) than the data on the previous years (1986,
1988).
The analysis of frequencies of chromosome
aberrations and aberrant cells in highly
radiocontaminated sites 3 and 4 did not reveal
significant differences between these two populations
in each year studied. However, the average frequency
of aberrant cells during whole period 1986-1991 wassignificantly higher in site 3 than in site 4 (X2-test,

Table 4. Dynamics of the aberrant and polyploid cell frequencies (%) in bone marrow of bank vole in1986-1991
Number of
Number of
Aberrant
Polyploid
SiteYearanimals
cells
cells
cells scored
1986
10
997
0.40
0.50**
1988
3
310
0.65
0
1
1991
6
741
1.12*
3.51** xx
1986-1991
19
2048
0.69
1.51
1991
20
2164
1.11**
4.25**
1992
17
1995
1.22**
1.65** xx2
1991-1992
37
4159
1.17
3.01
1986
18
2011
1.71**
1.19**
1988
21
2380
1.75**
8.87** xx
3
1991
16
1824
2.54**
9.27**
1986-1991
55
6215
1.96
6.50
1986
16
1743
1.27**
0.23**
1987
363973
1.14**
7.50** xx
1988
27
2883
1.77**
5.86** xx
4
1991
30
4166
1.86**
12.31** xx
1986-1991
109
12765
1.53
7.71
* P<0.05; ** P<0.01 in comparison with data on site 2 in 1981-1983 [ 29];
xx

P< 0.01 in comparison with data obtained in every previous year (X2-test).

197

level.
The fact of annual significant rise in the genomic
mutation frequency in consecutive generations ofanimals living in areas with different grounddeposition deserves particular attention.
The hypothesis on the adaptive character ofcellular polyploidy at high levels of radiation is being
extended [4, 16, 23]. According to this hypothesis
polyploidy is considered as a mechanism forconcealment (hibernation) of genetic damages in cell:
polyploid formation process plays a protective rolesaving cells from unbalanced genome. In bonemarrow, at the same time, polypotent stem cells as wellas precursor-cells are target-cells in forming abnormal
myelopoiesis and acute forms of leukaemia [30],which are characterised by increased frequencies ofpolyploidy and other forms of aneuploidy in manycases. Since there are more questions than answers inhemopoiesis process, it can be assumed that, at someranges of the mutation effects, polyploidization ofbone marrow cells is of an adaptive character and, atother ranges, it goes to pre- and pathologic state. It
should be noted that there are data on a rise in thefrequency of infant leukaemia in children exposed to inutero radiation whose parents live in Greece withdifferent radiocontamination density due to theChernobyl fallout [18].
Thus, it can be only supposed that increased
frequencies (by 2-3 orders) of bone marrow polyploidcells recorded by us exceed the limits of normal
response of bank vole and are close to thepre-pathological state of hemopoiesis processes.
So, the study on dynamics of the mutation process
in bank vole populations inhabiting regions withdifferent soil radiocontamination density in 1986-1991
has shown that increased levels of chromosome

aberrations and genomic mutations emerging insomatic cells de novo in every generation wereobserved in bone marrow cells of animals within many
generations (from 1 to 14) after the accident.
Considering that cytogenetic effects inproliferating cells of bone marrow reflect the dose
received within one cell division cycle, increased
frequencies of chromosome aberrations and genomic
mutations recorded by us in 1986-1992 are considered
to have occurred at very low levels of absorbed doses.
Thus, according to calculations of Cristaldi et al. [6],the absorbed doses from the external γ and internal γ
and β irradiation from 134Cs and 137Cs in bank vole
populations in three regions of Sweden with different
soil contamination levels (22, 90 and 145 kBq/m2 for
137Cs) made up 8.8 x 10-6; 26.8 x 10-6 and 39.4 x 10-6
Gy per day in 1989, respectively. The levels of soil
contamination in our sites 2 and 3 were almost equal tothose of some Swedish sites. This suggests that theradiation load in animals in sites 2 and 3 were the sameorder of magnitude and it can be assumed that thevalues of the doses absorbed by the investigatedpopulations of animals within the cell division cycle
are of the order of a few tens or hundreds of mGy perday.
We believe that significantly greater meanfrequency of aberrant cells as well as existence of theindividual with high content of stable aberration can
indicate stronger structural injuries of chromosomes in
population from site 3 than from site 4. Since animals
in site 3 had lower range of dose loads than that inanimals from site 4, we believe that data obtained
resulted from abnormal dose relationship of structural
injuries of chromosomes at low doses.
B. Dynamics of mutation process in germ cells ofconsecutive generations of bank vole

Table 5. Dynamics of abnormal sperm head (ASH) frequency in males of wild small mammals
Bank vole
Yellow-necked mouse
Site
Year
NumberNumber
ASH
NumberNumberASHof animals
of cells(%)
of animals
of cells
(%)
1989
13
19500
0.149
10
10000
0.140
1991
7
10500
0.076
1
1996
13
65000
0.085*
1989-1996
33
95000
0.097
1991
22
33000
0.106
1996
43
2150000.091
2
1991-199665248000
0.093
1989
8
12000
0.175
23
23000
0.222x
1991
26
39000
0.126
3
1996
6
30000
0.123
1989-1996
40
81000
0.132
1989
34
51000
0.208
12
12000
0.300xx
xx
1991
39
58500
0.214
4
1996
7
35000
0.109**
1989-1996
80
1445000.186
xP<0.05; xx P< 0.01 in comparison with data on site 1 and within every year;* P<0.05; ** P<0.01 in comparison with data obtained in every site in 1989 (X2-test).
198

The frequencies of abnormal sperm head (ASH) in
both species of small mammals (bank vole andyellow-necked mouse) in 1989 were higher in sites 3
and 4 in comparison with the data on site 1 (Table 5).
The increased frequency of abnormal sperm remainedin bank vole population in site 4 in 1991. Thus, it canbe stated that many consecutive generations of animals
in site 4 with high radiocontamination density had thesame range of mutability in germ cells. The significant
decrease in the frequency of ASH (X2-test, P<0.05 andP<0.01) was observed in bank vole populations in
1996 (in sites 1 and 4 respectively).
Unfortunately, we have no control data (withabsolutely clear region) or pre-accident ones on thelevels of ASH in bank vole populations. And thus, we
believe that the frequency of abnormal sperm in highly
contaminated sites 3 and 4 in 1996 didn’t reach the
pre-accident level.
Comparative studies of the average frequencies of
ASH in bank vole populations during whole period
1989-1996 demonstrated no significant differences
between the least contaminated sites 1 and 2 (0.097
and 0.093 % ASH, respectively). Significant increase(X2-test, P<0.01) in the average frequency of ASH
were observed in population from more contaminatedsite 3 (0.132 %). And in males from the mostcontaminated site 4, the level of abnormal sperm(0.186 %) were significant higher (P<0.01) than in
animals from all other sites under investigation (1-3).
Thus, we can observe the following peculiarity: thehigher the contamination density of the site, the higher
frequency of ASH. But the frequency of ASH didn’t
statistically correlate with the soil contamination or thecontent of incorporated radionuclides. At the time, theaverage frequency of ASH significantly correlatedwith the average gamma radiation dose rate during
1989-1996 (Spearman, r=1.0, P<0.05). We believe thatthe lack of correlation between the level of abnormal
sperms and some radiation factors can indicatecomplex repair processes in germ cells of chronically
irradiated animals. This our speculation is inagreement with the data obtained in germ cells oflaboratory mice that is discussed below.
C. Embryonal lethality in wild populations of bankvole
The study on embryonal lethality was initiatedonly in 1988. During 1988-1996 we have caught a few
pregnant females in site 1. Thus we have no data onembryonal lethality in the site with the least grounddeposition. In bank vole populations from sites 2-4 atendency towards increase in the frequency ofembryonal lethality during the whole period underinvestigations was observed (Table 6). The averagefrequency of lethality throughout this period wassignificantly high only in site 4 as compared with theaverage data on site 2 (Table 6). But the averagefrequency of lethality didn’t correlate with the soilradiocontamination, gamma radiation dose rate or
average level of incorporated radionuclides(Spearman, r=0.0, P>0.05). In site 4 the frequency ofembryonal lethality positively correlated withpopulation density (Spearman, r=1.00, P<0.05).
D. Cytogenetic injuries in somatic and germ cells oflaboratory mice after protracted internal andexternal irradiation at low doses
It was revealed that animals kept in theradiocontaminated regions during 133 days
accumulated high concentrations of γ-emitting
radionuclides and took whole-body radiation loads inthe range of low doses (Table 6). Mutagenic effects oflong-term irradiation by tests of chromosome
aberrations and polyploid cells were observed in micebone marrow (Table 7). Significantly increased levelsof these two types of mutations were recorded inanimals kept in the highly contaminated region A(Table 7). There were 56% of chromosome typeaberrations from all number of aberrations recorded inTable 6. Dynamics of embryonal lethality in populations of bank vole
Number of
Pre-implantation
Dead implants (%)
Site
Year
femalesloss (%)
1991
12
0
5.36
1992
19
2.20
1.12
2
1996
7
12.50
0
1991-1996
38
3.74
2.27
1988
4
0
0
1989
30
5.80
0.77
1991
14
8.45
1.54
3
1996
3
20.00
8.33
1988-1996
51
7.32
1.33
1988
14
3.17
1.64
1989
40
4.48
1.56
1991
21
9.90
4.40
4
1996
11
13.73
9.09
1988-1996
86
6.73
3.19
2
* P<0.05 in comparison with data on site 2 (X -test).
199

Total embryonal
lethality (%)
5.36
3.30
12.50
5.88
0
6.52
9.86
26.67
8.54
4.76
5.97
13.86
21.57
9.62 *

Table 7. Frequency of aberrant and polyploid cells in bone marrow of laboratory mice (males) after
long-term internal and external irradiation in radiocontaminated regions of Belarus in 1989
137
Number Number Aberrant Polyploid
Whole-body doseCs
γ-activity
offrom external
Regiondeposition
cells
cells
of
of animals(kBq/m2)
(%)
(%)
cells
γ-irradiation (cGy) animals(Bq/kg)
0.31
0
0
6
0.03
3
646
Control
0.63
0.83
825
853
0.43
4
480
B
2351
1103
1.71
27
2970
1.16*
1.11*
A
* P<0.05 in comparison with control data (X2-test).
Table 8. Abnormal sperm head (ASH) in laboratory mice
RegionNumber of animals
Number of cells scored24
38208
Control
33
49985
B
52
79010
A
** P<0.01 in comparison with control data (X2-test).

ASH (%)
0.464
0.456
0.582**

Table 9. Frequencies of cytogenetic injuries in spermatocytes of laboratory mice (males)
Region Number of Number ofReciprocal
Fragments
Sex
Autosome
Polyploid
animals
cells
translocations(%)
univalents
univalents
cells (%)
scored
(%)
(%)
(%)
21
7114
0.06
0.33
13.27
5.56
5.74
Control
21
10615
0.18*
0.56*
11.77
2.92
10.76**
B
21
5257
0
0.23
14.23
3.87
9.53**
A* P<0.05; ** P<0.01 in comparison with control data (X2-test).
bone marrow cells of mice from group A, while theinput [20, 22], as well as under long-term external
animals from other two groups had no cells with these
γ+β-irradiation [5, 21].
type aberrations [10].
At the same time no reciprocal translocations were
The level of ASH (Table 8) was revealed torevealed in animals from the more contaminatedincrease in mice from group A when absorbed dose
station with higher radiation loads (radionuclide
from the external γ-irradiation was 1.71 cGy and theconcentration - 1103 Bq/kg and the dose taken fromcontent of incorporated radionuclides was 1103 Bq/kg
external γ-irradiation -1.71 cGy). Similar data were[10].
obtained on analysing another type of structural
Different type of cytogenetic injuries (structural
chromosome damages - fragments (Table 9).
and genomic) were observed in spermatocytes of males
Significant increase in chromosome fragment
studied (Table 9) [11]. The animals of all group were
frequency was recorded in animals from group B as
characterised by high individual variability for eachagainst the control and reduction in that parameter inparameter tested.
group A.
Reciprocal translocations among structuralThus, the increased frequencies of structural
chromosome injuries are of particular interest. It
chromosome injuries were observed in immature germshould be noted that radiation-induced reciprocalcells (spermatocytes) only at lower radiation loadtranslocations emerge with low frequency [1, 5, 20, 21,(group B). Absence of increased mutability, evaluated22, 25].
by chromosome aberration test, on increasing theTranslocations, consisting of two bivalents
absorbed dose seems to be the consequence of(quadrivalents) mainly in the form of chains and in rareinduction of repair system of the “adaptive response”
cases in the form of rings, occurred in the animals
type. There are abundant data on different inducible
analysed by us. One male from group B was
repair systems (adaptive response, SOS-repair, etc.) in
noteworthy for complicated configuration of 4
literature at the present. These repair systems can bebivalents (octovalent) in the form of chain. On the
induced with low doses of acute and chronicwhole, the mice from this group are characterised byirradiation. Discrepancy between dose-effect curves inthe significantly increased level of reciprocal
the chromosome aberration frequency in somatic (bonetranslocations (Table 9). The obtained level ofmarrow) and immature germ cells can be accounted forreciprocal translocations in group B under long-termby some reasons including dose differences incombined irradiation with low doses (0.43 cGy frominducing repair systems of germ and somatic cells.
external γ-irradiation and 853 Bq/kg of incorporated
It is known that an increase in radiation above theradionuclides) exceed the effects expected during
background level induces two contrary processes inhigher dose extrapolation by single or long-term 137Cs
living matter - injury and repair. There is a number ofmodels [24, 19] of abnormal dose dependence of200

cytogenic injury yield at low levels of absorbed doses.
According to one of them [19], repair processes canprevail over injury induction at some levels of low
doses. As a result, reduction in the number of injuries
even below the spontaneous level can be observed at a
certain site of dose-effect curve. However, the numberof induced injuries, which make a greater contribution
in comparison with repair to the dose-effect curve,
increases with a rise in the dose. We think that
abnormal dose dependence of chromosome aberration
yield in germ cells of the laboratory mice is inagreement with the above-mentioned model of low
dose radiation effect. The frequency of chromosome
aberrations, as well as reciprocal translocations can be
expected to start rising in animal germ cells at higher
radiation loads than at those we studied.
The analysis of sex and autosomal univalents(nonconjugated homologous chromosomes) did notexhibit radiation-related effects what is in agreementwith the literature data [5, 20, 21].
Genomic injuries in the animals tested (Table 9)
were represented by tetra-, hexa-, octo- and higher
level ploids. The high frequency of polyploid cells istypical for germ cells of mammal males and, inparticular, for mice [17]. Besides, the dependence ofthe yield of the polyploid germ cell level in mice on thevalue of absorbed doses is known in the literature [15,17]. On exposing spermatocytes to X-irradiation with
200 R dose, the frequency of polyploid cells increased
by a factor of 15 as against the control [17]. We haverevealed that, at much lower absorbed doses but at the
combined effects of external and internal irradiation,
the levels of polyploid cells in animals from theexperimental groups are twice as much as in thecontrol. Furthermore, the tendency towards increasing
the ploidy degree was observed in males at theradiocontaminated stations. The cells whose ploidy is
above 8n were revealed only in these animals.
Thus, the increased levels of various cytogenetic
injuries were detected in somatic and germ cells oflaboratory mice exposed to long-term combined
external and internal irradiation of low absorbed doses.

Our results obtained on the somatic and germ cellsof small mammals also indicate that the genomic test
(examination of polyploidy) has greater sensitivity toevaluate genetic effects of the increased radiation
background as compared with the test using
chromosome aberrations. The dose-response patterns
for genomic mutations in rodent somatic cells differ at
low doses from those for chromosome aberrations.
Our investigations show higher sensitivity of both
somatic and germ cells of animals to chronic
combined external and internal effect of radionuclides
in comparison with other irradiation conditions. All
cytogenetic effects obtained in wild and laboratory
animals at chronic low dose radiation exceeded the
expected ones based on extrapolation from the results
obtained in the range of higher doses by single or
long-term irradiation. Abnormal patterns of
dose-response are revealed for different type mutations
at low doses of long-term radionuclide influence.
There are data on high rates of genic mutations inanimal and human populations in the areas
radiocontaminated by the Chernobyl fallout. So, thefrequency of germline mutations at humanminisatellite loci in children born on heavily polluted
areas of Belarus was found to be twice as high as in thecontrol group [7]. In two species of voles (Microtus
arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis), collected near the
Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the range of genic
mutations was hundreds of times greater than thosetypically found in vertebrates [3].
Taking into account increased sensitivity of cellsof different organs and tissues of animals fromchronically irradiated populations to induction of all
types of mutations - genic [3, 7], genomic (polyploidcells) and structural (chromosome aberrations), it isnecessary to emphasise that the areas with a wide rangeof radiocontamination density due to the Chernobyl
fallout (8-2351 kBq/m2 in our tests) are zones withhigh genetic risk for animals and man.
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202

Cytogenetic Effects of the Action of Ionizing Radiations on Human Populations
Vladimir A. SHEVCHENKO1, Galina P. SNIGIRYOVA2
1

2

N. I. Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow
Moscow Research Institute of Diagnostics and Surgery, Ministry of Health and Medical
Industry of the Russian Federation
exposure (8, 9). In this connection, the retrospective
assessment of absorbed doses (this primarily concerns
cases of emergency and accidents) by the frequency ofdicentrics without additional investigations ispractically unfeasible, if years have passed since theexposure occurred. More promising for the purpose of
biological dosimetry is the analysis of stable
aberrations (translocations) the frequency of which
remains constant for a long time after exposure toradiation (months, years). The probability ofoccurrence of stable (translocations) and unstable(dicentrics) aberrations after exposure is the same (10,11). However, translocations are not subjected to
selection during cell proliferation, in contrast to
dicentrics. In some works, the data for exposed
individuals undergoing radiotherapeutic treatment andfor Hiroshima survivors confirm this fact (9, 12).
The use of biological dosimetry, and, in particular,
cytogenetic analysis, makes it possible to fill in the
gap in the knowledge about absorbed doses in people
exposed as a result of large nuclear catastrophes,
which was repeatedly demonstrated in studies of the
impacts of the accidents at the Chernobyl nuclear
power plant in 1986 (13-19), in Goiania (Brazil) in
1987 (20) and other radiation situations (21, 22). In
their turn, the data on absorbed doses refined with thehelp of cytogenetic methods permit assessing thegenetic risk from radiation for future generations.
The objective of the present work is the analysis ofavailable materials on practical application of thecytogenetic method for dose assessment in people
participating in the post-accidental rescue andclean-up operations in Chernobyl (so-called“liquidators”). These materials will be compared withthe results of cytogenetic investigations performed inother regions of Russia exposed to radiation (thevillage Muslyumovo in the Chelyabinsk region,
several localities of the Altai Territory in the vicinityof the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site) as well as withthe results of cytogenetic monitoring in the population
living around the Three Mile Island (TMI) nuclear
power plant (Pennsylvania, USA) where a nuclear
accident occurred in 1979. The work presents theresults of cytogenetic investigations obtained by the
traditional method of analysis of the frequency of
unstable chromosome aberrations and by the FISH

Introduction
The methodology for assessing the genetic risk
from the action of ionizing radiations on humanpopulations has been elaborated by the United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects ofAtomic Radiation (1-3). On the basis of over 30-year
international experience of investigation of genetic
effects of ionizing radiations in experimental objects(microorganisms, plants, animals) as well as relatively
rare investigations of genetic effects in man,
UNSCEAR made an estimate of expected genetic
effects of radiation in future generations per dose unit
- 1 Sv.
The main source of information on absorbed doses
has been accepted to be physical dosimetry. Thismethod makes it possible to obtain evidence on thetype of ionizing radiation, dose rate, duration of
exposure and dose distribution in space. However,evidence on genetically important doses based on
physical dosimetric measurements in the case ofwide-scale accidents, such as in Chernobyl, is mostoften very limited.
A promising method for estimating absorbed doses
is biological dosimetry, namely cytogenetic analysis(4). Radiation can induce two types of chromosome
aberrations: unstable - dicentrics, centric rings,
acentric fragments; and stable - reciprocaltranslocations and other types of translocations.
Most often absorbed doses are assessed on thebasis of the frequency of unstable aberrations(dicentrics) (5). Centric rings can also be used for thispurpose, but the frequency of their occurrence makes
up only 5-10% as compared to the rate of dicentricchromosomes (6). By comparing the rate of dicentricchromosomes with a standard dose-effect curve
obtained in an experiment in vitro, it is possible todetermine a radiation dose. This method has been
recommended for practical use by the documents ofWHO, IAEA and UNSCEAR (1, 4, 7). Dicentricchromosomes are easily recognized without using
special staining techniques. However, the use ofdicentrics as well as other aberrations of the unstable
type for the purposes of biological dosimetry is notalways possible since the frequency of cells
containing such chromosomes declines in time post203

Table 1

Cytogenetic results obtained in 1986 in the liquidators of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
accident[ (M ± SEM) ×10-3]

Group
Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant staff
Physicians
Dosimetrists
Drivers
Builders of the“Sarcophagus”
Pripyat population
Control

NumberNumberofof cells
personsscoredNumberof chromosome
aberrations

Dicentric
Absorbed whole body dose **s+
mGy ± SEM
centric
1
2
rings

83

6015

23.7 ± 2.0*

5.8 ± 1.0*474 ± 315

303 ± 199

37
23
60

2590
1641
5300

13.1 ± 2.3*
31.1 ± 4.3*
14.7 ± 1.7*

2.7 ± 1.0*
4.8 ± 1.7*
3.2 ± 0.8*

198 ± 212381 ± 345
264 ± 211125 ± 123
243 ± 214
168 ± 124

71

4937

32.4 ± 2.5*

4.4 ± 0.9*347 ± 260

221 ± 159

35
19

2593
3605

14.3 ± 2.4*
1.9 ± 0.7*

1.9 ± 0.8*0131 ± 168-81 ± 92-

Level of significance* - p< 0.05;
SEM, standard error of the mean;** - dose estimations on the basis of: 1 - reference 15, 2 - reference 23, on the basis of the sum of dicentrics and centricrings (0.011 and 0.018 dicentrics per 1 Gy per 1 cell).

consumer's co-operatives, etc.).
Blood samples were collected within several days
(groups 1, 3, 4, 5) and within 1-3 months (groups 2, 6)
after the evacuation of people from the 30 km zone.
The results of cytogenetic examination are presented
in Table 1. They demonstrate that the frequency ofchromosome aberrations in the examined liquidators
significantly exceeds (up to 17-fold) the control level.
The highest frequency of cytogenetic injuries wasrecorded in the builders of the sarcophagus, CNPP
personnel and in the dosimetrists. The greatest spreadin the frequency of chromosome aberrations between
individuals was observed among the sarcophagusbuilders (up to 16%). A more homogeneous
distribution was noted in the group of inhabitantsfrom Pripyat (from 1 to 6%) and in the CNPP
personnel (from 0 to 10%).
Absorbed doses were assessed by the frequency ofdicentrics and centric rings using a calibration
dose-effect curve generated in vivo (analysis of
dosimetric data for the liquidators whose absorbed
dose was precisely measured by the physical method)(15) and linear coefficients of calibration dose-effectcurves obtained in vitro for acute exposure in the lowdose range (23). Table 1 presents the values of
average absorbed doses calculated on the basis of
cytogenetic data. These values are from 81 to 474
mGy in the groups of people exposed to radiation in1986. The highest level of absorbed doses wasrecorded for the CNPP personnel, dosimetrists andsarcophagus builders.
It should be noted that the results of dose
assessment obtained from the dose-effect curve in
vivo (15) completely agree with the real dose situationin Chernobyl while the dose estimate by thecalibration curve of Lloyd et al. (23) generated underhigh dose rate conditions needs correction in view ofmethod based on the frequency of stable chromosome
aberrations.

Cytogenetic examination of the victims of
nuclear accidents
A. Cytogenetic examination of the liquidators
working in Chernobyl
Cytogenetic examination of the liquidators working in
Chernobyl was started in 1986 in the laboratoryorganized by the N. I. Vavilov Institute of General
Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences directlyin Chernobyl in accordance to the resolution of theGovernmental Commission on the liquidation of theconsequences of the accident (13, 14, 15).
All examined people working in the zone of theaccident in 1986 were grouped as follows:
employeers from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant(CNPP) who participated in the liquidation of theconsequences of the accident and in decontaminationof the territory in 1986-1987; physicians of the
medical station in Pripyat who examined the workersof the Chernobyl nuclear power plant before theaccident and participated in the evacuation of the
population of Pripyat and the personnel of unit ¹4 andlater in medical examination of the liquidators
working in the 30 km control zone; a group of
dosimetrists who participated in the dosimetric control
on the CNPP territory during decontamination works;
drivers who transported concrete and other materials
for constructing the "sarcophagus" around unit 4;builders of the "sarcophagus" who directly
participated in its construction;
part of the population of Pripyat evacuated after
the accident but remaining in the 30 km zone andparticipating in the liquidation works (members of thelocal administration, militiamen, workers of204

Table 2 gives the main results of cytogenetic
examination obtained using the conventional method.
Throughout the whole follow-up period, beginningfrom 1990, the level of cells with unstable aberrations- dicentrics and centric rings - significantly differedfrom the control. Only in 1995 the frequency of cellswith dicentrics and centric rings was at the control
level (group 6).
Thus, despite a long period of time after the
exposure, a high level of cells with unstable
aberrations was preserved in peripheral blood of theexamined people.
Analysis of the frequency of stable translocations
with the FISH method was carried out in 53
liquidators who worked in Chernobyl in 1986 and in
12 persons from the control group. The cytogenetic
study was performed in 1994-1995, i.e. 8-9 years after
the accident. The data of this study are presented inTable 3. In the group of liquidators, the frequency ofcells with translocations exceeds that in the control
group nearly 4-fold. On this basis of the data obtained,
an absorbed dose was assessed using the calibration
dose-effect curve for acute radiation exposure
generated after 137Cs gamma-irradiation of whole
blood in the range of 0 to 3 Gy (33). This dose madeup 200 mGy. 32 out of 53 examined liquidators had
official data on absorbed doses, but no dependence ofthe frequency of cells with translocations on theradiation dose value was revealed (r=0.143, p=0.44).
Table 4 demonstrates the results of cytogenetic
examination with the FISH method for a group ofliquidators who had dosimetric data and for
liquidators for whom such information was not

the peculiarities of dose formation in Chernobyl. The
correction factor is apparently equal to the ratio of
α coefficients in corresponding regression
equations: 0.018 (15) and 0.011 (23) dicentrics per 1
Gy per cell. This ratio in the given case is 1.6. Itshould also be stressed that according to the data
presented in the report of UNSCEAR 1982 (1) the
accepted coefficients for different genetic effects are
2.0 upon transition from acute exposure conditions toprolonged exposure and 3.0 upon transition fromacute exposure to chronic exposure.
Beginning in 1990, the cytogenetic examination of
the liquidators was continued in the Moscow
Research Institute of Diagnostics and Surgery of the
Ministry of Health and Medical Industry of theRussian Federation (16, 24-26). Over 400 individuals
involved in reconstruction works in 1986-1987 havebeen examined. As a rule, the dose officially recordedin the documents did not exceed 250 mSv. For asignificant part of the liquidators (about 30%)
information on absorbed doses was lacking. Particularattention was given to the formation of a control
group. This group consisting of 82 persons included
those who had never had contact with ionizing
radiation and had never been subjected to therapeuticand serious diagnostic irradiation. The frequency ofdicentrics and centric rings in the control group madeup 0.2 ± 0.1 per 1,000 cells (26,849 metaphases
analyzed). Cytogenetic examination involved analysisof the frequency of unstable aberrations (dicentrics
and centric rings) by the conventional method andanalysis of the frequency of stable translocations by
the FISH method.

Table 2

Results of cytogenetic analysis of lymphocytes in the liquidators and the control group[ (Mean ± SEM) × 10-3 ]Group
Number of
Number of
Number of cells(year of
Cdr
persons
cells scoredwith aberrations
sampling)
I (1990)234268
14.9 ± 1.9*
1.0 ± 0.5*
II (1991)
110
20077
19.7 ± 1.0*
0.9 ± 0.2*
III (1992)
136
32000
31.8 ± 1.0*
1.4 ± 0.2*
IV (1993)
75
18581
34.8 ± 1.4*
0.9 ± 0.2*
V (1994)60
18179
31.8 ± 1.3*
1.8 ± 0.3*
VI (1995)
41
12160
18.8 ± 1.2*
0.4 ± 0.2
Control
82
26849
10.5 ± 0.6
0.2 ± 0.1
Level of significance* - p< 0.05;
SEM, standard error of the mean;Cdr, cells containing dicentrics and/or centric rings; ace, acentrics.

Table 3ace
5.3 ± 1.1
6.8 ± 0.6*
9.0 ± 0.5*
11.9 ± 0.8*
10.3 ± 0.8*
7.3 ± 0.8*
3.9 ± 0.4

Frequency of symmetrical translocations in a group of liquidators (pooled data) and in thecontrol group

Number of
Number of Number ofstable(FP ± SEM)
persons
cells scoredtranslocations
×10 -2Liquidators
53
45007
166
0.37 ± 0.03*
Control
1213586
130.10 ± 0.03
Level of significance* - p< 0.05;
SEM, standard error of the mean;FP, translocations/cell; FG, genomic translocation frequency.
Group

205

(FG ± SEM)
×10 -2
1.17 ± 0.05
0.32 ± 0.05

Estimateddose(mGy)
200 (100,300)-

chromosomes - decreases in time but over 8 years
after the exposure it exceeded the control level. The
use of unstable aberrations for the purposes of
biological dosimetry in case years have passed since
the exposure occurred requires an experimental
determination of a temporal parameter characterizing
the dynamics of reduction of the level of such
aberrations.
Analysis of the frequency of stable translocations
with the FISH method is more promising forbiological dosimetry since it permits estimating
absorbed doses irrespective of the time post exposure.
The cytocenetic examination (analysis of stabletranslocations) of the liquidators working in
Chernobyl demonstrates the possibility of assessing
absorbed doses within 8-9 years after the action ofionizing radiations. It should be pointed out that theindividual doses were not always in agreement withthe dosimetric data presented in the official
documents of these people. The scatter in the dosevalues in the group of examined liquidators

available. A higher level of cells with translocations
was established in the second group including
liquidators whose absorbed doses were not officially
documented.
Table 5 presents the data of individual cytogenetic
analysis with the FISH method for 10 liquidators inwhom the frequency of cells with translocations
significantly differed from the control level. For thesepatients, the absorbed radiation doses were estimatedin the range from 300 to 1,000 mGy.
It is important that all the above estimates ofabsorbed doses based on the FISH method were madewithout corrections for prolonged and chronic
exposures.
Thus, the liquidators examined immediately after
the exposure to radiation displayed a high level of
unstable chromosome aberrations which permitted us
to estimate average absorbed doses depending on thecharacter of their work in the range of 81-474 mGy. It
was revealed that the level of cells with unstable
chromosome aberrations - dicentrics and ring

Table 4

requency of symmetrical translocations in two groups of liquidators (with and without
official doses)

Official
Number of
Number of Number of stable
dose
persons
cells scoredtranslocations
I
YES
32
26947
84
II
NO
21
18060
82
FP, translocations/cell; FG, genomic translocation frequency.
SEM, standard error of the mean.
Group

Table 5(FP ± SEM)
×10 -20.31 ± 0.03
0.45 ± 0.05

(FG ± SEM)
Estimateddose(mGy)
×10 -2100 (0,200)
0.98 ± 0.06
300
(200,400)
1.43 ± 0.09

Frequency of translocations (detected by FISH), dicentrics and rings (obtained withconventional scoring) and individual dose estimates (95% CL)
FIS H m e t h o dPat-ient
No

Docum-ented
dose
(mGy)

cells
scoredtranslocations

1

-

583

6

2

-

1016

15

5

145

1297

8

6

170

1314

10

9

-

473

11

12

-

1161

9

34

-

1157

6

35

-

1209

7

44

800

1688

45

293

857

11*
6

FP±SEM
×10-2

FG±SEM×
10-2

Estimateddose(mGy)

1.03
±0.42
1.48
±0.38
0.62
±0.22
0.76
±0.24
2.33
±0.69
0.77
±0.25
0.52
±0.21
0.58
±0.22
0.59
±0.19
0.70
±0.29

3.27
±0.75
4.70
±0.68
1.97
±0.39
2.42
±0.43
7.40
±1.25
2.44
±0.46
1.65
±0.38
1.84
±0.39
1.87
±0.33
2.22
±0.51

600
(400,800)
700(600,800)
400(300,500)
400(300,500)
1000(800,1200)
400(300,500)
300(200,400)
300(200,400)
300(200,400)
400(300,500)*;10 cells.

206

Conventional method(dic+Rc)cells
Dic+/cell±SEM×scored
Rc
10-2
250

0

0

1000

8

0.80
±0.28

300

0

0

300

0

0

300

3

300

2

300

0

0

300

0

0

300

0

0

300

0

0

1.00
±0.58
0.67
±0.47

Table 6 Frequency of unstable chromosome aberrations in blood lymphocytes in the Altai population[ (M ± SEM) ×10-3]
No ofCells with
Total
No of
dic + Rc
Group
per-sonaberr-atio
number of
ace
cells
s
ns
aberrations
Tyumentsevo
30
7831
10.2
10.7
0.3
5.7
(control)
±1.1
±1.2
±0.2
±0.9
Ugly
15
1958
7.8
16.8
3.7
9.2
±2.0
±2.9
±1.4*
±2.2
Ozernoye12
1523
12.0
12.0
0.7
6.0
Kuznetsovo
±2.8
±2.8
±0.7
±1.9
Zelenaya
24
2749
31.6
32.0
1.1
8.1
Dubrava
±3.4*
±3.4*
±0.6*
±1.7
Laptev
84
22195
14.4
16.5
3.1
5.3
Log
±0.8*
±0.9*
±0.4*
±0.5
Naumovka
26
4275
16.8
17.5
2.6
6.2
±2.0*
±1.9*
±0.7*
±1.3
Belenkoye
35
9069
13.6
16.9
1.3
7.3
±1.2*
±1.4*
±0.4*
±0.9
Topolnoye
30
6530
20.4
20.5
1.7
6.2
±1.8*
±1.8*
±0.5*
±1.0
Level of significance * - p<0.05; SEM, standard error of the mean;dic, dicentrics; R , ring chromosomes; ace, acentrics; Cdr, cells containing dic+Rc.
c

Chromatid
Cdr
0.3
±0.2
1.0
±0.7
0.7
±0.7
1.1
±0.6*
1.9
±0.3*
2.6
±0.7*
1.2
±0.4*
1.7
±0.5*

aberra-tions
4.7
±0.8
3.1
±13
5.4
±1.9
22.1
±2.8*
7.6
±0.6*
8.8
±1.4*
7.5
±0.9*
12.3
±1.4*

exposure. This fact creates a unique situation inestimating genetic effects in the exposed part of the
population - it is necessary to choose approaches
enabling the study of genetic effects within such along time after the exposure.
In this section, we present the materials ofcytogenetic examination of people from 7 settlementsof the Altai region (226 individuals) that suffered
most greatly from the explosion in 1949 (21, 22, 28).
In 1992, blood samples were collected in thefollowing settlements: Uglovskoye (average dose about 0.1 Sv), Ozernoye-Kuznetsovo (about 0.1 Sv),
Laptev Log (0.97 Sv) and Topolnoye (2.43 Sv). Lateron, in 1993 and in 1994, cytogenetic examinations
were continued in the villages Zelyonaya Dubrava(0.18 Sv), Belenkoye (1.87 Sv) and Naumovka (1.86
Sv). The village Tyumentsevo was chosen as a control
(0.05
Sv).
The
social-economic
andclimatic-geographic conditions were analogous for all
examined groups.
The results of these cytogenetic studies arepresented in Table 6. In addition to chromatidaberrations (mainly single fragments), the spectrum ofaberrations included chromosome aberrations:
acentric fragments, centric rings, dicentric and eventricentric chromosomes. Atypical monocentricchromosomes resulting from translocations were also
detected. In some exposed individuals cells withmultiple chromosome aberrations were found.

constituted up to 1 Gy. However these values may
appear to be underestimated as the calculations weremade without corrections for prolonged and chronic
exposures.

