Training Reporton
Cultural Heritage Protection
The Training Course for Researchers in Charge of Cultural Heritage
Protection in Asia and the Pacific Region 2004
1 February – 4 March 2005, Nara

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)

Edited and Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office Ground Floor
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Phone: +81-(0)742-20-5001
F A X: +81-(0)742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
U R L: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp
Printed by ShintoshaⒸ Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2005

Preface

Since it was established in Nara in 1999 with the cooperation of the Agency for
Cultural Affairs, Nara Prefecture and Nara City, Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation
Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) has instigated training courses on
the investigation and protection of cultural heritage. These training courses are of two types:
group courses of about one month for some 15 participants and individual training on
particular topics for one or two participants. The present course was of the second type.
This time we welcomed our first trainee from the Federated States of Micronesia.
Micronesia is a country comprising more than 600 islands distributed over a wide area fromeast to west in the Caroline archipelago in the Pacific. This geographical context of scattered
Pacific islands means that the present status of cultural heritage in Micronesia is not
sufficiently understood. Moreover, the scarcity of specialist involved in the protection andinvestigation of cultural heritage means that in most cases foreign teams are invited to
conduct work.
The scarcity of specialist involved in heritage protection in Micronesia means thateach individual is expected to conduct a broad range of tasks. For this purpose we arranged abroad-based course centered on archaeology with training on excavation methods, artifact
analysis, recording and publication, as well as folklore and ethnological approaches relevant
to archaeological work. We hope that the results of the training course will be put to good use
after the participant returns to Micronesia.
Finally, we wish to thank Nara Medical University, Tenri University, Nara Universityof Education, the National Museum of Ethnology, Kansai Gaidai College, and theArchaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture for their assistance with this training
course.

USHIKAWA Yoshiyuki
Director
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)Contents
Preface
Introduction
1. General Information
2. Programme Schedule

3
6

Ⅱ

Summary of Lectures and Workshops

9

Ⅲ

Participant’s Country Report

19

Ⅳ

Lecturers’ Papers
1. Techniques for Identification of Artifacts
MIYAJI Atsuko

25

Ⅰ

2. Environmental Change as Seen from Seashell Remains Unearthed fromthe Nan Madol Ruins -Pohnpei Island, Micronesia
KATAOKA Osamu

35

Ⅴ

Participant’s Final Report

43

Ⅵ

Appendix
1. List of Lecturers
2. List of Tutors and Interpreter
3. List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara

49
50
50

1. General Information
Training Course on
Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia-Pacific Region(1 February−4 March 2005, Nara)

1. Organizers
Organizers: The Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties.
In cooperation with: Nara Medical University, Nara University of Education
Sponsored by: Japan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs.
2. Background
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO(hereinafter referred to as the ACCU Nara Office) was established in August 1999. The activities of
the ACCU Nara Office cover training for experts, provision of information, and networking for theprotection of tangible, immovable cultural heritage.
The Training Course for Researchers in charge of Cultural Heritage Protection in Asia and thePacific is one of the many programmes that the ACCU Nara Office undertakes every year. Eachyear two or three experts from the Asia-Pacific region are invited to Nara to engage in training at
appropriate institutions/organizations under the coordination of the ACCU Nara Office.
The Federated States of Micronesia was explored and recognized by the Spanish in the 16th
century. It was granted independence in 1986 after having gone through the occupation andmandatory rule by Japan in the beginning of the 20th century, and the era of trusteeship by theUnited States following World War II. This lengthy colonial rule resulted in the destruction of
traditional cultural practices as well as many tangible and intangible cultural heritages that areusually handed down to succeeding generations.
The Federated States of Micronesia includes four states with the entire area belonging to the
Caroline Islands consisting of over 600 small islands in the Pacific Ocean distributed widely fromeast to west. The wave of modernization has rippled across these islands, with the further
destruction of cultural heritage on and under the ground, and underwater due to various
development projects.

At the same time, these advances in development have created

opportunities for the discovery of many heritage places.
However, in terms of cultural heritage protection, the value and presence of cultural heritage itself
has not been fully comprehended because of the geographical circumstances of the country that is anation comprised of remote islands isolated in the Pacific Ocean. Moreover, since there are few
3personnel to conduct the protection and investigation of heritage resources, the country often relies
on foreign research teams. Therefore, the training of personnel necessary for cultural heritage
protection is an urgent issue.
3. Date and Venues
Date : Tuesday 1 February to Friday 4 March 2005
Venues: Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, ACCU (ACCU Nara Office); National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara; Nara Medical University; Nara Universityof Education; Kansai Gaidai College
4. Objective of the Training Course
In the Federated States of Micronesia, as in many oral cultures around the world, there is no historyof writing, thus, cultural heritage as it is presently known has been transmitted orally throughstorytelling, dance and religious events. Consequently, in finding and documenting unknown
heritage, methods of archeological investigation play a significant role. The aims of this training
project allow the opportunity to master advanced technologies currently used to investigate heritage
resources, to obtain results from their use, and to contribute to cultural heritage protection in theFederated States of Micronesia.
Regarding the selection of candidates, the most important factor is that they should be in a position
to immediately and widely disseminate their results. In the present situation, where there are very
few personnel engaged in the protection cultural heritage, each participant is expected to act in aproactive manner covering an extensive region, and thus, exerting a significant influence in theirprimary region of study. Therefore, fostering the development of personnel belonging togovernment organizations may be a shortcut to achieve certain results in the short term.
5. Training Curriculum
The training curriculum consists of three primary foci:- Introduction to the Methodologies of Archaeological Site Investigation- Survey recording methods in Archaeological Site Investigation
i.e. Summary survey, Topographic survey, GPS use, Site data integration- Observation, Identification and Analysis of Remains
Human Bones, Animal Bones, Pollen analysis, Soil analysis

46. Participants
Yvonne Chong Neth
Archaeological Staff, Historic Preservation Office, Federated States of Micronesia
Others (Past achievement to accept trainees)
Since 2000 when the above-mentioned invitation programme started, 13 trainees from 7 countries
have been accepted. It is the first time to invite trainees from FSM.
7. Certificate
Each trainee will be awarded a certificate upon the completion of the course.
8. Language
The working language of the course will be English.
9. Expenses
Expenses for participants for the training course shall be borne by ACCU and comprise thefollowing:(1) Travel expenses:
Participants shall be provided an economy-class return air ticket between the international airport
nearest to her residence and Kansai International Airport, and domestic transportation costs / to andfrom the airports and between the training venues in Japan.
(2) Living expenses:
Participants shall be provided a daily subsistence allowance during the training course, beginningfrom January 31 (Monday) to 6 March (Sunday), 2005. Arrangements for accommodations will
be made by the ACCU Nara Office.
10. Correspondence
Dr. USHIKAWA Yoshiyuki
Director
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara Office)Nara Prefectural Government Horen Office,757 Horen-cho, Nara City 630-8113 Japan
Tel: +81-(0)742-20-5001

Fax: +81-(0)742-20-5701

E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp

5

2. Programme ScheduleDay

Lecture31 Mon.

Arrival

Venue

1

Tue.

Orientation

ACCU

2

Wed.

Introduction to Archaeology

ACCU

3

Thu.

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology

NRICPN

4

Fri.

Analysis of Animal Bones Ⅰ

NRICPN

5
6
7

Sat.
Sun.
Mon. Analysis of Animal Bones Ⅱ

NRICPN

8

Tue.

Analysis of Human Bones

NMU

9

Wed.

Method of DNA Analysis

NMU

Folklore Research in Micronesia

NME

10 Thu.

February

11
12
13
14

Fri.
Sat.
Sun.
Mon. Introduction to Pollen Analysis and Work Shop Ⅰ

NUE

15 Tue.

Introduction to Pollen Analysis and Work Shop Ⅱ

NUE

16 Wed.

Introduction to Pollen Analysis and Work Shop Ⅲ

NUE

17 Thu.

Introduction to Soil Analysis and Work Shop

NUE

18 Fri.

Introduction to Museum Studies and Data Management

NME

19 Sat.
20 Sun.
21 Mon. Observation and Recording of Pottery Ⅰ

NRICPN

22 Tue.

Observation and Recording of Pottery Ⅱ

NRICPN

23 Wed.

Observation and Recording of Pottery Ⅲ

NRICPN

24 Thu.

Archaeological Research in Micronesia Ⅰ

KGC

25 Fri.

Archaeological Research in Micronesia Ⅱ

KGC

March

26 Sat.
27 Sun.
28 Mon. Survey Measuring Methods Ⅰ

NRICPN

1

Tue.

Survey Measuring Methods Ⅱ

NRICPN

2

Wed.

