JZAR Evidence-based practiceEvidence-based practice

How much UV-B does my reptile need? The UV-Tool, a guide to theselection of UV lighting for reptiles and amphibians in captivity
Frances Baines1*, Joe Chattell2, James Dale3, Dan Garrick4, Iri Gill5, Matt Goetz6, Tim Skelton7 and Matt Swatman3
UV Guide UK, Abergavenny, UK
Reaseheath College, Nantwich, UK
Chester Zoo, UK
4
Marwell Zoo, UK
5Zoological Society of London, UK
6
Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Jersey
7
Bristol Zoo Gardens, UK*Correspondence: Frances Baines, UV Guide UK, Greenfield, School Lane, Govilon, Abergavenny NP7 9NT, UK; fbaines@uvguide.co.uk
1
2

OPEN ACCESS

3

Keywords:
microhabitat design, UV-B, UV index,
UV lamps, UV requirements, vivarium
lighting
Article history:
Received: 9 July 2015
Accepted: 15 January 2016
Published online: 31 January 2016

Abstract
Guidance is almost non-existent as to suitable levels of UV lighting for reptiles and amphibians, or
how to achieve satisfactory UV gradients using artificial lighting. The UV-Tool is a working documentthat seeks to address this problem, by considering the range of UV experienced by each species in thewild. The UV-Tool contains an editable and expanding database of the microhabitat requirements andbasking behaviour of reptile and amphibian species, as derived from field studies, or inferred fromobserved behaviour in captivity. Since an animal’s UV-B exposure is determined by its behaviour within
its native microhabitat, estimation of its natural range of daily UV-B exposure is then possible. The
current version of the UV-Tool assigns 254 species to each of four ‘zones’ of UV-B exposure (Ferguson
zones) based upon UV-index measurements. Once the likely UV requirement of any species of reptile
or amphibian is ascertained, the next step is to plan safe but effective UV gradients within the captive
environment. To do this requires knowledge of the UV spectrum and output of the lamps to be used.
The UV-Tool therefore includes test reports and UV-index gradient maps for commercially available
UV-B lighting products, and a guide to selection of appropriate lamps for use in vivaria and in larger
zoo enclosures. There are reports on 24 different products in the current version of the UV-Tool. This
document has been compiled by members of the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquaria(BIAZA) Reptile and Amphibian Working Group (RAWG) with contributions from zookeepers andherpetologists from the UK and abroad. Further input is welcome and encouraged.

Introduction
The provision of UV lighting to captive reptiles and amphibians
is widely recommended (e.g. Rossi 2006; Carmel and Johnson
2014; Tapley et al. 2015). However, guidance as to suitable levelsof UV-B for different species, and how to achieve satisfactory
UV gradients, is almost non-existent. The aim of this projectis to create a working document that can be used as a guideto suitable UV lighting for all reptiles and amphibians kept in
captivity. The project was initiated by the UV Focus Group of
the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquaria (BIAZA)
Reptile and Amphibian Working Group (RAWG).
Every aspect of the life of a reptile or amphibian is governedby its daily experience of solar light and heat – or the artificial
equivalent, when it is housed indoors. All wavelengths

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

from infra-red to ultraviolet (UV) may be utilised by theseanimals, and are received in amounts that depend upon theirmicrohabitat and their daily activity patterns. Ultraviolet is anormal component of sunlight. It is subdivided by wavelength;
natural sunlight consists of a short-wavelength fraction, UV-B
(290–320 nm) and a longer-wavelength fraction, UV-A (320–400 nm).
UV-A from around 350 nm is within the visual range of many
reptiles and amphibians, which use it in recognising conspecifics
and food items (Govardovskii and Zueva 1974; Moehn 1974;
Fleishman et al. 1993; Honkavaara et al. 2002); its provision
within the spectrum is therefore very important.
Short-wavelength UV-B (290–315nm) enables the conversionof 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC), a sterol in the skin, to previtamin D3. In skin this undergoes a temperature-dependent