B. Cytogenetic examination of the Altai
population exposed to ionizing radiations as aresult of nuclear explosions on the Semipalatinsk
nuclear test site
As a result of nuclear tests in the air on the
Semipalatinsk nuclear test site in 1949-1962, a
number of regions of the Altai Territory were exposedto the action of high doses of ionizing radiations
capable of inducing serious genetic effects. According
to the data of the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site (27),radioactive products from more than 50 explosions
made in the air and on the earth for a period from1949 till 1962 spread in the direction of the Altai
Territory. A collective effective dose from the firstnuclear explosion in 1949 made up 32,000 man-Sv. A
total dose for the Altai population from all subsequent
explosions is estimated at 10,000 man-Sv. Thus, thecontribution from the explosion in 1949 constitutes
about 80% of the total collective effective dose
received by the Altai population as a result of nuclear
tests on the Semipalatinsk test site (27).
The dotted line indicates the rates of cells withchromosome aberrations in a group of Moscow
citizens. Absciss - dose, Sv; ordinate - the numberof cells with dicentrics and rings per 1,000
cells.The study of genetic impacts from nuclear
explosions for the Altai population was started only
when several decades had passed since the radiation

In the populations of Zelyonaya Dubrava, Laptev
Log, Naumovka, Belenkoye and Topolnoye thefrequency of aberrant metaphases significantly

207and rings per 1000 cells

Num ber ofcells with dicentric

10

1

0.1
0.01

Control

0.1

1

10

Dose (Sv)Fig. 1. The frequency of cells with dicentrics and centric ring chromosomes in theexamined groups of the Altai population depending on the effective dose of irradiation
caused by the nuclear explosion on the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site in 1949.
relationship. Approximating equation coefficientswere determined by the method of maximum
likelihood assuming Poisson distribution. The
following linear regression equation was derived:y = (08. ± 02.)× 10−3 + (06. ± 02.)× 10−3 × Sv−1D ,where y is the frequency of cells containing
dicentrics and centric rings (Cdr), D - dose. The levelof significance of the linear regression coefficient isp<0.05. The results of the study clearly demonstratethat despite a long post-exposure time (several
decades) an increased number of cells with unstable
chromosome aberrations, the level of which depends
on the effective dose value, is observed in peripheral
blood of the examined people. It can be inferred thatthe source of such cells carrying dicentrics and centricring chromosomes are radiation-injured stem cells ofblood-forming tissue.
Among 40,777 cells analyzed in the examinedgroups of the Altai population 10 cells were found tohave multiple chromosome aberrations. The
distribution of multiaberrant cells among these groups
and their characteristics are shown in Table 7. One
multiaberrant cell containing five acentric fragments
was found in peripheral blood of the examined
persons from Tyumentsevo (control group).
Multiaberrant blood cells, including dicentrics,
tricentrics and centric rings, were discovered in theexamined inhabitants from the settlements exposed toionizing radiations. The frequency of multiaberrant
cells in them is higher than in the control group.

exceeds the control level. In the same populations, astatistically significant excess over the control level by
the frequency of chromatid aberrations was observed.
No differences were found by the frequency ofacentric fragments (non-associated with dicentrics andcentric rings), except an increased frequency ofacentric fragments in the inhabitants of the village
Belenkoye (p<0.05).
Most informative in respect of biologicaldosimetry are dicentrics and centric ring
chromosomes as recognized markers of radiation
effects (5). For all examined populations, except thevillage Ozernoye-Kuznetsovo, the average rate ofcells with dicentrics and centric rings (Cdr)significantly exceeds the control level. The frequencyof these chromosomes in the examined groups ofpeople from the villages Uglovskoye, Naumovka,
Laptev Log, Topolnoye, Belenkoye and Zelyonaya
Dubrava exceeds the control level 12-fold, 9-fold,
6-fold, 6-fold, 4-fold and 3.5-fold, respectively.
Fig. 1 shows the frequency of cells with dicentrics
and centric rings in the inhabitants of several
settlements of the Altai region depending on thevalues of effective doses presumably absorbed bythem. These doses were estimated on the basis ofexperimental measurements and with the help ofmathematical simulation performed by the Central
Physical-Technical Institute of the Ministry of
Defence of the Russian Federation (29).
Statistical analysis of the results presented in Fig. 1
was performed on the basis of linear dose-effect208

organism caused the appearance of multiaberrant cells.
This hypothesis is confirmed by the data of A. M.
Marenny et al. (32) who detected hot particles (asource of alpha-radiation) in the lungs and in thelymph nodes of ten patients from theradionuclide-contaminated regions of Altai who wereoperated from lung cancer.
Thus, within 43-45 years after the first nuclear
explosion on the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site in1949, the inhabitants of all examined settlements
revealed an increased frequency of unstable

The nature of such multiaberrant cells is notcompletely understood yet (30, 31). Probably they are
induced by chemical or biological mutagenic factors.
One of possible explanations of the nature of suchcells is the action of densely-ionizing radiations, andfirst of all, of alpha-particles of various radionuclides,
assuming their high concentration in the human body.
Since 239Pu, a source of alpha-particles, is acomponent of the mixture of products of the nuclear
explosion that affected the Altai population, it can beinferred that the entry of plutonium into the human

Table 7Frequency of multiple cells in blood lymphocytes of people from different radionuclidecontaminated areasGroup

Muslyumovo(116 persons)Altai(178 persons)Patients *
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1

Age
(Year of birth)
1949
1975
1950
1980
1915
1958
1947
1945
1930
1941
1956
1949
1935
1949
1961
1946
1962

Sex
f
m
f
m
f
f
m
m
m
m
m
f
m
f
m
m
f

Control(30 persons)dic, dicentric; tric, tricentric; tet, tetracentric;Rc, centric ring;ace, acentric (double fragment); SF, single fragment; t-translocation;* people with multiple aberrations

Table 8Description ofmultiple cells
tric-2; dic-3
tric-2
dic-8; ace-4
dic-2
tet-1; tric-1; dic-1
dic-2
dic-2
ace-9; SF-1
tric-5;dic-5;Rc-1;t-2
dic-3; ace-1
dic-1; ace-2;
dic-2;tric-2; ace-11
tric-2;dic-2;t-1;ace-5
dic-2; ace-7
dic-2
dic-1; ace-2
ace-5

Frequency of symmetrical translocations (FISH method) in blood lymphocytes
Altai populationin the

Group

No of
No of cells
No of
-2
-2
(FP ± SEM)×10(FG ± SEM)×10
personsscoredtranslo-cations
Laptev Log
14
7026
29
0.41 ±0,08*
1.29 ±0,11
Belenkoye
63213
18
0.56 ±0,13*
1.76 ±0,19Topolnoye
42762
110.40 ±0,12*
1,26 ±0,17
Altai region (Total)
24
13001
58
0.45 ±0.06*
1.42 ±0.10
Control
1213586
130.10 ± 0,03
0.32 ±0,05
Level of significance * - p<0.05; SEM, standard error of the mean;FP, translocation/cell; FG , genomic translocation
frequency; m, standard error of the mean.

Table 9Frequency of symmetrical translocations (FISH method) in blood lymphocytes in the Laptev
Log (Altai region) populationGroup

No. ofpersons

I (born before 1949)
II (born after 1949ã)Control
Level of significance * -8612
p<0.05;

No.of cells
scoredNo. oftranslocations

4271
25
2755
4
13586
13
SEM, standard error of the mean;

209(Fp ± SEM) ×
10-2
0.58 ± 0.12*
0.14 ± 0.01
0.10 ±0.03(FG ± SEM) ×10-2
1.82 ±0.17
0.44 ± 0.10
0.32 ±0.05

test period and after it. A correction factor 3 is usuallyused for assessing chronic irradiation doses (1).
Hence it follows that in the case of the exposure thattook place in the Altai region the linear-quadraticmodel yields underestimated dose values. In view of
the above-stated, the average dose for the examinedgroups of the population calculated on the basis of
cytogenetic analysis makes up about 1 Gy.
It is obvious that the values of absorbed doses forthe part of the Altai population exposed to ionizing
radiations from nuclear explosions on the
Semipalatinsk nuclear test site will be corrected withaccumulation of cytogenetic data obtained by the
FISH method.

chromosome aberrations, mainly dicentrics andcentric rings. The frequency of cells with such
chromosome aberrations was linearly related toeffective doses presumably accumulated by the
populations of the examined settlements. At present, it
is hard to say anything about the initial level ofdicentrics and centric rings immediately after the
explosion since the dynamics of these chromosome
aberrations for a period of several decades is unknown.
This hinders the use of the presented data for thereconstruction of absorbed doses in the Altai
population.
The results of cytogenetic examination of the Altai
population with the FISH method are presented inTable 8. The average levels of translocations for the
populations of Laptev Log, Belenkoye and Topolnoye
are 0.41 per 100 cells, 0.56 per 100 cells and 0.40 per
100 cells, respectively. These values significantly
exceed our control level and therefore it is safe toassume the presence of radiation-induced changes in
the cell chromosome apparatus in the examined
persons. As noted above, about 80% of the externalradiation dose falls on the explosion made in 1949;
therefore people born before 1949 received thehighest doses. In connection with this, the results of
examination of this group of the population should beanalyzed separately. For example, the group of
examined persons from the village Laptev Log
included those born before and after 1949. As seen in
Table 9, the average level of stable translocations for
8 individuals born before 1949 is 0.58 per 100 cells
and for 6 individuals born after 1949 it is 0.14 per 100
cells. In the first group, the frequency of stabletranslocations is more than 5 times higher than in thecontrol, and in the second group the frequency ofstable translocations does not differ from the control
level. The data obtained are far from being sufficient
to make any final conclusions, however even theseresults confirm the fact that the most affected part ofthe population are people born before 1949 and thatthey must be, in the first turn, in the focus of attention
when undertaking medical and preventive measures.
The absorbed dose value estimated by thefrequency of stable translocations for three villages,
Laptev Log, Belenkoye and Topolnoye, is about 300
mGy. It should be mentioned that this value wasobtained using the linear-quadratic dose-effect model
for acute exposure (33). The situation observed in the
Altai region due to surface nuclear explosions is much
more complicated in terms of dosimetry than that
could be assessed with the use of this model. It is
important to take into account the long-term chronic
irradiation from external and internal radiation
sources (29). A true estimate of effective doses basedon the frequency of stable aberrations can be obtained
only given clear-cut data on the dynamics ofirradiation of the population both during the nuclear

C. Cytogenetic examination of the population of
Muslyumovo located on the banks of theradionuclide-contaminated Techa river
In 1949-1951, the plutonium-producing plant(“Mayak”) in the Chelyabinsk region discharged
radioactive waste products (a total of 2.76 mln Ci)
into the open hydrosystem of the rivers Techa, Iset,
Tobol (34). 124,000 people, including 28,100 of thoseliving on the Techa banks, were exposed to radiation.
The doses of exposure were rather high - a collective
dose made up about 6,000 man-Sv. Nearly 7,500
individuals evacuated from 20 settlements received,
according to official data, average effective equivalentdoses from 3.5 to 170 cSv (34). The highest radiation
doses were recorded for the evacuated population of
the village Metlino (170 cSv, 1,200 people). Among
non-evacuated settlements, the most serious radiation
situation remains in Muslyumovo (30 km from the
Mayak plant). In 1949, the population of thissettlement was 4,000 people, and at present it is about
2,500 people. The level of exposure here is critical an average bone marrow dose is 0.25 Gy. In nearly
5% of the population an average bone marrow dose is
1 Gy (35). The first medical examinations wereorganized within 2 years after the discharge ofradioactive waste products into the Techa river only
for the population of one settlement in the upper
reaches of the river - Metlino. In other settlements the
medical examination was started only after 3-6 years.
The register of exposed people living along the river
was initiated only in 1968. These facts in combination
with a high migration of the exposed population has
created a situation in which the assessment of remoteradiation effects becomes rather difficult.
At the same time, even the first studies showedthat the exposure of people in the upper reaches of the
Techa river had led to the development of chronic
radiation sickness (particularly in Metlino where thisdisease was diagnosed in 1956 in 64.7% of the adult
population and in 63.15% of examined children) (36).
Chronic radiation sickness was revealed in a total of935 people. An increase in the incidence of leukoses
210

contamination.
Table 10 presents the results of cytogenetic
examination by the conventional method (analysis ofunstable chromosome aberrations). In all groups, thefrequency of chromosome aberrations exceeded thecontrol level. It is worth noticing that the value of thisfrequency was higher in the second and third groups.
In all examined groups exchange aberrations(dicentrics and centric rings) were revealed, and theirfrequency significantly exceeded (5-10-fold) that in
the control group. The highest frequency of dicentrics
and centric rings, as well as cells containing such
aberrations, was noted in the second and third groups.
These results are presented in Fig. 2. The frequency ofacentric fragments did not differ significantly in thegroups of examined people from Muslyumovo and in
the control group. In all examined groups an excess
over the control level by the frequency of chromatidaberrations was observed.
Cells with multiple chromosome aberrations were
found in the examined persons from Muslyumovo(Table 7). On the whole, 6 multiaberrant cells werediscovered among 32,203 analyzed metaphases,
including tricentric and tetracentric cells which are notpractically found normally.
It can be assumed that the appearance of cells withmultiple aberrations is the result of the action ofalpha-radiation from plutonium and its fission
products (30, 31, 37). According to A. V.
Trapeznikov et al. (38), the Techa river contains about
8 Gbq 239, 240Pu. This estimate was made within theriver section from 50 km to 240 km from the Mayakplant, i.e. up to the place of confluence with the Isetriver.
Thus, the cytogenetic study carried out in
Muslyumovo revealed an increased level ofin the examined population was established. For aperiod of 33 years, 52 cases of hemoblastoses wererecorded, including 37 leukosis patients among
17,200 people examined since 1950, which is by 15
cases more than expected without irradiation.
Besides chronic radiation sickness, a decrease inimmunologic reactivity, depression of hemopoiesis,
an increase in cases of vegetovascular dystonia,
hypertensive disease, pathologic pregnancy and labor,
and increased infantile mortality were recorded in the
inhabitants of the riverside settlements. As shown in
the work by M. M. Kosenko and M. O. Degteva (36),the mortality from cancer increased in 1950-1982 ascompared to a group of people living in
non-contaminated areas with similar social-economic
conditions.
Cytogenetic examinations of the population of
Muslyumovo were performed in 1993-1994. The
examination was carried out on a total of 116 persons.
The data of the cytogenetic analysis were comparedwith the results of examination of the control group(30 individuals, 7,831 metaphases analyzed) formedof the inhabitants from a non-contaminated region of
the Altai. In view of the tasks of the examination, allpeople were divided in several groups. The first group
included all examined people. The second groupunited inhabitants of Muslyumovo born before 1949
(beginning of the contamination of the Techa river)and living there permanently. The third group wascomposed of people born from 1949 till 1956 (thistime is characterized by the highest level ofcontamination of the Techa river). The fourth groupconsisted of people born after 1957, and the fifthgroup was formed of migrants, i.e. people who cameto Muslyumovo at different times, including thoseevacuated from villages exposed to radioactive

Table 10

Cytogenetic results obtained in a human population continually exposed to low doses ofradiation in the South Urals, Chelyabinsk area, Muslyumovo(M ± SEM) x 10-3]
Total
No of
No of
Cells with
dic + Rc
Group
number oface
personscells
aberrations
aberrations
14.4
15.3
2.2
5.4
1
116
32203
±0.7*
±0.7*
±0.3*
±0.4
19.3
19.4
2.7
6.6
2
23
6730
±1.7*
±1.7*
±0.6*
±1.0
15.8
17.2
3.2
7.6
3
46
5730
±1.7*
±1.7*
±0.7*
±1.1
11.9
12.4
1.5
3.3
4
49
14052
±0.9
±0.9
±0.3*
±0.5
13.3
15.4
2.2
6.7
5
21
5691
±1.5
±1.6*
±0.6*
±1.1
10.2
10.7
0.3
5.7
Cont-rol
30
7831
±1.1
±1.2
±0.2
±0.8
1, total; 2, born before 1949; 3, born in 1949-1956; 4, born in 1957-1988; 5, migrants.
Level of significance * - p<0.05; SEM, standard error of the mean;

211

Cdr

Chromatid
aberrations

1.4
±0.2*
1.9
±0.5*
2.1
±0.6*
1.1
±0.3*
0.9
±0.4
0.3
±0.2

7.6
±0.5*
9.8
±1.2*
6.3
±1.1*
7.6
±0.7*
6.4
±1.1
4.7
±0.8

Dic/rings per 1000 cells

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

1

2

3
4
Exam ined group5

6

Fig. 2. The frequency of cells with dicentrics and centric ring chromosomes in theexamined groups of the population of Muslyumovo (Chelyabinsk region).
1 - control group; 2 - all examined individuals; 3 - born before 1949;4 - born in the period
from 1949 to 1956; 5 - born in the period from 1957 to 1988; 6 - evacuated from othersettlements.
nuclear power plant were carried out. The aim of thisstudy was to analyze the level of unstable and stable
chromosome aberrations in people assumed to be
exposed to ionizing radiations due to the TMI
accident. The basis for such assumption were thesigns of radiation damages in people (skin reddening,
peculiar metallic smack in the mouth, irritation of
mucous membranes, vestigo, vomiting, diarrhea, etc.)
at the moment of the accident and also a number of
diseases that occurred some time later.
The cytogenetic study was carried out in
July-August, 1994 and in January-February, 1995. In
selecting a group of patients, their possible diagnostic
and therapeutic irradiation as well as a number of
additional factors that might influence the results ofcytogenetic analysis were taken into account. The
results of the study are presented in Table 11 and in
Fig. 3. Given a relatively normal general level ofchromosome aberrations, a significant increase in thefrequency of cells containing chromosome aberrations,
namely dicentrics, was recorded. In the group of
examined people from the TMI region this rate
exceeded 10-fold the control level (0.2 × 10-3
dicentrics per 1,000 cells). Dicentrics were found in
20 persons, i.e. in 70% of cases. The rate of cells
containing exchange aberrations (dicentrics) varied
from 0.2 to 0.8% and exceeded the control level
10-40-fold, respectively. In one patient, a cell withtricentric was discovered.
The obtained results suggest that the group of
examined individuals from the TMI neighborhood
presumably exposed to the action of ionizing
radiations as a result of the accident at the nuclear

chromosome aberrations of the exchange type dicentrics and centric rings - which are characteristicof ionizing radiation exposures. The highest level ofsuch aberrations (9-10 times exceeding the control)
was detected in the people born before 1949 or in the
period of the most significant contamination of the
Techa river with radionuclides. Cells with multiple
chromosome aberrations detected in the blood of theexamined inhabitants of Muslyumovo seem to be theresult of organism exposure to densely-ionizing
alpha-radiation from plutonium and its radioactive
products.

D. Cytogenetic examination of the populationfrom the neighborhood of the Three Mile Island
nuclear power plant in USA
In 1979, an accident occurred at the Three Mile
Island (TMI) Nuclear power plant (unit ¹2) locatedwithin several miles from the capital of Pennsylvania,
Harrisbugr (USA). The extent and consequences ofthis accident have not been uniquely assessed yet.
According to the official data stated in the NUREG
report in 1980 (39), no impact from this accident on
the population, flora and fauna is expected. At thesame time, the discovery of radioactive iodine in theair, calculations of experts concerning the extent ofpossible discharges of radioactive inert gases,
publications of scientists on radiation effects in trees
and animals observed after the accident prompt the
public and scientists to perform new studies forassessing the impacts from this nuclear incident (40).
In 1994-1995, cytogenetic examinations of the
population living in the neighborhood of the TMI
212

Table 11

Frequency of unstable chromosome aberrations in blood lymphocytes from persons
living in the neighborhood of TMI[(M ± SEM) × 10-3]
GroupsNumber of
Number of
Total number of
Cdr
persons
cells scoredaberrations
Population2914854
14.0±1.0*
2.0±0.4*
Control8226849
10.9±0.6
0.2±0.1
Level of significance * - p<0.05; SEM, standard error of the mean;Cdr, cells containing dicentrics and/or centric rings.

Table 124.0±0.5
3.9±0.4

Chromatid
aberrations
7.0±1.0
6.6±0.5

Frequency of symmetrical translocations detected by FISH and results of conventional
cytogenetic examination of persons living in the neighborhood of TMI.

FISH method
Cells(FG±SEM) ×(Fp±SEM) ×
scored-2-2
10
10
Population
3468
17
3024
0.49±0.12*
1.55±0.21
Control
13586
13
26849
0.10±0.03
0.32±0.05
FP, translocations/cells; FG, genomic translocation; Level of significance* p<0.05; SEM, standard error of the mean; Cdr, cells containing dicentric
and/or centric rings.
Groupsace

Cells
svoredTranslocations

Conventional scoring
Cdr(Cdr ± SEM) ×10-2
1450.46±0.12
0.02±0.01

dose-effect curves (33) a dose estimate of 0.30 ± 0.10
Gy was obtained. This dose is consistent with thesituation of acute radiation exposure. In the case of
prolonged and chronic exposure, which is more real
for the situation observed after the TMI accident, thedose assessment should involve the use of correction
factors 2-3. In this case an estimated dose for the
exposed group of people is 0.6-0.9 Gy.
Thus, the cytogenetic examination of people livingin the vicinity of the TMI nuclear power plant andpresumably exposed to radiation as a result of theaccident that took place in 1979 revealed in them anincreased level of stable and unstable chromosome
aberrations. This finding undoubtedly indicates thatthe examined group of people was affected byionizing radiation. The preliminary data on thefrequency of translocations obtained with the FISH
method made it possible to estimate an averageabsorbed dose for the given group of examined
persons. This value is 0.6-0.9 taking into account the
prolonged or chronic character of the exposure.

power plant is characterized by an increased
frequency of chromosome exchange aberrations dicentrics.
In 6 persons from the examined group the rate ofstable translocations was analyzed with the FISH
method. Cells with translocations were found inperipheral blood of all examined people, and the levelof these cells exceeded the control; in 3 persons thesedifferences were statistically significant. Table 12
demonstrates the data on the frequency oftranslocations in the group of examined people fromthe TMI neighborhood. It is seen that its value
exceeds 5-fold the control level. Here the frequency oftranslocations per genome (FG) and the results oftraditional cytogenetic analysis (analysis of unstable
aberrations) are also presented.
The ratio of stable and unstable aberrations is
assumed to be 1:1 (10, 11). The prevalence of cellswith translocations indicates that for a period of 15
years after the accident the level of cells with unstable
chromosome aberrations decreased due to theirelimination from the blood channel. Despite a rather
high level of cells with dicentrics, the retrospective
dose assessment in this case is hardly feasible.
The frequency of cells with translocations inperipheral blood of the examined individuals living in
the neighborhood of TMI is 0.49 ± 0.06 per 100 cells.
This value is close to the level of cells withtranslocations observed in the Altai population (seeTable 8). This fact permits the comparison of thesegroups with respect to absorbed radiation doses. Inview of a limited amount of data (the number of
examined persons, the number of metaphases
analyzed), an average absorbed dose was determined
for the whole examined group of people. On the basisof the obtained cytogenetic data and using calibration

Conclusion
The presented cytogenetic data obtained from theexamination of different groups of people exposed toionizing radiations permit us to make the following
conclusions.
The use of the cytogenetic method for examining
people exposed to radiation as a result of theChernobyl accident, nuclear explosions on the
Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, radioactive
contamination of the Techa river (Chelyabinsk region)
and as a result of the accident at the TMI nuclear
power plant (USA) revealed increased levels of
unstable and stable chromosome aberrations ascompared to the control.
213

Num ber ofobserved person

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Num ber ofcells with dicentrics per 100 cells
Fig. 3. The distribution of the inhabitants from the TMI region depending on the numberof cells with dicentrics.
dicentrics and centric rings. Otherwise, particularly
Dose estimations in the liquidators working inupon exposure to low doses, when much time has
Chernobyl made on the basis of the frequency ofpassed since the exposure occurred, the use of thisunstable chromosome aberrations (dicentrics andmethod of biological dosimetry is of low efficiency
centric rings) using the materials of examinations
and practically unfeasible in most cases.
carried out in 1986 yielded values from 81 to 474
Analysis of stable translocations is presently themGy.
most promising method in retrospective assessment of
The level of cells with unstable chromosome
irradiation doses. The efficiency of this methodaberrations was found to decline in time. At the same
particularly increased after the development of thetime, during 8 years after the accident in Chernobyl
technology for scoring stable translocations this level in the examined people exceeded the control
fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) - whichlevel.
permits the cytogenetic analysis to be performed
The examination of the populations living in therather easily (41, 42).
Techa river region (Muslyumovo), in the Altai region
The presented results of cytogenetic examinationand in the neighborhood of the TMI nuclear powerof the liquidators in Chernobyl demonstrate theplant (USA) revealed high levels of cells withpossibility of dose assessment within 8-9 years after
dicentrics and centric rings significantly exceeding thethe accident. The range of absorbed doses in thecontrol values. The detection of such chromosome
group of examined people appeared to be up to 1 Gyaberrations within 15-45 years after the action of
from the background level.
ionizing radiations suggests the preservation of a
Retrospective assessment of individual doses,
certain portion of cells with unstable chromosome
particularly in the low dose range, based on the FISH
aberrations in people with rather high doses.
method is impeded by the fact that in order to obtain
Multiaberrant cells found in the Altai population andreliable results it is necessary to analyze a rather large
in the population of Muslyumovo apparently suggest
number of cells, which is impossible for several
their exposure to densely-ionizing alpha-radiation
reasons. This task is simplified when we deal withfrom plutonium and its fission products.
retrospective assessment of a dose for a definite group
As has already been noted, the most widelyof people. The obtained cytogenetic data are a good
accepted and sufficiently accessible method of
illustration of that. The absorbed dose estimated withbiological dosimetry based on the analysis of thethe FISH method, taking into account the character of
frequency of unstable chromosome aberrations
exposure for the populations of three villages of the(dicentrics and centric rings) cannot be effectively
Altai region, is about 1 Gy and for the population of
employed for retrospective assessment of absorbed
the TMI region (USA) it varies from 0.6 to 0.9 Gy.
doses without clear-cut knowledge about the character
It should be noted in conclusion that theand rate of temporal elimination of cells containing
importance of analysis of stable translocations forsuch chromosome aberrations. Only when there is aretrospective dose assessment by no means minimizes
possibility of reconstructing the picture of an exposure
the role of cytogenetic examination with the use of the(dose range, exposure conditions, post-exposure time)
conventional method (analysis of unstableusing mathematical simulation one can try to makechromosome aberrations) that remains to be decisive
dose estimates by the frequency of cells with214

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215

Estimation of Absorbed Doses on the Basis of Cytogenetic Methods
Vladimir A. SHEVCHENKO, Galina P. SNIGIRYOVA*, Alexander V. RUBANOVICH
N.I. Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences
Gubkin st. 3, 117809 Moscow, Russia: shevchenko@vigg.ru*Moscow Research Institute of Diagnostics and Surgery,
Ministry of Health and Medical Industry of the Russian Federation, Moscow
stimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes.
Single breaks of DNA molecules result in theoccurrence in metaphases of chromosome fragments
clearly revealed by the cytogenetic analysis. It is
important to note that ionizing radiation induces
damages affecting both chromosome chromatids,
which leads to the appearance of paired fragments (incontrast to single fragments resulting from the damageof one chromatid, which is most often observed under
the influence of UV-rays and chemical mutagens). In
case there are two and more breaks of DNA molecules
in a cell, the broken ends can recombine, creating new
rearranged chromosomal structures (dicentricchromosomes, ring chromosomes, translocations,inversions, deletions). With the usual methods ofchromosome staining, the most clearly recorded undera microscope are dicentric chromosomes (achromosome rearrangement with two centromerestaking place due to the association of two broken
chromosomes) and centric ring chromosomes (achromosome closed in a ring as a result of two breaks at
the ends of this chromosome). As a rule, such
chromosome rearrangements are accompanied bypaired fragments (acentric terminal parts ofchromosomes). Analysis of the frequency of such
easily detectable chromosomal rearrangements inmetaphases has formed the basis for the developmentof methods of biological dosimetry.
Two types of chromosome aberrations can occur
under the influence of radiation: unstable (dicentrics,
centric rings, acentric fragments) and stable(symmetric translocations, pericentric inversions etc.).
The occurrence frequency of unstable aberration,
namely dicentrics [10], is most often used to estimate
absorbed doses. Sometimes the analysis takes into
account centric rings, but their frequency isinsignificant in comparison with the frequency ofdicentrics (approximately 5-10%) [11].
The advantage of the analysis of the level ofdicentrics in biodosimetric studies is that they areeasily found with a optical microscope without using
special methods of processing and staining. One of therequirements for correct application of this method of
dosimetry is to analyse metaphases of the first cell
cycle. This is due to the fact that during cellproliferation about 50% of dicentrics are lost during thefirst postradiation division. The control of the cell cycle

Introduction
Long-term studies in the field of radiation
cytogenetics have resulted in the discovery of
relationship between induction of chromosome
aberrations and the type of ionizing radiation, theirintensity and dose. This has served as a basis of
biological dosimetry as an area of application of therevealed relationship, and has been used in the practiceto estimate absorbed doses in people exposed toemergency irradiation [1,2]. The necessity of using themethods of biological dosimetry became most pressing
in connection with the Chernobyl accident in 1986, as
well as in connection with other radiation situations
that occurred in nuclear industry of the former USSR.
The materials presented in our works [3-8]demonstrate the possibility of applying cytogenetic
methods for assessing absorbed doses in populations ofdifferent regions exposed to radiation as a result ofaccidents at nuclear facilities (Chernobyl, the village
Muslyumovo on the Techa river, the Three Mile Island
nuclear power station in the USA where an accident
occurred in 1979). Fundamentally, new possibilities for
retrospective dose assessment are provided by the
FISH-method that permits the assessment of absorbed
doses after several decades since the exposure occurred[7]. In addition, the application of this method makes it
possible to restore the dynamics of unstable
chromosome aberrations (dicentrics and centric rings),
which is important for further improvement of themethod of biological dosimetry based on the analysis
of unstable chromosome aberrations [9].
The purpose of our presentation is a brief
description of the cytogenetic methods used inbiological dosimetry, consideration of statisticalmethods of data analysis and a description of concrete
examples of their application.

1. Analysis of chromosome aberrations for the
purposes of biological dosimetry
Under the action of radiation the genetic materialsof the human organism, as well as any livingorganisms, experience damages of DNA molecules
resulting in chromosome breakage and further invariouschromosomal
rearrangements.
Suchrearrangements of chromosomes are observed visuallyin metaphases of dividing cells, for example, in216

was performed with propidium iodide (PI) in antifade
solution.
Conventional chromosome analysis was carried out
exclusively in complete first division metaphases (M1)
identified by uniformly stained sister chromatids.
Recorded were all types of chromosomal damage but
data are presented only for dicentrics and ring
chromosome. About 300 cells were scored from eachexamined clean-up worker, each irradiated individualfrom contaminated regions and each control subject.
For scoring FISH-painted exchanges, each metaphasespread was analyzed with a filter set allowing asimultaneous observation of FITC and PI fluorescence.
The blue AMCA fluorescence of the bounddigoxigenin-labeled pancentromeric probe wasvisualized by using an ultraviolet excitation filter.
Chromosome morphology was additionally checkedwith a filter set providing only PI fluorescence.
Depending on the quality of FISH-painting between
300 and 2,000 complete metaphases were scored fromeach donor. Rearrangements involving painted target
chromosomes (yellow) and any other PI stained (red)chromosomes can be easily detected as two-colored
structures (yellow/red). Two-colored chromosomeswith one blue AMCA centromeric signal wereclassified either as complete or incomplete
symmetrical translocations or insertions. Two-coloredchromosomes with two centromeric signals wereclassified as dicentrics, dic(AB).
Genomic frequencies, FG, for symmetricaltranslocations or dicentrics were calculated from thefrequencies, Fp, of painted translocations or dicentrics
for the target chromosomes by inversion of theequation Fp=2.05fp(1-fp) FG earlier applied by Lucaset al. [20] where fp=0.192 is the fraction of DNA
contained in the painted chromosomes.

with the use of special differential staining ofchromosomes (FPG-method) allows us to avoid thismistake [12].
The spontaneous level of dicentrics ischaracterized by rather low values. Thus, the data on arelative level of dicentrics widely reported inpublications show a significant interlaboratory
variability of this value. The dicentric frequency incontrol groups may vary from 0 to 2.35⋅10-3 per cell[11]. The average value of the frequency of dicentrics
is within the range of 0.3-0.5⋅10-3 per cell. Lloyd et al.
[13] analyzed the data on the frequency of dicentrics incontrol groups of donors that were obtained in 65
different laboratories. An average dicentric level (theextreme values were not taken into account) made up
0.55⋅10-3 per cell. In our experiments the spontaneous
frequency of dicentrics for 82 donors having no contact
with ionizing radiation made up 0.1-0.2 per 1,000 cells(26,849 metaphases analyzed). Thus, it is necessary toobtain reliable results on the spontaneous frequency ofdicentrics in laboratories engaged in biologicaldosimetry in order to do correct assessment of radiation
doses.
In experiments with animals [14] and in cytogenetic
examinations of patients subjected to radiation therapy[15,16], it was shown that the frequency of dicentrics inlymphocytes of peripheral blood was comparable upon
irradiation in vivo and in vitro. This fact is the mainprerequisite for the use of calibration «dose - effect»
curves obtained in vitro in biological dosimetricstudies .
Special cytogenetic methods have been developed
to register other exchange chromosome aberrations(inversions, deletions, translocations). The best known
methods are G-banding and FISH. The latter wasapplied in our studies and therefore we shall discuss
here the potentialities of this method.
In our experiments lymphocyte cultures andchromosomes preparation were prepared according tostandard procedures [1]. Slides prepared for FISH
analyses were stored at -20° C under nitrogen
atmosphere until use. Slides for conventional analyses
were stored for 5 days at room temperature and werethen subjected to standard fluorescence plus Giemsa(FPG) staining.
Plasmid DNA of chromosome specific Hind III
pBS libraries of human chromosomes 1, 4 and 12 [17]was biotinylated [18]. A degenerate a-satellite DNA
pancentromeric probe was produced by in vitro
amplification using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
and labeled with digoxigenin [19]. Hybridization,
detection of bound biotin-labeled painting probes forthe target chromosomes with streptavidin-fluorescein
isothyocyanate (FITC) conjugate and the bounddigoxigenin-labeled pancentromeric probe with
AMCA-labeled (7-amino-4-methylcoumarin-3-aceticacid) antibodies were carried out [19]. Counterstaning

2. Statistical methods of biodosimetry
When processing the results of cytogenetic studies
of exclusive importance is the choice of adequate
methods of mathematical statistics. This is associatedwith specific difficulties faced when comparing thefrequencies of rare events. Numerous discussions
about the methods of biodosimetry and radiobiology ofsmall doses concerned, in the majority of cases, theproblems of reliability of statistical interpretations [21].
Statistical processing of the results of cytogenetic
analysis includes two necessary stages:
1) Calculation of the level of significance ofdifferences between irradiated and control groups of
persons.
2) Evaluation of irradiation doses at the individualand group levels using calibration.

2a. Statistical significance of observed
differences in aberration frequencies
217

Statistical analysis of cytogenetic data should begin
with considering the question about the reliableinterval of the aberration frequency in the irradiatedgroup. In the case of processing cytogenetic data, thisstandard procedure has a number of specific features.
We shall enter necessary designations. Let N0 cells
be examined for the control group, and n0 cells withchromosome aberrations be found among them. We
shall designate the corresponding numbers for theirradiated persons as N1 and n1. Then the frequencies ofu = ϕ −ϕ01

in the control and in the experiment, the primaryestimation of χ2 can be reduced to a very simple
formula:(n − n 0 )χ2 ≈ 1n 0 + n1

There is a very essential restriction for theapplication of the χ2 criterion in processing the resultsof cytogenetic analysis. The number of cells withaberrations both in the experiment and in the control(n0 and n1) should be more than 5. If this condition is
not met, the χ2 values may be overestimated and, thus,
the significance of differences. On the other hand, with
sufficiently large values of n0 and n1, the χ2 criterion is
as conservative as the Student’s test. Therefore, whenprocessing the results of cytogenetic analysis, it ispreferable to use the exact Fisher criterion, which
although complicated permits any doubts to be
removed in all situations.
The essence of this universal method consists inexact calculation of the probability of occurrence ofobserved differences under the assumption that theirradiated and control groups are indiscernible by theaberration frequency. According to the combinatorial
theory of probabilities with the given assumption, theprobability of detecting in the control no more than n0of cells with aberrations is equal to

N N
0 1
N +N
0
1

cells with chromosome aberrations are p0= n0/N0 and
p1=n1/N1. For their comparison various modificationsof the Student’s criterion are frequently used. For
example, u-statistics is calculated by the formulawhere

ϕ i = 2arcsin p i, i = 0, 1.

The differences can be considered as significant, if theobtained value u is higher than 2.
However, the real aberration frequencies are sosmall that the standard parametric criteria become tooconservative. For example, with the same number of
estimated metaphases (N0=N1) the value u isapproximately

n C N 0C N 1
0
k
n−k
P= ∑
N
C
k =0
n

u ≈ 2 ( n1 − n 0 ) .
It means, that 9 cells with aberrations in theexperiment do not statistically differ from 4 in control
cells with any volume of examined material. At thesame time the use of finer statistical tests can lead to
opposite results. It seems that in processing of
cytogenetic data one should completely abandon theStudent’s criterion and use nonparametric methods.
In some cases, it is enough to use the χ2 - test which
reduce to the calculation of the valueχ2 =(N 0 + N 1)(N 0 n1 − N 1n 0 ) 2

N 0N 1(N 0 + N 1 − n 0 − n1)(n 0 + n1)2

where ÑN
- is the number of combinations from N
nof elements on n, N =N0+N1 and n =n0+n1. This
probability defines the level of significance ofdifference by exact Fisher criterion [22]. With P <0.05, the aberration frequency in the control issignificant lower than in irradiated group (differences
are essentially nonrandom).
The formula for P includes the probabilities ofhypergeometric distribution, which describes theprobability of sample size n without returning to the setof size N. Upon sampling from a large set (N>>n),samples with returning can be replaced by samples
without returning. Thus, hypergeometric probabilities
are replaced by binomial ones, which considerably
reduces calculations. In the given approximation thelevel of significance is equal:.