Survey Measuring Methods Ⅲ

NRICPN

3

Thu.

Survey Measuring Methods Ⅳ

ACCU

4

Fri.

Report Writing, Closing

ACCU

5
6

Sat.
Sun.

Departure

NRICPN: National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
NMU: Nara Medical University
NUE: National University of Education
NME: National Museum of Ethnology
KGC: Kansai Gaidai College

6Summary of Lectures and Workshops
February 1, (Tue.)
Orientation
General explanation of the training course objectives.
Interview: current situation and future needs in FSM.
Visit to the National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Nara (NRICPN).
- Zooarchaeology laboratory (Dr. Matsui Akira).
- Dendrochronology

laboratory(Dr.

Mitsutani

Takumi).

Dendrochronology laboratory (with thedirector, Dr. Mitsutani, right).

- Conservation science laboratory.
- Artifact

managementroom:

primarily

forpottery/ceramics.
Workshop and lecture with Prof. Kataoka Osamu, aspecialist in Micronesian archaeology.
February 2, (Wed.)
Visit to UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Nara
- Horyuji Temple

Lecture on environmental archaeology
with Dr. Matsui.

- Kasuga Grand Shrine
Introduction to Japanese history and arts
- Nara National Museum: special exhibition of
Itsukushima

Jinja

Shrine:UNESCOWorld

Heritage site in Hiroshima Prefecture.
- Buddhist art from the protohistoric and medieval
periods.
February 3, (Thu.)

Osteometrics:
animal bones.

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology

taking measurements of〈Dr. Matsui, NRICPN〉
Zooarchaeology and Faunal Analysis:

How toclassify animal bones, and examine traces of culturalor natural modifications and damage.
How to identify and classify animal bones, andconduct archaeofaunal analysis.

Classifying animal bones excavated froma shell midden.

9February 4, (Fri.)
Analysis of Animal Bones Ⅰ〈Dr. Miyaji, NRICPN〉
Workshop: classification of animal bones from theMiyashita Shell Midden, Nagasaki Pref.
February 7, (Mon.)
Analysis of Animal Bones Ⅱ
Identifying bones from the fish skeleton.

〈Mr. Diab, ACCU and Research Associate at NRICPN〉
Lecture: characteristics of the fish skeleton andtaxonomy.
Drawing and osteometrics: learning the morphology(structure) of fish bone elements.
Basics of Mollusc identification and classification.
Workshop: fish bone and mollusc identification fromarchaeological sites, cataloguing faunal remains in a

Lecture by Prof. Yamada on Human
Osteology

computer database.
February 8, (Tue.)
Human Osteology: Analysis of Human Bones〈Prof. Yamada, Nara Medical University〉
How to identify sex, age and racial traits from humanbones.
- Characteristics of the skull and pelvis.
How to measure the skull and evaluate the results,

DNA extraction process instructed by
Prof. Ishitani.

specifically, racial differences.
Examination of bones from Kofun period (circa 1500
B.P.) sites from Ehime Pref.
February 9, (Wed.)
Methods of DNA Analysis〈Dr. Ishitani, Nara Medical University〉
Lecture and analysis of DNA.
Workshop: how to extract DNA from blood.

Collection Management was explainedwith items from Micronesia at the Tenri
Sankokan Museum.

10

February 10, (Thu.)
Folklore Research in Micronesia〈Dr. Yasui, Tenri University〉
Presentation by Dr. Yasui regarding her research on:“Traditional Healing and Medicine Childbirth Todayin the Pacific”.
How to conduct interviews for folklore research.
Visit to the Tenri Sanko-kan: viewed collections fromMicronesia and exchanged information.
How

tomanagecollections:ethnographic

andarchivalProf. Nagatomo lecturing about
thermoluminescence dating methodthethe use of filing cards and records.

February 14, (Mon.)
Introduction to Pollen Analysis and Workshop Ⅰ〈Dr. Kanehara, Nara University of Education〉
Lecture: introduction to pollen analysis- Examplesofpollenanalysesfromarchaeological sites and their results were shown
through a Power Point presentation.
Workshop: pollen analysis extraction procedure, andPreparations for screening

preparations for screening.
- Microscopic observation and identification of
diatoms from freshwater and saltwater.
Visit to Prof. Nagatomo’s laboratory- Short lecture on the thermoluminescence dating
method and introduction to the equipment used
to process samples.
February 15, (Tue.)
Introduction to Pollen Analysis and Workshop Ⅱ〈 Dr. Kanehara and Mr. Takeno, Nara University of
Education〉
Continuation

of

the

workshop- Making slides

ofdiatomsfrom

Monday(February 14).
formicroscopic

observation.
Lecture on how to identify diatoms and interpret
palaeoenvironments based on the results.

11

Observing diatom with microscope.
(above). An example of the diatom
observed in the laboratory (below).

Presentation by Mr. Takeno: about the reconstructionof palaeoenvironments from diatoms recovered frommoat depositions surrounding protohistoric tumuli.
February 16, (Wed.)
Introduction to Pollen Analysis and Workshop Ⅲ〈 Dr. Kanehara and Mr. Azuma, Nara University of
Lecture on how to make slides for
microscopic pollen observation prior to
the workshop.

Education〉
Lecture on pollen analysis:
analysis:the purposes of pollen

reconstructing

palaeoenvironments,

palaeoclimate, and palaeodiet
Making slides for microscopic pollen observation.
Introduction to Pollen Analysis and Workshop Ⅳ〈 Dr. Kanehara and Mr. Azuma, Nara University of
Education, Ms. Kanehara, Paleoenvironmental Research
Lecture on paleoparasitology by Dr.
Kanehara and Ms. Kanehara.

Institute Co. Ltd.〉Workshop: pollen identification.
Presentation about the excavation of the Kibi-zuka
tumulus, on the NUE campus- General information about the excavation waspresented initially, followed by a discussion andexamination of an inlaid sword that was
excavated from the tumulus.
Visit to the Paleoenvironmental Research Institute Co.
Ltd.

At the storage room in the museum- Lecture on palaeoparasitology by Ms. Kanehara- Observation and identification process for seeds
and wood.
February 18, (Fri.)Introduction to Museum Studies and Data Management〈Mr. Ujitani and Prof. Into, National Museum of Ethnology〉
Visit to the National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka.

Lecture
by
Prof.
Into
ethnoarchaeologicalresearch
Micronesia.

onin

Lecture by Mr. Ujitani- General information about the museum: role ofthe museum, number of collections, how to utilize
the collection etc.

12

Tour of the museum collections: library, storage andphoto studio.
- How the library is managed.
- How the collections are treated after they arebrought into the museum.
Lecture by Dr. Into: ethnoarchaeological survey in theMicronesia area.
Tour of the exhibit area of the museum.
February 21, (Mon.)
Observation and Recording of Pottery Ⅰ〈Mr. Kawagoe, NRICPN〉
Tour of the pottery laboratory at NRICPN
Pottery
Laboratory:
examining
excavated pottery; learning about
artifact curation and management;
refitting potsherds (using glue).

Lecture on the fundamentals of pottery:- How to reconstruct and refit pottery- What kind of information do we need to reconstruct andrefit pottery vessels
Workshop: putting together haniwa sherds
February 22, (Tue.)
Observation and Recording of Pottery Ⅱ〈Mr. Takahashi, NRICPN〉

Potsherds awaiting refitting.

Workshop: glue together and reconstruct sherds- Instruction on refitting potsherds and the best methods
used to glue sherds together.
- Vessel reconstruction: filling missing sherds withplaster.
February 23, (Wed.)
Observation and Recording of Pottery Ⅲ〈Mr. Morikawa, NRICPN〉
Workshop: artifact recording.
- How to record or draw artifacts: polished stone axes
and chipped stone tools were used as an example.
- The wet-rubbing method was introduced. This is used
for recording sherd patterns, roof tiles, petrography, etc.
Lectured by Mr. Takahashi, gluing together and finished reconstructionof the lower part of the haniwa

13February 24, (Thu.)
Archaeological Research in Micronesia Ⅰ〈Prof. Kataoka, Kansai Gaidai College〉
Lecture on Archaeological Research in Micronesia.
- Geography of the glacial period.
- Immigration of people and characteristics of plants
Lecture by Prof. Kataoka on Micronesianarchaeology.

and animals.
- Archaeological research at the prehistoric village of
Nan Madol: lecture with videotape.
- What kind of information can we get from fish bones
found at archaeological sites.
(Diagram from the lecture notes shown below)
February 25, (Fri.)
Archaeological Research in Micronesia Ⅱ〈Prof. Kataoka, Kansai Gaidai College〉
Lecture on Archaeological Research in Micronesia
with slides.
Identification of fish bones from Micronesia.