The differences between the control and theexperiment are significant if the calculated value of χ2
is higher than 4. Otherwise, the observed differences
can be attributed to casual reasons.
In the analysis of cytogenetic data the number of
examined metaphases significantly exceeds the cellswith chromosome aberrations. In this case theexpression for χ2 is simplified:n0
P ≈ ∑ C n q k (1 − q ) n − kkk =0(N 0 n1 − N 1n 0 ) 22
χ ≈N 0N 1(n 0 + n1)

where q=N0/N. In this sum, the value of the term with
the number k=n0 exceeds the rest approximately by one

In practice, with same volume of examined material

218

Aberration frequency

y+1.96syy-1.96s

Dose
Dmin

D

Dmax

Fig 1. Calibration dose - effect curve with confidential intervals. A
scheme of determination of 95%-confidential interval of dose
estimation, corresponding to aberration frequency equal to y±s isgiven.
order of magnitude. It can be used for primaryy (1 − y )estimations of the significance of differences:s=n! N 0P ≈n !n !  N 
0 1

n0

n
 N 1 1


N 

N

is an average error in the aberration frequency y whena sample size is N. Then the upper ( lower ) estimate is
at a point of crossing of the level y+1.96 s (y-1.96 s)
with the lower (upper) confidential curve ofregression.

If this probability is higher than 0.05, the differences
between the experiment and the control cannot be
considered significant.
If the sample sizes in the experimental and control
groups are identical, the exact Fisher criterion allows
the following interpretation: P is the probability ofoccurrence of no more than n0 ‘heads’ upon nthrowings of a symmetric coin. Let, for example, twoaberrations be found in the control and 8 chromosome
aberrations in experimental group with identicalnumbers examined metaphases. Can such differences
arise for purely casual reasons? What is the probability
to make an error when asserting that the control groupdiffers from the experimental one? According to thelast formula, this probability is exactly equal to theprobability of occurrence of no more than two “heads”
in 10 throwings of a symmetric coin.

An alternative approach consists in complete
abandoning the application of regression equations anda direct use of calibration data presented in tabulated
form. The appropriate mathematical theory is rather
complex and uses Bayes’s approach [2]. The theory
permits a complete construction of the density
distribution of probability of dose estimation
corresponding to the observable frequency ofaberrations. Numerical examples show that thismethod, though preferable in mathematical rigidness,does not essentially change evaluations obtained by the
regression method [11].

3. Estimation of absorbed doses on the basis ofanalysis of unstable and stable chromosome
aberrations

2b. Estimation of irradiation doses on the basisof calibration data
Estimation of individual doses of irradiation by theaberration frequency can be conducted on the basis ofcomparison with previously obtained calibrated data.
As a rule, these data are presented by equations oflinear or linear-square regression. In this case, the dose
estimate is obtained as a result of simple substitution of
the observed aberration frequency in a corresponding
equation of regression. The procedure of determinationof confidence intervals for dose estimates is shown in
Fig. 1 taken from [1].
Let the observed aberration frequency is equal to y±s, where

The basis for application of cytogenetic methods inbiological dosimetry is a clear-cut dependence of thefrequency of chromosome rearrangements on the dosesof ionizing radiation, which has been repeatedly
demonstrated in experiments. Having at disposal suchdose dependencies obtained in vitro under the action ofdifferent kinds of ionizing radiation on cells(calibration curves), it is possible to attack the problem
to estimate absorbed doses in irradiated people byanalyzing the frequency of chromosome aberrations[1].
The pattern of a «dose - effect» curve for dicentrics
and other chromosomal aberrations depends on the219Table 1. Coefficients of the equation y = αD + β D2 for dicentrics obtained after irradiation ofhuman peripheral blood lymphocytes by various types of radiation.
Kinds of radiation
α ± S.E. [10-1Gy-1]
β ± S.E. [10-2Gy-2]
60
Co γ, (0.017 Gy/m)
0.090 ± 0.400
4.17 ± 0.28
60
Co γ, (0.5 Gy/m)
0.107 ± 0.041
5.55 ± 0.28
220 kV X-ray (0.5 Gy/m)
0.404 ± 0.030
5.98 ± 0.17
14.5 MeV neutrons
1.790 ± 0.150
7.40 ± 1.39
Fission spectrum neutrons, E=1.6 MeV
3.690 ±0.210
13.34 ± 1.73
Fission spectrum neutrons, E=0.7 MeV
8.350 ± 0.100
centric rings) for estimation of an irradiation dose ispossible mainly after a single rather uniform radiation
exposure in early (3-4 months) periods. So, in the workof Brewen et al. [23] the case of an emergency
irradiation from a 60Co source is described. Using thephantom and film-dosimetry the dose received by the
injured person was reconstructed. It made up 127 R.
On the basis of cytogenetic analysis the dose made up
144 R. The biological dose corresponded well to thedata physical dosimetry.

types of ionizing radiation and its energy
characteristics. The analysis of the generalized data ofdifferent authors on the dependence of the frequency
of dicentrics in peripheral blood lymphocytes on thedose and type of radiation is presented in the work by
D.C. Lloyd et al. [13].
For low-energetic radiation this dependence isusually described by the linear-quadratic equation y = c+ αD + βD2, where с is the spontaneous level ofdicentrics. For radiation with high LET the dose-effectdependence is linear y = c + αD. As an example, themean coefficients of the equations of calibration curves[11] are given in Table 1. The biological efficiency ofdifferent kinds of ionizing radiation can be judged by
the ratio of coefficients.

Retrospective estimation of doses by thefrequencies of unstable chromosome aberrations seems
to be problematic today. The basic reason is theelimination of cells with unstable aberrations fromcirculating blood. However there are works where
possible approaches for solving this problem are
discussed. These approaches are based on the analysisof the processes of elimination ofcells withaberrations, or on the analysis of the distribution ofaberrations among cells [24,25,9].
The data collected from cytogenetic examinationsof patients subjected to radiation therapy [26,27] andpeople injured as a result of accidents at nuclear
enterprises [28-31] have allowed the quantitativedescription of the processes of elimination of cells withunstable chromosome aberrations and to estimate theduration of the lymphocyte life. Unfortunately, thesedata are not unambiguous. The parameterscharacterizing the elimination of lymphocytes

The biological dose calculated on the basis of thefrequency of dicentrics with the use of a calibration
curve suitable for a given radiation situation isequivalent to the dose of acute uniform irradiation. The
lower limit allowing a reliable (95 % probability)
estimation of a dose (as a value equivalent to the doseof acute irradiation) depends on the number ofanalyzed cells, which is clearly demonstrated by Prof.
Bauchinger in Table 2. In reality, with the analysis ofabout 5,000 cells the lower limit of reliable dose
estimation is about 100 mGy for gamma - radiation and
50 mGy for fission spectrum neutrons.
Successful application of the analysis of thefrequency of unstable aberrations (dicentrics andTable 2. Cell number and significantly elevated dicentric frequencies as compared to a
background level (14 per 35,500 cells) required for the detection of a dose of 60Co γ-rays(0.5 Gy•min-1) with p = 0.05.
Cell number Dicentrics significant
Dose (Gy)
100
1
0.63
200
2
0.56
500
2
0.31
1000
3
0.24
2000
4
0.17
5000
6
0.10
10000
10
0.074
20000
17
0.056
50000
37
0.041
100000
70
0.033
220

in the given case). In principle, the study may involveother painted chromosomes as well. Depending on thesize of painted chromosomes and their number, theanalysis may include different portions of the entire
genome. The calculation of the translocation frequency
per whole genome is made using (as indicated in
section 1 of this work) the formula of Lucas et al. [20]which takes into account the size and number ofpainted chromosomes.
Using this methodology the absorbed doses havebeen evaluated for a group of 52 liquidators,
inhabitants of the Altai territory irradiated about 45
years ago from nuclear explosions on the
Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, and people living in theregion of the Three Mile Island power station at which
there was a nuclear accident in 1979 accompanied byan emission of radionuclides to the environment. The
results of these studies are presented in a special work.

considerably vary depending on individual
radiosensitivity of the donors, conditions of irradiationand the action of various additional environmental
factors. There is no universal curve, especially forcases of partial irradiation. Also there is a lot of
uncertainty in the estimation of the half-life period ofcells with unstable chromosome aberrations which
varies from 110 days to 4 years according to different
authors. In our studies on the estimation of the half-life
period of cells with unstable chromosome aberrations
by calculating the ratio of the frequency of stable
aberrations (estimated by the FISH method) to thefrequency of unstable aberrations, this period is 4 years[9]. Apparently, retrospective dose estimation on thebazis of the frequency of unstable aberrations can beused taking into account the elimination process ofcells with aberrations, when it is necessary to estimate
an average dose for a group of irradiated individuals. In
case of individual dosimetry, the dose can be
determined only with a rather wide confidence interval.
For the purposes of retrospective dose estimation
the FISH method is most often recommended atpresent. Stable chromosome aberrations revealed withthis method are not eliminated in time, therefore, thedose estimation based on the analysis of the frequencyof such stable chromosome aberrations (translocations)is possible within many years after exposure to ionizing
radiation.
Biological dose estimates were derived from anacute in vitro 137Cs gamma-ray calibration curve (doserate 0.5 Gy/min) for FISH-painted translocations(chromosomes 1, 4 and 12) obtained in the laboratoryof M. Bauchinger [19] modyfied taking into the data
for the control material obtained in our laboratory:
y= (0.96±0.27)⋅10-3 + (0.95±0.21)⋅10-2⋅D+ (1.45±0.14)⋅10-2⋅D2,
where y is the frequency of observed FISH-painted
translocations (chromosomes 1,4 and 12), D - theabsorbed dose, Gy. On the basis of this calibration
curve with the application of the FISH method, theestimation of absorbed doses in the Chernobyl
liquidators within 8-10 years from the irradiation was
carried out [7]. To this and, an experimentally obtained
value of the frequency of FISH-painted translocations
is substituted in the presented linear-quadratic equation
and a corresponding D value is derived by solving theequation.
For instance, in case 1.6 translocations per 100 cells(the frequency 0.016) were observed in an irradiatedpatient on the basis of a calibration curve, itcorresponded to the absorbed dose of 0.77 Gy (95%
confidence interval from 0.3 up to 1.10 Gy). If 5translocations per 100 cells (the frequency 0.05) wereobserved, the absorbed dose made up to 1.54 Gy.
It should be noted that this calibration curve
concerns only a part of cell translocations including
FISH-painted chromosomes (chromosomes 1, 4 and 12

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222

Peculiarities of Biological Action of Low Irradiation Doses and Their Probable
Relation to the Health State of Participants of Chernobyl Accident Liquidation
E.B. BURLAKOVA*, A.N. GOLOSHCHAPOV, N.V. GORBUNOVA, S.M. GUREVICH, G.P. ZHIZHINA,
A.I. KOZACHENKO, A.A. KONRADOV, D.B. KORMAN, E.M. MOLOCHKINA, L.G. NAGLER, I.B.
OZEROVA, S.I. SKALATSKAYA, M.A. SMOTRYAEVA, O.A. TARASENKO,
Yu.A. TRESHCHENKOVA, V.A. SHEVCHENKO*Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences
Kosygib st. 4, Moscow 117334, Russia
In the present paper, we’ll briefly show the
principal results. In all reports of 1986-1990, it was told
about the changes in health state of liquidators after
their work in the radiocontaminated areas. Sseveral
hundreds of liquidators were examined in the militarysurgery clinics of Military Medicine Academy in St.
Petersburg. after working at Chernobyl. Morefrequently found for the first time were hypertonic
disease(20.8%),
chronic
gastritis(14%),
neurocirculatory disorders (12.2%), ischemic heartdisease (3.7%), chronic hepatitis (1.8%), chronic
bronchitis (1.8%), disorder of biliary duct (1.2%) andothers. These data are especially verifiable because theMilitary Medicine Academy had the information on
health state of all liquidators (militaly men) for anumber of years before the accident. Moscow institutes(MORCI, Institute of Diagnostics and Surgery of
Russian Federation Ministry of Health, Institute of
Urology of Russian Federation Ministry of Health) alsostudied the disease incidence of liquidators mobilized
by military commissariats. The most frequent were thediseases of endocrine and nervous system,
cardiovascularsystem,digestive
organs,musculoskeletal system, and disturbances in male
reproduction system. Long-term observation of thyroid
state showed changes in its function in 10% of
examined people.
Nearly 1,100 liquidators were registered at the
Research Institute of Medical Radiology of Armenian
Ministry of Health and subjected to dynamic
observation. The observation of their health state in the
period from 1987 to 1990 showed a tendency of
increase of level of nervous system diseases (from 31%
in 1987 to 51% in 1990). The increase took placeprincipally for account of organic diseases of nervous
system with certain decrease of primarily grown
functional disturbances. There were also increases ofgastrointestinal and respiratory system diseases. Someregularities of changes were observed in the immune
status of liquidators. The examination of patients
revealed the immuno-deficit of cellular type, which
was characterized principally by decrease of
T-dependent link of immunity.

Chernobyl catastrophe is unique not only becauseof its scale - the amount of released radionuclides, thearea of polluted territories, the collective dose obtainedby the population and those who took part in theliquidation of accident consequences - but also in
connection with extraordinary strong “iodine blow”
and existence of millions of people who obtained“low” irradiation doses which had been considered
before as absolutely safe. Therefore, to reveal themechanisms of the action of low dose irradiation andtheir biomedical consequences is one of fundamental
problems solution of which is necessary to developscientifically grounded criteria of radiation safety.
The latest researches had proved definitively thatthe low doses cause multiple changes in cells, which
remain for a long time after irradiation and provokechanges in their functional activity, and that theprocesses in cells initiated by low doses differ fromones caused by high doses. At low doses, “dose-effect”
dependencies are not linear considerably, indicating
incompetence of risk assessment by extrapolation of
results from high to low doses.
Therefore, the pre-Chernobyl radiobiologicalscience could not forecast the scales of healthdisturbance, and could not propose prophylactic
measures forestalling the accelerated increase of
disease incidence in both adult and children
population.
The results of medical observations andfundamental investigations in recent years had changed
our attitude considering low doses of irradiation to beabsolutely safe and, correspondingly, our attitude
towards the problems connected with atomic industry
development, radioactive wastes burial and others.
During the activity of the Commission of USSR
Supreme Soviet on establishing causes andconsequences of the Chernobyl accident, we received
reports of different medical institutions on the state ofhealth of participants of the accident liquidation(liquidators) as well as of adult and children population
living on radioactively polluted territories. The detailed
account of observation materials was presented in the
2nd volume of book “Chernobyl Catastrophe. Causes
and Consequences” [1].

223

(Russian)
Radiation-Epidemiological
Register,presently, a growth of morbidity indices has beenregistered [3] for many classes of diseases both amongliquidators and among all irradiated population as awhole. First of all, we must notice continuous growths
of indices of malignant neoplasm incidence: in 1990 151 per 100,000, in 1991 - 175, in 1992 - 212 (128 morbidity of liquidators normalized to the age
distribution of male population of Russia in given year)
and in 1993 - 233 (140). The morbidity indices formalignant neoplasm among liquidators were 50%
higher than the corresponding indices of the general
statistical data on Russia population in 1992, and 65% in 1993.
The indices of morbidity of liquidators for
endocrine system diseases exceed by 18.4 times thecontrol ones, for psychical disorders - 9.6 times, forblood circulation diseases - 4.3 times, and all classes of
diseases - 1.5 times. The morbidity indices dynamics
for all these classes of diseases for liquidators has atendency to increase (Table 1) [4].
The majority of people affected by the Chernobyl
accident consequences are suffering changes in the
immune system [5]. These changes concern mainly
thymus - central organ of immune system - andT-lymphocytes which develop in it. The after-effects ofthese cells disfunction can be very diverse because they
fulfill key functions in protection from viruses andmicrobes, in anti-tumor resistance, and in immune
reactions regulation. Thymus hormones content inblood serum of irradiated people is reduced by 3-5times in average, which causes suppression of
T-lymphocytes protective functions by 3-4 times. The
risk of immuno-deficits development increases in theaffected people, accompanied by the decrease of
immune protection and the increase of frequency ofdevelopment of malignant tumors and infectious
diseases. The immunological changes in the Chernobyl
accident sufferers are similar to the manifestation of
immune system ageing [5].
Thus, the fact of serious change of health state ofliquidators is undoubted. However, disagreement exist

The Ukraine State Register contained 180 thousandof those who participated in liquidation of the accident
consequences. The incidence of endocrine and immune
systems diseases was characterized by significant
annually increase, especially in men. Thus in 1990, as
compared with 1988, disease incidence in men grew by
3.7-7.1 times. The dynamics of blood and bloodformation organs diseases demonstrated growth ofincidence both in men and women: in 1990 it was 5
times as high as it was in 1988. The incidence ofdiseases of nervous and blood circulation systems
increased by 2-3 times as compared with 1988.
We must notice that in that period physicians could
not practically reveal the dose dependence forliquidators irradiated in doses 10-20 cGy. In somecases, a group of liquidators who obtained irradiationdose 25 cGy and higher, demonstrated higher
incidence of mentioned diseases. However, there wereno clear dose dependence on the whole. The largest
information in that period was in the All-Union
Distributed Register which contained 226.9 thousandof liquidators of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus [2].
According to the Register, the statistically significant
growth (1.5-2 times) of general disease incidence ofliquidators was observed both in separate countries andin CIS as a whole. For five classes of diseases - 1)
nervous system diseases, 2) psychical disorders, 3)
blood and blood formation organs diseases, 4)
digestive organs diseases, 5) vegetovascular distonia dose dependence was found: the indices of morbidityof liquidators who obtained dose higher than 30 cGy
were significantly higher than those of group with
irradiation dose 0-5 cGy. The conclusions about
negative effect of irradiation on health state ofliquidators were not accepted seriously by medical
officials in that period. Many tried to explain things by
the increase of diseases «revealing» rather than by theincrease of morbidity. Others tried to relate all changes
in health state to the results of «radiophobia»,
emotional stress without any connection with
irradiation action. However, in recent years the next
conclusions are followed. By the data of National

Table 1 Incidence of 12 classes of disease among liquidators per 100 thousand people [4]Classes of disease
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Infectious and parasitical
36
96
197
276
325
360
388
Neoplasm
20
76
180
297
393
499
564
Malignant neoplasm
13
24
40
62
85
119
159
Endocrine system diseases
96335
764 1340 2020 2850 3740
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs
15
44
96
140
191
220
226
Psychical disorders
621 9487 1580 2550 3380 3930 4540
Diseases of nervous system and sense organs
232
790 1810 2880 4100 5850 8110
Diseases of blood circulation organs
183
537 1150 1910 2450 3090 3770
Respiratory system diseases
645 1770 3730 5630 6390 6950 7010
Diseases of digestion organs
82
487 1270 2350 3210 4200 5290
Urogenital system diseases
34
112
253
424
646
903 1180
Diseases of skin and hypodermic tissue
46
160
365
556
686
747
756
224

1993
414
621
184
4300
218
4930
9890
4250
7110
6100
1410
726

It is widely known that irradiation not only
causes specific reactions but also has «stress»24
2.0
component. Probably, like as specificreactions, «stress» reactions are connected20with dosage and dose rate of irradiation.
However, while «dose-effect» dependencies
1.5
116
are well enough studied for death of irradiatedcells, for cell transformation, and for such2
injuries in DNA molecule as one- and1.0
12
two-thread breaks of DNA-protein joints etc.,
they are studied quite less for «radiation
8//
stress». For a long period, we were occupied in
0.5//
the study of oxidation stress which represents
4//
a complex of organism reactions in response//to the action of diverse stress factors.
0.0
0
//
//
0 6 12 18 24 60
180
Therefore, we undertook investigations ofDose (cGy)those characteristics as well as of a number ofFig. 1 Percentage of spleen DNA binding with cellulose other biochemical and biophysical indices,
nitrate (CN) filters (1) and microviscosity of lipids of nuclear with regards to their dependencies onmembranes of liver (2) of irradiated mice (irradiation rate: irradiation dosage and dose rate. We
considered these studies are necessary
6cGy/day).
because changes in active forms of oxygen,lipids peroxidation, antioxidant status of
12.2
cells, organism organs are important
1.5
characteristics of pathogenesis, gravity and1.8
possibility of treatment, and prognosis of2such diseases as malignancy, radiation
1.4
sickness, neuro-physical disorders, diabetes,11cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases,
digestion and many others [6, 7].
3
0.6
Velocity of alkaline elution of DNA of5lymphocytes and liver was studied as well as
0.2
that of neutral elution and adsorption on
0.5
-0.2
4
cellulose nitrate (CN) filters of spleen DNA,
structural (using EPR-method of spin
-0.6
sounds)characteristics
ofnuclear,mitochondrial,
synaptic,
erythrocytal
and
0
1.2
2.4
3.6
4.8
6
7.2
8.4
9.6
leukocytal membranes. Besides, for thecharacterization of cell functional activity,
Dose (cGy)
Fig. 2 Dose dependencies of alteration of different structural the activity and isoforms of aldolase andparameters of genome and nuclear membranes of organs of lactate dehydrogenase enzymes were studied
togetherwiththeactivityof
irradiated mice (irradiation rate: 0.6 cGy/day).
acetylcholinesterase,
superoxide
dismutase,
1. DNA retention with CN filters
glutathione
peroxidase,
velocityof
2. Content of MIF-1 fragment in spleen DNA
superoxide anion-radicals formation, the3. Alkali elution constant of lymphocytes DNA
composition and antioxidant activity of lipids
4, 5. Rotational correlation time of spin probesof above mentioned membranes, and theabout immediate cause of diseases; the effect ofsensitivity of cells, membranes, DNA, organism to theradiation or of psycho-emotional reactions after
action of additive injuring factors [8-14].
working in the accident zone. Presently the
The bimodal dependence of effects on dose wasinternational organizations (WHO, IAEA) recognize
revealed for all studied parameters. Namely, effects
as the main cause of increase of thyroid cancer inincreased at low doses, reached maximum (for low
liquidators and children population after the accident
doses), then decreased (in some cases the effect sign
their irradiation with radioactive iodine, I-131. The rest
reversed) and thereafter increased with the increase ofof diseases, they suppose, are provoked bydosage. For example, Figure 1 presents the data on
psycho-emotional reactions.
changes of adsorption of spleen DNA andmicroviscosity of nuclear membranes lipids,

Relative unit: 1,2% binding DNA

2

Relative unit: 3,4,5

Viscosity of nuclear m em brane lipids(relative unit)

1225Relative unit

Rotational correlation time of spin probes I ans II
relative unit

adduced about the changes of genome
structural characteristics and nuclear
membranes at the irradiation with gamma-raysIwith lower intensity (0.6 cGy/day). The
displacement of maximum to the direction of2lower doses with decrease of irradiationII
intensity is the general regularity of dose
dependencies for studied parameters.
1.5
The study of genome of irradiated animals
by adsorption methods on CN filters in neutral
medium permits to observe changes of DNA
conformation and to assess the character of1
recognition of DNA specific sequences by
restrictases [15]. As it is seen in Figure 2, atthe irradiation intensity of 0.6 cGy/day, the
0.5change of adsorption on CN filters of DNA of
0
20
40
60
spleen (curve 1) has the maximum at 1.2 cGy,
Dose (cGy)and at the dose of 5.4 cGy the adsorption value
doesn’tdiffer practically from the control one.
Fig.3 Dose dependencies of alteration of microviscosity ofThe
resultsof restriction analysis of DNA ofdifferent membrane areas of erythrocytes of mice
mice
spleenusing endonuclease EcoRI,(irradiation rate: 6 cGy/day).
expressed in the change of contribution of
3interspersed repetitions MIF-I in DNA andreflecting the genome structure reconstruction,
are represented on curve 2. The dose2
dependencies of change of mentioned
parameters show the extreme character similar
2
to the shift of DNA adsorption maximum to theside of lower doses (1.2 cGy). Analogous but
inverse extreme dependence with the minimumat 1.2 cGy was obtained also for the constant of1
velocity of DNA alkaline elution of mice blood
1
lymphocytes (curve 3).
The changes of nuclear membranes
3
structural characteristics (Figure 2, curves 4, 5)
pass over their extremes at the dose 2.4 cGy,
while the changes of microviscosity of various
1
0
0
10
20
30 areas of membranes are inverse to each other .
Unlike the DNA structural characteristics
Time after irradiation (days)(adsorption), the value of microviscosity of
Fig.4 Post-radiation changes of structural characteristics both membrane phases differs considerably
of DNA and nuclear membranes of mice irradiated with from the control in the dose interval of 6-9.6
1.2 cGy dose (0.6 cGy/day).
cGy. The comparable scale of synchronous
1. DNA retention with CN filters
structural shifts in DNA and membranes under
2,3. Rotational correlation time of spin probes
the influence of such low irradiation doses with
low intensity deserves attention.
characterized by the time of rolling correlation of spin
In Figure 3 the data are presented on the change ofsound (I) (ι1) in dependence of irradiation dose at the
microviscosity of erythrocytal membranes lipids. Like
intensity 6 cGy/day. Like DNA structuralin all preceding cases, the maximum is observed at low
characteristics, microviscosity of membranes lipids
doses. We used the data on changes of kinetic
changes drastically with irradiation dose, and reachedparameters of membrane and cytosol enzymes in cells
the extreme values were at 6-12 cGy. Note that theof irradiated animals for assessing the cells functional
level of changes obtained at 6 cGy dose are comparable
activity. The changes of kinetic characteristics ofwith changes of structural characteristics ofenzymes take place at irradiation doses of 1.2-2.4 cGy.
macromolecules at 20-30 times higher doses.
At low-dosage the values of maximum and the dose
under which it was reached depended on the nature ofstudied object and dose rate. In Figure 2 the data are1

We used 2 spin sounds; one of them (I) was placed in
more hydrophobic area, another - in more hydrophilic one.

226

manifested as alteration of structuralcharacteristics of DNA and membranes (Figure4) and kinetic parameters of enzymes during all
the time of study (27 days) after the irradiation.
The
post-radiation
changesofallmacromolecular structures showed non-linear
character with gradual return to the control level.
Thus, after the irradiation of mice at 1.2 cGy (0.6cGy/day) which causes the maximum effect, thepost-radiation shifts of this parameter wereobserved.
The data on the change of DNA adsorption
and membranes microviscosity after theirradiation at 1.2 cGy dose are compared in Figure 4.
The post-radiation changes for lipid sound 1 (curve 2)
are expressed stronger than those for sound 2 (curve 3)
and inverse to those for DNA as in Figure 2.
The results obtained indicates that there is a close
correlation between the processes in mice membranes
and genome under the action of low-dosage ionizing
radiation both during the irradiation process andafterwards.
We explain the non-linear bimodal dependence ofeffect on dose on the basis of the idea of the existenceof a gap between effects which cause injuries inbioobjects and initialize their recovery systems (Figure5). In this connection, while the recovery (oradaptation) systems don’t function with full efficiency,
the effect increases with dose increase, then decreases(or remains on the same level) as the recovery
processes become strengthening. Then the effect may
be eliminated or may reverse its sign, and increases
again with the dose increase when injuries predominate
over the recovery. However, in spite of a number ofexperimental factors confirming such view point, we
can’t make yet the final conclusion about themechanism of such dose-effect dependence in the areaof low doses of low-intensive irradiation. Alternative
explanations of this dependence are presented, e. g. theidea of existence of especial pool of cells sensitive tothe action of low-intensive irradiation [17], and anumber of others [18, 19].

Table 2 Changes of ratio of velocity of superoxide
radicals generation (VO2-) to SOD-activity in liver
microsomes and submitochondrial particles(SMP) of
irradiated mice (irradiation intensity: 0.6 cGy/day).
Dose, cGy
VO2-/Asod microsome
VO2-/Asod (SMP)
0
1
1
0.6
1.8
1.6
1.2
3.4
0.8
2.4
1.7
1.8
5.4
2.0
1.2
Long-term preservation of altered kinetic properties of
enzymes was registered after the irradiation at 1.2 cGy.
The disturbance of regulation functions of enzymes
was also observed due to changes in correlation
between enzyme forms of lactate dehydrogenase andaldolase isoenzyme, and in correlation between
enzyme activity and its substrate (superoxide
dismutase) (Table 2). Thus, the cells functional activity
changes non-linearly with the dose after the
low-intensive irradiation. An important factor is thechange of sensitivity of separate macromolecules, cells
and organism to additive influences of injuring factors
both of the same and of other natures. We discovered inour experiments that low-dosage irradiation causes anincrease of hemolysis of erythrocytes in mice, andchanges the central nervous system sensitivity to theneuromediators, agonists and antagonists. It alsochanges response of cells to regular influences andrepeated irradiation, introducing radiosensitizers andprotectors.
The sensitivity of cells of spleen and bone marrowof irradiated animals to the secondary exposure at 6, 7
and 8 Gy doses was studied in the same conditions. It
was found that the cells irradiated at low doses haveother sensitivity to the secondary exposure [16].
In order to create the scientific bases for forecasting
the remote effects of low-intensive irradiation,
regularities of early after-effects on macromolecularlevel were studied. The after-effect of low-dose
irradiation to mice, observed in the present study,

A

B

DamegeRepairEffectEffect+Result0

Irradiation dose

Dose

Fig. 5 Scheme of dose dependencies of injury, repaiar and the net effect of irradiation (A) andtypes of dose-response curves (B).
227

Table 3 Dependence of different biochemical parameters on irradiation rate.
Criterion

Biochemical parameter

Radiationchemical releasefor 1 cSv
Equal-effectdoses, cSv

PB DNAιсI of lipids
MDA
PB DNAιсI of lipids
MDA

Low-intensive
maximum (minimum)
values
Doses under which the
maximum is reached, cSv, andtime needed to reach it (days)

PB DNAιсI of lipids
MDA
PB DNAιсI of lipids
MDA

Besides, we ought to take into account that, asradiation intensity decreases, the contribution of
membranes injuries into the total cells injury increases
and there appear new ways of changes in genital
apparatus, which are connected with membranes
injuries under radiation action.
It is very important to establish the relation between
effects at low-intensive dosage and dose rate. But the
non-linear and polymodal character of dose
dependence makes it difficult to investigate the role ofdose rate.
In this connection, we chose several parameterswhich reflect radiation influences, and studied theirchanges at dose rate values differing by10 times. Table
3 presents:
1). values of effects per unit dose on initial stages ofdose dependencies.
2). doses at which equal effects are observed.
3). values of low-dosage maximum (minimum).
4). doses and time when maximum (minimum) isreached.
Binding percentage of DNA (DNA BP) on
cellulose nitrate (CN) filters, properties of viscosity oflipids of erythrocytal membranes (ι1) and MDA in
lipids of erythrocyte membranes were compared. As
seen in Table 3, a decrease of irradiation dose rate
results in a increase of «radiation-chemical» yield, andin a decrease of the doses under which the equal effects
and maximum values of studied characteristics areobserved.
The fact of inverse dependence on dose rate in thechanges of indices related directly (MDA) or indirectly(ι1) to lipids peroxidation of membranes is not
surprising because theoretical calculation forradiation-chemical yield of peroxides resulted from

Irradiation dose power, cSv/day
0.6
6
1
0.3
20*10-2
7.5*10-2-2
3*10-2
9*10
0.6
2.0
2.4
12
5.4
30
0.6
12.0
5.4
20.0
9.6
26.0
0.6
7.2
5.4
18.0
9.6
18.0
2.2
3.0
1.2
1.8
1.2
2.1
1.2 (2)6 (1)2.4 (4)12 (2)
2.4 (4)24 (4)

irradiation gives an inverse dependence of effect ondose rate [20].
All these data show that the organism reaction to
low-dosage irradiation is a function of irradiation dose,
irradiation dose rate, and time since the beginning of
irradiation.
Thus, the investigation showed that:1). dose-effect dependence shows complicatednon-linear character for all studied characteristics
at low irradiation doses,
2). low irradiation doses change the sensitivity ofbiomacromolecules, cells, organs, organisms to theaction of other damaging factors,
3). long-term after-effects are observed,
4). inverse dependence is observed in a number ofchanges,5). membrane is an important critical target at theaction of low-intensive irradiation.
The experimental data indicate that all indices ofoxidation stress are changing considerably under theaction of low-intensive irradiation. The stress reactions
at low irradiation doses manifest the same activity as
they do at 20-30 times higher doses. The dose-effectdependence for them is also of non-monotonous,
non-linear character. We suppose that these changes
can be sufficient to cause various diseases in theorganism of liquidators and the people irradiated as aresult of the Chernobyl accident.
It is not the psycho-emotional stress, but it is thestress component of low-intensive radiation that can be
responsible for the change of health state of liquidators
irradiated by low doses.

228

obtained in the morning with empty stomach.
The parameters which characterize the state of LP
regulation system (antioxidant status of organism)
were determined in this study. The results are adducedon Table 4.
It is of great interest to clear the question of
The statistical analysis of results was carried out
existence of similar regularities in the population ofusing a number of statistical methods. Values ofirradiated people. Regretfully, epidemiologicalStudent, Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney, Kolmogoroff’s
examinations are not always implemented on the level
criteria, criterion of signs; and the multi-factor
permitting to make certain quantitative conclusions. In
Mahalanobis’s distance between the groups
this connection, we studied the antioxidant(Hotelling’s T-statistics) were evaluated.
characteristics of plasma and cells of blood of
The liquidators group significantly differs from theliquidators who had worked at Chernobyl after thecontrol group in the majority of studied parameters.
accident.
The content of the most active natural antioxidant In order to study the effect of ionizing radiation on
vitamin E (tocopherol) in blood plasma and thethe system of regulation of peroxidation of lipids (LP)quantity of recovered glutathione in liquidators differ
of man, the examination of 104 persons who hadfrom those in «control». Significant differences were
worked in 1986-1987 in the zone of the Chernobyl
found also in the content of antioxidant proteins:
accident (liquidators) and 34 persons who had notglutathione peroxidase and ceruloplasmin, as well as inregistered contact with radioactivity («control» group)
the non-saturation degree of plasma lipids.
was held.
The membranes of erythrocytes of liquidators’
The examination of liquidators was carried out inblood differed also from the «control» in the quantity of
1992-1993 during the course of routine observation
LP secondary products (malonic dialdehyde content),
without connection with concrete diseases. All
membrane lipids fluidity and degree of lipids
observed liquidators were considered as absolutely
non-saturation (Table 4).
healthy people though many of them talked about
Thereby, the people subjected to the ionizing
various complaints during the examination, of generalradiation action in various degrees have alterations incharacter as a rule (fatigue, irritation, headache,the LP regulation system after a long time period (5-6
susceptibility to colds and so on).
years after the exposure).
Liquidators and the control group did not differ in
It is well known that the physico-chemical systemage. The average age of the examined liquidators wasof regulation of cell metabolism by membranes exists
43, and that of the control group was 45. Well tested
in the organism. Principal components of this systemand standard biochemical and biophysical methods
are generation of peroxidation radicals of lipids andwere used for measuring the indices [21-26].
antioxidants, the lipids composition, fluidity
The object of investigation was cubital vein blood(microviscosity) of membrane lipid content,
Table 4 Parameters of organism antioxidant status in liquidators and «control».

Biochemical, biophysical, cytological andimmunological changes in blood of participantsof liquidation of the consequences of theChernobyl APS accident in 1986-1987.

ControlLiquidators(average)(average)
DLpl (double links in plasma lipids), number of DL/mg of lipids. 1018
0.32
0.33
Dlel (double links in erythrocyte lipids), number of DL/mg of lipids. 1018
0.303
0.30
Vitamin E (conventional units)
20.90
19.05
Vitamin A (conventional units)
2.99
2.85
Recovered glutathione
19.53
22.19
SOD (superoxide dismutase)125.41
115.11
GP (glutathione peroxidase)
7.20
8.87
GR (glutathione reductase)
5.12
4.86
Hem1 (hemolysis of erythrocytes)
7.23
7.19
Hem2 (hemolysis of erythrocytes after LP initiation)
7.62
7.81
MDA1 (malonic dialdehyde in erythrocytes)
1.93
2.22
MDA2 (malonic dialdehyde in erythrocytes after LP initiation)
1.95
2.24
1.08
1.29
ιсI (time of rotation correlation of spin sound I in erythrocyte membranes)
1.94
1.77
ιсII (time of rotation correlation of spin sound II in erythrocyte membranes)
CP (ceruloplasmin)
1.23
1.10
ТF (transferrin)
0.78
0.80
Free radicals with g-factor 2.0
0.69
1.08
Chromosomal aberrations in lymphocytes
0.81
1.15
* - indices which differ from control by Wilcoxon’s criterion with significance level р<0.05
Index

229

Significanceby Wilcoxon
0.017 *
0.000 *
0.034 *
0.056
0.001 *
0.682
0.001 *
0.760
0.784
0.830
0.008 *
0.003 *
0.000 *
0.022 *
0.046 *
0.084
0.362
0.605

Membrane proteins activity

membrane-boundproteins-receptors,
enzymes, and channel-forming proteins. All
Antioxidant
these parameters are linked in normal(AO)
conditions structurally and functionally. A
Peroxidechange of one of them provokes changes ofradical,RO2*
the others (Figure 6). The existence of link Rate of AO
with negative inverse relation (the growth of utilization
speed of lipids peroxidation causes thePeroxide
Fluidityenrichment of lipids fractions resistant to theROOHof lipids
oxidation, and vice versa) allows the system
to fulfill the function of adaptation of cell, Oxidation
abilityorgan, and organism to the change ofRate of lipid
environment and to injuring factors, ensuring
eliminationtransition of cell metabolism to anotherregulation level. The time of relaxation of
Lipid composition
this regulation system depends on the natureof object (organism, organ, membrane) and
Fig. 6 Scheme of free-radical mechanism in regulation of cellchanges within the range from 102 to 104
metabolism by membranes.
seconds. In cases either of break of theceruloplasmin decreased. The concentrations of freefunctional link between the indices, of changes of thisradicals, malonic dialdehyde increased. With the same
link nature, or of long-term action of injuring factor,
regularity, the fluidity of different membrane areas
the system does not return to the normal state. Thechanged: ι1 and ι2 increased. All this indicatessystem of regulation of membranes LP is correlated
alteration of the antioxidant status of irradiatedwith other cell regulation systems. It is responsible fororganism of liquidators.
cell resistance to damaging factors action and is linked
As far as we are talking about alterations caused bywithimmunesystem,ageingprocesses,
ionizing
radiation action, it is important to clear thecancerogenesis, tumors growth, cardiovascular
relationofthese alterations with irradiation dosage,
diseases progress, neuro-psychical disorders, etc. [6].
Regretfully,
we could not get verifiable information on
As it was shown in earlier experimental
real
dose
of
irradiation of all observed liquidators
investigations, during the process of irradiation theduringtheir
stayin the Chernobyl APS accident zone
concentration of free radicals increases, the number of
and,therefore,
we
could not carry out such analysis on
antioxidants decreases, the lipids enrich withtheresultsofdirectdosimetry.
phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, the lipid phase
Simultaneously with the study of antioxidant status,
becomes harder (ι1 increases), and microviscosity of
the level of chromosomal aberrations in blood
more hydrophilic areas of membrane (ι2), on thelymphocytes was determined in all examined people
contrary, decreases. The activity of superoxide(by the standard method of study of metaphases of
dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione
cultivated in vitro lymphocytes). 300 metaphases werereductase changes by stages. Break of connections instudied in the majority of the examined people. The
the system takes place in a later stage of radiation
number of chromosomal aberrations, and the number
injury and affects links: AOA-oxidation (changes inof dicentrics and centric rings were determined among
contrary directions), ι1-ι2 (changes in parallel).
them.
Normally, AOA-oxidation changes in parallel, and ι1-ι2
It is known that in a certain range of exposure doses
do in contrary directions [24].
there is a monotonous, practically linearly increasing
It was important to determine the changes in the LP
dependence between exposure dose and the total
regulation system of erythrocyte lipids of liquidators
number of chromosomal aberrations as well as the sum
who had obtained doses tens of times lower than thoseof dicentrics and centric rings number in lymphocytes
which cause radiation injury. From the experimental[24-28], which permits to use the cytogenetic analysis
data about the existence of close correlation in thefor biodosimetry. We divided thereunder the examinedchange of the regulation system parameters, it was
liquidators into several groups in dependence ofpossible to expect an increase of free radical
chromosomal aberration levels and the number ofconcentration, strengthening of hemolysis, lowering ofdicentrics and centric rings in their lymphocytes,
antioxidants concentration, and increase of hardness
supposing that thereby we divided them in accordance(microviscosity) of membranes lipids.
with their real exposure dose.
In Table 4, as it was expected, for studied samples
As a result, 5 groups of liquidators were formed.
of liquidators blood, the concentrations of natural
The «control» group and the first liquidators group (Aantioxidant - vitamin E and blood antioxidant group) were composed so that the percentage of230statistical parameter - Mahalanobis’s distance(Hotelling’s T-statistics). This method was used manytimes in the statistical analysis of both experimental
and populational multi-factor arrays, and was proved tobe successful in the cases when the alteration of a great
number of indices in samplings sequence should be
reduced to an integral index reflecting all systembehavior. In the given case, the control group wascompared in succession with all liquidators groups for
15 indices. The most interesting was to compare theliquidators of low (up to 0.5%) level of chromosomal
aberrations in lymphocytes with the control groupconsisting of the people with similarly low level ofchromosomal aberrations (up to 0.5%).
It turned out that namely the first group of irradiatedpeople, i.e. those who had the minimal of chromosomal
aberrations (<0.5%), by set of indices, differs from thecontrol group significantly (P<0.05) and stronger thanother groups do.
If we take into account the mentioned above
dependence of number of chromosomal aberrations inlymphocytes on irradiation dosage, we may supposethat the group of liquidators who have insignificant
chromosomal aberrations level had obtained low
irradiation dose. However, the changes in parametersof their antioxidant status turned out substantial, andobviously indicate the probability of grave and stabledisturbance development in the LP regulation systemeven at low irradiation dose.
The analogous results are obtained in thechromosomal aberrations in them was not higher than
0.5. The intervals of chromosomal aberrations foranother 4 groups constituted respectively 0.5-1 (Bgroup), 1-1.5 (C group), 1.5-2 (D group) and >2 (Egroup).
Taking into consideration the average level ofchromosomal aberrations in lymphocytes of examinedliquidators, we may suppose that their average
exposure dose constituted 15 cGy (by the number ofdicentrics and centric rings - 15 cGy). These
calculations confirm the data of Russian Register
indicating 15.9 cGy as the average value of liquidators
exposure dose in 1986 [3].
These data allow us to consider that the increase ofchromosomal aberrations number in groups A-E
reflects the increase of dosage obtained by people ofthese groups.
The data are adduced in Table 5, which characterize
the dynamics of alteration of certain indices ofantioxidant status in dependence of chromosomal
aberrations level in lymphocytes. The change ofcharacteristics in all cases is not of monotonous
character. This may be interpreted as an index ofcomplicated dependence of the change of antioxidant
status parameters on irradiation dose analogous to one
found in experiments.
Table 5 shows that there are differences between
these groups in many indices. However, the mostinteresting is the integral comparison of groups in all
set of indices. Such assessment was made using theTable 5 Mean values of AO indices in the control group and in liquidator groups selected bychromosomal aberrations number.
Indices
DLpl (double links in plasma lipids), number of DL/mg oflipids. 1018
Dlel (double links in erythrocyte lipids), number of DL/mg oflipids. 1018
Vitamin E
Vitamin А
RG (recovered glutathion)
SOD (superoxide dismutase)
GP (glutathione peroxidase)
GR (glutathione reductase)
GP-GR (glutahione peroxidase - glutathione reductase)
Hem1 (hemolysis of erythrocytes)
Hem2 (hemolysis of erythrocytes after LP initiation)
MDA1 (malonic dialdehyde in erythrocytes)
MDA2 (malonic dialdehyde in erythrocytes after LP
initiation)ιсI (time of rotation correlation of spin sound I in erythrocyte
membranes)ιсII (time of rotation correlation of spin sound II inerythrocyte membranes)СP (ceruloplasmin)
TF (transferrin)
Free radicals with g-factor 2.0
Chromosomal aberrations

A

B

Liquidators
C

D

E

0.34

0.29

0.31

0.31

0.27

0.34

0.33

0.25

0.26

0.31

0.29

0.30

23.07
2.99
16.70
113.12
6.91
5.61
1.34
6.78
7.27
2.08

19.80
2.65
23.82*
115.23
10.02
4.57
2.28
7.86
9.22
2.41

17.95
2.50
17.57
120.09
9.82
5.87
1.91
11.14*
10.99*
2.74*

20.54
3.20
24.50*
101.08*
9.26
4.66
1.88
5.59
5.88
1.88

16.13
3.05
21.98*
136.5
12.2
4.93
2.05
7.74
6.86
2.67*

21.24
3.22
25.66*
106.76
7.648
4.5
1.97
6.70
8.17
1.83

2.07

2.58*

2.58*

2.10

2.88*

1.85

1.01

1.37*

1.24

1.39*

1.15

1.50*

2.20

1.51

1.66

1.99

1.48

2.08

1.16
0.77
0.69
0.11

1.01*
0.82
1.20*
0.18

0.92*
0.82
1.05
0.68

1.15
0.85
1.02
1.15

1.18
0.72
0.92
1.66

1.20
0.65
1.04
2.64

Control*- indices which differ from control by Student’s criterion with significance level p<0.05.

231considered as one more confirmation of a necessity toapply natural or synthetic antioxidants to the people
subjected to the action of ionizing radiation including
low doses.

correlation analysis of indices of organism antioxidant
status in every examined group.
We must note that the observed alterations are not
to be considered as some determined pathology.
Probably, such alterations in the LP regulation and,
consequently, in homeostasis regulation represent
so-called pre-nosologic pathology which can remaincompensated without manifesting itself clinically, but
can realize itself in various diseases in certain
conditions. The risk of progress of diverse diseases is
to be much higher in the people irradiated even at low
doses.
The analogous regularities were found also in the
study of immunological characteristics of the same
participants of the accident liquidation.
It is interesting to note that we obtained closed
dependencies on dose both for immunological index
and for antioxidant status. It is very important that thehighest deviations are observed in the dose range up to
15 cGy, while these indices are closer to the control
ones at the irradiation of 20-25 cGy.
These data confirm once again our idea that thedose dependencies for low-intensive irradiation are ofcomplicated character.
It should be emphasized that the antioxidant andimmunological organism statuses are responsible for
its resistance to the action of diverse factors affecting
health state. The experiments have shown a possibility
to control immunological characteristics by changing
the antioxidant status in certain direction and viceversa. Therefore, the deficit of antioxidant in the
immune systems is a serious index to forecast diseases
among persons irradiated at low doses.
Thus, we may suppose that the overall evaluation ofsuch alterations by set of parameters characterizingorganism antioxidant status can help to reveal groupsof the people with increased risk of different
pathologies.
The data obtained in the present study may be

Dose dependencies of health state indices of thecohorts exposed to low-intensive irradiation
We tried to compare the alterations of biochemicaland biophysical indices of liquidators blood with theregularities of their health state change.
We registered earlier that the increase of incidenceof diseases characteristic for the participants ofliquidation of accident consequences (liquidators) vegetovascular distonia, nervous system diseases,
psychical disorders, gastrointestinal diseases andothers - shows the same tendency (non-monotonous,
non-linear dependence on dosage) as obtained inexperiments [1]. A number of biochemical andhematological characteristics in the people irradiated at
accidents of atomic stations also manifest complicateddependence on dosage [29, 30].
If we consider that the degree of disablement of
irradiated contingent is an integral index of health loss,
it is important to estimate the rate of disabled people(per 1,000 liquidators) in dependence of obtained doseor the period of work at ChAPS. It is known thatliquidators who worked in 1986 obtained the highest
irradiation doses (15.9 cGy) in average, in 1987 - 7.9
cGy, and in 1988 and later - 3-4 cGy [3].
Figure 7 shows the data of disabled people amongliquidators groups (per 1000) after 5 years since theirwork at ChAPS. As it is seen in Figure, the dependence
is of extreme character with maximum corresponding
to 7.9 cGy dose.
However, it would be the most interesting to study
such dependencies for remote irradiation after-effects,
namely, for malignant neoplasm increase. The question
about the effect of low-dosage irradiation on theappearance of malignant tumors and leukoses is widely
discussed in the literature. It is known that ionizing
radiation can perform both as promoter and as inductorof malignant neoplasm. Increase of dose rate anddosage of irradiation (up to certain limits) causes
decrease of promoting and increase of inducing
function of irradiation.
Let us consider from these positions the situation
with malignant neoplasm by Chernobyl.
Oncological diseases and death rate among theparticipants of liquidation of the Chernobyl accident
consequences are studied in the wide and deep work
implemented under the supervision of Academician A.
F. Tsyb and published in the Bulletin of National
Radiation-Epidemiological Register [31].

Total invalidity per 1000 persons

68
62
56
50
44
38
32

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Average dose of liquidator having worked in different year (cGy)

Fig. 7 Dependence of general disability (per 1,000
people) of liquidators on irradiation dose (5years after their work on liquidation of the
ChAPS accident consequences).
232Table 6 Morbidity and mortality (per 100,000 man-years) from malignant neoplasms amongliquidators [31].
0-5
5 - 10
10 - 15
15 - 20
20 - 25
25 cGy
Index
cGy
cGy
cGy
cGy
cGy
and higher
Morbidity
Leukemia
7.68
6.18
8.03
8.48
6.23
3.04
All malignant neoplasm
117.5
122.30157.51142.94134.54180.56
Malignant neoplasms of digestion organs
21.94
32.26
49.79
38.16
35.60
37.43
and peritoneum
Mortality
All malignant neoplasm
36.20
39.12
44.96
57.95
56.07
40.82
Malignant neoplasms of digestion organs
9.32
15.10
20.87
21.20
24.92
17.0
and peritoneum
status and sensitivity to the action of environmental
factors.
It is noteworthy that the similar regularities of thechange of studied parameters were observed both inblood of liquidators and in experimental animals. Not
only the similar character of dose-dependency but also
the identical systemic multifactor response wasdiscovered about the action of low-intensive
irradiation.

Table 6 contains the data on the indices ofmorbidity and mortality from malignant neoplasm
among the participants of liquidation of the Chernobyl
accident consequences [31]. It is clear that the dose
dependence is not monotonous, and for all adduced
examples the minimal values of indices of morbidity
and mortality correspond to the dose near 25 cGy,
while the maximal values are at the dose of 10-15 cGy.
Similar dependencies are not the unique type of
dose-effect relation, though they are observed quite
frequently. In a number of cases it is regular linear or
linear-quadratic dependence. The range of doses underwhich the decrease of malignant neoplasm or of death
rate from them is registered is different for different
diseases and depends, beside of the disease nature, on
dose rate. For example, the linear dose dependence ofmortality from lungs cancer is observed in mortality forlungs cancer of the people irradiated with radon inhouses, and of the miners irradiated with radon doseswith much more intensity [32, 33].
Many authors consider that the relation between
malignant neoplasm and irradiation is worthwhile onlyin the case when the cancer incidence increases with
the irradiation dose. As described above, taking into
account all experiments and studies of irradiatedpopulations as well as the data from literature, the
PRESENCE of linear or linear-quadratic dependency
IS NOT obligatory for the cases of diseases and deaths
from malignant neoplasm at low doses andlow-intensive irradiation. The absence of monotonous
dependence on irradiation dose and the appearance of
maxima at lower dose are confirming radiation effectsof cancers induction at low doses, rather than refutingit.
As the conclusion of all mentioned, it should be
stressed that the regularities of low-intensive
irradiation, the low doses effects are the principally
new ways of radiation effect on living objects, the newmechanisms of cell metabolism change. The majorityof effects are not induced directly by irradiation but
indirectly through the regulation system, throughalteration of the immune and antioxidant organism

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234

Chernobyl Sufferers in Ukraine and Their Social Problems: Short Outline
Volodymyr TYKHYI
Environmental Education and Information Center
POB 136, Kyiv 245070, Ukraine; eeic@gluk.apc.org
Such slogans were patriotic, but politically neutral andthus safer then direct appeals to independence. Major
political forces were using issues like consequences ofChernobyl disaster, secrecy around this problem,
absence of real consultations with sufferers to prove
the necessity of real changes of the state system.
Soviet Union was facing extremely severe
economic problems in 80-s, caused by the lastingAfghanistan war, huge expenses for armament raceand dramatic 1985 drop in world crude oil prices - oneof the main export commodities and the source of hardcurrency income.
Chernobyl disaster, mitigation of impacts of which
required huge material and labour investments played
an important role in developing economic crisis.
Victims of radiation increased the number of suffering
people which needed urgent help - like invalids ofAfghanistan war, like victims of military conflicts in
Azerbaijan, refugees from Georgia, sufferers of Spitak
earthquake in Armenia, population in the area of Aralsea.
In August 1991, after the unsuccessful attempt of acoup-d’etat in Moscow, Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada
(Parliament) proclaimed the Act of Sovereignty of
Ukraine. The communist party lost its role and in lessthan a year the USSR has disintegrated. Ukraine had
become an independent state with full responsibility
for all positive and negative issues, including thelegacy of Chernobyl catastrophe.
First and subsequent governments of independent
Ukraine faced enormous problems with liquidation ofChernobyl consequences. These problems wereexacerbated by enormous inflation during 1992-1995
and general breakdown of national economy due tovarious reasons. Rapidly decreasing quality of life of
all population did not allow for proper measures toprotect those for suffered from Chernobyl. It is hard tojudge whether there existed adequate political will andcapacities to sort out the problems and properly solvethem.

1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Change of nationhood and political system in
Ukraine after the accident.
At the moment of the Chernobyl NPP catastrophe
Ukraine was one of 15 republics of the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet Union). Ukraine
was the second biggest republic (population 51
million) after Russia (population 144 million in 1986).
Soviet Union was a strongly centralised state with one
and very powerful ruling Communist Party (CPSU),
which dominated in all structures - governments, local
authorities, army, businesses, culture, society as awhole.
Formally republics were self-governed, but inreality all important decisions were taken in Moscow
by the Central Committee of CPSU and the so called
Union Government. All management system was
known as “command and control”. The backbone ofvertical authority was the Communist Party
committees of all levels - Central, Republic, Oblast,
district. There were also party committees atenterprises, organisations, villages and city quarters,
which controlled implementation of decisions ofhigher levels. All resources, including financial - forindustries, housing, food etc. - were distributed bycentral government in Moscow. Local governments
and industries were lobbying interests of their regions
and enterprises in Moscow.
Actually the only one way of influencing the state(and at that time everything was state!) policy wasraising an issue at the meeting of a low-level party
committee. Of course, only ideas supported by highlevel party authorities had some chances to be
implemented.
In 1985 a new and dynamic leader of CPSU,
Mikhail Gorbachev launched “perestroyka” reconstruction of the whole system. This had lead to a
substantial weakening of the authority of Communist
Party. One important feature of perestroyka was“glasnost” - opportunity to publicly express one’s
opinion, reveal information etc. This opportunity wasused to disclose facts and consequences of Chernobyl
disaster, and eventually to make this problem an issue
of a public policy. Glasnost was used by active
political forces in republics, first of all Baltic
republics, to begin a struggle for independence.
Similar movements began also in Ukraine, Bielarus
and other republics. Very often “green” slogans(protests against nuclear power plants, polluting
industries) were first in programs of these movements.

1.2. Sufferers from Chernobyl catastrophea) liquidation of the consequences of disaster:“liquidators”
The first statement about Chernobyl catastrophefrom the USSR Council of Ministers said “An accident
has taken place at the Chernobyl power station, andone of the reactors was damaged. Measures are being
taken to eliminate the consequences of the accident”.

235

Those who “were taking measures” are the first big
category of sufferers - “liquidators”.
The first who immediately was affected by reactor# 4 explosion was personnel of Chernobyl NPP andfire brigades - many of theses people died, andhundreds lost their health. Urgent measures to prevent
further aggravation of disaster involved thousands ofother specialists and workers. For example, to cool andstrengthen the basement of reactor building a tunnel
under the damaged reactor was dug by miners fromDonetsk oblast - hundreds of them are suffering now
from different diseases. To dampen the fire andcontain the radioactivity, 5 thousand tons of lead,boron and sand had been dropped from helicopters in
the heart of the burning reactor this meant irradiation
among pilots and others who participated in thisoperation.
During May-November 1986 a giant constructionof sarcophagus was erected. To build it out of morethan 400,000 cubic meters of concrete, 7,000 tons ofsteel tens of thousands of construction workers,
engineers, drivers were drafted to work just near thedebris of unit 4, where radiation levels were very high.
The deadly decision to start again reactor # 3,
situated on the same basement with # 4 and sharing a
lot of vital communications, had led to over-irradiationof thousands of workers who constructed necessary
walls and rearranged thousands of pipelines andelectric circuits.
Of course, all these men working at the reactor 4
and around needed food, housing, transportation etc.
Army and militia (police) regiments were guarding thefenced out 30-km exclusion zone. Most of them had
only basic understanding of what’s happening andoften their doses were very high.
During the years after the accident buildings, roads,
machines and equipment needed permanentdesactivation - and again this involved hundreds ofdrivers, dosimetrists, washers. In the course of
desactivation houses in tens of villages weredemolished and buried, and all the so called “redforest” (hundreds of hectares) adjacent to the power
plant, was cut and buried in specially dug huge ditches.
People needed food and basic services, so logisticalproblems were solved on the highest level - in
Moscow, with involved tens of thousands people lived
at a time in the city of Chernobyl 30 km from nuclear
power plant. The biggest canteen in Chernobyl,
organised in a huge ward constructed for cars technicalservice could house more than 1000 men at a time.
First years after the accident “command and control
system” was still strong, and the country (USSR)
worked more or less as an army. Workers for the giant
construction were recruited in all 15 republics, manyof them were volunteers (levels of financial
compensation for possible health problems were quitehigh). Those who did not want to come on their own
were recruited to the Soviet Army and in the 30-km

zone they were doing what was needed - but being
dressed in military uniform.
As it is clear from above mentioned, people weredraft from all parts of Soviet empire - and eventuallydispersed on its wide spreads. No one knows exact
figures - how many “liquidators” worked in
Chernobyl. Some estimates give numbers around
600,000. According to the recent data, in Ukraine live
about 180,000 liquidators. And, of course, much less isknown about liquidators’ radiation doses.
b) population
The second huge category of the sufferers is
population - we will speak of Ukraine. First of all,these were people of nearby cities and villages.
Immediate victims became those who had rest or workout of houses. Some of them contracted even acuteradiation diseases, radiation burns - and all received
enormous doses of iodine on thyroid glands. But thiswas only the beginning - they lost their houses,
property, jobs, their native land, after all.
The 50,000 population of the city of Pripyat wasevacuated two days after the accident, and in latermonths and years still more people were forced toleave their homes. People were resettled to newly
constructed villages, many found shelter with theirrelatives and friend all over Ukraine. They lived as
refugees, very often in unfriendly surrounding - someilliterate men looked at evacuated as lepers.
Evacuation from contaminated areas continued formany years. Plan of Ukrainian Council of Ministers for
1990-1991 previewed evacuation of 45,000 people
from contaminated zones. On contaminated territories
of Ukraine in 1990 lived about 1,5 million people. Allof them were suffering from Chernobyl.
People in contaminated areas were not allowed to
eat wild berries and mushrooms (and this is theterritory where traditionally “gifts of woods” are very
important part of diet), they were not allowed to use
milk of their cows and goats, and the traditional
economy of collective-farms producing milk, meat,
potato, linen collapsed.
It is hard to say whether evacuated people were in abetter situation than those living in contaminated areas(except some limited number of NPP personnel andother privileged categories, who received comfortableapartments in Kyiv and other big cities). The quality of
new settlements, built for the evacuated under a bigtime pressure was often very low, and many people
were moving back to their houses in evacuation zone,
including the 30-km zone around Chernobyl NPP.
There were direct and obvious sufferings like lossof houses, forced abortions or diseases caused bythyroid irradiation. But there were also hidden losses,
like stress, change of life style, uncertainty etc. And, ofcourse, families of Chernobyl “liquidators” suffered a
lot.

236

Real fight against secrecy and for the benefit ofsufferers of Chernobyl disaster was launched at thefirst Congress of People Deputies of the USSR, which
took place from 25 May till 10 June in Moscow.
People deputies from Ukraine - Volodymyr
Yavorivsky, Yuri Shcherbak, Borys Oliynyk, Alla
Yaroshynska - raised their voice to help victims ofChernobyl. Right before the Congress, on 24 May
1989, the USSR Government took decision to
unclassify information about Chernobyl disaster.
Unfortunately, it was easier to reveal the truth than toreally help victims.
Another information blockade fell in 1989, when
the documentary “Mi-cro-phone!” had been shown in
the West. Later that year Volodymyr Yavorivsky
openly spoke about the consequences of Chernobyl in
the USA, Yuri Shcherbak was invited to the hearing in
the Swiss Parliament (Switzerland was preparing voteon the future of Swiss nuclear industry), Alla
Yaroshynska participated in a big antinuclear
conference in France.
It was now clear that a lot should be done to solve
the problems of Chernobyl. But it was also 100 % clearthat the public purse of the Soviet Union Central
Government is empty, and Ukraine was to elaborate its
own Chernobyl policy. This was the task for the new
Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of Ukraine, which waselected in 1990.
Hundreds of candidates to Ukrainian Parliament
included Chernobyl problems in their programs. The
issue of Chernobyl sufferers became the question of areal politics. Basic laws on Chernobyl were adopted
and money were needed to implement them.
Scarce budget resources were needed here andthere, economic crisis in Ukraine became graver, but
the decision was taken to impose a sort of a special
Chernobyl tax and to spend it on the needs ofliquidation of the consequences and mitigation
negative impacts. Here we set aside the question of
how effectively were this money spent.

1.3. Role of media and public politics in disclosing
the real situation of people living in contaminatedareas and liquidators
The information approach of the Soviet
Government towards Chernobyl accident wasformulated in a simple order of 27 June 1986: “Toconsider as secrets: data about the accident; data about
results of treatment of sufferers; data on irradiation of
personnel involved in liquidation of the consequencesof disaster”. Numerous cases of diseases amongliquidators and population of contaminated areas werecalled “radiophobia”.
It was perestroyka and glasnost which eventually
led to the disclosure of the truth about the accident. As
was already mentioned, democratic movements
emerged in many republics of the USSR, and many ofthem were coloured in green. In Ukraine, the first
unofficially (not by the order from the party
committee) big rally in Kyiv was organised by
Ukrainian Environmental Association “Green world”
in November, 1988. At this gathering participants
accused official medicine in hiding up the number ofChernobyl victims, the dangers of living incontaminated areas, in lack of care for liquidators andevacuated people.
One of the biggest information successes was
documentary filmed by Georgi Shklyarevsky(“Mi-cro-phone!”), which revealed the truth about
radiation levels in Narodichi district of Zhytomyr
oblast. This documentary was followed by films andarticles of other journalists. Some films had been
shelved by authorities, like “Threshold”.
Very important role in disclosing the truth aboutliquidators’ sufferings played documentaries by
Rollan Sergiyenko (“Threshold”, “Bells of Chernobyl”
and others). In the West, several documentaries about
Chernobyl disaster in general, about ill children,
abandoned villages and people living in “forbidden
30-km zone” had been shot by different companies andTV programs. They had raise awareness of Western
people and initiated the movement to help Chernobyl
victims.
In fall 1988 - winter 1989 an election campaign ofthe first almost free elections of people deputies of the
USSR began (role of People Deputies was to someextent similar to the role of Members of Parliament inWestern democracies). Many candidates included
requests connected with Chernobyl disaster in theirprograms. For example, Alla Yaroshynska from
Zhytomyr oblast wrote in her program: “It is necessary
to publish data on the consequences of radioactive
contamination in Narodichi district, which arethoroughly hidden from the people. There are many
villages with extremely high levels of radiation. On
radioactively contaminated areas new construction has
been organised, and more than 50 million roubles had
been already invested. It is necessary to investigate theusefulness of this construction”.

2. STATE ACTIVITIES TO RESOLVE THE
PROBLEMS OF SUFFERERS OF
CHERNOBYL CATASTROPHEAs it was described in part 1.1, by the “State” wemean the Soviet Union and its part Ukrainian Soviet
Socialist Republic in 1986 -1991, and an independent
state Ukraine after December 1991. We will discuss
efforts and successes of both legislative and executive
branches of power, often calling both “Government”,
although interrelations among them were not clear andobvious.
Of course the state (government) - taxpayers, as wewould say now - carried the main burden of helping
sufferers from Chernobyl. Public activity was essential
to disclose the consequences and to attract attention of
the state to this or that important issues. Public also
played
the
main
role
in
“independent”,

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non-governmental assistance, and this is the topic ofchapter 3 of this report.

houses had been built for people evacuated from rural
areas. People from cities Pripyat (50,000) and
Chernobyl (12,000) received apartments in Kyiv,
Chernigiv and other cities of Ukraine and other Soviet
republics. Many of them moved in October 1988 to thecity of Slavutich, built for the personnel of re-started
Chernobyl NPP.
As always, a lot of abuses were happening with
distribution of apartments, benefits, compensations.
To solve their problems, people wrote letters toprosecutors offices, local and central party
committees, Councils of Ministers. Pushing theseletters through “corridors of power” were people
deputies of all levels, journalists, some publicorganisations.
Evacuated people faced many problems. Often thequality of new-built houses was bad, they were cold
and wet. Nature conditions in areas of resettlement
were different from those of Chernobyl area - steppes
instead of woods. People were complaining, some had
moved back to their abandoned villages. In autumn
1988 more than 1000 people lived in the 30-km zone as a rule, older people, pensioners. Some assistance forthem was provided by the administration of the 30-km
zone and, from time to time, they received shipmentsof humanitarian aid.
Even in the privileged city Slavutich, built by joint
efforts of 8 Soviet republics, people were sufferingfrom lack of medical care, poor food supply,
uncertainty. The council of Slavutich publicorganisation “Pripyat society” which consolidated
more than 2,000 former inhabitants of the city of
Pripyat, had written numerous appeals, asking vitalquestions: “Who will calculate our real doses? Whowill organise medical treatment and rest for ourchildren - many of them are ill? When will we receive
compensations for the damage to our health? The cityof Slavutich is located in radioactively contaminatedarea, will we have respective privileges?”/2, p.105/
Similar issues were raised by the people in manyother areas, like Narodichi, Ovruch, Polisske andothers. They pointed out that levels of contamination
were too high for safe living - why than to invest? “In
our district - 25,000 people. In the district 67 million
rubbles has been spent for new construction. 37
millions planned for this year. Easy calculations showthat these sums would allow construction of 90
five-storey apartment houses, and all rayon would
have homes. Where than this money is invested, when
the decision is to be made on evacuating people fromthis land? Who benefits from this wasted millions?..
Why should someone supply us “clean” food when we
could harvest them ourselves on “clean” lands?” /2,
p.147/
Still there are no answers to these questions.
Polisske, many villages in Narodichi and other
districts are abandoned now, in 1997 - after all
desactivations and construction...

2.1. Soviet “command and control” period.
Immediate measures and attempts to formulate abalanced policy
The state was bad prepared to a disaster of such
scale as Chernobyl and most of necessary decisions
were drafted and taken immediately when they wereneeded. Fortunately in the initial period there werematerial and financial resources available and amechanism of direction was in place - an “undivided
union” of the party, the state, the army. Thismechanism was not perfect, and its quality was quickly
deteriorating, undermined as well by Chernobyl itself.
Obviously Chernobyl disaster was not a case for a
public policy, and it would not be such case in any
other political system, at least during the initial period.
The Soviet people were silent, they did not have vote.
They received such vote only at the First Congress of
the People Deputies of the USSR in 1989.
Executive power of the USSR - Council of
Ministers and numerous ministries - behaved
practically independently from the Supreme Soviet(Parliament) until 1989. First period was marked byattempts to hide and to diminish the consequences, andmany efforts were needed to alter this approach (seepp.1.3 and 3.1 of this paper).
First decisions on compensations for those working
at Chernobyl NPP and around, as well as for thoseevacuated, had been taken by the Central Committeeof the Communist Party and the Council of Ministersof the USSR 7 May 1996. Workers received higher
rates, those relocated from the zone of disaster insurance compensations for their houses and one-time
gratuities up to 4,000 rubbles per person. It should be
noted that insurance premiums were several times
lower than the real cost of abandoned households.
Of course, no compensation was received by
women who underwent abortions during evacuationand first weeks after the accident. We could not findthe number of such women or reliable information onwhether and according to which criteria abortions wererecommended (or not recommended) to pregnant
women. This information is missing, although in thefirst period after the accident 2,000 medical teams
examined 135,000 evacuated from the 30-km zone,“paying special attention to children and pregnant
women” /1, p.540/. Could they turn the time back andannihilate huge doses accumulated by future mothers
and foetus? Could they eliminate, reduce orcompensate future impacts of these doses?
The question of desirability or necessity ofabortions was also widely discussed in all area around
Chernobyl, including Kyiv.
By mid-August 1986 some 90,784 persons were
evacuated from Ukrainian area around Chernobyl.
According to the ordinances of the Council of
Ministers of Ukraine more than 11,000 one-family
238

Many people in contaminated areas (especiallythose with children) requested evacuation. Manyothers preferred to live where they lived but insisted on
improving infrastructure (gas and water pipelines,
paved roads, medical services) and financial
compensations. Government was manoeuvring
between these two options - both needed huge money,
and after 2 years of central (USSR) funding the burden
was shifting to Ukrainian budget.
The choice between evacuation and compensations
was extremely controversial. Moreover, scientific andlegal backgrounds for decisions were missing. As it
was put in March, 1989 by TASS news agency: “TheUkraine Health Ministry has recommended theevacuation of five villages in the affected area, eventhough the ministry insisted that there hasn’t been an
increase in radiation-related “congenital anomalies” ortumour or blood diseases”/3/.
By the end of 1989 a low effectiveness ofdesactivation efforts became obvious and the Councilof Ministers of Ukraine issued an ordinance allowing
people with children under 14 to leave contaminatedvillages. Actually this decision was providing for somecompensation for households which was left by people
in contaminated areas. Calculations performed in theend of 80-th had proven that per capita costs ofcompensations and rehabilitation measures for people
who live in contaminated areas are more than 2 times
higher than the costs for evacuation.
In 1990 - 1992 several ordinances were endorsedby the Council of Ministers of Ukraine regarding
obligatory evacuation, voluntary evacuation andcompensations for those who live on contaminatedareas. In 1990-1991 there were 13 658 obligatory
evacuated persons and 58,700 “voluntary” resettles /1,
p.88/.
By 1995 in 57 Ukrainian villages and settlements
around Chernobyl lived less than one half ofpre-disaster population (we do not mean thosesettlements which were evacuated).
Liquidators were also badly suffering from poor
medical treatment, low pensions and low
compensations for their lost health. Many of themwere invalids but could not receive official proof that
their diseases had been caused by irradiation during
their work in the 30-km zone. In specialised wards andclinics for liquidators hunger strikes took place.
In March 1990, the Council of Ministers of the
USSR and the All Union Central Council of Trade
Unions adopted a special provision which defined thestatus of “liquidator”, demanded regular medical
examination of such people and determined someprivileges to liquidators. This provision had been put
into effect from 1 June, 1990 when the first certificatesto liquidators had been issued.
Nevertheless, it was obvious that “soviet justice”
did not work any more and real laws and mechanisms
for their implementation are needed.

During September-October 1989 Councils of
Ministers of Ukrainian SSR, Bielorussian SSR and
Russian Federation developed the complex
perspective plans of liquidation of consequences ofChernobyl disaster, and the Supreme Soviet(Parliament) of the USSR approved respective State
Union-Republican Program. In line with this work, on
the 28 of February 1991 Verkhovna Rada (Parliament)of Ukraine passed a law “On the status and social
protection of citizens who had suffered due toChernobyl catastrophe”. The Parliament also approved
the “Concept of safe living on the territories of
Ukrainian SSR with high levels of radioactive
contamination due to Chernobyl catastrophe”.
In the same time the Parliament adopted decisionon the source of funding for implementation of theselaws. Enterprises were obliged to pay to a special Fundof Liquidation of the consequences of catastrophe
19 % (later 12 %) of sums of their wages-funds.