Identifying excavated fish bones fromMicronesia.

Diagram from the lecture by Prof. Kataoka, showing classification of archaeological remains in Micronesia.

14February 28, (Mon.)
Survey Measuring Methods Ⅰ〈Mr. Nishimura, ACCU〉
Lecture on introduction to surveying methods.
Workshop: leveling survey/- How to handle the level.
- Transferring data point values to the target area.
- Determining elevation from the plane table survey
points.
March 1, (Tue.)
Survey Measuring Methods Ⅱ〈Mr. Nishimura, ACCU〉
Lecture on leveling and archaeological prospection.
- How to calculate and obtain results from theWorkshop: leveling survey

measurement figure.
- What is “archaeological prospection”?
- General information on archaeological prospection:earth

resistivity,

magnetometry,andgroundpenetrating radar (GPR).
Workshop: plane table surveying- How to set the plane table.
- Traverse survey for determining control points.
- Detail of plane table survey drawing.

Workshop:
method

Plane

table

surveying

March 2, (Wed.)
Survey Measuring Methods Ⅲ
Workshop: Plane table surveying method- Detail mapping and complete the map.
- Contour-line mapping.
- Compass survey- How to adjust the result.
March 3, (Thu.)
Survey Measuring Methods Ⅳ
Visited following institutes and sites.
- Archaeological Institute of Kashihara to see the 3D
Scanner used for drawing and recording artifacts.

15

A map drawn with compass survey
method by the participant.

- Museum, Archaeological Institute of Kashihara.
- Niko-ji haiji temple Site, Katsuragi: Visited the
excavating site and learned how the excavation was
managed practically.
- Visited Ishibutai tumulus, Kame-ishi stone, otherhistorical stone objects and archaeological sites in
Asuka region to see how sites are utilized and opened
to public.
March 4, (Fri.)
Closing ceremony at ACCU.

At the Niko-ji haiji temple site (upper)
and the Sakafune-ishi site, in Asuka
Village

A map drawn with plane table method by the participant.

16

Country Report

Yvonne C. NETH
Historic Preservation Office

Personal past and present work done here in Micronesia may not deem myself as aprofessional, however, observations and probing questions have revealed the all-too-obvious
fact that the need for archaeologists is great. It is imperative that Micronesia find such a
resource, for it serves as a means to preserve the history of our islands, the defining andteaching factor of our cultures.
The present situation of archaeology resides in the tiny facilities of the HistoricPreservation Offices (HPOs). Guidance falls to their banner, “Preserve and conserve thetangible and intangible cultural and historical resources of the Federated States of Micronesia.”
For the whole of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), there is but a single trainedarchaeologist, Dr. Rufino Mauricio. He is the Historic Preservation Officer for the FSM
National Government. In a report written by Dr. Mauricio himself, 29 October 2004, he
describes the responsibilities of the HPOs. They are as follows:“The FSM National HPO is responsible formicrofilming government documents, setting up anindexing system for microfilmed materials and assisting
the public with information search into the large
collection of the Trust Territory Archival Records. In
addition, the FSM National HPO oversees the work offour State HPOs (SHPOs). He provides coordination,
advisory and technical assistance to the SHPOs in
matters pertaining to the management of the HistoricPreservation Fund grant and in matters pertaining toSurvey and Inventory of Sites, Site Development, Site
Registration and Review and Compliance. Each SHPO
and the FSM National HPO have specific activities
within the following program areas: administration,planning, review board development, public education,
survey and inventory of sites, site development, review

19

Photo 1: Corner of outer retaining wall,
Nan Dauwas islet;(Photographer: Wilfred Nanpei)

and compliance, site registration, and cultural inventory or ethnography, inclusive of theformer oral history program.
The SHPO’s and the FSM National HPO’s activities of the program areas, Survey andInventory, Site Development, Review and Compliance, and Site Registration (nomination ofsites to a registry) includes observation, recording, and analysis of the remains of flora, fauna
and marine organisms, soil typology, recording of water sources, vegetation, and geologicalfeatures of the land where sites are found. Archaeological surveys conducted by these offices
assist in the conservation and protection of the natural resources of the nation.
Under the FSM public laws and the U.S. Historic Preservation Law, review of culturaland historical effects of the FSM National Government is required. In the presence of agovernment-funded or government-allowed earthmoving activity, the HPOs work with theEnvironmental Protection Agencies in determining the effect of such undertaking on historicaland cultural resources. In all review and compliance work, the HPOs conduct surveys and, thus,
collect and share, through public education programs and classroom presentations, importantenvironmental information. This will, in turn, contribute to the conservation and protection of
the nation’s environment as well.”
In an interview with Dr. Mauricio, he further explains that within each SHPO, there is ateam of para-professionals. They are as such, because they lack the professional certification ofa post-graduate diploma, but have been certified by the National Park Service in cultural
resource management, inclusive of trainings in survey and site recording. That is not to say,however, that these individuals are inadequate. On the contrary, these individuals exhibit ahumble knowledge of the science of archaeology and apply it so where the aforementioned
responsibilities are carried out within a satisfactory extent. Yet a ‘satisfactory extent’ does notreflect the efficiency of a specialist. In the same October report by Dr. Mauricio, he stresses
this importance in a section titled, “Strategic Goals, Outcomes, and Some Baseline Numbers.”
The first of these strategic goals are as follows:“Strategic Goal 1: Improve archaeological survey activities by providing more fieldarchaeology training and by increasing the number of archaeological resources recorded,
reported and registered.
Outcome: The number of archaeological field training is increased by one or two trainings ayear for at least one Field Technician from each State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO).
(Only one or two archaeological field trainings are held a year now.)
Activities: FSM National HPO to conduct at least one of the trainings in each FSM State.

20Outcome: Increase the number of archaeological sites recorded reported and registered by threesites each ear. All copies of completed site forms and project reports will be duplicated andgive to the Environmental Protection Agencies.
•

Chuuk SHPO has 175 sites (historic and prehistoric) recorded and reported; none ofthese sites have been nominated to Chuuk’s registry of sites.

•

Kosrae SHPO has 350 sites (historic and prehistoric) recorded and reported; 78 of thesesites are in-putted into databases; one of these sites has been nominated for Kosrae
registry; 12 of these sites are regularly maintained for the Site Development Program.

•

Yap SHPO has 90 sites recorded and reported; 17 are nominated to Yap’s registry ofhistoric places.

•

Pohnpei SHPO has 360 sites recorded and reported; none of these sites have been
nominated to Pohnpei State’s registry of historic places.

Activities: The FSM National HPO will monitor the activities of the on-going archaeologicalsurvey in each of the FSM states and conduct two reconnaissance surveys with the staff, onemonitoring trip to each SHPO per year.
Outcome: Increase the areal coverage of the reconnaissance survey areas (in square meters) ineach FSM state targeting areas targeted for development, ground disturbing and areas subjected
to deterioration y natural forces.
(Baseline reconnaissance survey area in each state is presently not available; baseline data forareas targeted for development and ground disturbance in each state is not available now.)”
It should be noted as well that the site registry is divided into State and National. Thereis a HPO board, where its members determine which site should be registered. They begin at
the State level and later determine what should be deemed as a National site. Examples of
National sites are the products of World War II, the aging tanks and shrines in their rustic
existences. State sites differ in their definition of importance. Notable qualities can derive fromreligious importance (e.g. The stone ruins of Pohnpei and Kosrae), from symbolism (e.g. The
Yap stone money serves as a symbol of the cooperative work and hard labor done by thepeople), and from a more practical reason such as economic revenue (e.g. Chuuk uses the
WWII sites to increase tourism and the money it brings).
Contract archaeologists do exist, but they only work six months to two years at a time.
The contract itself is valid for only two years. There are archaeologists that visit the islands
every year, however, to perform their own personal research. It is required of thesearchaeologists to provide a copy of their proposal and reports of their work done in the FSM.
Approval of their work is granted by the FSM National HPO.

21

Insufficient funds, environmental factors and short-handedness are obstructions thatwill continually present themselves. Progress then becomes a slow, dawdling walk against theswift escape of time. I believe the Historic Preservation Offices understand this. However,there is a prevailing factor they apply that reflects the banner of “Preserve and conserve” inwhich they work under, and that is perseverance. It is this factor that will elude what
obstructions lay before them. Let it be an incessant search to overcome such trials, just as longas progress takes a step forward and remains mobile.

Photo 2: Bridge along the trail to Nan Madol;(Photographer: Tania Chong)22

ⅠTechniques for Identification of Artifacts
MIYAJI Atsuko
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara

Topics1) The History of Techniques of Excavation of Small Artifacts(1) Washing Soil
The first report of soil from an archaeological site in Japan being washed to search forsmall finds is in the 1911 book Prehistoric Fishing in Japan by Kamakichi Kishinouye. In thiswork, Kishinouye recounts how, when he washed fox bones from the Kuwagasaki shell midden in
Iwate Prefecture in his sink at home, he noticed tiny fish bones that had been contained in theattached soil. Nakao Sakazume made the following paraphrased comments regarding methods forcollecting small artifacts [Nakao Sakazume, “Bisho ibutsu saishuho ni tsuite”, Kaizuka 8:36-37,
1939]: Soil containing rock shells (Rapana thomasiana) and moon shells (Neverita didyma) was
brought back from a shell midden together with ash from hearths, placed in a white basin andmixed with water up to one eighth from the top. At this stage the small land snails float to thesurface. If one gets close to these objects with a wet writing brush, they can be extracted by thebrush through capillary action. After mixing several times until all floating objects have been
removed, the water is thrown away and the soil examined. Soil is removed with the tip of the brush
and anything that can be collected should be done so. It is unlikely that small fish such as sardines
and dace would not have been used for food. Even if there is no method of directly identifying
species at the moment, it is necessary to collect a sufficient quantity as samples for the future.
Finally, Sakazume concluded that “in the near future, no doubt the day will come when suchmicroscopic excavations will become essential.”(2) The problem of sample size
The most commonly used method for sampling shell middens, the column sample, wasmainly developed in midden excavations conducted by the University of California in the first halfof the 20th century. In these trials, one study concluded that 2kg of midden were needed from eachlayer, while another study suggested only 500g would suffice. Some researchers concerned
themselves not with the quantity of soil but with the number of analyses. Binford approachedsampling methods in archaeology from head on, noting that the problem was what researchers usedin their analyses. He argued that while it was sufficient to define two types of pottery from asample of 100 pots, 15 types were not sufficient. In general, examples involving artifacts need atleast a sample of one hundred in order to conduct quantitative analyses. Just as there is a great25

variety of sites and features, sample size also needs to be considered with respect to the aims of theanalysis.
(3) Applications of flotation
At the large excavations beginning in the late 1940s at Jarmo in Iraq and the Tehuacan
Valley in Mexico, the use of water flotation to separate light objects that float in water and the useof dry screening of excavated soil to check sampling errors became common. In these arid areas
flotation could be carried out using regular water in buckets and led to the effective separation ofmany plant seeds.
In Japan, after Kishinouye, for a long time no research attempted a quantitative analysisof the composition of shell midden deposits. An attempt at a quantitative comparison of shellfish
from shell layers was made by Ichiro Yawata at the Yamazaki midden in Chiba Prefecture.
Examining the shell deposits at the three excavation areas—those dug by the Department of
Anthropology, Tokyo University (I), the Shizengaku Kenkyukai (III), and the intervening area
II—Yawata used sections of the shell layers that contained relatively few other objects, counted all
the collected shells, worked out their percentages and linked them with sea level changes [I.
Yawata, “Shimofusa no kuni Yamazaki kaizuka ni tai suru ni, san no shaken,” Journal of the
Anthropological Society of Nippon 42(12), 1927; reprinted in Yawata Ichiro Chosakushu, Vol. 2,
pp. 244-249, Tokyo: Yuzankaku, 1979].
The first use of a screen to collect small finds seems to have been at the Hebigiri Cave in
Chiba Prefecture. From the deposits in A trench outside the cave, 40cm3 blocks of soil werecollected from Layers 3 and 4 and screening produced large quantities of Japanese pilchard(Sardinops melanostic) (160 vertebrae from Layer 3, 311 from Layer 4), anchovy (Engraullis
japonica) (296 vertebrae from Layer 3, 1145 from layer 4), and chub mackerel (Scomber
japonicus) (53 vertebrae from Layer 3, 44 from Layer 4). Estimates were also made of actual fish
size using measurable elements of moray (Gymnothorax kidako), black sea bream (Acanthopagrus
schlegeli) and read sea bream (Pagrus major) [Hiromasa Kaneko and Tetsu Wada, Tateyama
Hebigiri Dokutsu no Kokogakuteki Chosa. Waseda Daigaku Kokogaku Kenkyushitsu Hokoku 6,1958].
The British archaeologist Sebastian Payne was the first to clarify the correlation between
screen mesh size and sampling error. He compared finds of obsidian from four sites, looking at (1)materials collected at the time of excavation, (2) materials collected during washing, and (3)compared the number and weight of finds found before screening. As a result, he found that where
screening was not used the number of obsidian artifacts that were found ranged from 0 to morethan 27%, while in terms of weight the range was from 0 to 82%. Payne emphasized the dangers ofstatistical analyses on assemblages collected without screening [S. Payne, “Partial recovery and26

sample bias: the results of some sieving experiments,” in Papers in Economic Prehistory, pp.
49-64. Cambridge University Press, 1972].
In Japan, during the excavation of the Kamitakatsu shell midden in Ibaraki Prefecture,
Kimio Suzuki and his colleagues noticed that the midden contained a large number of small fishbones and reported that with the use of screening they could collect small fish bones that were notvisible to the naked eye [K. Shimizu, K. Suzuki and H. Fujimura et al., “Kaizuka ni okeru dobutsu
izontai no saishu hoho to sono mondaiten”, abstract of paper presented at the 39th meeting of theJapanese Archaeological Association, 1973]. These authors emphasized that existing excavations
where only large bones were collected by hand had probably overlooked small animal and fishbones. Some years prior to this, Takeru Akazawa had taken three representative fish found in shell
middens in the Kanto and Tohoku regions—red sea bream, black sea bream and sea bass—andmeasured the palate which tends to be the best preserved part of the head. Comparing his resultswith modern fish, Akazawa had argued that the shell midden people had concentrated on capturing
large specimens [T. Akazawa, “Jomon kaizukasan gyorui no taicho sosei narabi ni sono senshi
gyoryogakuteki imi,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon 77:154-178, 1969]. Suzuki
et al., however, argued that because none of the excavations used by Akazawa had employed
screening, smaller fish had probably been overlooked. During their excavations at the Miyano shell
midden in Iwate Prefecture, Suzuki and Komiya used screening to demonstrate that the Jomon
people had actually caught small red sea bream, black sea bream and sea bass [Kimio Suzuki and
Hajime Komiya, “Kaizukasan gyorui no taicho sosei fukugen ni okeru hyohon saishuho no eikyoni tsuite,” Daiyonki Kenkyu 16(2):71-75, 1977]. Moreover, at excavations at the Shomyoji shell
midden in Yokohama, Suzuki and Komiya used the same screen method to compare fish bodylengths based on samples without sampling error. As a result it was shown that, whereas the red
sea bream at Miyano were said to be bigger than at Shomyodai and that red sea bream under 30cm
long were not present at Miyano, fish under 30cm occupied the major part of the red sea bream
assemblage at Shomyodai. This difference clearly reflects fishing behavior in the Kanto andTohoku regions in the Late Jomon [K. Suzuki, Kaizuka no Kokogaku, Tokyo University Press,
1989].
During their excavations at the Tagara shell midden, Miyagi Prefectural Board of
Education also screened soil after artifacts had been excavated by hand in order to investigate what
proportion of artifacts had been overlooked with the naked eye [Miyagi Prefectural Board of
Education, eds., Tagara Kaizuka, 1986]. According to this report, 291 stone arrowheads were
carefully collected by hand but with screening this number increased to 1413. Naturally it was thesmaller arrowheads that tended to be overlooked and it was shown that comparisons of arrowhead
weight and size with assemblages from sites where screening had not been employed were without
meaning.