2.2. The Law of Ukrainian Soviet Socialist
Republic (the law of Ukraine) of 28.02.91 and its
implementation
The Law had been passed by the Parliament of
Ukrainian SSR 28 February 1991. It was drafted undera serious pressure from “Chernobyl” lobby - people
deputies and organisations who represented liquidatorsand those living in contaminated areas. Later the Law
underwent some serious amendments in 1992, 1993
and 1996, mainly because an application of the law
revealed some economic miscounts.
“The Law is directed at protection of citizens who
have suffered in consequence of Chernobyl
catastrophe, and at solving connected with it problemsof medical and social character which have appeared
because of radioactive contamination of the territory.
The state policy in the area of social protection of
sufferers from Chornobyl catastrophe... is based on theprinciples:- priority of life and health of people, who havesuffered from Chornobyl catastrophe, full
responsibility of the state for creating safe andnon-harmful conditions of work;...
- social protection of people, full compensation of
detriment to people who have suffered in theconsequence of Chernobyl catastrophe;- use of economic methods of improving quality oflife by employing policy of preferential taxation of
citizens who have suffered from Chernobyl
catastrophe and their unions...” (Article 1. Here andonwards the law is quoted in unofficial translation of
the author of this paper).
According to the Article 70, added in 1996, citizens
received the right to protect in the court their interests
and rights guaranteed by this Law.
a) The Law explicitly distinguishes two groups those who worked on liquidation (liquidators), and239

citizens (including children) who lived or lives inaffected areas (suffers). Children also constitute a
separate group with a separate system of privileges andcompensations (Chapter V of the Law).
There are four categories of persons who havesuffered from Chernobyl. These categories are definedaccording to the level of damage for their health(manifested and potential) during their work or
because they have lived in contaminated areas.
Liquidators have categories from 1 to 3, sufferers havecategories from 1 to 4. Depending on their category
people receive “general compensations and privileges”(Chapter IV. Social protection of the citizens...
General compensations and privileges).
Disabled (both liquidators and sufferers) who had
lost their health as a result of Chernobyl catastrophe
constitute the category # 1. To receive this category a
person must have a decision (based on medical
examinations, records etc.) of a special certified
medical commission which “ascertains a causal nexusof disease or disability and Chernobyl catastrophe”.
These commissions work in oblast centres.
Whether liquidator (not disabled) receives acategory # 2 or # 3 depends on the period and durationof his/her work on liquidation. The fact of his work has
to be proven by respective records at the enterprise
which issued his/her assignment. For example, toreceive category # 2 one should have worked “anynumber of days in a period from 26 April until 1 July
1996, or more than 5 days in a period from 1 July until
31 December 1996, or more than 14 days in 1997”(Article 14). Another time scale is used for category#3.
Of course, not all records at the enterprises were
kept in proper order, and this had led to a numerous
cases when people could not receive respective
category. Even more frequent were abuses and false
documents. Lyubov Kovalevskaya reported /4, p.307/
that of 14 scrutinised 2-nd category “liquidators” fromhigh-level trade-union office only one half proof theircategory. In 1996 the state launched campaign ofverification of liquidators’ and sufferers’ documents.
b) Definition of categories of “sufferers” is basedon the level of radioactive contamination of soil inaccordance with the Article 2 of the Law: “Categories
of zones of radioactively contaminated territories”.
There are four zones.
The worst zone # 1 is an “alienation zone” territory from which people were evacuated in 1986.
“Zone of unconditional (obligatory) resettlement”(#2), “zone of guaranteed voluntary resettlement” (#3), “zone of intensified radiological control” (# 4) aredefined according to the levels of contamination. For
example, territory is defined as a zone # 4 if it iscontaminated by caesium isotopes with density 1.0 to
5.0 Ci/sq.km, or strontium 0.02 to 0.15 Ci/sq.km or
plutonium 0.005 to 0.01 Ci/sq.km. There are some

additional criteria stipulated by the National
commission of radiation protection.
Actual category assigned to each sufferer depends
on the zone where he/she lived, and the period andduration of living in this zone. e.g., if “a person
permanently lived at the territory of unconditional(obligatory) resettlement on the date of disaster, or by
the 1 January 1993 lived not less than two years in thezone of unconditional (obligatory) resettlement...” thisperson belongs to category # 3.
Actually for categories # 2 , # 3 and # 4 the Law
does not distinguish the harm which has been alreadymanifested (in the form of some diseases, or more
frequent illnesses, or psychic misfunctions) andpotential harm which has not yet developed in some
visible form.
Dynamic of numbers of sufferers is impressing,partly because of changes in legislation directed atbetter social protection of sufferers and partly becauseof natality. During 1886-1995 the number of people
which have the status of sufferer according to
Ukrainian laws increased from 540,000 to 940,000 in1990 and 3,200,000 in 1995 (of them 997,000
children) /1, p.129/.
There are seven grounds why a child can be thesufferer from Chernobyl catastrophe: evacuated fromalienation zone, those who lived certain number ofyears in other contaminated zones, were born fromparents who were sufferers of 1st, 2nd or 3rd category,those who have thyroid cancer or radiation sickness,those with thyroid doses higher than the levelestablished by the Ministry of Health (Article 27).
Medical treatment of children sufferer is defined aspriority for all medical programs and is performed by
the best medical and recreational facilities.
Children sufferers from Chernobyl catastrophe
have privileges and compensations similar to those of
adult sufferers. It is hard to say how efficient are allthese measures, and how effective is government inproviding equal access of all sufferers to the existing
opportunities.
c) There are three other special chapters in the Law.
Chapter VI defines mainly compensations andassistance for evacuated people for lost of theirproperty. It also prescribes regulations on providingthem with new housing.
Chapter VII regulates the work rules andremuneration for those working in contaminated areas.
Chapter VIII is specifically devoted to pensions,pensions due to disability caused by Chernobyl, andcompensations to families that had lost providers.
According to the system of social protection,“general compensations and privileges”
highercategories of sufferers have more privileges. The main
components of this system are: health (medical care);recreation (vacations, sanatorium); material aids likeapartments, houses, reduced rates for water and heatand electricity; social benefits - schools, universities;

240

economic - taxes and custom privileges; lower pension
ages and higher pensions; transportation privileges
and others.
These are long and complicated lists: 32 points for
category #1, and somewhat shorter lists for othercategories.
Never the system was accomplishing in full all thathas been prescribed by the law. Always there werepeople waiting apartments or houses, or waiting free
bed in a hospital, or disabled people waiting promisedcars. According to the published data (we do not speakof real situation) allocated state funds allowed forcovering recreation expenses for each second sufferer
in 1991, each third in 1992, each eighth in 1995 /1,
p.128/.
For example, all categories can get medicines freeof charge, but this good provision very often does notwork because pharmacies do not have needed
medicines in stock.
Some privileges were directly leading to abuses,
like tax exempt status for liquidators or permission toimport everything free of charge. There were many
articles in newspapers telling of liquidators or sufferers
who managed to import new cars every second week.
There were also enterprises importing lot of goods
duty free and then selling them. Of course theseenterprises claimed that this money is being used forthe “protection of the sufferers of Chernobyl disaster”,
but it was hard to control their compliance. As a result,taxation and import privileges were soon revoked.
Some privileges were substantial at the time ofendorsement of the law, like compensation forrecreation or additional annual payments or special
payments for “clean” food. Now many of them are
negligible and result mainly in extra paper work foraccountants, like 2.10 hryvna ($1.1) monthly extra
payment for “clean” food in zone # 3.
The Law bears all signs of the so called “socialist
distribution system”. At that time (and sometimes nowtoo) the state was the biggest owner and investor in
housing, communication systems (telephones),
educational and transportation system etc. Easier (inthe first place or jumping the queue) access to these
services and facilities was a benefit in itself, and this isoften mentioned in the law. Indeed this system worked(and was also a huge temptation for abuses).
Liquidators could even buy motor boats and vacuum
cleaners “out of queue”.
Almost at the same time when the Law had been
passed the State Committee on Chernobyl was createdto manage all related problems (later - the Ministry of
Chernobyl). Local authorities with all theirinfrastructure (social care, medical care etc.) were also
extremely tightly involved in these activities. Special“Chernobyl” departments were organised in rayon
state administrations and now they carry main
responsibility for accounting of sufferers, their needsetc.

d) There are two sorts of compensations: for thedamage to health and for lost property. Calculations ofcompensations for health are based on the minimalmonthly salary, which is specified by the Parliament(17 hryvna, or $9.20 in 1997).
For example, one-time compensation for people
who were commissioned as disabled of the 1st group(as a rule, these people cannot work and needassistance in everyday life) is 60 minimal salaries(1,020 hryvna, or $550). There are also compensations
for families, children of disabled parents etc.
Sufferers of all categories have some extra
payments to their pensions and lower pension age. The
pension age for category # 2 is lowered by 8 years, so
men can become pensioners in 52 instead of 60.
Pensioners of this category receive monthly an extra
payment 30 % of minimal pension.
Compensations for lost property are defined in a
special chapter of the law. This was one of the mostcontroversial issue during all period after thecatastrophe, because of extremely diverse conditionsof living before and after the resettlement, and becauseof quickly changing and aggravating economic
situation in Ukraine.
Another serious issue was construction of housing
and respective infrastructure for evacuated people andresettles. With the so high state expenses on thisconstruction (up to 15 % of all state capital
investments) abuses with construction materials andfunds were very frequent. And, of course, programs of
construction were not achieved: in 1992 the programof resettlement was fulfilled on 19 %, and the programof housing construction on 28 % /5, p.668/.
Compensations, privileges and direct expenses on
liquidation of the consequences of the catastrophe (e.g.
maintenance of the infrastructure of the 30-km zone)
have been an incredible burden on Ukrainian
economy. The share of these expenses in the budget of
Ukraine was 15.7 % in 1992, 10.9 % in 1993, 5.4 % in1994 and 3.4 % in 1995 /1, p.79/. The biggest part ofthis money has been spent on compensation. The
structure of Chernobyl budget (estimate) looks like thefollowing: compensations 50 %, resettlement 20 %,health care 9 %, “Shelter (Sarcophagus)” and 30-km
zone 5 %, Agriculture/Forestry 6 %, other 10 %. As it
was mentioned before, these money are collected as
obligatory payments to the special “Chernobyl” fund:enterprises pay 12 % of their wage-fund.
Ukrainian Parliament and Cabinet of Ministers
have been facing intense pressure from all sectors ofsociety which badly needed financial and otherresources: social protection, medical care, education,
local authorities of non-Chernobyl areas and so on. Of
course the relatively high privileges to Chernobyl
sufferers look unfair. Why only those who had
suffered from Chernobyl and radiation are receiving so
much? Why not the other areas of environmental
crisis, like heavily polluted cities of Dniprodzerzhynsk

241

or Mariupol? Why only Chernobyl children and not
those children who are from time to time loosing hairto full boldness in many areas of Ukraine, probably
because of high non-specific chemical contaminationof air, water and food? This acute problem is still far
from solution.
As it was already mentioned, some controversial
provisions of the law, like tax exempt status oforganisations working in contaminated areas, orimport laws for “Chernobyl” organisations have been
already revoked.

organisations, Ukrainian Peace Committee and someothers.
At the same time, specialised “Chernobyl” funds
had been set up in foreign countries. During his visit in
the US in October 1989 Volodymyr Yavorivsky
implored America’s help in forestalling the tragedy ofChernobyl victims. And Americans
shippedhumanitarian load of medicines, vitamins, powderedmilk to Ukraine. All organisation was done by
Chernobyl Fund organised by the family of Ukrainian
Americans Matkivsky and their colleagues. This
shipment was distributed among the people incontaminated areas by Ukrainian movement forindependence and perestroyka - Rukh.
In spring of 1989 liquidators and former workers ofChernobyl NPP founded their own NGO - “Soyuz
Chernobyl” (Chernobyl Union). Later this union
became an international organisation.
Many other international activities were taking
place during 1989-1990. We will briefly describe
some as examples - not because they are better ordifferent from others, but because an author was
somehow involved in them.
a) A very attractive program of support had beensuggested by Prof. Edmund Lengfelder from Munich
University. Numerous German organisations andauthorities (including universities, cities, lands)
supplied dosimetric and diagnostic equipment,
medical instruments etc. to Ukrainian and Bielorussian
hospitals. This action was planned as trilateral
co-operation (Germany, Ukraine, Bielorussia), butlater Germans concentrated their efforts on
Bielorussia. Results of the action were somewhat
disappointing for Germans, as during follow-up visits
they often found expensive diagnostic equipment to be
not in use.
b) French organisation “Medicins du mond“ set up
a diagnostic laboratory in Kyiv to investigate
Chernobyl children. Organisation worked in close
relations with local medical authorities. Unfortunately,organisation provided only limited treatment for ill
children who were investigated, this was considered
unfair (“you use us as guinea pigs”), and after a year
the mission was wrapped up.
c) One of the first international organisations whichcame to Ukraine was Greenpeace. In 1989 Greenpeace
set up Ukrainian office with a clear name “Greenpeace Children of Chernobyl”. The aim of thisoffice was to set up a hospital for Chernobyl children,
equipped by the most sophisticated equipment.
Negotiations with Ukrainian medical and Government
authorities
were very hard, but eventually allnecessary approvals were obtained. Unfortunately,when the design of reconstruction of one of children
hospitals was ready, agreement was cancelled by
Ukrainian side. Greenpeace was forced to end up withequipping of biochemical laboratory in one of Kyiv
children hospitals. Canadian technicians and doctors

3. PUBLIC MOVEMENT IN UKRAINE AND
INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES TO HELPPEOPLE AFFECTED BY CHERNOBYLACCIDENT
3.1. International medical and humanitarian aid
In this chapter we will pay special attention to“informal”, non-governmental help from international
community to sufferers of Chernobyl. Few projects ofinternational organisations (IAEA, WHO), very often
quite negatively perceived by Ukrainian people,
require separate analysis. As a rule the goal of theseprojects was to offer research assistance to respective
Ukrainian institutions and thus these projects were tosome extent not directly aimed at sufferers, but at somemedical problems.
When Chornobyl nuclear reactor exploded, theSoviet rulers did not yet comprehend the poverty of thestate. Ukrainian government, headed at that time by
the First Secretary of the Communist Party of
Ukrainian Republic Volodymyr Shcherbytsky,
refused to accept assistance from foreign countries.
Nonetheless, the policy of openness initiated by
Mikhail Gorbachev was gradually dismantling the“iron curtain”. Soviet-American Peace Marches,
ecological conferences touched the problems ofChernobyl victims.
Assistance came first from non-governmentalorganisations and charitable foundations. First it was
dosimetric and medical equipment, then medicines,
vitamins, food. Concentrated efforts were made toprotect children.
The process of development of foreign assistanceto Chernobyl victims went hand in hand with theprocess of democratisation in the USSR. Of course,
foreign donors needed domestic Ukrainianorganisations to advise what is the best way ofassistance and to practically deliver this assistance.
From the very beginning the leading role in thesecontacts belonged to newly emerged NGOs - like“Zeleny svit (Green world)”, “Chernobyl Union”,“Children of Chernobyl”, “Rukh (Movement)”.
Founded in 1989, later Rukh had become a politicalparty. Very often the role of mediators was played bywell established Soviet “quasi-NGOs” liketrade-unions, young communist and pioneer
242

worked more then one year in the lab performing
analyses needed by Ukrainian doctors. Finally the lab
was donated to the city of Kyiv. The University ofAlberta continued the program of training for
Ukrainian doctors using grants from CanadianGovernment.
Later on Greenpeace had set up (jointly with
International Renaissance (Soros) Foundation andUkrainian Environmental Association “Zeleny Svit
(Green World)” an independent environmentallaboratorywhich
investigatedradioactive
contamination of soil, food, water in the area around
Chernobyl.
d) Very attractive was the project developed by Dr
Martin Walter from the Swiss branch of IPPNW(International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear
War) and later implemented by SKH (Swiss
Commission for Help in Catastrophes). Swissorganisations equipped rayon hospital in Polisske,
Kyiv oblast, with modern diagnostic equipment andseveral years Swiss doctors lived and worked in
Polisske side by side with their Ukrainian colleagues.
It is hard to believe that Polisske was evacuated in mid
90th (after construction of natural gas supply network,building new apartment houses, reconstruction ofroads and millions of roubles invested in
desactivation...)Generally speaking, Ukrainian medical authorities
were friendly, but not very constructive. It looked as if
they suspected foreign organisations in attempts oflearning something secret and extremely valuable
about radiation diseases and suffering children. It wasalso very hard to get letters of acknowledgement from
Ukrainian medical organisations and doctors.
Many foreign organisations got involved inassistance to children, including complicated andexpensive medical treatment. “Help Chernobyl
children” projects were taking all possible forms:
organised groups of children, stay in families,
organised vacations in Ukraine etc. Tens of countries
in Western and Eastern Europe, former Soviet Union,
Americas and on other continents - hosted Chernobyl
children from Ukraine (and continue to do this now, in
1997!) All sorts of organisations were counterparts offoreign donors in Ukraine. Some figures related to
Chernobyl Union activities you can find below, butthat is only a small example.
First groups of children often were undergoing
careful and specialised medical examinations, but later
it appeared not necessary. Some projects were quite
controversial, like an annual treatment of Chernobyl
children in Cuba hospitals - many experts said that theclimate was too hot and transportation costs were too
high, but the project goes on.
A lot of humanitarian aid shipments were received
in Ukraine. This was medicines, syringes, vitamins,
powdered milk etc - tens of 20-ton trucks andairshipments a year. As a rule, such goods were

distributed to hospitals and clinics, but also directly to
big families, disabled.
The fact of supplying food needs some explanation.
The region of Ukrainian-Bielorussian Polissie is arural, quite poor area with forests, small villages andvery bad road system. Traditionally people depended
mainly on home supply of food - milk and milk
products, potatoes. Wild berries and mushrooms was
substantial part of a diet. After the accident, when milk
was very radioactive and definitely not recommended
for children and babies, this problem became
extremely acute: supply of safe fresh milk from
elsewhere was practically impossible, and Soviet
industry producing children and baby food wasagonising (as many other industries at that time).
Purchases of imported baby food were limited becauseof lack of hard currency resources. Thus, any
shipment of baby and children food was indeed vital.
Disappointments also happened during thishumanitarian aid activities - both from foreign andUkrainian sides. Foreigners complained for unfair
distribution of donations, Ukrainians accusedforeigners of supply of outdated medicines or broken
equipment. Officials dreamed of co-ordination. An
attempt to set up a Co-ordination Committee was madeat a Congress of World Federation of Ukrainian
Medical Societies in 1991. Fortunately or not, bothco-chairmen of Committee did not start a real work,and the idea died without consequences. It seems,
however, that the need in co-ordination was quite real in 1992 the same appeal was expressed by Volodymyr
Yavorivsky.
Eventually Committee on Humanitarian Aid had
been created at the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. It
was headed by Vice Prime-Minister and was solving
all questions related to receiving and distribution ofhumanitarian help. By 28 December 1992 11,439 tonsof humanitarian shipments were received in Ukraine /1
p.176/. Of course it is impossible to believe that allloads had been registered at this Committee, so actual
number is higher. The biggest donor was Germany(about 50 % of all aid), then Italy, France, USA andother countries. Of received humanitarian aid 67 %was food, 18 % medicines and medical equipment, and
15 % of clothing’s and other goods.
Some less successful fund-raising activities wereorganised by Chernobyl NGOs in the end of 80th beginning of 90th. These were bus tours to European
countries, tele-maraphones, exhibitions. Expenses forsuch events were sometimes comparable to the sums
collected. Some Western Europeans had already sadexperience with individual “Chernobyl fund raisers”,
which collected money or medicines and later werereported to sell these medicines to clinics.
Gradually children summer recreation has become
the main “Chernobyl aid” activity, while medical
problems are being solved mainly under bilateral or
multilateral intergovernmental projects. As an243

example, the Sasakava Fund helped in equipping andfinancing examinations of children in several clinics,
including one in Ovruch (Zhytomyr oblast).
Intergovernmental assistance to sufferers was quite
limited. For example, in September 1991 the special
Conference was held in New York to create a special
Chernobyl Fund for three regions of the former USSR.
Total collected sum amounted to $1,500,000 /1,
p.161/. This poor result was partly a consequence ofthe report prepared and published by the IAEA. This
report was prepared during an international
investigation headed by Itsuzo Shigematsu (by theway, investigation did not include liquidators). At thevery first stages of the investigation “green
movement” strongly protested against biased approachof IAEA. When the report has been published theGovernment of Ukraine also objected against its
conclusions.

the badly needed Chernobyl legislation through theParliament.
Another important project of “Green world” was an
Independent Chernobyl Investigation (1990-1992),
with participation of lawyers, witnesses etc. This was
an attempt to give a legal appraisal of actions ofgovernment officers and all others responsible for
Chernobyl disaster and clean up (liquidation ofconsequences). Ideally that would have allowed thevictims of Chernobyl disaster to sue the state, officers
or managers and to receive through court procedure ajust compensation for loss of health or property.
Unfortunately, very few lawyers agreed to participate
in this project (organisers were thinking of a trial
similar to Nuremberg Tribunal). As a result, collected
evidences and their legal appraisal did not haveconvincing value. What is even more important,government officers who were responsible for
Chernobyl decisions are still active politicians andthey would never allow such process to go too far.
While “Green world” worked primarily with the
population of contaminated areas, similar role forliquidators and evacuated people played another NGO“Chernobyl Union International” (CUI), founded in
Ukraine in 1989 and registered as an internationalorganisation in 1991. The primary aim of CUI was “toaddress and mitigate the consequences of theaccident... by assisting the 1.5 million direct victims of
the Chernobyl catastrophe including children andthose disabled due to the effect of the explosion, todeal with the extraordinary social, economic andmedical needs they are facing” (Statute ofInternational Organization “Chernobyl Union”,
registered in the Ukraine Ministry of Justice 24th
February, 1992).
Funds for its activity CUI received from othercharitable organisations abroad - Bavarian Red Cross,German land and city governments, clinics etc. CUI
has not been the recipient of aid, but has served as thefacilitator and co-ordinator of relief to institutions,
hospitals, clinics etc. The cost of goods and medicines
distributed by CUI in Ukraine amounted to tens of
millions dollars (compare $1,500,000 collected at the
UN Conference in 1991, p.3.1 above).
CUI played an important role in initiating anddrafting laws concerning the status and social needs ofChernobyl victims. At that time the CUI President
Volodymyr Shovkoshytny was a People Deputy of
Ukraine.
Important and still going on program of CUI wasorganisation of children rest abroad: 231 children in
1990, 1520 in 1991, 1800 in 1992 and so on.
There are also several NGOs named “Children of
Chernobyl” in Ukraine and other countries. They
organise treatment of children and their rest abroad
and in Ukraine.
Separate investigation is needed to assess the roleand results of activities of different charitable

3.2.Non-governmental “Chernobyl” organisations
Ukrainian writers were the first who began
campaign to disclose the truth of Chernobyl in
Ukraine. In 1988 the first “green” NGO in Ukraine wascreated - “Zeleny Svit (Green World)”. It was an
association with numerous member organisations inmany oblasts and districts of Ukraine. Of course,
Chernobyl problems were of the highest priority forthe “Green world”. In 1989 another network of small
NGOs appeared as part of “Green world” - Union“Salvation from Chernobyls”. Organisations of thisUnion were founded mainly in contaminated areas.
These NGOs played an important role of pressuregroups. This was “vox populi”, and it was used bypeople deputies and local authorities of contaminatedregions to redistribute resources in favour ofcontaminated areas. Often local politicians were using
support from these groups in their election campaigns
and legislative work.
An important example of such activity was the firstpublic meeting of the State Commission for
Liquidation of the Consequences of Chernobyl
Accident in Narodichi, Zhytomyr oblast in August,1989.
Later that year an antinuclear, anti-Chernobyl
march had been jointly organised by “Green world”
and Ukrainian movement for perestroyka “Rukh”.
March started at Khmelnytska NPP in Western
Ukraine and was to finish in Kyiv. On the route rallies
were taking place in numerous villages and towns:
people protested against the secrecy in Chernobyl
affairs, demanded fair compensation for the victims,
demanded clean food, medicines for sufferers,
evacuation of children. More than 300,000 people
from 5 oblasts signed an appeal to the Supreme Soviet(Parliament) of the USSR. This appeal with signatures
had been taken to Moscow and handed over to
Ukrainian members of the Parliament (Shcherbak,
Yavorivsky and others). They use this appeal to push244

foundations and enterprises, which were organised bypeople who had status of sufferers from Chernobyl
disaster. Such organisations enjoyed substantial tax
privileges and other benefits according to Chernobyl
legislation. It is essential that these privileges were
stipulated not by the law itself, but by decrees andordinances of the Cabinet of Ministers, which were
often applied selectively, according to the statutes oforganisations and some other features.

author has also personal experience with the system ofsocial assistance.
The author is well aware that this short report isonly one drop in the process of disclosing of the role
which public and different social forces played during
after-Chernobyl period. While - at last! - many
documents have been published and analysed /1,5/, areally deep and unbiased analysis of the roles of many
important players like IAEA, UN and its organisations,international “green” and anti-nuclear organisations,internal Soviet nuclear lobby, Soviet “green” andpublic movements is needed. Maybe it is still too early
and in-depth analyses is not possible simply because
the drama is not finished yet and many players are stillon the stage.
Of course it is necessary - as gratuity andacknowledgement - to collect and publish information
about all people of good will from all over the world,
who have helped the sufferers of Chernobyl
catastrophe. This should include both official
structures and purely unofficial and private actions.

CONCLUSION
This report is based both on materials published in
the Soviet Union and Ukraine and on author’s personal
experience. Report does not pretend to be a complete
investigation of social activities in Ukraine related to
Chernobyl disaster.
In 1987-1989 the author worked as physicist in the
30-km zone and in other contaminated areas. This
enabled him to meet many people of different levels(administrators, collective-farmers, “self-settlers”
etc.). In 1988-1991 author was an active Board
member and researcher of Ukrainian Environmental
Association “Zeleny Svit (Green World)” - the biggest
and most influential Ukrainian NGO at that time,headed by People Deputy of the Soviet Union Yuri
Shcherbak.
In 1991-1993 the author worked as a ProjectManager and Director of Greenpeace Ukraine office.
That was the time when Greenpeace ran a medical
assistance project and independent investigation ofradioactive contamination in Zhytomyr oblast. These
activities required frequent contacts with the Ministryof Health Protection and members of Ukrainian
Parliament, with people in contaminated areas.
The author also participated in some humanitarian
projects, mainly with Swiss and German partners.
Being a “participant of the liquidation of theconsequences of Chernobyl catastrophe, category 2A”

References
1. Chornobylska katastrofa (Chernobyl catastrophe). Chief editor V.G.Barjakhtar. Kyiv, “Naukova
dumka”, 1996. 576 pp. (in Ukrainian).
2. Alla Yaroshynskaya. Chernobyl’ s nami (Chernobyl
with us). - Moscow, “Kniga”, 1991. 158 pp. (inRussian).
3. Villages Suffering Chernobyl’s Fallout Face Soviet
Silence. By Peter Gumbel. - “The Wall Street
Journal”, 03/06/89.
4. Lyubov Kovalevskaya. Chernobyl DSP (Chernobyl
classified). - Kyiv, 1995. (in Russian).
5. Chornobylska tragedia. Dokumenty i materialy(Chernobyl. Documents and materials). - Kyiv,
1996. (in Ukrainian).

245

Social Aspects of the Chernobyl Activity in Belarus
Mikhail V. MALKO
Institute of Physical and Chemical Radiation Problems of the National Academy of
Sciences of Belarus.
Minsk, Sosny, 220109, Republic of Belarus, fax: +375 (0172) 467317
finished and it became clear for the General Staff thatthe accident at the Chernobyl NPP had catastrophic
dimensions, and that resources of the whole of the
USSR were needed to overcome its consequences.
This information was reported to the General Secretaryof the Central Committee of the CPSU (Communist
Party of the Soviet Union), M.Gorbachev in themorning of the 26th of April 1986.
Early in the morning of this day, the Government of
the USSR had formed a Special Commission headedby the Deputy Prime Minister, E.Scherbina. This
commission had to organise the necessary measures forliquidation of the Chernobyl accident.
Also, in the early morning of the 26th of April 1986
the USSR Ministry of Power had formed its own
commission in order to study the reasons of theaccident and for development of necessary measures.
The member of this commission, the former Deputy
Minister of the USSR, G.Shasharin wrote in his article
published in 1991 in the Russian magazine "Novyiy
Mir" that he was informed about the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP approximately at 4 a.m. on the 26th ofApril 1986 [2]. At that time he was on his vacation in
Yalta in the Crimea.
Two days later the Politburo of the Central
Committee of the CPSU had formed the Operative
Group of the Politburo headed by the Prime Minister of
the USSR N.Ryzhkov. The Operative Group had toco-ordinate the activities of all Ministries andorganisations engaged in liquidation of the Chernobyl
accident.
The above-mentioned facts clearly demonstratethat the Soviet leaders had all necessary information attheir disposal from the very beginning, and recognised
the seriousness of the situation caused by the accident.
However, this information was not accessible for local
authorities that had to organise countermeasures forradiological protection of the population. Sometimes,
such information can be received only unofficially.
The former chief of police of Gomel region,
General S.Sazonkin recalled later [3] that he hadreceived the first information about the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP in a telephone conversation with thechief of the KGB department of the Gomel region. This
conversation had taken place in the morning on the 26thof April 1986. The KGB chief told General S.Sazonkin
that something had happened at the Chernobyl NPP,
and that this information originated from the KGB
colleagues from Kiev.
After this conversation General S.Sazonkin had

Introduction
The Chernobyl accident has caused heavy impact
on the environment in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine.
It has also resulted in a significant worsening of theeconomic situation in the affected republics of theformer USSR, as well as in disruption of social life inlarge territories, growing anxiety and fears among thepeople living in contaminated areas and significant
medical effects on all categories of the people affectedby the accident. The USSR authorities knew about theseriousness of the radiological situation caused by the
Chernobyl accident from the very beginning.
However, at the time of the accident, the Soviet Union
was in a state of deep economic crisis and was unable
to implement necessary measures to mitigate theradiological consequences of the accident. That was
one of the reasons for the USSR to conceal the true
information about the accident and its consequencesfrom the Soviet people. The traditional Soviet policy ofconcealing all data on any unpleasant event happening
in the Soviet Union had played a very important roletoo.
The collapse of the USSR created the formal
possibility to develop appropriate policy aimed at
mitigation of the Chernobyl consequences in Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine. However, implementation ofthis policy has been limited due to lack of necessary
material and financial means. These and otherproblems are the subject of the present report.

Official Soviet Policy of Chernobyl
Consequences Mitigation
Today it is well known that the Chernobyl accident
had been the severest accident in the history of thepeaceful use of nuclear energy in the world. However,understanding of this fact had become a very difficult
problem for the international community.
On the other hand, the Soviet leaders recognised
the disastrous character of the Chernobyl accident
already several hours after the explosions at the
Chernobyl reactor had happened. Chief of the General
Staff of the Soviet Army, Marshall of the USSR
S.Achromeev recalled 5 years later that the first
information about the accident came to him 1 hour
after the explosions at the Chernobyl reactor [1].
Immediately after receiving this information, theGeneral Staff had begun its efforts on assessment of
the scale of the accident. Approximately at 10 a.m. (8-9hours after the explosions) this assessment was246Committee of the CPSU on the 22nd of August 1986
[7].
According to this document, each member of afamily residing in the area with caesium-137
contamination level of 550 kBq/m2 (15 Ci/km2) andhigher, had to be paid 30 roubles monthly. Such
payment was meant for compensation of the financial
damages inflicted to the families due to the restriction
on consumption of the food-stuffs produced in theirprivate households. Everywhere in the contaminatedareas people called this money "coffin money".
The above-mentioned decision of the Central
Committee of the CPSU from the 22nd of August 1986
also supposed a 25 percent increase in the salary ofeach working member of a family living in the areawith caesium-137 contamination level of 550 kBq/m2(15 Ci/km2) and higher.
The Commission of the Central Committee of the
CPSU had found other violations in the Mogilev
region. It reported to the Central Committee of the
CPSU that the authorities of this region did not evenknow about the necessity to use special agrochemicalmeasures developed by Soviet specialists to decrease
the transfer of radionuclides into vegetable and animal
production [6]. The same situation subsisted in theprivate sector.
In reality, only some restrictive measures have been
introduced in the Mogilev region before January 1987.
Most of these measures were related to school
children. They had to stay in school 12 hours each day
without permission to leave the school building [6].
The facts about the Mogilev region given above
were not unique only for Belarus. Alla Yaroshinskayareported in her brilliant book "Chernobyl: Top Secret"that residents of the Ukrainian village Voroneve(Korosten rayon of Zhitomir region of the Ukraine)
had begun to receive their "coffin money" in June
1989, i.e. three years after the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP [8].
The situation with the payment of "coffin money"
and other financial support was even worse in Russia
than in Belarus and the Ukraine. Many regions had
been affected by the Chernobyl accident in Russia.
However, until April 1990, the authorities had beenreporting only about the Bryansk region.
In September 1989 a group of Ukrainian liquidators
had sent a letter to the General Secretary of the Central
Committee of the CPSU of the USSR, M.S.Gorbachev,
the Prime Minister of the USSR Council of Ministers,
N.Ryzhkov and the Chairman of the Soviet Trade
Union, S.Shalaev [9]. The Ukrainian liquidatorscomplained about the worsening of their health state
and about denials of doctors to attribute their illnesses
to radiation. They also complained about the absenceof social assistance. The liquidators have written in theletter: "We know that the party and the government
had agreed and issued a number of documents, but they
were not brought to us."
The liquidators from the Ukraine not only asked forsocial assistance, but also insisted on publication of allordered the police of the Gomel region to collectinformation about the radiation situation in the region.
Thus, already on the 26th of April 1986, he hadreceived data that the exposition dose rate in somevillages of the Choiniki rayon reached 500 mR/h or
500,000 micro-roentgen per hour. This was about
50,000 times higher than before the accident.
According to General S.Sazonkin [3], theradiological situation in the Gomel region had become
more clear to him only on the 1st of May 1986 when he
was told by Gomel region authorities about thedecision to evacuate all pregnant women and children
under the age of 15 years from 25 settlements ofBragin, Choiniki and Narovlya district.
It seems that at first the Soviet leaders had decided
to conceal even the fact of the Chernobyl accident.
Such conclusion can be drawn from the fact that thefirst official statements about the accident was madeonly on the 29th of April 1986, when the Soviet
television had given a short statement about theaccident at the Chernobyl NPP in its evening
programme [4]. However, this statement did not allow
to make adequate conclusions about the scale andradiological consequences of the accident.
The Soviet Union was forced to deliver information
about the accident due to the position of Sweden,
which had established a very high increase in the
background radiation on its territory soon after the
explosions at the Chernobyl NPP took place.
As a result of the information blockade in the
USSR, the general public was assured for a long timethat the Chernobyl accident had affected only a limited
number of Ukrainian settlements bordering theChernobyl NPP. Sometimes, this caused surprising
results.
It is well known that the territory of the Mogilev
region is one of the most affected areas of Belarus.
There are many settlements contaminated bycaesium-137 to levels higher than 1,480 kBq/m2 (40Ci/km2) [5]. During the first three months after theaccident at the Chernobyl NPP even regional
authorities of Mogilev did not possess objective
information about the radiation situation in the region.
Consequently, instead of countermeasures to protect
the population from the harmful impact of radiation in
the Mogilev region, the region had to carry out various
activities outside its territory in the course of
liquidation of the consequences of the Chernobyl
accident.
These and other interesting facts are given in thesecret report submitted by the Special Commission of
the Central Committee of the CPSU to the Central
Committee of the CPSU. This commission had visitedthe heavily affected areas of the Mogilev region in
January 1987 [6]. For example, the Commission
reported that inhabitants of 8 settlements of the
Mogilev region have been contaminated bycaesium-137 with levels of 1,480 kBq/m2 (40 Ci/km2)
and higher, and have not received financial support
established by a special decision of the Central

247

documents regulating privileges and compensations
for the people affected by the Chernobyl accident. The
authors of this letter could not understand that lack of
information on medical and social aid was reflecting
the official Soviet policy toward the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP and its consequences.
Practically, from the beginning, the authorities of
the USSR considered this accident an ordinary
accident with consequences that could have beenliquidated within a couple of years. One should also
remember that the human health and the life of theSoviet people had not been the highest priority in theformer USSR. Moreover, the Soviet state had nomeans required for adequate social protection of the
population affected by the Chernobyl accident. The
inefficient economic system, arms race, the war in
Afghanistan, large expenditures for the support of"democratic" movements in their struggle against the"world imperialism" had led the USSR to a state ofdeep economic crisis in the middle of 80’s.
Due to these reasons, the Soviet state attempted tolimit the programme of social assistance to the people
affected by the accident at the Chernobyl NPP, andeven to cease the implementation of this programme atall. Because of that, the inhabitants of the affectedareas and liquidators could not get access to the
documents establishing their privileges andcompensations.
Such policy of the Soviet state in regard to social
assistance had caused significant tensions in manycases. Sometimes residents of a village received their"coffin money" and a 25 percent increase in theirsalary, while the residents of a neighbouring village,that lived in similar conditions and worked together
with the residents of the first village, did not receive
any such assistance.

1987-1988 [10].
However, all these medical effects were notrecognised neither by Soviet specialists inradiobiology and radiation medicine nor by foreign
specialists [11]. This resulted in the fact that Belarus
had to face medical problems by the affected
population without any medical assistance from theCentre and other countries of the world. Because ofmany shortages in the supply of medicines, as well as
due to insufficient number of specialists inradiobiology and radiation medicine, the Republic was
not able to implement adequate medical assistance topeople affected by the accident. The medical situationin the contaminated areas of Belarus was also
aggravated because the state did not pay the necessary
attention to the problem of summer healthimprovement by children living in the affected areas.
This situation in this regard had begun to improve
only in 1991 when the Belorussian authorities
undertook a number of independent actions forliquidation of the Chernobyl consequences in Belarus.
In early spring 1989 they declassified secret data onradiological situation in Belarus without asking
permission to do so from Kremlin. This allowed therepublican newspaper to publish geographic maps withdata on levels of radioactive contamination of theterritory of Belarus. The published data demonstrated
that 23 percent of the Belorussian territory has been
contaminated with caesium-137 to levels higher than
37 kBq/m2 (1 Ci/km2). It was also told that more than 2
million people were living in the affected territory.
After the secret data on contamination levels as aresult of the Chernobyl accident have been published,
a number of improvements were made in different
areas connected to mitigation of the consequences of
the Chernobyl accident in Belarus. For example, 59
thousand children living in the affected areas ofBelarus could improve their health in summer in rest
establishments, pioneer camps and different
sanatoriums located in clean areas in 1989. However,this was only a small fraction of the children from thecontaminated areas. The total number of such children
constituted approximately 500 thousand.
All problems and shortages in social and medical
fields in relation to overcoming of the Chernobyl
consequences led the inhabitants of the affected areas
to a conclusion that the only way to escape potentially
dangerous radiation effects was to move from thecontaminated areas to clean ones. Many inhabitants ofthe contaminated areas had come to this conclusion
already some months after the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP and left their homes.
As can be seen from the secret report of the Special
Commission of the Central Committee of the CPSU
cited above, approximately 20 percent of people livingin areas of the Mogilev region with the caesium-137
contamination level of 1,480 kBq/m2 (40 Ci/km2) andhigher had moved to clean areas of Belarus in 1986.
The desire of the inhabitants of the contaminatedvillages and settlements to be resettled to clean

Medical Consequences and Problem ofRelocation
The other problem of high importance which
contributed to the social and psychological tension was
the permanent worsening of the health state of theaffected population.
In the case of children, a significant increase indifferent dysfunctions of thyroid, in the morbidity ofiron deficiency anaemia, chronic diseases of the throat
and nose, chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma andpneumonia was found in comparison with thepreceding years [10].
An increase in the morbidity of cerebrovascularsystem, hypertonia, chronic bronchitis, ulcers,rheumatism and other diseases was registered by adults
living in the contaminated areas[10].
The Belorussian specialists have also established areliable increase in the rate of congenital anomalies.
Thus, the rate of inborn anomalies in the 17 mostaffected districts of the Gomel and Mogilev regions
had increased from 4.27 cases out of 1,000 births in
1984-1985 to 6.89 cases out of 1,000 births in248

territories had become a dominant factor for the people
affected by the accident at the Chernobyl NPP after the
publication of secret data in March 1989 by the
Belorussian newspaper. This urge was so strong thateven the party leaders of Belarus had begun to support
the resettlement of people on a scale much greater thanthe one foreseen in Moscow.
For example, the leader of the Communist Party of
Belarus E.Sokolov said at the First Congress of thePeople's Deputies of the USSR in May 1989 that the
inhabitants of the affected areas had to be resettled incase the state was not able to provide normal living
conditions without imposing any restriction andexcluding the risk of damage to their health as a resultof irradiation [12].
Resettlement was implemented in Belarus, Russia
and the Ukraine in 1990-1995. About 130 thousandpeople were relocated in each of these countries fromthe affected to clean areas. This action required verylarge financial and material expenditures which had
worsened the economic situation in the new states
formed after the collapse of the USSR.
Many specialists outside the former USSR believethat extensive relocation of residents from thecontaminated areas has been a great mistake on the partof Belorussian, Russian and the Ukrainian authorities.
The reason for such belief lies within the fact thatthe resettlement had given no improvement of thephysical and psychological health state of the
population from the affected territories [13]. The
critics of relocation cannot understand that
responsibility for such measures is born by theauthorities of the USSR that were unable to understandthe importance of psychological factors.
The lack of objective information about the
Chernobyl accident and inappropriate protection
measures have contributed to the development ofextensive psychosomatic syndrome not only among
the affected people but also among the inhabitants ofclean areas.
The main legacy of the Chernobyl accident has
been the anxiety about the state of health and a social
disruption manifested in widespread health disorders
not induced by radiation [13]. The authorities ofBelarus, Russia and the Ukraine were practicallypressed by the affected population to undertake
extensive measures on resettlement.
One also needs to recognise that practically all
protection measures undertaken in the USSR after theaccident at the Chernobyl NPP have failed, such as
iodine prophylactics, ban on consumption ofcontaminated foodstuffs, decontamination of affected
settlements, attempts to improve the life standards inthe affected areas, etc. The same happened to the state
financial support of the people from the affected
territories because the inevitably arbitrary allocations
have produced an opposite effect, i.e. feeling of
inequality and jealousy.