27

(4) Dry Screening
In dry screening, soil from the excavation is placed in a square screen and the soil passed
through, leaving artifacts on the surface which can then be collected. This method is effective forshell middens, cave sites, and for sandy and silty soils. The smaller the screen mesh, the fewer
artifacts are overlooked but at the same time the more pebbles and other debris remain on thescreen making the sorting process harder. Generally speaking, 10mm and 5mm screens are themost effective here. Most pottery sherds, stone tools and mammal bones can be collected with a
10mm mesh, but stone chips, fish bones and damaged fragments of bone and stone tools need a
5mm mesh. Shell midden strata are usually divided into pure shell layers (here defined as morethan about 9/10 shell), mixed soil-shell layers (more than about 2/3 are shell) and mixed shell-soil
layers (using the naked eye less than 2/3 shell). When digging pure shell layers by hand it is alsoeasy to overlook large artifacts hidden by shells. As noted already, it is essential to use large
screens for all of these shell and mixed shell and soil layers.
Peat, gleyed deoxidized clay and sand form the main deposits at wetland sites. None ofthese soils are suited for dry screening. As found at the Korekawa Nakai site, “special peat layers”
are sometimes found with the remains of foods consumed by humans [Isamu Kono, “Aomori-ken
San-no-He Korekawa-son Nakai sekki jidai iseki chosa gaiyo”, Shizengaku Zasshi 2(4):237-254,
1930]. In the case of such artificial deposits it is necessary to estimate the quantity of nut shells
contained therein and if the quantity of soil is not that great, then the whole deposit should be
removed for sampling. Where quantities are large, the Museum of London manual recommends 75
liters as a basic soil sample [C. Spence, ed., Archaeological Site Manual. Museum of London,
1990.].
Depending on the objectives of the analysis, it is necessary to change the amount of soil
sampled in order to obtain at least 100 examples of the artifacts concerned. In the case of seeds,
however, current European standards recommend a combined total of at least 500 crop and weed
seeds [J. Greig, Handbooks for Archaeologists, No. 4: Archaeobotany. Strasbourg: European
Science Foundation, 1989, p. 46].
(5) Wet Screening①The advantages of wet screening
Wet screening refers to a method by which soil is placed on the screen and water thensprayed from above, which forces small sand particles through the mesh leaving any artifacts to becollected from the screen. In the case of shell midden deposits, circular screens with a diameter of
20cm are often used; these have meshes of 9.52, 4, 2, 1 and 0.5mm and are made by Iida
Manufacturing Co. Ltd. and other companies. Equipment especially designed for water separationis also commercially available from the Daiichi Gosei Co. Ltd. with mesh sizes of 5, 2.5 and 1mm.
If the quantity of soil is not that large, however, then ordinary screens are sufficient. Plant remains
28are often poorly preserved, and when they are very small they are often damaged and difficult toseparate using dry screening. The use of water makes it easier to clearly separate artifacts and soil,
and differential flotation also helps in separating lighter objects such as seeds which float andheavier objects like bones that do not. Small artifacts obtained in this way are important materials
for reconstructing past diets and determining the nature of archaeological features.
(6) Flotation①Objectives and general methods
Flotation refers to methods whereby soil is added to water or another liquid and thelighter finds float to the surface to be collected by the archaeologist. Soil is usually placed in a tubof water and then agitated until light seeds and carbonized materials can be collected. In the case ofdry, sandy soils found in arid regions or dry caves, small artifacts are easily separated from the soil
matrix, but with clayey soils like those in Japan the soil needs considerable agitation before small
plant and insect remains will float to the surface. When the quantity of soil is small, it is added to aliquid with a high specific gravity and then plant and insect remains are collected (usually liquidzinc chloride with a specific gravity of two, but because this is an organic chemical compound it
cannot be poured down the drain after use and disposal poses problems). This same method is usedby palynologists to separate pollen from soil in test tubes. Beetles and other insects can becollected by placing the soil into warm water with kerosene or dissolved paraffin wax. All of thesemethods pose problems of disposal; they are effective for treating small quantities of soil but
difficult for amounts over 100cc.
A 10mm screen is sufficient for collecting nuts and large seeds but 0.5mm or 0.3mm
screens are needed where small seeds like millets or grasses are expected. A simple kitchen or tea
strainer can be convenient here. Gauze is also easily obtained, but without a frame care is neededthat small artifacts do not slip off the gauze and artifacts can also become clogged in the mesh andtime-consuming to collect.
② Flotation of about 10 liters of soil
A 5 liter stainless steel beaker with a single spout is the most useful here. Where a beakeris hard to obtain, a bucket will serve but without a pouring spout it is difficult to control finds
floating on the surface.
(a) Fill the beaker with water and then add two or three trowels of soil (500cc – 1000cc) and stir.
If the soil is clayey, it can be presoaked in water from the previous day and kitchen mixers or
beaters are effective for stirring the soil.
(b) Floating finds are first removed with a tea strainer or similar device and then separated in acase filled with water.

29

(c) Place a hose in the beaker and add water. The current from the hose can be used to float
lighter artifacts to the surface. A net or strainer and a 20cm diameter 0.3 or 0.5mm meshscreen should be placed to catch water that overflows.
(d) The screening is completed when the number of floating artifacts becomes small andimpurities disappear. Stone tools, potsherds, bones and other artifacts may, however, becontained in the grit that falls to the bottom of the beaker and this should either be placed in a
separate case and the artifacts collected or else wet screened as discussed below.
(e) The seeds collected in the screen can, like wooden artifacts, be subject to shrinking, cracking
and other damage during drying and they should be kept in a tightly sealed container until
they can be identified.
③ Flotation using a Chip purifier
Soil from latrines which contains large quantities of seeds, insects and so forth requires a
Chip purifier used in scientific experiments. Tap water pumped in at the bottom of the machinecauses a current and the soil is agitated by the blade attached to the top. The light fraction flows
with the water through the hole at the side, though larger objects can be collected directly with astrainer. In my experience, about a liter of soil can be floated in about 15 minutes.
(7) Other Wet Screening Methods①

Effective wet screening of large quantities of soil
If large quantities of soil need to be screened for valuable artifacts, then use of an electric

sieve is effective. With the electric sieve made by the Dalton Company, soil is inserted through thefunnel at the top and is passed through 10, 4, 2 and 1mm screens while receiving vibrations thatcause radial eddies; finds are then collected with pebbles and debris according to the size of eachscreen. This is suitable for shell midden layers or bead-making sites where the soil is not clayey
and where there are small but important artifacts.
In the case of clayey soils, soaking in water for several days makes processing easier.
With actual clay, however, even this is often not enough. Where large quantities of very heavy soil
need to be water screened, an electric cement mixer is effective. This method was used by theMuseum of London when excavating alluvial deposits from the River Thames. Sites formed on
alluvial deposits of large rivers are often comprised of many layers of heavy clay soils. Withlimited time and resources, this type of machine is probably necessary to maintain the same
standards as at other sites.
If 50-100 liters of clayey soil are placed in the mixer drum and rotated, the blades inside
break up the soil and make it easier to dissolve in water. The use of concrete mixers and electric
sieves are thus effective ways to collect small finds from heavy soils.

30

②

The problem of sample size
If, for example, you are interested in determining the ratio of shell types in a shell layer,

there will be cases where it is sufficient to screen 1000cc of soil from each stratum through a 1mm
screen, whereas in other cases 10,000cc will not be enough to get the full number of individual
species. To obtain numbers for boar and deer, all the soil from the excavation needs to be passed
through a 10mm or 5mm screen, but that might not be enough to get reliable data. In contrast,
while studying pollen, parasite eggs and other microfossils it is usually sufficient to have 500cc or
the equivalent of a 35mm film case from each layer. For this reason, when taking soil samples froma site the archaeologist needs to think about what sort of analyses will be conducted at the site andthus what sample sizes, screen size, and so forth will be necessary.

2) The Significance of Compiling a Pictorial Review of Animal Skeletons
Zoo-archaeology has developed as a part of environmental archaeology. There are an
increasing number of people in the field of archaeology who are interested in animal remains. Thisdevelopment is no doubt partly due to the diversification of the field of archaeology, which haspromoted a focus on the informational value of shellfish and animal bones that are amenable to thedirect discussion of ancient eating habits and livelihoods. In the past, animal remains were lumped
together with natural stones and plant remains and referred to as “natural artifacts,” considered tobe material for studies in the field of natural science and outside the realm of archaeologicalresearch. Today, however, their importance as artifacts that reflect the culture of humans in a major
way is gaining recognition. Nevertheless, in order to identify the species and body parts of animal
remains that are unearthed from archaeological sites, it is necessary to have on hand the skeletal
specimens of a full range of modern animals and to become thoroughly versed in complicatedanatomical terminology, most of which is either in Latin or English. In addition, there have beenno facilities that have skeletal specimens of modern animals made available for archaeologicalresearchers to use, a situation that has forced those who aspire to become zooarchaeologists intocollecting skeletal specimens on their own. Furthermore, if one wishes to come into contact withresearch at the forefront of zooarchaeology, there is a need to pay attention to literature written in
English at the very minimum. These factors make for a road that is wildly convoluted anddespairingly long. Even though on the one hand, the demand for zooarchaeology has increased, on
the other hand nothing has changed in terms of the difficulty of studying the discipline. Even if one
were to teach oneself, the first obstacle is the absence of any decent introductory handbooks on
animal osteology. At the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara, we have always
incorporated lectures on zooarchaeology in our Environmental Archaeology training programs. We
are now drawing on our experience to compile a series of pictorial reviews of animal osteology,
designed for archaeological researchers with convenience of use in mind.