The "350 mSv Concept"
This feeling and the absence of adequate medical
aid as well as the informational policy of the state over
the years after the accident have caused deep distrust in
the authorities and their promises to provide safe living
conditions in the affected areas on the basis of the "350mSv concept". This was the reason for many residentsof the contaminated areas to believe that only
resettlement could solve their Chernobyl problems.
Local authorities of the affected territories shared thesame point of view. It was clearly demonstrated at the
XI Session of the Supreme Soviet of the BSSR, which
had begun its work on the 28th of July 1989.
The main topic of this session was the discussion of
the State Programme on Mitigation of the Chernobyl
Consequences in Belarus, proposed by the governmentof Belarus. This Programme was developed on thebasis of the so-called "350 mSv concept" approved ofby the Head Physician of the Soviet Union on the 22ndof November 1988 [14].
The 350-mSv concept was a typical "threshold"concept based on the assumption that there exists sucha dose of radiation, below which exposure causes noharm to the organism. The authors established 35 rem(0.35 Sv) as such a dose. According to this concept, allprotective measures and restriction had to be liftedfrom the 1st of January 1990 in areas where irradiationdose over the period of 70 years was assessed to be 35
rem or less.
The "scientific" basis for the "350 mSv concept"
was provided by specialists of the Ministries of HealthCare of the USSR, BSSR, Russian Federation and the
Ukrainian SSR, under the head of Academician L.Ilyin[15]. In 1988 they had carried out an assessment of theradiological consequences of the accident for the
population of the USSR. As follows from theirassessment, the biomedical consequences of theChernobyl accident had to be so negligible that evenextensive and careful studies could not havedemonstrated harmful effects of the Chernobyl
accident.
According to the authors of the assessment, in caseall restrictions and protective measures were lifted, 80
percent of the inhabitants of the strict control zones(caesium-137 contamination level 555 kBq/m2 (15Ci/km2) and higher) would have received the lifetime
dose of irradiation lower than 0.35 Sv (35 rem) overthe period of 1986-2060. 14 percent would havereceived a lifetime irradiation dose of 0.35 Sv to 0.5
Sv, and only 6 percent would have received doses
higher than 0.5 Sv. They also predicted that in caseprotective measures (decontamination of settlements,
construction of roads with asphalt covering, use of
special agricultural methods, etc.) are taken, people
who would have received doses of 0.35 Sv to 0.5 Sv,
would receive lifetime doses lower than 0.35 Sv and 6
percent of the inhabitants of the strict control zones
would receive lifetime doses higher than 0.35 Sv. The
total number of such persons was determined to be249

17,900. 7,340 people in the Bryansk region, 7,360 in
Belarus, and 3,200 in the Ukraine. These people
needed to be resettled to clean areas.
This assessment was approved in March 1989 at theGeneral Session of the Academy of Medical Sciencesof the USSR and submitted to the World HealthOrganisation (WHO), the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) and other international organisations.
Later it was published by a world famous magazine onradiation protection [16]. Thus, the assessment of theradiological consequences of the Chernobyl accident
made by the official specialists of the Ministries of
Health Care of the USSR, Belarus, Russia and the
Ukraine became known to specialists in radiation
protection around the world and was accepted by theinternational radiation community as absolutely
correct.
However, the data of the Soviet specialists [15,16]
have not been correct. They have been too optimistic.
For example, only 91 cases of thyroid cancer bychildren and adults of Belarus were predicted tohappen as a result of the Chernobyl accident. The
authors of the assessment predicted that these
additional thyroid cancers would appear within 30
years (1990-2020), with the latent period of 5 years.
On the contrary, only 10 years passed since theaccident (1986-1995), and 424 cases of thyroid cancer
have been registered in Belarus by children under 15
years [17]. The morbidity rate of the thyroid cancer bychildren had been 1 case per year before the Chernobyl
accident [18]. This taken into account, the number ofradiation induced cancers over the period from 1986 to
1995 turns out to be 414. This is much more than the
91 cases of thyroid cancer predicted by the Soviet
specialists in 1988 [15,16].
The given example illustrates the incorrectness ofthe official assessment of the radiologicalconsequences of the Chernobyl accident. Hence, aconclusion can be made about the incorrectness of the"350 mSv concept".

The XI Session of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus
became into a real public hearing on the Chernobyl
problems in Belarus. This Session was broadcast by
the Belorussian television. Besides, speeches of thePeople's Deputies were published by the republicanpress. Thus, all citizens of Belarus could hear verystrong criticism of the authorities of the USSR and therepublican authorities. Much was said about
insufficiency of protective measures implemented in
the affected areas of Belarus. An excerpt from the
speech of the Chairman of the Gomel Regional
Executive Committee, Member of Parliament
N.Grinew: "One needs to recognise that for three years
we have been trying to realise wrong plans. The
attempt to stabilise the situation by means ofdecontamination, agricultural methods, organisation ofa service of residents of the strict control zones has
given nothing. If one takes into account the fact thatthe majority of the affected population lives in rural
settlements, one will understand that these measures
could not have given any positive results." [20]Participants of the Chernobyl hearings delivered
many facts on the actual situation in the contaminatedterritories at the XI Session of the Supreme Soviet. For
example, it was said that agricultural activities werestill being carried out in areas with very highradioactive contamination levels, and even in the
30-km zone. Members of Parliament demanded to stop
this dangerous practice because it led to production ofcontaminated foodstuffs and increased the potential
danger for the health of the people living and working
in the affected areas.
Very strong criticism was also expressed at the
Session of the Supreme Soviet in regard to theinefficient social and medical support of the affected
population, as well as to the inefficient organisation ofhealth improvement by children living in thecontaminated areas.
The revised State Programme on Liquidation of theConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident in Belarus[21] was heard at the XII Session of the Supreme
Soviet of Belarus of the XI Convocation in October
1989. This programme was developed on the basis of
the assumption that living in the affected territories,
where it is impossible to produce clean agricultural andanimal products, has no sense, even in case all possible
protective measures have been taken.
The revised programme foresaw relocation of
118,276 inhabitantsof the affected areas incomparison to relocation of 11,600 inhabitants
suggested by the Government of Belarus in July 1989.
The relocation had to be carried out in three stages.
In the first stage planned for 1990-1991, 17,083
inhabitants of the 112 settlements of the contaminatedareas had to be relocated to clean areas of Belarus. The
second stage was planned for 1991-1992. During thisstage 4,685 persons had to be resettled to clean areas.
The third stage foresaw resettlement of 96,508
inhabitants of 353 contaminated settlements after 1992
[21].

The Belorussian Activity in Mitigation of theChernobyl Consequences
The "350 mSv concept" was categorically rejectedby the scientists of the Academy of Sciences ofBelarus, as they believed that it had no real scientificbasis. The same position in regard to the "350 mSv
concept" was held by the members of the Supreme
Soviet of Belarus. They demanded from theGovernment of Belarus to revise the suggested State
Programme on Liquidation of the Consequences of theChernobyl Accident in Belarus proposed by the
Belorussian Government [19].
According to the members of the BelorussianParliament, this programme developed on the basis ofthe "350 mSv concept" was aimed at only a small partof the residents of the strict control zones of Belarus.

250

The new version of the Belorussian State
Programme on Liquidation of the Consequences of theChernobyl Consequences in Belarus also foresaw a
number of social benefits and privileges for the
inhabitants of the affected areas [21]. It decreased thepension age of the citizens living and working in thestrict control zones by women from 55 to 50 years, andfor men from 60 to 55 years. It also foresaw an increasein the annual vacation to 30 calendar days. In somecases, it could reach 42 calendar days. The residents ofsettlements with caesium-137 contamination levels of
185 to 555 kBq/m2 (5-15 Ci/km2) received the right fora vacation of 24 calendar days. An increase wasforeseen in the pensions for invalids from theirchildhood and non-employed pensioners. The stateplanned to pay 30 roubles monthly to each member ofthe family living in such affected areas, where clean
foodstuffs could not be obtained.
Significant attention was paid in the State
Programme to the improvement of medical assistanceto people living in the affected areas, improvement of
their health in rest homes and sanatoriums,
development of an infrastructure of public health careand improvement in the supply of medicines andequipment to medical establishments.
The State Programme took into account practicallythe whole bulk of problems existing in the affectedareas of Belarus, for example, problems of productionof clean agricultural and animal products, constructionof clinics and other medical establishments in theaffected areas, supply of ecologically clean fuel(natural gas) to the residents of contaminatedsettlements, construction of water pipes, etc.
Without any doubts, a conclusion may be drawnthat realisation of this extensive programme could
mitigate the problems caused by the Chernobyl
accident to a significant degree.
In order to reach this goal, however, the Republicneeded significant material and financial support of theCentre. According to the decision of the Supreme
Soviet of Belarus adopted at the XII Session on the 25thof October 1989, all financial expenditures (16.9
billion roubles) related to implementation of theBelorussian State Programme, had to be provided by
the budget of the USSR. This was possible only in casethe Supreme Soviet of the USSR had approved theBelorussian State Programme.

issued a special decision in regard to mitigation of theChernobyl consequences [23]. This document
recognised protective measures taken in the USSR
after the Chernobyl accident as insufficient, especiallyin relation to medical and social assistance to theaffected residents.
The decision of the Supreme Soviet proposed to theGovernment of the USSR to develop a united
programme of mitigating of the Chernobyl
consequences in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine on
the basis of a concept of safe living in the affectedareas acceptable for the population. It required fromthe governments of Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine tocorrect their programmes considering the comments
made by the experts of the Supreme Soviet of the
USSR and by the parliament members during thehearing.
In addition, the Decision of the Supreme Soviet of
the USSR proposed to the Government of the USSR todevelop a project of a special law on the Chernobyl
catastrophe and to present it to the Supreme Soviet of
the USSR before the end of 1990. The Supreme Soviet
also demanded from the Government to elaborate in1990 scientifically based criteria of safe living in thecontaminated areas.
This Decision indicated also the necessity of a more
substantial and urgent relocation of residents from theaffected areas to clean areas of the USSR and a needfor an improvement in the living condition of thepeople living in the affected areas.
This was the first document that demanded from theauthorities to develop a state system of compensations
and privileges for residents living in the affected areas,
relocated from these areas, and for those residents who
had abandoned these areas themselves. This also
pertained to the military personnel involved in theliquidation of the Chernobyl accident and of other
Soviet citizens involved in the liquidation of different
categories.
The first step in the mitigation of the consequencesof the Chernobyl accident, proposed to theGovernment of the USSR by the Decision of theSupreme Soviet, was to develop an urgent programme
foreseen for the period of 1990-1992 and to allocate
financial resources from the budget of the USSR tourgent measures in 1990 required by the radiologicalsituation in the contaminated territories of Belarus,
Russia and the Ukraine.
The document mentioned above indicated thedifference in the positions of the highest legislative
body of the USSR and the executive authorities. The
latter insisted on implementation of the "350 mSv
concept" although they attempted to correlate theirposition. So, in October 1989 under the influence ofthe events in Belarus, the Council of Ministers of the
USSR and the All-Union Central Committee of Trade
Unions had approved the decision aimed at
improvements of the medical and social assistance tothe residents of the affected areas [24].
The latter document included a number of points of

Changes in the Official Soviet Policy
The hearing of the Belorussian State Programme
was carried out by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR at
its Session on the 25th of April 1990. The Ukrainianand Russian programmes were also heard at thisSession. Both of them differed strongly from theBelorussian Programme because they were based onthe "350 mSv concept". Besides, the Russian
Programme took into consideration only the Bryansk
region, despite the fact that 16 regions of Russia wereaffected by the Chernobyl accident [22].
As a result of the hearing, the Supreme Soviet

251the Belorussian State Programme approved by theSupreme Soviet of the BSSR. However, the scope ofthe necessary measures established by this document
was practically in the frames of the "350 mSv concept"that had to be implemented from the 1st of January
1990.
The Government of the USSR used all possiblemeans to limit its expenditures for mitigation of theChernobyl consequences because of the very
complicated economic situation in the country. On the
19th of October 1989 the Government sent a letter tothe International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) witha formal request for a an assessment by international
experts of the "350 mSv concept" and countermeasures
undertaken in the USSR after the Chernobyl accident[25].
This letter had initiated the International Chernobyl
Project which was carried out in 1990 under the aegis
of the IAEA. Conclusions of international experts thattook part in this project are well known [25]. The
experts recognised the medical consequences of theChernobyl accident as relatively small in contrast to
the socio-economic consequences of this accident for
Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine. The experts approved
the countermeasures taken in the USSR after theaccident and rejected the necessity of resettlement of
the inhabitants of the heavily affected areas. In
principle this meant support of the "350 mSv concept"
and attempts of the USSR Government to implement
this concept at any price.
However, the Government could not reach this goal
because of the political situation in the USSR caused in
the process of glasnost and perestroika initiated by
M.Gorbachev.

this Law had to be enforced only after the agreementwith Moscow because their implementation required
allocation of financial resources from the budget of the
USSR.
The postponed paragraphs and articles of theBelorussian Law [27] gave a wide spectrum of social
benefits, privileges and compensation to all categoriesof the people affected by the Chernobyl accident(including residents of areas contaminated withcaesium-137 in the range of 37 to 185 kBq/m2 (1-5
Ci/km2)).
By development of the Law on Social Protection
parliament members used many positions of theBelorussian State Programme approved by theSupreme Soviet of Belarus in October 1989 and many
positions of the Decision of the Council of Ministers of
the BSSR and the Belorussian Republican Council ofTrade Unions that supposed a number of measures for
improvement of medical and social assistance toliquidators [29].
The Belorussian parliament established two kindsof radiological criteria for social and other benefits,privileges and compensations: level of territory
contamination with caesium-137, strontium-90 andplutonium isotopes, as well as doses of irradiation.
According to this criteria all contaminated areas ofBelarus were divided into 5 zones:• the zone of evacuation or the territory around theChernobyl NPP (30 km zone) and the territory withlevels of contamination with strontium-90 higher
than 111 kBq/m2 (3 Ci/km2) and plutonium higher
than 37 kBq/m2 (1 Ci/km2);• the zone of immediate resettlement where thesurface contamination by caesium-137 is above
1,480 kBq/m2 (40 Ci/km2), by strontium-90 above
than 111 kBq/m2 (3 Ci/km2), or by plutonium above
3.7 kBq/m2 (0.1 Ci/km2);• the zone of subsequent resettlement where thesurface contamination by caesium-137 is in therange 555-1,480 kBq/m2 (15-40 Ci/km2), bystrontium-90 in the range of 74-111 kBq/m2 (2-3Ci/km2), or by plutonium in the range 1.85-3.7
kBq/m2 (0.05-0.1 Ci/km2) and where the irradiationdose may be higher than 5 mSv (0.5 rem) per year;• the zone with the right to voluntary resettlementwith a housing guarantee where the surface
contamination by caesium-137 is in the range
185-555 kBq/m2 (5-15 Ci/km2), by strontium-90 in
the range 185-74 kBq/m2 (0.5-2 Ci/km2), or byplutonium in the range 0.37-1.85 kBq/m2(0.01-0.05 Ci/km2) and where the irradiation dose
may be higher than 1 mSv (0.1 rem) per year;• the zone of residence with periodic radiation
control with surface contamination of 37-185
kBq/m2 (1-5 Ci/km2) and where the irradiation doseis below 1 mSv (0.1 rem) per year.
The Law on Social Protection [27] established rules
for compensations to all victims of the accident
depending upon the category of the affected

Elaboration of a Legislative Basis for Mitigationof the Chernobyl Radiological Consequences
Due to democratisation of the Soviet Union andnew information possibilities, the Chernobyl problem
became the main political factor in Belarus. In spring1990 the new parliament was elected in the republic.
All candidates to parliament promised during theirelection campaign to do their best for mitigation of theconsequences of the Chernobyl accident.
On the 19th of July 1990 the Supreme Soviet of theBelorussian SSR declared the republic as a "zone ofnational ecological disaster" [26]. From this time therepublic started to carry out an extensive programmeto
liquidate the consequences of the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP.
The legal basis for implementation of thisprogramme was founded by the Law "On Social
Protection of the Citizens Affected by the Chernobyl
Catastrophe" approved by the Supreme Soviet of theBelorussian SSR on the 22nd of February 1991 [27].
This law was enforced in accordance with the Decisionof the Supreme Soviet of the BSSR on the 22nd of
February 1991 [28]. However, according to theDecision [28], a number of paragraphs and articles of252population. The broadest privileges and benefits were
given by the Law to those who participated in theliquidation of the Chernobyl accident (liquidators).
Their compensation included salary bonuses, access tofree health care and free health improvement in rest
homes, additional pension payments, etc. The lowest
benefits were given by the Law to people living in thezones of periodic radiation control. The inhabitants ofsuch zones received only some additional payment(about 30 roubles monthly in early 1992).

Republic. Over the same period different measures
have been undertaken in the affected areas in order toimprove the social-economic conditions in settlements
where people had not moved away.
These measures include construction of 4,621 kmof roads in the contaminated territories with hardcovering, 1,099 km of water-pipe networks, 310 km ofwater drain, 1,072 km of gas networks, etc. [30]. A
number of secondary schools have also been built with
28,000 places; pre-school establishments with 2,900
places, hospitals for 1,900 places, clinics and medical
establishments for 10,700 visits per shift, etc. [30].
However, the real financial means used yearly
during this period for the Chernobyl Programmedecreased permanently because of decreasing of thestate budget as a result of constant worsening of theeconomical situation in Belarus (the GNP of Belarus
decreased by 40 percent in 1990-1996 !). This is thereason for rather small financial compensations of thestate to the affected population of Belarus that have tolive and work in the areas affected by the Chernobyl
accident.
According to the Decision of the Council of
Ministers of the Republic adopted on the 26th of May
1997 [32], the following compensations were
established for each member of families living in theaffected areas:

Chernobyl Activities in Independent Belarus
In December 1991 the Belorussian Law on Social
Protection was amended in order to consider the newpolitical and economic situation caused by the collapseof the USSR. As a result of this collapse Belarus cameto a situation where it had to finance all expenditures
required in the frames of the Chernobyl mitigation
programme. In the preceding period (July 1990 —October 1991) a significant part of the needed financial
and material means was covered from the budget andresources of the USSR.
In order to finance the Chernobyl programme theSupreme Soviet of Belarus set an special 18 percent
wage tax (agricultural activities were granted a tax
exempt) since 1992 [30]. In 1992 it gave about 60
percent of financial means directed to mitigation of theChernobyl consequences. In 1994 the extraordinary
tax was decreased to 12 percent and in 1996 to 10
percent.
Despite a very complicated economic state theGovernment of Belarus could allocate a significant
part of the budget for mitigation of the consequences of
the Chernobyl accident: 16.8% in 1991; 12.6% in
1992; 9.6% in 1993; 6.9% in 1994 and 7.3% in 1995
[30].
The specified expenditures of Belarus for 1997 [31]have to be 7,199 billion Belorussian roubles from thetotal sum of state expenditures at 72,645 billion
roubles or about 9.9 percent of the state budget. As canbe seen from this data, the government allocated about
10% of the budget for mitigation of the Chernobyl
catastrophe consequences in the period from 1991 to
1997.
The main part of the state expenditures in
1991-1997 was directed in Belarus at implementationof the relocation programme. In the course ofrealisation of this programme 58,100 residential
houses and apartments have been built for resettled
families in Belarus [30]. All these houses andapartments were constructed in clean areas of the• 16,800 Belorussian roubles monthly in the zone ofperiodic radiation control;• 21,800 Belorussian roubles monthly in the zone
with the right for voluntary resettlement;• 33,500 Belorussian roubles monthly in zones ofsubsequent and immediate resettlement.
This Decision also established an increase insalaries for employed persons, and payments for
non-employed, pensioners, people living on social
assistance, students and school children defined by the
Law on Social Protection. This sort of financial
assistance fluctuates from 13,800 Belorussian roubles
in case of school children living in areas with periodic
radiation control to 165,600 Belorussian roubles incase of persons working in the zone of evacuation.
One can imagine how small these compensation
are, taking into account that $1 costs about 27 thousand
Belorussian roubles (official rate for summer1997).Considering this fact one needs to understandthat inhabitants of the affected areas of Belarus have toconfront radiological consequences of the Chernobyl
accident practically without assistance of the state.

253

Another important point is that these people form asuffering from different somatic diseases. It is evident
rather large fraction of the Belorussian population. The
that data established in the course of such an
total number of citizens in Belarus was 10 million 276
experiment are very important for the whole
thousand people in 1996. The number of people living
international community. However, one needs toin areas with ceasium-137 contamination density of 37
understand clearly that Belarus is not able to detect all
kBq/m2 (1 Ci/km2) and higher was 1 million 625
these harmful effects of the Chernobyl radionuclides
thousand people (Table 1) or 15.8% of the total
on hundreds of thousands of people without efficient
population in 1996. This number includes 426,591
assistance on the part of the international community.
adolescents and children (Table 2). The data on the
Belarus has simply no means to solve such a problem.
number of settlements in contaminated territories of
The country had to make very large expenditures for
Belarus are given in Table 3.
implementation of the State Programme on mitigation
Analysis of the data presented in Tables 1-3 showsof the Chernobyl consequences. But thesethat in 1996 no people have been living in areas
expenditures are only a fraction of the material andcontaminated with caesium-137 to levels higher thanfinancial losses of the republic. Belorussian specialists
1,480 kBq/m2 (40 Ci/km2). All of them have beenassess the total material financial damage caused byresettled to clean areas of Belarus.
the Chernobyl accident in Belarus up to 235.4 billion
Table 3 also indicates that the total number of
USD only for the years 1986-2015 [30]. The largest
settlements in the affected areas has dropped within theshare (81.6%) of this damage will be incurred byperiod of 1995-1996 from 3,221 to 2,930.
expenditures connected with the support of production
Correspondingly the number of inhabitants in theand realisation of protective measures including
contaminated territories dropped from 1,840,951 inresettlement. 12.6% will be direct and indirect losses
1995 to 1,625,981 in 1996 (see Table 1) or by 11.7%.
and 5.8% will arise from the lost profit.
The number of adolescents and children in the affected
Summing up the information given in our paper one
areas changed within the same period from 483,869 to
can imagine how large could be the economic damage
426,591 (see Table 2) which is 11.9%. These changes
caused by an accident at a nuclear power plant similar
have mostly been a result of a contamination levels
to the accident at the Chernobyl NPP.
revision performed in Belarus in 1995 [33].
The very important lesson of the Chernobyl
However, even this revision did not change
accident, that needs to be considered by planning ofsignificantly the fact that a very large fraction of thecountermeasures in case of a nuclear accident at a
Belorussian population has
Table 1 Number of residents living in the affected settlements of Belarus
to live and work inwith levels of caesium-137 contamination 37 kBq/m2 and higher [33].
abnormal conditions oflong-term irradiation as a
ContaminationYearslevel, kBq/m2
result of the Chernobyl
1991
1993
1994
1995
1996
accident. The inhabitants
37-185
1,489,630
1,488,350
1,490,545
1,485,193
1,302,971
of the affected areas are
185-555
281,309322,425
317,301
314,193
298,584
exposed to additional555-1,480
79,06643,19841,92841,282
24,426
externalandinternal Higher than 1,480
2,944
353
251
283
—
irradiation. The irradiation
Alltogether
1,852,949
1,854,326
1,850,026
1,840,951
1,625,981
is especially serious in the
Table 2 Number of children and adolescents living in the affectedcase of inhabitants of rural
2
settlements who consume settlements of Belarus with levels of caesium-137 contamination 37 kBq/mand higher [33].
foodstuffs produced inContamination
Years
private sector that verylevel, kBq/km2
1991
1993
1994
1995
1996
often
have
high
37-185—409,267
409,154395,309347,748
concentrationof
caesium-137 [34].
185-555—
80,162
79,87078,721
72,970Practically,
people555-1,480
—
9,134
9,125
9,821
5,873
living in the contaminated Higher than 1,480
—
34
27
18
—
areas of Belarus have
Alltogether—
498,597498,176
483,869
426,591
become a material of a
of Belarus with level ofscientific experiment being Table 3 Number of settlements in the affected areas2
andhigher [33]caesium-137
contamination
37kBq/m
carried out to investigate
ContaminationYears
the harm that can belevel, kBq/km2
1991
1993
1994
1995
1996
inflicted by an accident at a37-185
2,206
1,935
1,937
1,933
1,752
NPP
to
heterogene
185-555
999
1,112
1,100
1,102
1,091
population
comprising555-1,480
307
191
186
176
87
pregnant women, infants,
58
13
11
10
—
children, adolescents, old Higher than 1,480
Alltogether
3,370
3,251
3,234
3,221
2,930
people, and the people254nuclear power plant, is that any lack of objective
information and every attempt to downsize the scale of
the accident will aggravate the social and economic
consequences caused by this accident.

Summary
The information given in the present reportdemonstrates clearly that the central authorities of theformer USSR had known since the very beginning that
the Chernobyl accident had a catastrophic scale.
However, an attempt was made to play down the scaleof the accident because of the very serious economic
difficulties and due to political reasons such as the
traditional Soviet policy of concealing all information
about heavy accidents in the country.
Only the collapse of the USSR has given thepossibility to undertake serious countermeasures
aimed at decreasing the harmful impact of radiation.
However, these measures could not have been carriedout in full-scale due to the deep economic crisis in the
country and because a very significant fraction of theBelorussian population has to live and work in
conditions of long-term external and internal
irradiation. Thus, the international community has achance to study the consequences of a large nuclear
accident. Such experience might be very useful in theuse of nuclear energy for electricity generation on awide scale. In order to obtain reliable data related tosuch accidents the international community has torender Belarus adequate assistance.

Acknowledgement
The constant interest of T.Imanaka for reports on
the Chernobyl accident and its radiologicalconsequences, as well as support from the Toyota
Foundation are greatly acknowledged. The assistanceof Vladimir M. Malko in the preparation of the English
version of the report and its computer variant is
acknowledged.
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20. N.F.Grinev. About Chernobyl Problems. Speech at the
XII Session of the Supreme Soviet of the BSSR of the XI
Convocation. The Belorussian newspaper "Sovetskaya
Belorussiya", 31 July 1989 (in Russian).
21. V.G.Evtuch. On State Programme of Liquidation of theConsequences of the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP in
the Belorussian SSR. Report at the XII Session of theSupreme Soviet of the BSSR of the XI Convocation. The
Belorussian newspaper "Sovetskaya Belorussiya", 26
October 1989 (in Russian).
22.V.Yu.Vozniak. Report for the Russian Federation.
Proceedings of the International Conference "One
Decade after Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequencesof the Accident". Vienna, Austria, 1996, pp. 279-410.
23.Decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On
United Programme of Liquidation of the Consequences of
the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP and on Situation
related to this Accident". Moscow, Kremlin, 25 April
1990 (in Russian).
24. Decision of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and
the All-Union Central Committee of Trade Unions "On
Additional Measures for Improvement of Health Care andMaterial Condition of the Population Living in the
Territory Subject to Radioactive Contamination as a
Result of the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP." Moscow,
October 1989. The Belorussian newspaper Zwyazda, 2November 1989 (in Belorussian).
25. TheInternational Advisory Committee. The
International Chernobyl Project: Assessment ofRadiological Consequences and Evaluation of Protective
Measures, Technical Report, IAEA, Vienna, 1991.
26. A.G.Zlotnikov. Problems of the Minimisation of theConsequences of the Catastrophe in Gomel Region. Issue
N2 of "Ecological Anthropology" published by in 1997 as
an international publication. Minsk-Ljublin-Lodz, pp.
29-33.
27. The Law of the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic"On Social Protection of Citizens Who Suffered from theCatastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP". The Supreme Sovietof the BSSR. Minsk, 22 February 1991.
28. The Decision of the Supreme Soviet of the Belorussian
SSR on the Form of Enforcement of the Law of theBelorussian SSR "On Social Protection of Citizens Who
Suffered from the Catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP."The Supreme Soviet of the BSSR. Minsk, 22 February
1991.
29. The Decision of the Council of Ministers of the BSSR
and BelSovProf from the 28th of April 1990 "On
Measures for Improvement of Medical Treatment andSocial Assistance to Persons Who Participated in
Activities on Liquidation of the Consequences of theAccident at the Chernobyl NPP." Minsk.
30. The Chernobyl Catastrophe: Consequences in the
Republic Belarus. Edited by Academician E.F.Conoplya
and Professor I.V.Rolevich. Minsk, 1996.
31. On Specification of Budget Indices of the Republic
Belarus for 1997. Decree of the President of the Republicof Belarus N18. 13 August 1997. Minsk. The Belorussian
newspaper "Narodnaya Gazeta", 15 August 1997 (inBelorussian).
32. Scale of Benefits and Additional Payments Establishedby Articles 30, 33, 37 of the Law of the Republic of
Belarus "On Social Protection of the Citizens Affected by
the Catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP". Supplement to
the Decision of the Council of Ministers of the Republicof Belarus N577 from 26.05.1997. The Belorussian
newspaper "Respublika", 4 June 1997 (in Russian)
33. S.I.Antipova, V.M.Korzhunov, I.V.Rozina et al.
Analysis of the Morbidity in 1995 in Adults andAdolescents Affected by the Catastrophe at the
Chernobyl NPP. Medical and Biological Aspects of theAccident at the Chernobyl NPP. Minsk. N4, 1996, pp.
3-49.
34. V.B.Nesterenko. Scales and Consequences of theDisaster at the Chernobyl NPP for Belarus, Russia amd
the Ukraine. Minsk. Publishing House "Pravo i
Ekonomika". 1996.

256

Problems of Social Assistance to the Chernobyl Sufferers in Russia
Alla YAROSHINSKAYA
Yaroshinskaya Charity Fund
20/2 Beresnevskaya Naberezhnaya, Moscow 103790, Russia; yaro@glas.apc.org
decontamination activities, the authorities did not
manage to carry out quick and effective evacuation of
116 thousand people from the 30-km zone around
Chernobyl. Without doubt, the reason of such failure
was related with the deep secretiveness of thecommunist regime which did not need open the truths
about the accident at all. The party and government
leaders discussed the tragedy only behind closed doors.
Evacuation of residents from the villages in the
30-km zone was executed without detailed planning.
Nothing definite was explained, except that people had
to leave their villages for some time, for two-three
weeks, and then would come back again. Nevertheless,some executives of the contaminated districts recall
having a feeling, that these residents would neverreturn to their homes (see A.Yaroshinskaya.
"Chernobyl. Top Secret", Moscow. 1992).
In 1989 the author of this article was elected a
People's Deputy of the USSR from one of the mostaffected regions — the Zhitomir region. She came to
Moscow and visited the Bureau for Fuel and Energy
Resources at the Council of Ministers of the USSR
with documents proving the necessity of resettlementfrom the Narodich and Lugin districts of the Zhitomir
region. The Bureau was involved in the problems ofliquidation of the Chernobyl accident consequences atthat time. Notwithstanding this fact, the leaders of the
Bureau refused even to hear about any resettlement.
However, after the author had reported these facts at
the First Congress of the People's Deputies of the
USSR, a decision was made immediately to resettle 12villages. This points to only one fact that until 1989
there was no scientifically developed government
programme to aid the people affected by the ChNPS
accident. This was not due to lack of scientificbrain-power necessary for its elaboration. This isrelated with glasnost. A closed society and glasnost of
the Chernobyl events were ideologically incompatible
each other.
During the first five years after the Chernobyl
accident the co-ordination of measures to liquidate theaccident consequences and aid to the population was
subject to the strict command system of administration.
For this purpose a special operative group wasestablished in the Politburo of the Central Committeeof the CPSU and it continued to function in the courseof several years. At first the group meeting was held
daily, but afterwards more and more infrequently. The
operative group received reports from republics, the

1. Assistance to the Chernobyl sufferers from thegovernment
1.1. In the period of the USSR
By the time of the world's largest civil nuclear
accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station(ChNPS) in April, 1986 NOT A SINGLE legislativeact existed in the USSR that could protect victims ofpossible nuclear accidents and incidents. Such was theSoviet Union despite of the fact that it was literally
stuffed with both nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors
for military industry, as well as with hundreds ofresearch reactors all over the country. Thus, when theaccident at the ChNPS happened, the government of
the USSR had no available legislative base to provide
assistance for sufferers — personnel of ChNPS,
volunteer-liquidators, and the population affected by
the accident. During the first five years after theaccident the Supreme Soviet of the USSR had made no
attempts to adopt any laws to protect the citizens
affected by the accident at ChNPS and to give themrights for certain benefits and compensations. How can
we understand this situation? The Soviet communist
regime could not allow to disclose the scale andcontamination levels of the accident, as well as thenumber of affected persons. During the first five years
after the accident, various decrees of the Central
Committee of the CPSU (Communist Party of theSoviet Union), which were directed to republican andregional party organs for execution, functioned the roleof "laws". Quite often they were issued, as joint decrees
both of the Central Committee of the CPSU and of thegovernment of the USSR. As a matter of course, they
were secret. When these decrees appeared in open
documents, they had no concrete information on thenumber of sufferers, their needs.
The first actions by the authorities to rescue lives of
the ChNPS personnel and fire-fighters were of
emergent nature without preparation. Coordination ofliquidation work was not effective because theauthorities were not ready for such a large-scale
nuclear accident. This is indicated by the fact that
medics did not carried out iodine prophylactics in duetime (within the first eight days after the accident).
Although a large amount of chemical and engineering
corps, special military materiel and transport
equipment of the Ministry of Defence of the USSR and
Civil Defence forces were mobilized in dosimetric and257

compact contents with attempts of scientific approach.
This programme contained the most important issues
about the criteria of benefits to the population andresidents in the affected territory — the issues that were
not mentioned on the governmental level for years. The
Ukrainian programme was not even signed. So, its
author was unknown. It was evident that different"parts" of this programme were merged into a single
document in a machine-like manner. The programmeof the ChNPS accident consequences liquidation for
RSFSR turned out to be the strangest . It involved only
one region, the Bryansk region. However, at that time it
was already known that other regions of Russia had
been contaminated, for example, in the
Orlov-Bryansk-Tula spot.
In April 1991, after numerous discussions in theparliament and the government, "Concept of Living inDistricts Affected by the Accident at the Chernobyl
NPS" was adopted at a session of the State Expert
Commission. According to this concept, the main
criterion to make decisions on protective measures,
their scales and compensations for damages to the
population had become irradiation dose induced by the
Chernobyl accident. A dose of irradiation wasconsidered acceptable if it resulted in an averageannual effective equivalent dose not exceeding 0.1 rem(1 mSv). Persons living in "dirty" territories or having
lived there for a defined minimal period, had the rightfor loss recovery by way of benefits, compensations,guarantees, and systems of social and medical
assistance.
A system of social guarantees to Russian
population was worked out only in May 1991 in the
Law of RSFSR "On Social Protection of Citizens
Exposed to Radiation as a Result of the Catastrophe at
the Chernobyl NPS". As a matter of fact, in order tolaunch the mechanism of the Law, more than 40
normative bylaws were elaborated and adopted.
Nevertheless, this law was inefficient, especially ascompensation payments to the population wereconcerned. In June 1992 modifications andamendments were introduced to the Law.

government, Ministries of Defence and Health, gave
hearings to operative group members' reports, andimmediately took decisions on ALL problems:
hospitalisation, discharge from hospital, increase in the
maximum acceptable doses for vegetables and fruit
consumption in the affected territories, population
resettlement, aid to personnel of the ChNPS,
introduction of benefits for compensation payments tothe population, medical assistance to the affected
persons, etc.
The secrecy and uncoordinated character of theactions by the authoritative bodies on different levels
led at times to misuse of authority power. For instance,in the Narodich district of the Zhitomir region, officials
who were distributing flats for the resettled people inKiev, L'vov, Zhitomir, etc. were taking several flats fortheir own, disallowing them to the people in real need.
The efficiency of taken decisions was low for one
more reason: at that time the foodstuffs in the USSR
were in short supply not only in affected villages, but in
big towns and cities as well. Thus, the decisions of the
CPSU to improve the situation of foodstuffs supply to
the ChNPS victims were practicably impossible.
According to the party decision, residents in theaffected zones were receiving 30 roubles (people
called them "coffin money") for "clean" food.
However, "clean" food was not found in village shops.
The shops were practically empty. The sum itself was
simply ridiculous. Three different programmes, whichwere not interconnected each other, for liquidation of
the ChNPS accident consequences existed until 1989
— the Ukrainian and the Belorussian programmes, andthe programme of liquidation of the consequences of
the accident at the ChNPS in the Bryansk region(Russia) for the period of 1988 to 1990. In April 1990 astate-union programme of liquidation of the ChNPS
accident consequences in RSFSR (Russian Soviet
Federated Socialist Republics) for 1990-1992 was
made.
Only in 1990 were held THE FIRST open public
parliament hearings on the Chernobyl accident. At
these hearings the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
adopted the first decree to liquidate the consequencesof the accident at ChNPS and to elaborate acomprehensive state programme and a concept ofliving in the affected districts. A State Expert
Commission at the Government of the USSR was also
founded (the author of this report was a member of thiscommission as a People's Deputy of the USSR), which
had to elaborate an all-union programme of liquidationof the consequences of the Chernobyl accident.
Three new programmes of the accident
consequences liquidation were presented to the Expert
Commission — the Ukrainian, the Belorussian and theprogramme for Bryansk region (RSFSR). Only the
Belorussian programme had more or less integral andThus, if one was to sum up the government
assistance to the population affected by the ChNPS
accident within the Soviet period (1986-1991), nottaking into account its quality and efficiency, thefollowing directions of this assistance could be
distinguished:• recovery and decontamination measures, aimed atdecrease in the radioactive contamination of
territories;• implementation of social protection of citizens livingin the affected territories: resettlement from thecontaminatedtothe"clean"territories,
compensations for loss of housing, compensations
for "clean" foodstuffs, medical assistance benefits.

258

specialists (e.g. ex-Chairman of the State Committee
on Liquidation of the ChNPS Accident Consequences
V.Ya.Vozniyak) state, the taken measures resulted in
improvement of soil fertility and a 1.5-4 times decreasein the radionuclide accumulation in plants. Personally,
I strongly doubt such numbers, especially when suchinformation comes from V.Ya.Vozniyak who himself
took part in classifying the information about the
Chernobyl accident during the Soviet period. The same
doubts arise about the very necessity to plant
something in fields that are known to be radioactive, as
foodstuffs for people or even as forage for animals. I
cannot perceive and accept such logic of a Moscow
cabinet official who determined how the people had tolive in a zone of permanent health risk.

At that time medical brigades visited the districts
affected as a result of the accident at the ChNPS inorder to perform in-depth examination of the
population and determine the changes of health status.
Unfortunately, all information was classified secret not
only to the population, but (according to
E.B.Burlakova) to some of Russian scientists.
During this period, however, the material andtechnical bases of local health care were significantly
improved; a network of diagnostics andmedical-recreation centres was established, advanced
training of medical personnel was carried out, etc.
According to the data of the State Committee of theRussian Federation on Liquidation of theConsequences of the Accident at the ChNPS, medical
observation of health status of the Russian population
was performed both by local medical establishments
and by 25 leading research institutes. A Russian state
medical-dosimetric registry was established. Its
database contains information on 137.6 thousandpeople affected by radiation effects as a result of theChernobyl accident; 97 thousand of so-calledliquidators, about 3 thousand of the people evacuatedfrom the affected zone, more than 35 thousand of thepeople living in the affected zone, and more than 2.6
thousand of children born from participants of theaccident consequences liquidation.
In the first years after the accident at the ChNPS theGovernment of the USSR allocated budget funds forhousing construction for the resettled. However, evenin such case ideology played its role as well. In order toconceal the scale of the accident a decision was taken
to build new houses for the victims of the catastropheeven on contaminated territories. For example, about
200 million roubles (in prices of that time) were
invested only in the Zhitomir region in construction of
50 apartment blocks in the "dirty" territory of the
Narodich district. It should be noted that the resettled
did not live there, knowing this was a deceit on the partof the authorities.
As far as the Russian Federation is concerned,
decontamination of 412 settlements in the affected
territories was carried out. About 13 thousand people
were resettled from the zones of radioactive
contamination in the Bryansk region, 5.5 thousand ofthem from the zone of obligatory resettlement. 18
settlements were entirely resettled. Until 1993 about 50
thousand people have been resettled or havevoluntarily left the affected territories of the RussianFederation.
It is interesting to note that special agrochemical
studies were conducted in the affected territories inorder to decrease accumulation of radionuclides inagricultural production. In some districts of the
Bryansk, Orlov, Tula, Kaluga regions, sowing of
forage crops was extended, while grain crops werereduced; buckwheat and rape were not sown. As some

1.2. After the collapse of the USSR
After the collapse of the USSR, every of the threemost affected republics had to deal with its problems
on one's own. At the time of the Commonwealth of
Independent States foundation (late 1991) the area
contaminated with caesium-137 as a result of theaccident at the ChNPS with a density of 1 Ci/km2 andhigher has totalled in Russia, the Ukraine and Belarus
more than 100 thousand square kilometres. The main
problem of every newly formed state remained thesame — social protection to victims of the ChNPS
accident: resettlement from the so-called radioactive"B" zones (according to the Chernobyl laws of Russia,
the Ukraine and Belarus) which are nominally areas
with a contamination density of 15-40 Ci/km2 or evenhigher.
Already 11 years passed since the accident at the
ChNPS! A sad fact should be stated: neither the Soviet
government nor the democratic governments havemanaged so far to provide their citizens with theminimum which is set by the Chernobyl laws adopted
by their parliaments. Moreover, the state assistance tothe resettled nowadays tends to decline. In 1993, forexample, 4,410 persons were resettled from the zonesof obligatory and guaranteed resettlement (Gomel andMogilev region) in Belarus (according to A.Dumnov,
E.Vos'mirko), and in 1995 — only 1,723. 2,790
persons were resettled in 1993 from the zones ofobligatory and guaranteed resettlement (Bryansk,
Kaluga, Tula and Orlov regions) in Russia, and in 1995
— only 1,370. The same picture is to be seen in the
Ukraine.
According to preliminary data, 410.4 thousandpeople are living in the affected territory in the zones ofobligatory and guaranteed resettlement in Russia(Bryansk, Kaluga, Tula regions) in early 1997, in
Belarus — 323 thousand people, in the Ukraine — 673
thousand people (furthermore, 479 people are living in
the restricted zone of the Kiev region). Simple
mathematics shows that with the existing trend
preserved, the resettlement of people from the zones of259

regions, depending on the duration of residence (inpercent to the minimal salary defined by the law):• from 26th of April 1986 — at a rate of 60 percent;• from 1st of January 1987 — at a rate of 50 percent;• from 1st of January 1991 — at a rate of 30 percent.
Thus the monthly compensation to the citizens
residing (working) in the zone of resettlement until
resettlement to other places constitutes from the 1st ofJanuary 1987, for example, 42,000 roubles.
The citizens of above-mentioned categories also
have the right of monthly pension and benefits for
unemployed pensioners, invalids and disabled children
at higher rates depending on the duration of residence(in percent to the minimal salary defined by the law):• from 26th of April 1986 — at a rate of 300 percent;• from 1st of January 1987 — at a rate of 200 percent;• from 1st of January 1991 — at a rate of 100 percent.
As well, fellowships are granted to 100-percent of
postgraduate students and students of state primary,secondary and higher professional educational
establishments on the territory of the zone ofresettlement. The state scholarship to students of statehigher educational establishments of Russia is the sameas the minimal salary, 84,000 roubles. Thus, students
of state higher educational establishments on the
territory of the zone of resettlement receive ascholarship from the state at a rate of 168,000 roubles.
Citizens of the named categories are also guaranteed
other benefits by the Law.
The Law also makes a provision for compensations(Section 5) for the harm inflicted to health as a result of
the Chernobyl catastrophe. For instance, invalids of the
1st and the 2nd group receive an annual compensation at
a rate of five minimal monthly salaries, defined by thelaw. Thus, with a minimal monthly salary of 84,000
roubles invalids of the 1st and the 2nd group mustreceive an annual compensation of 420,000 roubles forloss of health.
The law also covers compensations to othercategories of citizens, whose health has been harmed asa result of the accident at the ChNPS.
Due to the severe state of the economy, thepayments and compensations to the citizens, who
suffered as a result of the accident at the ChNPS, havebeen more and more often delayed by the state bodies.

obligatory and guaranteed resettlement in thesecountries may be prolonged for decades.
According to the Federal Law of Russia "On Social
Aid to Citizens Subject to Effects of Radiation as a
Result of the Catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPS", thestatus of such citizens is defined. In the Section 3 of theLaw, 12 categories of citizens are defined, which canbe used as bases of compensations and benefits by theLaw. All benefit and compensation rates available tothe victims of Chernobyl are described in detail in thementioned law. Below are listed some of them:
1. Citizens who contracted radiation syndrome,
other illnesses, and invalids as a result of thecatastrophe are granted gratuitous medical treatment(hospital and ambulatory), gratuitous acquisition of
medicines on a physician's prescription, gratuitous
dentistry and construction of dentures, gratuitous
annual sanatorium-resort therapy or payment at the
average cost of the corresponding travel voucher, etc.
Working invalids are granted disablement benefits up
to four continuous months or up to five months within acalendar year with 100 percent payment of the averagesalary. A gratuitous one-time grant of house-room
equipped with modern conveniences is provided,
regardless of the period of residence in the given
settlement, within three months from the submission ofa corresponding application under the condition thatthe applicants are recognised to need improvement in
the housing conditions or residing in shared apartmentswith an additional separate room. Also are granted
50-percent discounts in accommodation payments tothe citizens named above, including members of theirfamilies residing together with them, as well as
50-percent discount in payments for telephone, radio,
shared TV-aerials and their installation; 50-percent
discount in payments for gas, heating, water andelectricity; gratuitous travel on the territory of Russia
on all types of urban and suburban passenger
transportation, as well as once every year — all overRussia; relief from income-tax and all other types oftaxes, etc.
2. Citizens who are permanently residing (working)on the territory of the zone with the right forresettlement can receive monthly compensation
depending upon the period of residence (in percent to
the minimal salary defined by the Law):• from 26th of April 1986 — at a rate of 40 percent;• from 1st of January 1987 — at a rate of 30 percent;• from 1st of January 1991 — at a rate of 20 percent.
Today the minimal salary in Russia constitutes
84,000 roubles per month. This means that the above
citizens in this zone receive a compensation of 33,600
roubles, 25,200 roubles, 16,800 roubles respectively.
3. Citizens who are permanently residing on the
territory of the zone of resettlement can receive amonthly compensation until resettlement to otherAn important indicator of the state care about the
population living in the contaminated territories is asum of special investment for construction of housing,social and cultural facilities for the resettled, as well as
establishment of industrial facilities to employ them.
The expenditures for liquidation of the consequencesof the Chernobyl accident in the budget of each country
is a separate item. However, in recent years these sums
tended to shrink. The reason for such a phenomenon is
general financial recession, inflation processes, thebulk of new transition-period problems in the economy

260sugar have been supplied to these territories in the
Ukraine in 1995 as compared with 1991. Incomparison with 1994, supplies of vegetables, meat,
vegetable oil and different cereals have decreased by ahalf, and supplies of milk and sugar — by more than
two-thirds. The same relates to Russia and Belarus in a
number of regions.

of the newly-independent states. Investment in theeconomy of every country has been recently dropping
at a rate of 10-30 percent a year in comparable prices.
The real amount of Chernobyl investment has dropped
at an even bigger rate. The expenditures of Belarus for
Chernobyl investment in dollar equivalent was last year
(1996) 120 million dollars, of Russia — 60 million, andof the Ukraine — 185 million. The cutback in housing
construction in the framework of the "Chernobyl"
programmes in three states altogether constituted 40
percent in comparison to 1995. As compared with
1995, only 27 percent of housing were completed in
Russia, in Belarus — 62 percent, and in the Ukraine —75 percent (A.Dumnov, E.Vos'mirko).
After the commencement of the war in Chechnya,
the construction of 150 houses in the Potchip district of
the Bryansk region (settlement Moskovsky), run by the
Moscow government, was withheld, leaving the houses
unfinished. Practically no clinics, hospitals andsecondary schools, which are very important elementsof the infrastructure for residents and the resettled,
have been put into service in Russia last year. Problems
are accumulating with the people who had resettled to"clean" areas but could not find work places there.
Nearly no jobs are created for the resettled. Quite often
the resettled, being unable to adjust to new living
conditions, return to their "dirty" homes and gardens.
In this relation the Russian government adopted in
January 1997 a decree on elaboration of a mechanism
to reimburse funds allocated for housing for the
resettled who had returned back.
Budget complications have affected not only the
problems of adult population rehabilitation, but
children rehabilitation as well. A special multipurpose
presidential programme "Children of Russia" has beenfunctioning in the Russian Federation for several years
already. One of its divisions is called "Children of
Chernobyl". Although the programme is a presidential
one, it was not fully financed last year. Within 9months of 1996, 24 billion 907.3 million roubles havebeen allocated for implementation of the programme"Children of Chernobyl". This investment for the
programme has constituted only 13 percent of theannual plan.

Considering the problems of state assistance to theChernobyl victims, one cannot but touch upon misuseof authority, as well as corruption in this sphere. It islong known that in some districts subject to radiation
effects as a result of the accident at the ChNPS, thebudget money allocated to solve the problems ofChernobyl victims was spent for other purposes. For
instance, in the Bryansk region of the RussianFederation the local authorities have used this money
for construction of a local airport, in the Zhitomir
region (the Ukraine) some money has been spent tobuild country-houses for officials. Several years ago in
Kiev in the Ukraine a corruption was disclosed inconnection with transfer of "Chernobyl" money fromthe sate budget to a private foundation of top-ranking
officials. This corruption involved members of the
Cabinet of Ministers.
Thus, the state assistance to the people affected by
the accident at the ChNPS over the last years in
newly-independent states has been subject to new tests
in the course of rebuilding of the socio-economic
system, adjustment of economic policies and decisionsof new national priorities. Due to these reasons many
"Chernobyl" problems remain unsolved. The primary
problems in the Russian Federation are:• Comprehensive monitoring of contaminatedsettlements is not accomplished;• Not all residents are provided with personal
protection means and special clothes;• Home-made "dirty" milk and milk products, as well
as home-grown vegetables and fruit with increased
radiation levels are still consumed;• Inflation and price increase do not allow residents ofcontaminated territories to obtain "clean" foodstuffs
and even essential goods;• Due to general economic recession, many Chernobyl
victims are deprived in recent years of their benefits
provided by law — compensation payments andgratuitous acquisition of medicines in drugstores;• 100-percent clinical observation of the adult
population living in the affected territory is notachieved;• Personnel is still scanty in medical establishments,
especially in remote villages;• Medical institutions are not fully equipped with allnecessary medical facilities;• Housing construction for the resettled has been
withheld;• Construction of social and cultural objects has been

The problem of consumption of "dirty" foodstuffs
grown in private gardens by residents of contaminatedareas is still acute. In the first place, it relates to milk
and milk products, meat, wild-growing fruit, berries,
and mushrooms. While at least some control of suchproducts was performed in the first years after theaccident, there is practically no control at present inthese areas.
Also unresolved is the problem of clean foodstuffs
supplies to the population living in the contaminatedterritories. For example, only 8-20 percent of "clean"milk, butter and vegetable oil, meat, vegetables, and261

victims of Chernobyl was out of question. Only theliquidation of Article 6 of the USSR Constitution by
the People's Deputies of the USSR, abolition of thecommunist party monopoly, adoption of a new article
on a multiparty system and public organisations,adoption of the law in 1990 on public organisations andmovements thrust the establishment of different civil
movements and organisations, including those aimed at
assistance to victims of Chernobyl.
It should be specially noted that the unofficial"green" movement in the former USSR emerged indifferent aspects owing to many publications about theconsequences of the Chernobyl accident, appearing inpress in late 80's after the first, more or less, freeelections of the People's Deputies of the USSR. The
elections gave a rise to real liberalisation of politicallife in the country. According to some data, 38
non-government ecological organisations (and all ofthem were without doubt controlled by the line of theCPSU) existed in the country in 1987. In 1991 thenumber of newly-formed non-government ecologicalorganisations increased by more than 5 times and their
total number exceeded 1,000 organisations.
The
first
non-registered(i.e.
illegal)non-government public organisations (at that time, theregistration system under the condition of the CPSU
monopoly did not yet exist) concerned in theconsequences of the Chernobyl accident emerged inlate 1986 — early 1987. In particular, thenon-registered (illegal) political club "Perestroika"
founded by the editor of journalist agency "Novosti
Zhitomirschiny", Yakov Zaiko and the author of thisreport in the town Zhitomir. One of the tasks of the club
was to spread by all possible means true information
about the life of the people in the affected territories.
Because of the taboo on such information in the official
communist press, it had to be printed on a type-writerand illegally distributed among the population. Since1988 the club "Perestroika" had been illegally
publishing using primitive equipment the newspaper"Stenogramma" (Shorthand) with a circulation of 100
copies. The newspaper critically touched upon political
topics and the situation in the northern districts of theZhitomir region affected by the Chernobyl accident. At
that moment glasnost was the most important task:
nobody in the country knew about the realdevelopments in the fourth reactor of the Chernobyl
NPS, and about the scale of the accident consequences.
Besides, the people who remained in the affected
territory found themselves in a total information
blockade — no one knew about them, their sufferings,
ailments, deaths. Thus no help could be rendered tothese people.
In 1988 the author of this report had the first chance
to publicly talk at a meeting with workers of the plant"Promavtomatika" on what was going on in the"Chernobyl" territories. Further, with democratisation

brought to a halt;• Jobs are not being created for the resettled.
A fact is evident — the governments are not able totackle with even the most acute social problems related
to resettlement of the population from the mostdangerous radiocontamination zones during 11 years
after the Chernobyl accident. It is also obvious that thetendency of the central governments to shrink theassistance is likely to remain. Apparently, the majorburden of assistance to the victims of Chernobyl will be
carried in future by local administrations and by theresettled themselves.

2. Public movement to assist the Chernobyl
sufferers
The first official public action was theannouncement of a "Chernobyl" account #904 sometime after the accident. Citizens of the USSR were
informed about this account by officials of the party
and Soviet ruling circles. The account number and allaccount information were broadcast on all radio andtelevision channels, and printed in all party, Soviet,
trade-union and official newspapers. The authorities
invited people to mercy. The Soviet citizens were
proposed to send money to this account for victims ofChernobyl. Nothing else could have happened at thattime. No one except the authorities had the right to set
up a special account (no matter what kind of account,
not even the "Chernobyl" one) in a bank. Citizens of
the USSR had no accounts in ordinary banks, only instate savings-banks. Except for the central state bank,there were no other banks in Russia.
When the deputies of the USSR started to speak
publicly about the Chernobyl problems in their first
Congresses and Sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the
USSR, the USSR government asked so-called"independent" experts of WHO and IAEA to come to
the Soviet Union and conduct so-called "independent"
study of the Chernobyl NPS accident consequences.
This commission was headed by a Japanese scientist,
I.Shigematsu. The conclusion of this commission
appeared perplexing to many: the Chernobyl accident
had posed no danger to human health and no change inthe health of people was found by the international
experts. Soon it became known that the Soviet
government had financed the visit of the international
experts, their stay, the best hotel accommodation andeverything else from the "Chernobyl" account #904
according to a direction of the Chairman of Council of
Ministers of the USSR, N.I.Ryzhkov. That brought thefirst official public action of mercy towards the victimsof the accident at the Chernobyl NPS to an inglorious
end.
Until 1989 no public association or organisation
was allowed in the former USSR except the communist
ones. Thus, any public movement for assistance to the262non-government organisations (in co-operation with
Russian organisations) as well.
The number of non-government organisations in
Russia involved exclusively with "Chernobyl" matters
is 25 (the list is supplemented). As a rule, theiractivities are aimed only at various help to the victimsof the Chernobyl accident, from lobbying of necessary
laws in the Council of the Russian Federation andscientific projects related to the consequences of theaccident at the ChNPS, to assistance to concreteorganisations, especially to children's homes, hospitals,
families and people.

of life in the USSR, the first meetings in support of therights of the people affected by the Chernobyl accident
have been organised by the "National Front ofAssistance to Perestroika". This Front had "grown" outof the small club "Perestroika" and was officiallyregistered by local authorities by that time. Thousandsof people came to these meetings. People of Zhitomir
expressed their solidarity with the victims ofChernobyl, demanded resignation of the government of
the Ukraine, truth about the consequences of theaccident at the Chernobyl NNP, and efficient help of
the authorities to the affected. A wave of meetings
against stifling of glasnost about the consequences of
the Chernobyl accident had moved over all districts of
the Zhitomir region affected by radiation, as well as in
Belarus (e.g. a "crusade" rally of people from theaffected territories to Minsk in 1990).
This is how started the public movement of citizens
for truth about the consequences of the Chernobyl
accident and for assistance to the victims. Only in 1991
appeared the first non-government organisations thatwere officially registered and acknowledged by theauthorities and the society. The major purpose of theseorganisations were to help the immediate victims ofChernobyl, especially children. They emerged at firstin Kiev, Minsk and Moscow, and acquired the status of
all-union and republican organisations. At that time the"Chernobyl" 24 hours TV charity was popular andefficient as a means to collect money for the affected.

The author of this report is also the president of yet
single in the Russian Federation private Charity
Foundation with a statutory objective to renderassistance to children-orphans victims of Chernobyl.
The Foundation regularly helps 150 orphans living in
two children's homes in the radiocontaminated territory(Russia), as well as to the children's hospital, the old,
the invalids, the families with many children in the
town Zhitomir and the village Bazar of the Narodich
district of the Zhitomir region (the Ukraine) — so far as
the customs barriers and the facilities of the Foundation
allow. Humanitarian actions of mercy by the Charity
Foundation include purchase and delivery of food,different
mixtures,juicesfor
destitutechildren-nurselings (unparented children live inchildren's homes from birth till the age of 12), as wellas medicines, syringes, footwear, books, toys, candies,biscuits, colour-TV's, etc.
The Foundation addressed the Moscow mayor,
Yu.M.Luzhkov requesting to assist in the constructionof a new children's home in "clean" area in order toresettle both of the children's homes from "dirty"
territory of the town Klintsy. A location for the new
children's home was found, the engineering data wereprepared, and the design of the house was drawn.
However, with the commencement of the war in
Chechnya all work was brought to a standstill.
As far as the abilities allow, the Foundation renders
help to a Zhitomir children's hospital which is treating
the children from the affected territories, finances heart
operations for children of families with low income
living in the "dirty" areas, as well as allocates one-timemoney grants to the old and the invalids from theaffected territories of the Zhitomir region (theUkraine).
The Foundation has several holders of fellowship as
well — it pays for education of gifted students from
Zhitomir in higher educational establishments.
Additionally, the publishing department of theFoundation edits, publishes, and distributes ecologicaland antinuclear literature (free of charge for the people
affected by the Chernobyl accident). All benefits are
spent solely for the purposes to help the people affectedby the Chernobyl accident. The Foundation carries

In 1989 dozens of foreign journalists gained accessto the affected territories. Articles about thecomplicated situation of the affected appeared in theWestern press. As a result, hundreds of organisations
for assistance to the victims of Chernobyl emerged in
the West, Japan and the United States. Domestic
non-government organisations began to associate with
the Western ones, thus merging into international
non-government organisations. In order to overcome
the bureaucratic barriers on the way of humanitarian
aid to the Chernobyl victims from Western and Japan,
it was better to work together. The enormous
humanitarian aid, generosity and heartiness of theJapanese towards the people affected by the Chernobyl
accident should be especially noted.
The years of 1989-1991 were the peak of the"Chernobyl" movement in the USSR and abroad. With
the collapse of the USSR the "Chernobyl" movementof mercy and aid to the victims of peaceful atom
significantly weakened. The problems of Chernobyl
were thrust aside by problems of building up the
independent states and solution of national problems.
According to the data of the present author, there are
currently more than 50 non-government anti-nuclear
domestic organisations in Russia that in one way or theother, directly or indirectly, render help to the people
affected by Chernobyl. There are several international263

at the Chernobyl NNP. These topics include:"Radionuclide content in the forestry products in theconditions of radiation contamination", "New
medical-biological criteria of life-standard influenceon the health state of the people in radiocontaminatedregions", "Development of methodology of
immunological monitoring for examination of aviation
specialists — liquidators of the consequences ofaccident at the Chernobyl NPS", "Development oftechnique to form resistance to stress factors" (within
the framework of the programme "Children of
Chernobyl").
In addition, the Moscow State University Scientific
Association of Chernobyl Invalids takes part in the"1997 Comprehensive Target Programme of Social
Assistance to Invalids, as well as Persons Injured as a
Result of the Accident at the Chernobyl NPS",
authorised by the government of Moscow.
One of the latest projects developed by the Moscow
State University Scientific Association of Chernobyl
Invalids is teaching children who came to Moscow
from the affected zones and encounter difficulties inentering higher and secondary professional
establishments. It is planned to provide additional help
to 500 children of former "Chernobylers".

such authority that its stuffs are invited to take part asjury-members in different national meetings andfestivals of "green" and other organisations, as well as
in different international conferences. The Foundation
established a special prize and awards the participantsof various international and national contests of"green" organisations and "green" press.
The Foundation has reliable partners in the Westand Japan. Co-operation is especially close with theJapanese "Chernobyl" organisations headed by Akiko
Wada (Tokyo) and Ikuo Kusaka (Ishinomaki). In
recent years they and their organisations have several
times provided via the Foundation significant support
to two children's homes patronised by the Foundation,
as well as to the old of Zhitomir. The Foundation also
maintains close co-operation with Japanese scientists
from the Research Reactor Institute of the Kyoto
University, T.Imanaka, H.Koide and K.Kobayashi,
who are members of the authors for a collective of afundamental publication launched by the Foundation— the first "Nuclear Encyclopaedia" in the world.
One should mark among the "Chernobyl"
non-government organisations the ones that comprise
victims of the Chernobyl accident living in the affected
territories, and struggling for their survival, as well as
non-government organisations of the participants ofliquidation of the accident who had as consequence
became invalid. The association "Chernobyl —Moscow State University" and the Moscow State
University Scientific Association of Chernobyl
Invalids, officially registered in 1991 and 1994,
respectively, have been more and more active lately.
The main objectives and tasks of the Moscow State
University Scientific Association of Chernobyl
Invalids
arecharityactionsaimed
atsocial-psychological, informational, legal, medical
assistance and material support to persons affected as aresult of the Chernobyl accident or exposed to radiation
due to other reasons; material, medical and social
assistance to people, their families, children, women,
invalids, families of perished and deceased;arrangement of payment for travel and medical
treatment for children, women and invalids, including
medical treatment abroad; provision of work places tothe association members by making new enterprises of
the association; provision of measures (within theframework of international co-operation) on
rehabilitation of territories affected by the catastrophe
at the Chernobyl NNP; financial support of scientificstudies related to different aspects of the consequencesof the accident at the ChNPS (social-psychological,
legal, medical, economic, ecological aspects), etc.
The research experience of these associations
presents certain interest. Since 1991 they have
performed research studies on almost 20 topics directly
or indirectly touching the consequences of the accident

While analysing the question of publicorganisations of help to victims of Chernobyl, one
cannot bypass another aspect of this problem.
Sometimes organisations or people who hampered
publishing of true information about the events at the
ChNPS after the accident and intentionally publishedfalse information about the situation of the populationin the contaminated territories, had started after the
breakthrough of the glasnost to found organisations ofassistance to victims of Chernobyl and declaredthemselves their best friends.
Such cynical case happened in Zhitomir in 1987.
The editor of the newspaper "Radyanska
Zhitmorischina", D.Panchuk had not permitted theauthor of this report (at that time a correspondent of thenewspaper) to visit the affected villages of the
Narodich district of the Zhitomir region. After theauthor had, nevertheless, travelled to these villages andwritten an authentic article — the editor had not
published it. Instead, an untruthful article of anothercorrespondent was published stating that everything
was fine in the affected areas. However, when the
Chernobyl topic became not dangerous to be written,
D.Panchuk jointly with other journalists of such sort
had quickly established within the regionalorganisation of journalists a foundation for assistanceto victims of Chernobyl. A fact is striking such that thispseudo-foundation found connections in Japan. The
Japanese people, not knowing with whom they wereactually having contact, came to Zhitomir withhumanitarian aid (many thanks for that), met those who264had been unhesitatingly implementing the party
decisions on classifying of the events in the affected
territories and who had been in real guilty of stresses,
illnesses, and deaths of their fellow citizens. The
people who admitted the classifying of Chernobyl wereinvited and visited Japan, met the Japanese public andtold how bravely they were writing truth about
Chernobyl, and gave interviews to the Japanesenewspapers. A greater cynicism more than this story
can not be imagined. The author of this report had to
explain the real state of things twice in the all-union
and the Ukrainian republican newspapers.
This Zhitomir story is, however, not alone. There
are a lot of other similar examples that oppressors of
the truth of Chernobyl had afterwards not only turned
into "advocates" of this truth at the level of publicorganisations, but occupied the highest positions in thegovernment of the independent states.

public organisations in Russia that provide
assistance to victims of Chernobyl
1. "SOS" Chernobyl ---- Obninsk division of theinternational association. Obninsk. Moscow region.
2. "Children of Chernobyl" ---- division of theBelorussian Committee. Moscow.
3. Public Association of Persons Affected as a Resultof the Catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPS. Moscow.
4. Division of the International Foundation for
Assistance to Victims of Chernobyl. Moscow.
5. "Raduga-XXI" ---- division of the international
non-government
humanitarianorganisation"Foundation "Chernobyl - help" of North America.
Moscow.
6. Foundation "Social Protection and Medical
Provision of the Chernobylers". Moscow.
7. "Spec.Chernobyl" Foundation. Moscow.
8. Foundation of assistance and rehabilitation ofinvalids, orphans, refugees and victims ofChernobyl. Moscow
9. "Chernobyler" ---- social protection foundation.
Moscow.
10.Union "Chernobyl" of Russia. Moscow, withdivisions over the country.
11."Chernobyl" ---- association of the Union.
Moscow.
12."Chernobyl-Help"theinternational---humanitarian organisation. Moscow.
13."Chernobyl, Children of Chernobyl" ----division of
the international association. Ul'yanovsk.
14."Union of Chernobyl Workers" ---- Russian
association. Voronezh region, settlement Ramon.
15."Chernobyl-Atom" ---- international association ofunions. Moscow.
16."Chernobyl-Hospital" ---- foundation. Moscow.
17."Chernobyl-Hope" ---- foundation for assistance toinvalids, injured, ill, overirradiated as a result ofChernobyl catastrophe. Moscow.
18.Chernobyl Safety Foundation. Moscow.
19."Chernobylenergozaschita" ---- association forsocial protection of citizens who took part inliquidation of the consequences of the accident at
the Chernobyl NPS. Moscow.
20.Chernobyl Mission" ---- public organisation.
Moscow.
21.Operative department at the Siberia regional
division "Chernobyl". Novosibirsk.
22."Chernobyl" ---- public association of invalids of
war and Chernobyl. Moscow.
23.Private Charity Foundation of Yaroshinskaya(assistance to people affected by the accident at the
ChNPS). Moscow.
24.Association "Chernobyl ---- Moscow State
University"
25.The Moscow State University Scientific
Association of Chernobyl Invalids. Moscow.

References
1. State Law of the Russian Federation "On Social
Protection for Citizens Who Suffered from theCatastrophe At the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant". Moscow. 1995.
2. On Common Program and Situation Concerning
LiquidationofChernobyl
Catastrophe's
Consequences. The Resolution by Supreme Sovietof the USSR. Moscow. 1989. Author's archive.
3. An International Day of Environment. Expert's
Evaluations of Programs andDecisionsConcerning Liquidation of Chernobyl Catastrophe's
Consequences. Moscow. 1990.
4. A.Yaroshinskaya. Bluff and Poverty. Stolitza. 1991.
Moscow; Komsomolskoe znamya. #136.1991.
Kiev.
5. A. Yaroshinskaya. Chernobyl. Top Secret. Tokyo.
1993.
6. Statute of Scientist's Assosiation of Chernobyl's
Invalids of Moscow State University. 1994.
Author's arhive.
7. Social Ecological Movement of Russia. Moscow.
1995.
8. Information
about
Actionsof Belorussia
Charitable Fund "To Children of Chernobyl". 1995.
Manuscript is in author’s arhive.
9. World
Antinuclear
Movement.
NuclearEncyclopedia. Moscow. 1996.
10.A.Dumnova, E.Vosmirko. 11 Years after
Chernobyl. Zelenuy mir. #10. 1997, Moscow.
11.On Complex Program of Social Assistance forInvalids and People which Received Mutilations in
Condition with Chernobyl Catastrophe. The
Resolution by Moscow Government #95, 1997.
Tverskayay, 13. #11. 1997.
12.Blue Pages. Moscow. 1997.
List of Russian and International Non-government265

Legal Regime of the Chernobyl Problems in the USSR, Belarus, Russia
and the Ukraine
Milan ZGERSKY
Moscow State Law Academy; Sadovo-Kudrinskaya st. 9, Moscow, Russia
new, exceptionally complex, large-scale problems,
affecting virtually all spheres of social life, many
aspects of science and manufacturing, culture, ethicalvalues and morality."