313) Names of major bones“Environmental Archaeology 2 and 3: Pictorial Review of Small and Medium-Sized
Mammalian Osteology,” contains life-size illustrations of the dog (Canis familiaris), the wild boar
(Japanese wild boar, Sus scrofa leucomystax) and Fish.

4) Identified archaeological remains
Material・ Miyashita shell-midden (Late Jomon period)
・ Harunotsuji (Early Yayoi period)

Bibliography
Chaplin, Raymond E. 1971 The study of animal bones from archaeological sites.
London.

Seminar Press,

170 pp.

Driesch, Angela Von Den 1976 A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeologicalsites.

Peabody Museum Bulletin No. 1, Harvard University 137 pp.

Gilbert, B. Miles 1980 Mammalian osteology.

B. Miles Gilbert, Publisher, Wyoming.

428 pp.

Goto, Masatoshi and Ohtaishi, Noriyuki ed. 1986 Ha no Hikaku Kaibougaku (The Comparative
Anatomy of Teeth).

Ishiyaku Publishers, Inc., Tokyo.

266 pp.

Grant, Annie 1982 The use of tooth wear as a guide to the age of domestic ungulates.
sexing animal bones from archaeological sites.

Ageing andBAR British Series 109, pp. 91 – 108.

Hachiya, Noboru and Ohtaishi, Noriyuki 1994 Kokkaku Hyohon Sakuseiho (Method for the
Preparation of Skeletal Specimens).

Hokkaido University Press, Sapporo.

129 pp.

Hidaka, Toshitaka ed. 1996 Nihon Dobutsu Daihyakka, Honyurui 1 & Honyurui 2 (Encyclopediaof Animals in Japan, Mammals 1 & Mammals 2).

Heibonsha Limited Publishers, Tokyo.

156pp., 155 pp.
Hillson, Simon 1992 Mammal bones and teeth.
identification.

An introductory guide to methods ofInstitute of Archaeology, University College London.

64 pp.

Hongo, Hitomi; Ishiguro, Naotaka; Watanabe, Takuma; Shigehara, Nobuo; Anezaki, Tomoko; Vu
The Long; Dang Vu Binh; Nguyen Trong Tien; and Nguyen Huu Nam 2002 Variation in32

mitochondrial DNA of Vietnamese pigs: Relationships with Asian domestic pigs and Ryukyu wildboars.

Zoological Science, 19, Zoological Society of Japan.

pp. 1329 – 1335.

Kawada, Shimpei and Daigo, Masayuki 1970 Kachiku Hikaku Kaibougaku I (Comparative
Anatomy of Livestock I).

Buneido Publishing Co., Tokyo.

365 pp.

Matsui, Akira ed. 1991 Kankyou Koukogaku 1: Iseki Dojo no Senbetsuho (Environmental
Archaeology 1: Method for the Classification of Soil in Archaeological Sites).
Properties News, 95, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara.

Buried Cultural
16 pp.

Matsui, Akira ed. 2002 Kankyou Koukogaku 2: Chu Kogata Honyurui Kokkaku Zufu
(Environmental Archaeology 2: Pictorial Review of Small and Medium-Sized Mammalian
Skeletons). Buried Cultural Properties News, 108, National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Nara.

16 pp.

Mochizuki, Kimiko ed., Evans, H. E. and Christensen, G. C. ed. 1985 Inu no Kaibougaku (The
Anatomy of the Dog).

Gakusosha, Ltd., Tokyo.

923 pp.

Ohtaishi, Noriyuki 1980 Iseki Shutsudo Nihonjika no Kagakukotsu ni yoru Seibetsu, Nenrei,
Shibou Kisetsu Sateihou (Method of Utilizing the Mandible for Assessing the Sex, Age, andSeason of Death of Japanese Sika Deer Unearthed from Archaeological Sites).

Koukogaku to

Shizen Kagaku (Archaeology and Natural Science), No. 13, pp. 51 – 74.
Schmid, Elisabeth 1972 Atlas of Animal Bones.
Quanternary Geologists.

For Prehistorians, Archaeologists andElsevier Publishing Company.

159 pp.

Shogakukan 1999 Super Nipponica: Dainippon Hyakka Zensho (Complete Encyclopedia of Japan)
CD-ROM.
Yamada, Eichi translation 1977 Zukai Kaibougaku Jiten (Illustrated Anatomical Cyclopedia).
Igaku Shoin, Ltd., Tokyo.

489 pp.

33

34

Environmental Change as Seen from Seashell Remains
Unearthed from the Nan Madol Ruins --Pohnpei Island, Micronesia
KATAOKA Osamu
Kansai Gaidai College

Introduction
The Nan Madol Ruins, the largest in Micronesia, amazed the first Westerners to visit
Pohnpei Island in the 1800’s, which they, in turn, called the “Venice of the Pacific”. The islanders
do not have a written language and have conveyed the story of Nan Madol to the present by wordof mouth. It was this oral history that the first Westerners to the island recorded in their travel logs
and ethnographies. In recent years, archeology has made considerable advances in the Pacific.
Many excavations are underway with the objective of preserving cultural properties, and these
activities are producing more and more artifacts. Using artifacts, recounted stories andethnographies, attempts have been made to answer some of the many questions concerning Nan
Madol such as how these mammoth ruins came to be. This presentation looks into environmental
changes, identified through analyses of excavated seashells, that accompanied Nan Madol’sconstruction.

The Location and Environment of Pohnpei Island
Pohnpei Island is located at 6˚58’ north and 158˚13’ east in the Eastern Caroline Islandsof Micronesia (Fig.1). It is the third largest volcanic island in Micronesia behind Guam andFig.1: Map of Micronesia (Kataoka 1998)35

Babeldado Island (belonging to Palau).
The 790 m peak of Mt. Nahnalaud is thesecond highest after Agrihan Island of theNorthern Mariana Islands. Moreover,there are11 peaks over600 m high.
Located east of the andesite line, the mainisland is formed of basalt. The mainisland is 334.2 km2 in area and almost
round in shape with a maximum diameterof
Fig.2: Map of Pohnpei Island and And Atoll (Kataoka 1998)

23

km.

Inland,theislandischaracterized by thick forests and rugged
terrain. There are 42 rivers that wind

through mountains, which themselves reach to the shore, and spill into the fringing reef.. There isvery little flat land as 81% of the island is mountainous and 14% mangrove swamp. The climate ischaracterized by heavy rainfall, high temperatures and high humidity. From December to May, theTrade Winds blow in from the northeast or east.
Most of the coastline is enclosed in mangrove swamps. The only beachfront is around Temwen
Island in the southeast. With the exception of Temwen Island, the island is almost completely
surrounded by barrier reefs and lagoons with channels between them in 20 locations. Some 23
small volcanoes are found in the lagoons (Fig.2).

The Nan Madol Ruins
The Nan Madol Ruins are located atop a reef flat in the southeast foothills of Temwen
Island, which is located southeast of Pohnpei. Unlike other coastal areas, there are no lagoons
around the ruins; a long reef flat that runs
from the northeast to the southeast
connects it to the open sea (Fig. 3). Thishuge complex, measuring 1.5 x 0.5 km in
size, consists of over 100 man-made islets.
Traditionally, it is divided into Upper Nan
Madol (Madol Poe) where priests lived,and Lower Nan Madol (Madol Pa) which
was the ceremonial and political seat of
the Sau Deleur Dynasty (Fig. 4).
The

Fig.3: Nan Madol and its surroundings (Kataoka 1996)36

man-madeisletsgenerally

constructedbyfoundationofbasalt

large

were

buildingaboulders

Fig.4: Plan of Nan Madol Site (Kataoka 1996)

estimated to weigh about 50 tons and 1 ~ 5 ton basalt prisms on the reef flat, and assembling aperimeter wall in a basalt prism. The basalt prism perimeter wall of Nan Douwas reaches 8 m inheight. The islets are basically rectangular in shape and range in area from 370 to 12 700 m2; thelargest islet of Lower Nan Madol, Pahn Kadira, is 110 x 115 m. The internal areas within theperimeter walls of the islets are built with large quantities of heaped coral and covered with earth
to level the area, but the heaped coral is exposed on some of the man-made islets. Oral history
states that the coral used to build Nan Madol was taken from three spots: the nearby area, Lukop to
the north and Ipwal to the south. Years of coral excavation in the area around Nan Madol has left avast barren sandy bottom zone called pohnpikalap.