Introduction
In the night from 25th to 26th of April 1986, anaccident with human casualties occurred at the fourth
unit of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (theUkraine) with RBMK-1000 reactor, which has beenworking for three years. The consequences of this
accident will produce negative effects on the ecologyof the planet for many hundreds of years to come.
Despite the fact in the USSR that the capacities of
the nuclear power plants were being increased year by
year, and active nuclear weapon tests were conducted,
the USSR was the only nuclear country in the world
without its own laws regulating the use of nuclear
energy and its safety. Meanwhile, in other countries
such laws have been adopted a long time ago: inFrance in 1945, in the USA and Great Britain in 1946.
At present all developed countries have nuclear
legislation. The project of such legislation was draftedin the USSR two years before the accident at
Chernobyl, however, even after the accident had
happened, it was not implemented due to bureaucraticroutine. There was no legal basis to be claimed in spiteof dozens of accidents in nuclear objects both militaryand civil that occurred every year and caused humancasualties too, as for example, in the Leningrad NPP in
1979. Nobody ever bore responsibility for these
accidents. Besides, the authorities kept all of them top
secret, in order not to let its own people, as well as theworld community, know about such accidents.
It was natural that, after the explosion at the
Chernobyl nuclear power plant, neither the USSR
government nor the local authorities were ready to takelegal action for the ecological, social and otherproblems caused by Chernobyl. The scale of theaccident consequences and the changes that had takenplace in the society by that time made simply
impossible to keep silence about the fact of thecatastrophe. The people in the affected territories
continually demanded from the government legal
settlement of their health problems, ecologicalproblems in the affected territories, and compensationof material losses on the basis of legislative provisions.
In April 1990, the USSR Supreme Soviet reviewed
the situation concerning liquidation of the Chernobyl
accident consequences and noted: "The accident at the
Chernobyl NPP in its consequences is the heaviest andnation-wide disaster of the present time, affecting
destinies of millions of people residing in a vastterritory. The ecological effect of the Chernobyl
accident made the country face the necessity to solveFirst legislation during the period of USSR
The first attempts in the USSR to find legal
settlement of the ecological and other problems caused
by Chernobyl were bylaws adopted jointly by the
CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) Central
Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR(the CPSU Central Committee was considered anauthority). A Decree of the CPSU Central Committee
and the Council of Ministers of the USSR, adopted 12days after the accident - on the 7th of May 1986 - "Onterms of payment and material provision of employeesof enterprises and organisations in the Chernobyl NPPzone" has become the first document regulating therelations between the USSR government and theChernobyl NPP.
For the first time since nuclear energy was put into
use in the USSR some decades ago, the Ministry of
Nuclear Power was founded. Along with its creation alegal subject had appeared, which could bear the
responsibility for the activity in the sphere of "peacefulatom" implementation.
A number of other joint decrees by the CPSU
Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the
USSR have been adopted in 1987-1988, that were
aimed at solving various problems to liquidate theconsequences of the severe accident. Only four years
after the catastrophe, on the 25th of April 1990, the firstdecree on Chernobyl has been adopted directly by thelegislative body of the country - the Supreme Soviet of
the USSR - "On a comprehensive programme toliquidate the consequences of the accident at the
Chernobyl NPP, and the situation related to this
accident." This decree also authorised the first State
Union-republican programme of immediate measures
to liquidate the consequences of the accident for
1990-1992. The decree assigned the Council of
Ministers of the USSR for a duty "to draft the Law on
the Chernobyl Catastrophe and put it in to the Supreme
Soviet of the USSR in the fourth quarter of 1990. To
define in the Law the legal status of the catastrophe
victims, the participants of the accident consequences
liquidation and persons involved in the activities in theaffected area, as well as those subject to involuntary
resettlement; legal regime of the disaster area;
discipline of population residence and activities;266

amendments introduced by the Law from the 17th ofDecember 1991 and the Law from the 1st of July 1992).
This law has given definitions to the territories affectedby radioactive contamination after the explosion at the
Chernobyl NPP for the first time, as well as thedefinition of the territory radioactive contamination
zone categories.
Depending on the landscape and geochemical
properties of soils, the values of excess of natural
pre-accident radionuclide accumulation level in theenvironment, rates of possible negative effect on thehealth of the population, requirements on
implementation of population radiation protection andother special measures, considering the generalindustrial, social and domestic relations, the territories
affected as a result of the Chernobyl catastrophe are
divided into zones. According to the Law, such zones
are:
1. Restricted zone - residents have been evacuatedfrom this territory in 1986;
2. Zone of unconditional (obligatory) resettlement - aterritory subject to intensive contamination withlong-lived radionuclides, with soil contamination
density in excess of the pre-accident level bycaesium isotopes from 15 Ci/km2 and higher, or bystrontium from 3 Ci/km2 and higher, or by plutonium
from 0.1 Ci/km2 and higher, where the evaluatedindividual effective equivalent irradiation dose may
exceed 0.5 rem/year in excess of the pre-accident
dose;
3. Zone of guaranteed voluntary resettlement - aterritory with soil contamination density in excess ofthe pre-accident level by caesium isotopes from 5 to
15 Ci/km2, or by strontium from 0.15 to 3 Ci/km2, orby plutonium from 0.0.1 to 0.1 Ci/km2, where theevaluated individual effective equivalent irradiationdose may exceed 0.1 rem/year in excess of the
pre-accident dose;
4. Zone of intensified radio-ecological control - aterritory with soil contamination density in excess ofthe pre-accident level by caesium isotopes from 1 to
5 Ci/km2, or by strontium from 0.02 to 0.15 Ci/km2,
or with plutonium from 0.005 to 0.01 Ci/km2, where
the evaluated individual effective equivalent
irradiation dose may exceed 0.05 rem/year in excessof the pre-accident dose.

military service; formation and functioning of stateadministrative bodies and public organisations in theaffected area".
However, none of these measures have been
implemented in time. A year later, in the next decree by
the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from the 9th of April
1991, "On course of implementation of the decree by
the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from the 25th of April
1990 'On a comprehensive programme to liquidate theconsequences of the accident at the Chernobyl NPP,
and the situation related to this accident'", it was
mentioned that "there has been no possibility at present
to adopt the Law on Chernobyl Catastrophe and theLaw on Nuclear Energy Use and Nuclear Safety due tothe delay in submitting the drafts of these laws."
Only in 1991, five years after the accident in
Chernobyl, fully adequate legislative acts regulating
the responsibility of the government for the damage
inflicted to the citizens as a result of the activities of a
nuclear enterprise have been adopted in the USSR.
These are: the Law of Belorussian SSR - "On Social
Protection of Citizens Affected by the Catastrophe at
the Chernobyl NPP" from the 12th of February 1991,
the Law of the Ukrainian SSR - "On Status and Social
Protection of Citizens Affected by the Accident at the
Chernobyl NPP", the Law of Russian Federation - "OnSocial Protection of Citizens Affected by Radiation inConsequence of the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP"
from the 15th of May 1991, as well as the federal Law "On Social Protection of Citizens Who Suffered inConsequence of the Chernobyl Catastrophe" which
was adopted on the 12th of May 1991. These laws
applied to the affected population as can be seen evenfrom the names. They tackled with ecologicalproblems only indirectly. However, in comparison to
the legal vacuum that in fact existed during five years
after Chernobyl, these laws were a significant step
forward.
The scales of the Chernobyl catastrophe and theecological damage were the initial motivation,
especially for scientists and lawyers, on the base ofwhich the first laws were adopted in Belarus, theUkraine and Russia, allowing to solve the social andecological problems of the Chernobyl. This is all themore important event as nobody has ever faced thiskind of problems so far. Dozens of other nuclear
accidents in the United States of America (Three Mile
Island), England (Windscale), and in other states by nomeans could be compared to the global consequencesof the release in Chernobyl.

Legal status of contaminated territories in Belarus
The Republic of Belarus was next after the Ukraine
to adopt a special Law, "On Legal Regime of
Territories Exposed to Radioactive Contamination inConsequence of the Catastrophe at the Chernobyl
NPP" on the 12th of November 1991. This law is aimed
at decreasing of radiation impact on the population andecosystems, at realisation of environment-recovery
and protective measures, and at efficient use of natural,
economic and scientific potential of these territories.

Legal status of contaminated territories in the
Ukraine
The first Law, "On the Legal Regime of the
Territories Exposed to Radioactive Contamination inConsequence of the Catastrophe at the Chernobyl
NPP" was adopted in the Ukraine on the 27th ofFebruary 1991 (with further alterations and

267

The Law regulates the regime of the contaminatedterritories, conditions of residence, economic andscientific-research activity in these territories.
According to the Law, the territories are divided
into the following zones depending on the density ofsoil radionuclide contamination and impact on theresidents (make note of the fact that the zone divisionin the Belorussian Law is different from that in the
Ukrainian. The zoning has been carried out on thebasis of the damage inflicted to the public byradiation.):
1. Zone of evacuation (restricted zone) - a territory
around the Chernobyl NPP, from which the
population has been evacuated in 1986 according to
the existent safety regulations (the 30 kilometre zone
and the territory subject to additional evacuation due
to strontium-90 soil contamination density
exceeding 3 Ci/km2 and plutonium-238, 239, 240,241 contamination higher than 0.1 Ci/km2);
2. First priority resettlement zone - a territory with soil
contamination density by caesium-137 over 40
Ci/km2, by strontium-90 over 3 Ci/km2, or byplutonium-238, 239, 240, 241 over 0.1 Ci/km2;
3. Zone of subsequent resettlement - a territory withsoil contamination density by caesium-137 from 15
to 40 Ci/km2, or by strontium-90 to 3 Ci/km2, or
plutonium-238, 239,240, 241 from 0.05 to 0.1
Ci/km2, where the annual average individual
effective equivalent dose may exceed 0.5 rem/year,
and other territories with lesser contamination
density by the abovementioned radionuclides, where
the annual average individual effective equivalentdose may exceed 0.5 rem/year;
4. Zone with right for resettlement - a territory with soil
contamination density by caesium-137 from 5 to 15
Ci/km2, or by strontium-90 from 0.5 to 2 Ci/km2, orby plutonium-238, 239, 240, 241 from 0.02 to 0.05
Ci/km2, where the annual average individual
effective equivalent dose may exceed 0.1 rem/year,
and other territories with lesser contamination
density by the abovementioned radionuclides, where
the annual average individual effective equivalentdose may exceed 0.1 rem/year;
5. zone of residence with recurring radiation control - aterritory with soil contamination density bycaesium-137 from 1 to 5 Ci/km2, or by strontium-90
from 0.15 to 0.5 Ci/km2, or by plutonium-238, 239,
240, 241 from 0.01 to 0.02 Ci/km2, where the annual
average individual effective equivalent dose may notexceed 0.1 rem/year.
Legal status of contaminated territories in Russia
The ecological problems of Chernobyl haveaffected 16 regions of the Russian Federation.
Unfortunately this fact has become known to thegeneral public only seven years after the accident . (Inthe first years after the explosion the republican
programme of Chernobyl accident consequences
liquidation dealt only with the Bryansk region and

Kaluga-Tula-Orlovsk spot.)
A special Law on status of territories, affected byradiation after the explosion at the Chernobyl NPP was
not adopted, although it has been drafted already in
1993. However, one should note that there exists a
Government Decree from the 25th of December 1992,"On Regime of Territories Exposed to Radioactive
Contamination in Consequence of the Accident at the
Chernobyl NPP".
The ecological problems of the contaminatedterritories are also regulated by a special article of theLaw, "On Social Protection of Citizens Exposed to
Radiation Effects in Consequence of the Catastrophe at
the Chernobyl NPP", which was adopted by theSupreme Soviet of the Russian Federation on the 15thof May 1991 (with further alterations andamendments). The name of the article is: "Regime andEcological Rehabilitation of Territories, Exposed toRadioactive Contamination in Consequence of theCatastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP".
The Law defines the zones of radioactive
contamination. (They are also different from theBelorussian and Ukrainian zones. Every republic
adopted the legal norms according to the ecologicaldamage it has suffered due to the Chernobyl accident).
The Law defines four zones of radioactive
contamination: the restricted zone, the evacuation
zone, the residence zone with the right forresettlement, the residence zone with privilegedsocial-economic status.
Article 7 of the Law states that "the borders of thesezones and the list of residence place within them arereviewed according to the changes in the radiation
situation and other factors at least once in every five
years".
1. The restricted zone (that was called the 30 kilometrezone in 1986-1987, then called the evacuation zone
from 1988 until the adoption of the Law) is theterritory around the Chernobyl NPP, as well as a part of
the territory of the Russian Federation, contaminatedby radioactive substances in consequence of thecatastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP. The population has
been evacuated from these territories according to thenorms of radiation safety in 1986 and in subsequent
years.
2. The resettlement zone - the part of the territory of theRussian Federation outside the restricted zone, withsoil contamination density by caesium-137 higher than
15 Ci/km2, or by strontium-90 higher than 3 Ci/km2, orby plutonium-239, 240 higher than 0.1 Ci/km2.
3. The residence zone with the right for resettlement aswell is determined with the density of soil
contamination. This territory of the Russian Federation
outside the restricted zone and the evacuation zone
with soil contamination density by caesium-137 from 5
to 15 Ci/km2. Additional criteria for determination of
the zone borders are established by the Government of
the Russian Federation according to the density ofradioactive contamination by other (except268

caesium-137) long-lived radionuclides.
4. The fourth zone is the residence zone with privilegedsocial-economic status. This is the part of the territoryof the Russian Federation outside the restricted zone,
the evacuation zone and the residence zone with theright for resettlement with radioactive soil
contamination density by caesium-137 from 1 to 5
Ci/km2.

exposed the current system of social-economic andmedical protection to harsh and, from the author’s
point of view, reasonable criticism. The main point isrelated to the problem of dose evaluation delivered tothe population, according to which the decision oncompensations and aid should be made. The analysisof the current Chernobyl legislation on the social
protection testifies to the fact that it does not take into
consideration several crucial aspects of this problem
which is in fact the basis of all "Chernobyl" legislation.
The problems in question here are the methods how toevaluate delivered dose, as well as to determine theconsequences, in consideration of peculiarities of
release and migration of radionuclides, irradiation
duration, dose rate, etc.
According to Yu.O. Zitzer (a leading specialist of
the State Committee on Environment Problems of
Russia), the estimates of dose delivered to the
population, underlying the existing legislation, areimperfect due to the following reasons:
1. The radiation risk of the population may varylargely.
2. Through the experience to evaluate the average
individual dose for a certain group of the population,
it is established that the reliability of dose value
calculated in this way is very low due to a highspread in values; the number of inspection per one
territory should be increased.
3. Although long-term investigations have been carriedout up to now by the Institute of Biophysics, theInstitute of Radiation Hygiene and otherestablishments of the Ministry of Health Care of theformer USSR and Russia, the scope of dosimetricand epidemiological data is absolutely insufficient tospecify the model parameters such as dose
distribution in various regions; parameters ofsocial-related biological effects e.g. mortality;
differentiation of people's sensitivity to radiation,etc.
4. The last point — the differentiation of people's
sensitivity to radiation is a very important factor
influencing the total outcome of irradiation inregions. The radiation-sensitive part of the
population shows an extremely high population
morbidity.

Social aspect of the Chernobyl legislation
The Chernobyl legislation of the Ukraine, Russia
and Belarus comprise two approaches to solve theglobal problems connected with the consequences of
the catastrophe. The first is the abovementioned
territorial approach, the second is the social approach.
The laws designed for the social-economic protectionof the citizens of Russia ("On Social Protection of
Citizens Affected by Radiation in Consequence of theAccident at the Chernobyl NPP"), of the Ukraine ("OnStatus and Social Protection of Citizens Affected by
the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP"), and of Belarus("On Social Protection of Citizens Affected by theCatastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP") have been
adopted in these republics of the USSR practically ayear before its disintegration. The laws, designed forsocial protection of citizens in the three former
republics of the USSR actually supplement the laws ofthese republics connected with the status of territories.
Privileges and compensations are determinedaccording to the levels of the radioactive
contamination density in the territories. Contamination
with chemical and other toxic substances is taken into
account.
The size of compensations and premiums is basedon different principles in the Laws of Russian, theUkraine and Belarus: in Russia it depends on theminimum salary, in Belarus it is a monthly premium ofa certain size with further indexation, in the Ukraine it
depends on the basic pay and salary. Other privileges
and compensations are similar to a significant extent.
In the Ukraine additional privileges andcompensations are set for employees of health care,education and culture establishments.
The amounts of compensations and premiums inzones with right for resettlement and zones ofobligatory evacuation indicate the fact that, in thesystem of social protection, resettlement in Russia of
residents from the affected territories was given more
importance than in the Ukraine and Belarus.

Taking into account the facts given above, thefollowing conclusions can be made: the evaluation of
territory contamination according to the density ofradionuclide deposition and, correspondingly theevaluation of individual dose — the so-called "zone"
approach, which is being used today due to absence ofanother, is imperfect. Radionuclides migrate, areadsorbed and transform in the environment, thuschanging both into less and significantly moredangerous elements.
"The Concept of Radiation, Medical and Social
protection of the Population Exposed to Radiation
Effects" was adopted by the Russian Commission on

Criticism to the current Chernobyl legislation
After ten years from the Chernobyl accident, as aresult of many diversified investigations of thecatastrophe consequences and compensation of thedamage inflicted to the affected people, various
scientists, specialists and ecologists began to question
the correctness of the "Chernobyl" laws of Russia,
Belarus and the Ukraine in regard to the social
protection of the population. A great number of studies269

Radiation Protection, and recommended by theGovernment of the Russian Federation for the revisionand specification of the "Chernobyl law" provisions. In
accordance to this concept, the "dose" approach isintended to replace the current "aerial" approach.
The problem of the "Chernobyl" legislation
revision in the Russian Federation is also connectedwith another important social factor: a number oflegislative acts and Government decrees have been
adopted in Russia regarding social protection of
citizens from different regions of the country affectedby radionuclides as results of radiation accidents at
industrial and military enterprises, or nuclear tests. The
existing trend to spread the "Chernobyl law" onto otherregions of Russia that have been affected by radiation
impacts (activities and accident situations at theIndustrial Association "Mayak" in Chelyabinsk region
and Semipalatinsk Polygon) practically does notconsider the peculiarities of radioactive contamination
and radiation dose formation to the population. A
direct application of the articles of the "Chernobyl law"for these situations is inadmissible.
The political aspect of the "Chernobyl" legislation
also should be also noted. Very often the problem ofsocial protection of citizens residing in the affected
territories becomes exchangeable coins for the people
who have been striving to power, especially in the
period of various election campaigns. In many cases
speculations to get confidence of the electorate in the
Chernobyl zones becomes a pass for such people to get
into big politics.
In 1994-1995 the Russian Duma (the Lower House)
was involved in protracted struggle with the position ofboth the Government and the President in relation to
the revision of the current law on social protection of
citizens, residing in the affected territory. The Dumatried to change the Law aiming to worsen the status ofsuch citizens, despite the fact that during the election
campaign the deputy candidates promised to advocate
them. The President of Russia had to apply to theConstitutional Court of the Russian Federation inconnection with the fact that the law adopted by theDuma in 1995 discriminated the constitutional rights

and freedoms of citizens. Then the President anddeputies agreed to make an amendment to the Law
without decision of the Constitutional Court. The workfor the amendment is not going up to now. Major pointof the struggle between them is related with a question
about the criteria that should be the basis to provide
privileges to inhabitants living in the contaminatedterritories, the level of soil contamination or the valueof irradiation dose. The President considers that, in any
case, interests of inhabitants should not be reduced.
Some deputies who are concerned with this Law try to
decrease the number of the people receiving theseprivileges regardless of the fact that they are living in"dirty" zones. The final resolution of this problem is
not yet obtained.
The Laws adopted in the former republics of the
USSR - Russia, Belarus and the Ukraine have without
doubt produced their positive effect in the society.
However, due to the social and political situation
which emerged in the republics after the disintegrationof the USSR, these Laws are not implemented into
reality always and everywhere. The scale of thecatastrophe requires significant financial expendituresfrom every state affected by Chernobyl. In the given
specific situation these states do not possess suchfinancial means. Consequently, the Laws are often left
unclaimed and millions of people are suffering in theaffected territories under conditions that protection
measures for the environment are not carried out innecessary scales, and the ecosystems are notrehabilitated to the full extent.
Nevertheless, we can be optimistic by the fact itself
that the first fully functional acts aimed at legal
solution of ecological problems of the global
catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP and social protectionof citizens have been adopted in the former republicsof the USSR. We can expect that in case of situation
stabilisation in these countries, the adopted Laws will
be revised and improved, will function to the full
extent of their power, and will protect the Nature andpeople from the severe consequences of the most grave
anthropogenic accident in the history of the Earth.

270

Collection of Interesting Data Published in Various Documents
Tetsuji IMANAKA
Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University
Kumatori-cho, Sennan-gun, Osaka, 590-04 Japan; imanaka@rri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
This report is merely a collection of interesting data that Imanaka noticed during the course of
the collaborative work. When readers are interested in more details, please look into original
materials or have a contact to Imanaka.
Level of30km Zone

Pripyat R.

137

Cs contamination
2(Ci/km )

Radin
>1000
Denisovichi

Kryuki500-1000
100 - 500

Pripyat
CN
PP C

20 - 100
P
5 - 20Chernobyl

Illintsi

Kiev
Reservoir<5

CN : Chernobyl NPP
C P :Cooling pond
- - -:Belarus-Ukraine
boarderFig. 1. Contamination map of 137Cs within the 30 km zone around the Chernobyl NPS [1].
- Redrawn by Imanaka from the original map, 137Cs levels of which are divided into 12 classes.
note: Imanaka visited near village Kryuki in the summer of 1993, and measured an exposure dose rate of 44 µSv/habove the ground with a scintillation spectro-surveymeter. This value is evaluated to correspond to the initial 137Cs
deposition density of about 1,200 Ci/km2, based on the relation between the deposition density and exposure rates
obtained from other measurements.
137

Level of Cs
contamination(Ci/km2)
over 1,000
500 - 1,000
200 - 500
100 - 200
50 - 100
20 - 50
10 - 20
5 - 102-5
1-2
0.5 - 1.0
Total

Area
(km2)
21
59
112
187
364
892
114
41
172
63
19
2,044

Table 1. Level of 137Cs contamination in the alienation zone
belonging to Ukraine [2].
remarks:- Alienation zone is defined as the area around the Chernobyl NPS
from where inhabitants evacuated in the first weeks or months
after the accident. This zone does not necessarily coincidence withthe 30 km circle around the site, and is somewhat larger than thecircle.
- Total activities of 137Cs, 90Sr and 239,240Pu in soil within thealienation zone in Ukraine are reported to be 110,000, 100,000
and 800 Ci, respectively. Besides, Activities in storage/disposalsites within the alienation zone reportedly amount to 410,000,
56,000 and 1,400 Ci of 137Cs, 90Sr and 239,240Pu, respectively [2].
- The area of the alienation zone belonging to Belarus is reported
to be 1,700 km2 [3].

271Table 2. Excerpts of description about the health state of inhabitants from the secret protocols of the Operative
Group of the Politic Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union [4].
<Date of protocol><Description about the health state of people>
No description.
/1986/ April 29, April 30:
May 1: To impose him (remark: Mr Shchepin, the first Deputy Minister of Health of the USSR) a task to report to the
Operative Group the data on the numbers of hospitalized, including children, and of patients with radiation disease.
May 3: No description.
May 4: By the situation on May 4, 1,882 people are hospitalized in total. Total number of examined people reached 38,000
persons. Radiation disease of various seriousness appeared with 204 persons, including 64 infants.
May 5: Total number of hospitalized people reached 2,757 persons, including 569 children. Among them, 914 persons havesymptoms of radiation disease. 18 persons are in very serious state and 32 persons are in serious state.
May 6: By the situation at 9:00 on May 6, the total number of hospitalized reached 3,454 persons. Among them, 2,609
persons are in hospital for treatment, including 471 infants. According to confirmed data, the number of radiationdisease are 367 cases, including 19 children. Among them, 34 persons are in serious state. In the 6th Hospital in
Moscow, 179 persons are in hospital, including two infants.
May 7: During the last day, 1,821 persons were additionally hospitalized. At 10:00 May 7, the number of persons in hospitalfor treatment is 4,301, including 1,351 infants. Among them, diagnosis of radiation disease was established with 520
persons, including staffs of Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR. 34 persons are in serious state.
May 8: During the last day, the number of hospitalized persons increased by 2,245, including 730 children. 1,131 persons
left hospital. By the situation at 10:00 May 8, the total of 5,415 persons are in hospital for treatment, including 1,928
children. Diagnosis of radiation disease was confirmed with 315 persons.
May 10: During the last two days, 4,019 persons were hospitalized, including 2,630 children. 739 persons left hospital. In
total 8,695 persons are in hospital, including 238 cases with diagnosis of radiation disease, among which 26 arechildren.
May 11: During the last day, 495 persons were hospitalized and 1,017 persons left hospital. In total, 8,137 persons are in
hospital for treatment and examination, among which 264 persons with diagnosis of radiation disease. 37 persons are
in serious state. During the last day 2 person died. Total number of death by the accident amounted to 7 persons.
May 12: During the last day, 2,703 persons were hospitalized, most of which were in Belarus. 678 persons left hospital.
10,198 persons are in hospital for treatment and examination, among which 345 persons have symptom of radiationdisease, including 35 children. Since the time of the accident, 2 persons perished and 6 persons died of diseases. 35
persons in serious state.
May 13: During the last day 443 persons were hospitalized and 908 persons left hospital. 9,733 persons are in hospital fortreatment and examination, including 4,200 children. Diagnosis of radiation disease was established with 299
persons, including 37 children. During the last day, one person died. In total two persons perished and one died in
hospital.
May 14: During the last day 1,059 persons were additionally hospitalized and 1,200 persons left hospital. The number ofpatients with diagnosis of radiation disease was reduced to 203, among which 32 are in serious state. 3 persons diedduring the last day.
May 16: The number of persons in hospital is 7,858, including 3,410 children. Diagnosis of radiation disease is establishedwith 201 cases. The total number of deaths is 15, including 2 deaths on May 15.
May 20: During the last 4 days the number of hospitalized persons increased by 716. Radiation disease was confirmed with211 cases, including 7 children. The number of death is 17, and 28 are in serious state. Symptoms of radiationdisease were established only with persons who were directly at the zone of the scene and development of theaccident.
No description.
May 22, May 26:
5,172
persons
are in hospital for examination and treatment, including 183 persons with established diagnosis of
May 28:
radiation disease (among them one infant). During the last week, one person died. The total number of death on May
28 is 22 (plus 2 victims at the beginning of the accident).
June 2: 3,669 persons are in hospital for examination and treatment, including 171 persons with established diagnosis ofradiation disease. The number of deaths amounted to 24 (besides, two persons perished at the beginning of theaccident). 23 persons are in serious state.
No description.
June 4, June 9:
June 12: 2,494 persons are in hospital for examination and treatment, including 189 persons with established diagnosis ofradiation disease. The number of death until June 12 is 24 persons (plus 2 victims at the beginning of the accident).
June 20, June 25, July 2, July 7, July 10, July 23, July 31, August 13, August 22, September 5,
No description
September 19, October 17, November 15, /1987/ January 4,March 16, July 13, /1988/ January 6:
remark: The total number of 40 protocols are included in the secret document, all dates of which are shown above.
The above numbers of deaths and serious states almost correspond to the numbers of cases with firemen and plant staffs.

272

Table 3. Number of death after the accident among persons who survived the initial period of acuteradiation syndrome and among 500 liquidators specially followed-up in a EC/CIS study.
III
I
II
Japanese adult
Patient of acute radiation
Follow-up study of 500(male, 35-45 years
syndrome [5]liquidators [6]old)Group AGroup B
Belarus
RussiaSample size
106 persons 103 persons 494 persons 474 persons
Number of death
9 cases
5 cases
5 cases
17 casesCumulative death rate after
8.5 %
4.9 %
1.0 %
3.6 %
∼2 %
the accident** Durations of observation are 10 years, about 7 years and 10 years for I, II and III, respectively
Remarks:
1. - According to the first detailed report about the accident by the USSR government [7], the number of deaths by theaccident was reported to be 31 cases. The number of persons who suffered acute radiation syndrome (ARS) was
reported to be 203 persons, all of whom were firemen and staffs of the station. Among them, 28 persons died in threemonths related with ARS. Two persons died on the day of the accident: one staff was missing within the destroyed
reactor and the other died of severe burns. One death was from other reason.
- In November 1986, the number of ARS was revised to be 237 cases [8]. That is, 209 (= 237 - 28) persons were aliveat that time.
- Later on, 103 cases out of 237 were excluded from the category of ARS [5].
- Group A in the above Table consists of 106 patients with whom diagnosis of ARS was confirmed. Group B consists of
103 patients with whom diagnosis of ARS was given in 1986, but later canceled. The period for observation is for 10
years (1986-1995).
- Death causes of Group A: 3 coronary heart diseases, 2 myelodysplastic syndrome, 1 lung gangrene, 1 lungtuberculosis, 1 liver cirrhosis, and 1 fat embolism.
- Death causes of Group B: one cases of car accident, hypoplasia of haematopoiesis, encephalitis/encephalomylitis,
sarcoma (thigh), and coronary heart disease.
2. This study was carried out within the frame of the EC/CIS collaborative project [6], in order to check the traceabilityof contingents in the Chernobyl registries. 500 liquidators were randomly selected from the Registries in Belarus andin Russia. As a result of special efforts to ascertain their states, 4 persons remain unknown and 2 persons emigrated
abroad in the Belarussian group. These numbers in the Russian group were 4 and 22 persons, respectively. The timeof state ascertainmemt was not exactly mentioned, but the time of address ascertainment was described to be
01.10.1993 and 31.12.1992 for Belarussian and Russian groups, respectively.
- Death cause of 5 Belarussian liquidators: 1 acute mycardial infarction, 1 cerebrovascular disease, 1 fracture of theskull, 1 fracture of the back bone and 1 Hpdgkin’s disease.
- Death cause of 17 Russian liquidators: 4 hangings, 2 cancers (one pharynx, one stomach), 2 haemorrhages (oneinternal, one pancreas), 2 internal brain trauma, 1 gangrene of the intestine, 1 carbon monooxide poisoning whilst
intoxicated, 1 car crash, 1 ischemic heart disease, 1 heart insufficiency and 2 unknown causes.
3. - Death rate of Japanese male are taken from the Vital Statistics in Japan in 1986.

Table 4. Population size of the Chernobyl registries carried out in each affected country.
Russia [9]Ukraine [2](Russian National
Belarus [10]Group
(State Registry ofMedical-dosimetric (Chernobyl Registry)
Ukraine)Registry)
Total number of registered person
474,095
435,276
204,982(date)(96.1.1)(95.9.1)(95.1.1)
including:
A. Liquidators
184,672
152,325
53,192
B. Evacuees and resettlers
62,711
12,889∼10,000*
C. Inhabitants in contaminated areas
189,518
251,246∼90,000*
D. Children of A-C groups
37,194
18,816?
* These numbers were obtained by a private communication with Matsko in Minsk.

273

Table 5. Characteristics of liquidator population in the Registry of each country.
Ukraine [2]Russia [9]Belarus [11]Population size of primary cohort
Fraction of persons with dose record
Average recorded dose

174,812 persons
59 %160 mSv

143,032 persons
80 %107 mSv

45,674 persons
26 %57 mSv- Primary cohorts consist of liquidators who are subjects of following-up study; principal information about places andperiod of their working at Chernobyl are known.

Table 6. Dose distribution of liquidators registered in Ukraine [12].
Number ofRecorded external irradiation (mSv)
persons
no record<50
50-99
100-249
250-500
Workers in
1986-87
Workers in
1988-90

135,800
100 %
39,000100 %65,30048.1 %
6,600
17.0 %

8,000
5.9 %
26,20067.2 %

20,90015.4 %
5,500
14.2 %

34,10025.1 %
510
1.3 %

7,300
5.4 %
90
0.23 %>500
270
0.20 %
0
0%

Table 7. Distribution of observed and expected numbers of cancers in 1993-1994 among male

Disable rate per 1,000 persons

160
140

Russia: workers in 1986
Russia: workers in 1987

120
100

Russia: workers in 1988
Ukraine: all workers

80
60
40
20
0
1988

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

Fig 2. Dynamics of disabled rate among liquidators registered in Russia [13] and Ukraine[12].
liquidators registered in Belarus by duration of work in the 30 km zone [11].
Duration of work in the 30 km zone
ICD-9
Site
Less than 30 days
1-6 months
O
E
SIR
95%CI
O
E
SIR
95%CI
151
Stomach7
12.1
58
23-1195
7.3
69
22-160
153
Colon
7
2.9
241
97-4972
1.7
117
14-423
162
Lung
14
22.1
63
35-106912.0
75
34-143
173
Skin
2
4.4
45
5-163
0
2.7
0
0-139
188
Urinary bladder
5
3.0
167
54-3904
1.6
245
67-628189
Kidney3
3.4
88
18-2574
2.1
18952-485
193
Thyroid grand
1
0.7
151
4-844
3
0.5
625
129-1826
204-208
Leukemia
3
2.7
111
23-3256
1.8
342
126-746140-208
All sites
61
85.2
72
55-92
41
50.4
81
58-110- Expected number (E) is obtained with age standardization based on the incidence data of the general population in
Belarus.

274

Table 8. Incidence of leukemia among Ukrainian liquidators [12].
Incidence rate (per 100,000 persons)Year
Workers in 1986
Workers in 1987
1987
13.33 ± 4.71
1988
6.42 ± 3.21
6.32 ± 4.47
1989
14.06 ± 4.69
4.41 ± 3.12
1990
14.50 ± 4.59
5.32 ± 3.07
1991
18.13 ± 4.84
7.74 ± 3.46
1992
12.59 ± 3.98
12.02 ± 4.25
Total
13.35 ± 1.80
7.04 ± 1.57
- During 1987-1992, 141 cases of hemobalstoses disease were observed among registeredliquidators, 86 cases among which were leukemia.

Table 9. Morbidity of acute leukemia in children under 15 years old in Belarus in 1979-1992 [10].
Incidence per 1 million children
Chemical contamination
Total number of cases
Regionlevel in the environment,(1979-1992)
1979-1985
1986-1992
ton/km2
Brest
42
44
208
2 80
Vitebsk
42
47
186
10.40
Gomel
34
43
210
4.60
Grodno
42
39
147
3.20
Minsk
37
41
195
2.20
Mogilev
50
42
184
7.60
Minsk city
49
47
234
735.40
Total
42 0
43 3
1 364
Remarks: The Blood disease registry in Belarus was began in 1988 at the Research Institute of Heamatology and Blood
Transfusion of the Health Ministry. So, the old data are supposed to be obtained by retrospective analysis.

Table 10. Average annual indices of hemoblastoses morbidity in the Bryansk region of Russia from1979 to 1993 [14].
Annual indices per 100,000 persons, (number of cases during the period)
1979-85
1986-90
1991-93
Acute lymphoid leukemia:
6 contaminated districts
0.56±0.17(11)1.55±0.34(21)1.33±0.42(10)Bryansk city
0.48±0.12(14)1.59±0.26(37)1.86±0.36(27)Other districts
0.70±0.11(38)1.14±0.18(42)2.56±0.34(56)Hemoblastoses total:
6 contaminated districts
10.54±0.73(209)12.79±0.97(173)15.43±1.43(116)
Bryansk city
12.79±0.65(387)18.73±0.90(437)18.22±1.12(265)Other districts
11.24±0.46(610)
13.17±0.60(485)19.23±0.94(421)- 6 contaminated districts are districts of Gordeevsk, Zlynkovsk, Klimovsk, Klineovsk, Krasnogrsk and Novozybkovsk.
remarks: The special registry of blood disease in the Bryansk region was established in 1987 at Haematological ResearchCenter of RAMS. So, the old data are supposed to be obtained by retrospective analysis.

Table 11. Malignant cancer incidence in the contaminated territories of Belarus: before and after the
Chernobyl accident and by 137Cs levels (Annual standardized incidence per 100,000 persons) [10].
Contamination
Gomel region
Mogilev region
level with 137Cs
before the accident
after the accident
before the accident
after the accident
Ci/km2
1977-1985
1986ｰ1994
1977ｰ1985
1986ｰ1994
>15
5-15
<５

194.6±8.6176.9±9.0
181.0±6.7304.1±16.5**
248.4±12.5**
238.0±26.8

221.0± 8.6
241.8±15.4248.8±14.5

303.9± 5.1**
334.6±12.2***
306.2±18.0**: Significant increase (* ; p<0.05, ** ; p<0.01, *** ; p<0.001) as compared with the period before the accident.
- Cancer morbidity is based on the data of the Belarussian Cancer Registry during 1977 -1994.

275

Fig. 3. Distribution of children by health groups obtained by a special study in the WHO/IPHECA
program [14].
Health indices: 1st class - healthy children from all indices of health, 2nd class -children with functional
disturbances, risk for occurrence of chronic pathologies and high morbidity
3rd, 4th, 5th classes - ill children with chronic pathologies of different degrees

Table 12. Morbidity of Belarussian children included in the Chernobyl Registry [15].
(1992, per 1,000 children)- The number of children contained in the Chernobyl registry is 33,488. Among them, 6.9, 81.4 and 11.7 % areChildren in the Whole Belarus
Ratio
Register (A)
(B)
(A/B)
Neoplasm
4.08
1.75
2.3
including: Malignant neoplasm
1.84
0.35
5.3
Thyroid cancer
0.82
0.05
16
Endocrine, metabolism and immune system disorders
133.7833.66
4.0
Blood and hematopoetic tissue diseases
56.46
12.00
4.7
Blood circulation diseases
39.58
12.92
3.1
Otolaryngologic diseases
95.89
19.47
4.9
Digestive organ diseases
162.91125.84
1.3
Psychic diseases
27.64
24.49
1.1
evacuees from the 30-km zone, residents or emigrants from the zone over 15 Ci/km2 and children born withregistered parents, respectively.

Number of thyroid cancer

Diseases

200
Ukraine4 regions in Russia
Belarus

150

100

50

0
1986

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

Fig. 4 Annual incidence of thyroid cancer in children and adolescents in Ukraine [16], 4
regions of Russia [17] and Belarus [18].
- 4 regions in Russia are the Bryansk, the Kaluga, the Tula and the Orel regions.
- Children’s age of Ukraine and Russia is 0 - 18 years old at the time of the accident.
- Children’s age of Belarus is 0 - 14 years old at the time of their cancer operation.

276

Annual number of thyroid cancer

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1981 82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

Fig. 5. Annual incidence of thyroid cancer in adults of Belarus [19].
Table 13. Estimates of economic loss due to the Chernobyl accident in Belarus for 1986-2015 [10].
unit: Billion US Dollars (at the price in 1992)
PeriodItem of loss
1986-1995
1996-2015
1986-2015
Deterioration of people’s health and
0.98
0.89
1.87
related countermeasures
Manufacturing industry
0.19
0.44
0.63
Social circumstances: school etc.
7.77
6.47
14.23
Construction industry
1.40
1.28
2.68
Transport and communication
2.13
1.26
3.39
Houses and public facilities
0.52
2.94
3.46
Agricultural industry
38.31
33.70
72.00
Forest industry
1.26
2.85
4.11
Resettlement
4.36
0.72
5.08
Implementation of the Law to help the
15.48
70.84
86.32
sufferers: compensation, privilege etc.
Contamination of mineral and water
2.12
0.55
2.67
resources
Construction of monitoring
4.23
32.60
36.83
Monitoring works
0.26
1.46
1.72
Total
79.00
156.00235.00- Estimation was carried out at the Institute of Economy, Academy of Sciences of Belarus.
- All items consist of loss categories: direct and indirect loss, loss of profits, and additional expenditures.
- 235 billion USD corresponds to 32 times of the national budget of Belarus in 1985 or 21 times of it in 1991.

Table 14. Expenditures to implement countermeasures for the Chernobyl problems in Ukraine [2].
Percentage to thePercentage to general
Expenditure from thenational budget of
national productionYear
LCA Fund*Ukraine(%)(Billion Krb.)
(%)
1991
6.2
2.1
1992
97.4
6.4
1.9
1993
1,966
6.3
1.3
1994
23,788
5.1
1.8
1995
94,1995.8
1.8*: LCA Fund: Fund for Liquidation of the Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident. Until September of 1991, works toliquidate the consequences of the Chernobyl accident and to help the sufferers were implemented directly by the budgetof the former USSR. Thereafter, the finance has been given from the budget of Ukraine through the LCA Fund.
- Krb. is the currency unit used in Ukraine until 1996.

References277

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