Analysis of Seashells
Trenches were dug in 12 locations on 8 of the Nan Madol islets. 57,469 seashells weighing
approximately 360 kg were identified, possessing a minimum of 44,526 individuals. Of thegastropods, that accounted for 86.7% of all individuals, 47 classes and 96 species were identified
in 34 families, whereas with the bivalves, that accounted for 13.3% of all individuals, 20 classes
and 19 species were identified in 17 families. This presentation is approximately minimum of
30,290 individuals that were unearthed from the age-dated strata.

37

A.

Change and Differential Representation in Excavated Quantities of Seashells
In terms of percentages, unlike later periods, there was a significant difference in the typesof seashells identified.

Examples of some species not found in the deposits at the Dauahdpeidaksite (DPK, 69 AD), the oldest era at the Nan Madol Ruins, included Strombus gibberulus of theStrombidae family (18.7% of total shells) and Tellina palatam of the Tellinidae family (13.5% of
total shells). What this indicates is that abundant resources could be gathered from various areas
exploited by the first inhabitants. Between 657 and 760 AD, large quantities of Strombus
gibberulus (42.8%) were gathered, that together with Anadara antiquata (11.3%) and Lambis
lambis (6.8%) accounted for 60.9% of all shells. The muddy bottom zone and sandy bottom
seaweed bed that extended from these habitats to the mangrove forests were important gathering
grounds at that time, and furthermore, the importance of Strombus gibberulus continued to increase
through to 1300 AD.

A decrease to 31.5% in 1400 AD, though it was still the maximum, wasbelieved to be the result of overharvesting.

An increase seen from 1650 AD onward waspresumably due to the abandonment of Nan Madol in the 1500’s, which gave Strombus gibberulus
populations a chance to recover (65.6%) by the time the man-made islets were used again. From
1800 onward, the number of identified specimens increases to 67.1% of the total mollusk
specimens.

B.

From the Environmental Changes
As a comparatively large quantity of Tellina serrata were collected by the former site

occupants, the species’ population decreased in number from 69 AD. This indicates that the first
inhabitants in the shallow sea area near Temwen Island did their gathering in the silt bottom along
the coast, the ecological habitat of Tellina serrata. The subsequent decline in population indicatesthat the inhabitants started building man-made islands close to Temwen Island which was a
suitable habitat for the Tellina palatam. By the time that Nan Madol was completed, the silt zone
habitat of the Tellina palatam had been reduced to 0.8% in 1650 AD, and to 0.3% around the turnof the 20th century.
The building of man-made islets gradually expanded from Temwen Island towards the sea.
It is presumed that, alongside this expansion, the mangrove forests got bigger and a muddy bottom
zone formed in the nearby area. The muddy zone of the mangrove forests provided an excellent
habitat for Anadara antiquata of the Arcidae family and Gafrarium pectinatum of the Veneridae
family. Also, the vast seaweed beds that adjoined the mangrove forests were a good habitat for
Strombus gibberulus and Lambis lambis. The environmental changes associated with theconstruction of Nan Madol can be understood from the fact that these shells were gathered inincreasing number from 600 AD onward.
The Nerita polita (8.7%) and Nerita undata (3.1%) of the Neritidae family declined greatly
38between 650 and 750 AD. This is presumably because the lagoon and coral flat that served as the
habitat of these shellfishes were used for the construction of Nan Madol. The reduction in coralaround the Nan Madol site is also explained by the decrease in fish bones of the Scaridae family,
which have a close ecological relationship with coral and were found in abundance in excavationsof the early period, to 29.8% in 750 AD. Moreover, the increase in the Lutjanidae, Carangidae andAcanthuridae families suggests the coral was transformed into a barren flat.
On the other hand, the increase in Nerita polita from 900 to 1000 AD is believed the resultof an artificial habitat suitable for the species being created in the tidal zones by the heaped coraland basalt used to build the islets. From 650 to 750 AD, the increase in Strombus gibberulus(42.8%), Anadara antiquata (11.3%), Cypraea spp. family (Cypraea tigris: 7.4%), Lambis lambis(6.8%) and the Naticidae family (4.1%) tells us that the seaweed bed that follows the mangrove
forests was their primary habitat as well as an important gathering ground. Also, the increase in
Asaphis violascens indicates an increased use of mangrove swamps. From the Wasau period (500AD) to the Usendau period (800 AD), construction of the man-made islets spread far and wide.
During this period, the land adjoining Temwen Island became occupied by people who used the
muddy bottom zone and seaweed beds as major shellfish gathering grounds.

Conclusion
The chronological changes in the percentage of uncovered shellfish are believed to becaused by (1) over-gathering from continuous fishing, (2) environmental changes, (3) changes ingathering grounds, (4) evolving gathering techniques, and (5) changes in personal preferences.
Within that, in the case of Nan Madol Ruins, because large quantities of coral were used to build
the man-made islets on the reef flat over a period of about 1,500 years, it is believed that thesurrounding environment changed greatly as a result. As told by locals, there is an extremely highpossibility that coral was taken from areas adjoining Nan Madol. The resulting reduction of vast
areas of the coral flats into barren sea affected the types of shellfish that locals fed on as well as
their gathering activities. Gathering became impossible in previous gathering grounds because offurther human occupation. Locals were forced to change gathering grounds and thus moved theirmain gathering grounds farther offshore from Temwen Island as the man-made islands expanded.

Kataoka Osamu (1998), Study on Food Shellfish of Prehistoric Pohnpei, Federated States ofMicronesia, Journal of Inquiry and Research No.68, Kansai Gaidai University, Osaka, Japan,
pp:40339

Fig.5: Shell remains unearthed from the Nan Madol Site

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Final Evaluation Report
Yvonne C. NETH

Week One:The Conservation Laboratory introduced many new technological advances, in terms ofmachinery and solution treatments, to items of wood, pottery, metal and soil. Usage of suchtreatments in Micronesia may be as follows:
1. Resin treatments executed on wooden objects may be utilized in the island of Yap,
where aging ceremonial meetinghouses still stand. There are paintings on the faces of thesemeetinghouses that emit a message to the community. In utilizing the resin treatment, thesemessages can continue to provide guidance to the present and future communities, and tofunction as a vessel of education on Yap’s cultural heritage.
2. The soil treatment, extracting stratigraphical information onto a plastic sheet, isbrilliant. The information can be transferred outside the excavation site literally, instead of
relying on the old practices of drawing and pictures. With continual conservation treatment, thesample becomes a comparative sample, a resource in the study of history in Micronesia. Whatcan come out of this, is the discovery of the changing size of the island, due to climatic andenvironmental conditions; e.g. where a beach once was situated 200 years before today, andnow has become a fertile taro patch plantation.
3. If any metal conservation were to be executed, the objects used would be products ofWorld War I and II, and the exploration and colonization periods by the Spanish, German,
Japanese and the United States of America. There are many evidence of foreign origins
scattered all over Micronesia; from the enormous canons hidden in the jungle of Sokehs
mountain to the petite measurement of a Japanese skull, attached to the rusted floor of a giantship by yellow-white coral, on the reefs of Chuuk lagoon.
4. Finally, potter conservation would entail further analysis into the development of
economy in Micronesia. Methodology and decorative patterns involved in pottery making canbe compared to neighboring locations. A theory of migrational patterns between peoples, forthe means of trading or newfound habitats can be derived from the examination of pottery
artifacts. If a theory currently exists, then further support to it can be established from thesestudies.
Animal bone analysis at Nabunken utilized the bones of the deer as our main subject
tool. After a review of the major osteological terminology for the anatomical areas of the bone,43

we concentrated on the present animal species that remain prevalent in Micronesia: dog, pig,
chicken, turtle, eels and fish. This better understanding of the osteology of these animals willfurther expedite the identification process of excavated artifacts.

Week Two:Micronesian lifestyle encompasses a maritime livelihood, simply because of ourenvironment. Therefore, concentrating on fish and shell analysis is extremely important, forthese two items are found the most in any given archaeological site in Micronesia. The
existence of pig, dog and chicken were later products of migrational influence. Earlier analysis
of prehistory would demand knowledge of fish and shell anatomy.
Professor Yasui at Tenri University involved herself in the studies of ethnography. I
understand the importance of this field. All of Micronesia is governed to a great extent by
culture. Our traditions are not passed on in written form, but orally. Because of this and thechanging of ideas with foreign countries, inclusive of our adaptation to foreign conveniences
and teaching courses in English, the definition of cultural norms are being altered. Therefore,
ethnography would serve as a survival skill in the preservation of our cultural values.

Week Three:In theory, the analysis of pollen and diatoms could help determine the migration offlora material from other neighboring locations, by utilizing evidence from each stratigraphic
layer of soil. Indeed, Micronesian flora is less unique and quite predictable than other countries-- coconuts and bananas would be the generalized idea. The importance of this theory is to not
only prove the beginning of certain dietary substance intake but the beginning of migration
itself, a migration that denotes the origins of Micronesian civilization and its very genetic
ancestral makeup. In practicality, this vision is blurred and far-fetched. I do not believe any
comparative sources are available, and as such, any results drawn may not stand firm in thescientific community.
I found Parasitology quite interesting. The research facility belonging to Dr. Kanehera
distinguished which toilets belonged to Japanese and which to Foreigners. The Foreigners’common diet consisted of beef and pork, while Japanese concentrated on aquamarine animals.
The presence and quantity of parasites deriving from each toilet differed in their origins,beef/pork or aquamarine. Hence, a theory was imposed as the toilets with beef/pork parasites
belonging to the Foreigners, and the other of aquamarine nature belonging to the Japanese. The
same concept may be applied to Micronesians and foreign colonizers. Considering the“primitive” nature of medicinal remedies against foreign diseases, the existence of parasites

44

can entail health and perhaps mortality issues. However, I do not know the survival rate of suchparasites in the environmental conditions of the Micronesian islands. Still, it is important totake this concept of Parasitology into consideration.
An opportunity presented itself at the National Museum of Ethnology. According to an
administrative officer, NME offers aid to foreign countries, in the form of training of museum
staff in the proper management and function of a museum -- even a museum that has not been
erected yet. Several museums exist in Micronesia. However, they are not visited regularly,
which in turn becomes a factor that affects the need for proper maintenance. Another factor isbudget allowances. Now, I have learned inadvertently during my first week here in Japan, thatthe government of Japan enforces Junior High school students to visit cultural heritage sites;
this serving as exposure and appreciation for one’s country’s heritage and history. I believe thisapplies to museum maintenance because the building can serve as a vessel for the very sameeducational exposure, considering the fact that our cultural heritage sites are not all registeredand enforced by the government as mandatory places to visit. In effect, budget allowances
would increase and become standardized; this ensuring further maintenance and functioning of
our museums.

Week Four:
Observation and recording of pottery involved sorting, identifying the purpose of thepottery, and its restoration. According to my understanding, pottery artifacts are not as
prevalent in Micronesia, in comparison to other islands, such as those of Polynesia. However,this does not understate their importance in our historical record. If and when pottery is found,the process of sorting, identifying purpose and restoring such artifacts is imperative. I havegained the fundamental understanding of this process through this training program.
Drawing artifacts to scale is a skill I would insist upon all HPO members in Micronesia.
Proper recording of information ensures the survival of important data. Staff members will
become more knowledgeable and able to draw theories of how our ancestors once lived.
Wet rubbing can be applied on the pietroglyphs in Pohnpei. If any impressions on
excavated pottery served as decorations, this technique can serve as a recording tool for suchfindings. Its effectiveness is enhanced in its ability to survive 200-300 years; this quality canensure a lasting comparative sample.
Dr. Kataoka emphasized the alliance of ethnology and archaeology in understanding
evidence from an excavation site. Certain species of fish existing in a site may entail a specificcultural rule. In his case, Dr. Kataoka found that fish could be divided in Micronesia as ones
labeled “prestigious” and others “common.” Types of fish offered to an individual followed45accordingly to his rank. This ethnographic data further clarified the role of the persons who
once lived in the excavated site in question. In addition, ethnographic data could indicate apotential archaeological site before an excavation is performed. This would assist in planningand research into a site, while a sense of control over budget allowances is established. Hence,increasing the productivity and efficiency of an archaeological survey. More importantly, theimportance of ethno-archaeology extensively improves one’s understanding of the “bigger
picture” involved in archaeological excavations – What happened here?

Week Five:
It goes without question that survey measuring methods are applicable in Micronesia. A
goal of critical importance to the Historic Preservation Office is to discover and register as
many cultural heritage sites as possible. Survey measuring methodology is a required step tothe completion of this goal. The techniques can be taught with ease, for it does not involve
much machinery or mental work. If I trained a handful of individuals with what I learned with
Mr. Nishimura, the collection of cultural heritage sites into a registry will increase rapidly.

Conclusion:
Micronesia has had its islands probed at and traversed for a scientific explanation of its
past by foreigners for centuries. Field reports, books, and antique journals draw up figures,graphs, theories, and testimonies — all representations of a nation made up of tiny volcanicand coral islands that continue to remain baffling to the mind. Within the enigmatic blueprintof desolated stone cities, of buried artifacts and painted mosaics on the aging wood of meetinghouses, lies the persisting force of an infrastructure of powerful cultural elements. This fact
alone clarifies the need for the natives of such a nation to move into the conservation sciences;
for an “emic” view of culture can better explain and understand the inner-workings of one’s
history than imposing foreign theories. It is imperative that we as Micronesians move quickly
before all we know of “what was” becomes a degenerative process, before fading into memory
soon evolves into nonexistence.
On a personal note, I have great respect and much appreciation for the many
professionals I have had the honor of interacting with. I have every intention of applying my
newfound knowledge in my country; nothing gained here in Japan will fall futile in any way.
Invested in me is a responsibility that cannot be readily dismissed, and for that this training
program has extensively prepared me more to take on this responsibility. In addition, I haveenjoyed such optimal level of hospitality, and I thank ACCU for this memorable experience inJapan.

46

1. List of Lecturers
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
URL: http://www.nabunken.go.jp
MATSUI Akira
Section Head,
Artifacts Research Methodology Section,
Centre for Archaeological Operations
makira@nabunken.go.jp
http://www.nabunken.go.jp/soshiki/matsui/ind
ex.html

MIYAJI Atsuko
Guest Researcher,
Artifacts Research Methodology Section ,Centre for Archaeological Operations

KAWAGOE Shun’ichi
TAKAHASHI Katsuhisa
Section Head,
Chief Researcher,
Departement of Heijo Palace Site Investigations
Departement of Heijo Palace Site Investigations
MORIKAWA Minoru
Researcher
Departement of Heijo Palace Site Investigations

YAMADA Masa’oki
Guest Professor
Nara Medical University
840 Shijo-cho, Kashihara, Nara 634-8521
ISHITANI Shoko
Lecturer
Nara Medical University
840 Shijo-cho, Kashihara, Nara 634-8521
URL: http://www.naramed-u.ac.jp/
YASUI Manami
Associate Professor
Department of Archaeology and Folklore
Tenri University
1050 Somanouchimachi, Tenri, Nara 632-8510
m-yasui@sta.tenri-u.ac.jp
YOSHIDA Hirohiko
Curator
Tenri University Sankokan Museum
250 Morimedo-cho, Tenri, Nara 632-8540
http://www.sankokan.jp/
KANEHARA Masa’aki
Associate Professor
Archaeological Science, Division of Comprehensive Education
Nara University of Education
Takabatake-cho, Nara 630-8528
Office Phone & Fax: +81-(0)742-27-9190
kanehara@nara-edu.ac.jp
http://kobunka.nara-edu.ac.jp/

49

KANEHARA Masako
Chief Researcher
Paleoenvironment Research Institute Co., Ltd
447 Tamachi, Tenri, Nara 632-0073
Office Phone: +81-(0)743-63-3341
Office Fax: +81-(0)743-63-3465
UJITANI Megumu
Information and Documentation Centre
National Museum of Ethnology
10-1 Senri Expo Park, Suita, Osaka 565-8511
http://www.minpaku.ac.jp/
INTO Michiko
Professor
National Museum of Ethnology, Graduate University for Advanced Studies
10-1 Senri Expo Park, Suita, Osaka 565-8511
http://www.minpaku.ac.jp/
KATAOKA Osamu
Professor
Kansai Gaidai College
1-10-1 Hotani, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0195
http://www.kansaigaidai.ac.jp/

2. Tutors and Interpretres
NAGATSUKA Yuka
Nara Medical University

NAKANISHI MariNara Medical University

TAKENO Shin’ichiro
Nara University of Education

AZUMA Hisashi
Nara University of Education

HATA Chiyako

3. Staff Members, ACCU Nara
USHIKAWA Yoshiyuki, Director
YOSHIOKA Toshiyasu, Deputy Director
NISHIMURA Yasushi, Director of Programme Operation Department
ISHII Kayoko, Chief, International Cooperation Section
Mark DIAB, Training Course Assistant
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113
Office Phone: +81-(0)742-20-5001 Office Fax: +81-(0)742-20-5701
URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp

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