42

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

isomerisation into vitamin D3, which is metabolised by the liverand subsequently by the kidney into the vital endocrine hormone
calcitriol, controlling calcium metabolism. It is also metabolised into
calcitriol intracellularly throughout the body, where in mammals
it has been shown to perform multiple autocrine and paracrine
functions, controlling transcription of as many as 2000 genesthat influence functions as diverse as growth, insulin production
and the immune system (Hossein-nezhad and Holick 2013).
Overproduction of vitamin D3 is prevented by the conversion ofexcess pre-vitamin D3 and vitamin D3 into inert photoproducts by
UV-B and short-wavelength UV-A (range 290–335nm), effectively
making this natural process, in sunlight, self-limiting (MacLaughlin
et al. 1982; Webb et al. 1989). Although most research on vitamin
D3 has been carried out on mammals, studies conducted on othertaxa indicate that vitamin D pathways are similar in most terrestrial
vertebrates (Holick et al. 1995; Bidmon and Stumpf 1996; Antwis
and Browne 2009).
As well as its role in enabling and regulating cutaneous vitamin
D synthesis, UV has direct effects upon skin, which include
modulation of the cutaneous immune system, strengthening ofskin barrier functions and increasing pigment formation. It also
stimulates production of beta endorphins, giving sunlight its‘feel good’ factor, and induces nitric oxide production, which has
localised protective effects (Juzeniene and Moan 2012). Solar UV
is also an effective disinfectant (McGuigan et al. 2012) that can
destroy bacteria, fungi and viruses on the surface of the skin.
Excessive exposure to UV must, however, be avoided. Highdoses and/or exposure to unnaturally short-wavelength UV from
artificial sources can result in eye and skin damage, reproductive
failure or even the death of amphibians (Blaustein and Belden2003) and reptiles (Gardiner et al. 2009), and in mammals, canlead to the formation of skin cancers (Soehnge 1997). Squamouscell carcinomas have been reported in captive reptiles but thesignificance of their association with the use of artificial UV
lighting is as yet undetermined (Duarte and Baines 2009; Hannon
et al. 2011).
Species vary widely in their basking behaviours or lack of them
(Avery 1982; Tattersall et al. 2006; Michaels and Preziosi 2013),
their skin permeability to UV radiation (Porter 1967; Nietzke 1990)
and in their response to UV-B in terms of vitamin D3 production(Carman et al. 2000). These behavioural and morphologicalcharacteristics optimise their UV exposure for vitamin D synthesis
and the other beneficial effects of sunlight, whilst simultaneously
minimising the risk of UV damage, but these adaptations are only
relevant for the solar irradiation they experience in their native
microhabitat. Thus it would seem very important to match thesolar UV spectrum as closely as possible, and to recreate the levelsof irradiance found in this microhabitat, when providing reptiles
and amphibians with artificial lighting.
In nature the levels of UV irradiance at any one location vary
continuously, unlike the situation in a typical vivarium, in which a
UV-B-emitting lamp is either on or off. The greatest determinantof irradiance is the solar altitude – the height of the sun in thesky – because at low solar altitudes the rays must pass through athicker layer of atmosphere, which selectively absorbs and scattersshorter wavelengths. Under clear skies, the solar UV-B levels risefrom zero at dawn, to a maximum around noon, then fall again
to zero at sunset (e.g. Michaels and Preziosi 2013). Clouds scatterand absorb all wavelengths, and may greatly reduce irradiance.
However, meteorological data cannot be representative ofconditions within a microclimate. At any time of day, sunlight alsointeracts with features in the animal’s environment such as trees,
rocks, plants and water, creating superimposed gradients of heat,
light and UV extending from full sunlight into full shade. Reptiles
and amphibians perceive these gradients and may use lightintensity as a cue for thermoregulation (Sievert and Hutchison

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

1988, 1989, 1991; Hertz et al 1994; Dickinson and Fa 1997) andin some cases for UV photoregulation (Manning and Grigg 1997;
Ferguson et al. 2003; Karsten et al. 2009). The animal’s response
will determine its exposure within these gradients. Variation in
behaviour creates enormous differences in UV exposure between
species, ranging from mid-day full-sun baskers to nocturnal andcrepuscular animals, which may receive the majority of theirultraviolet exposure from small amounts of daylight reachingthem in their diurnal retreats.
The creation of similar superimposed heat, light and UV
gradients using UV-B-emitting lamps, often in combination
with other sources of heat and light, is possible because theirirradiance is proportional to the distance from the lamp. The task
requires knowledge of (1) the range of irradiance appropriate forthe species and (2) the gradients created by individual lighting
products, which may be used individually or in combination to
produce the desired effect.
The range of irradiance appropriate for the species
Research on this topic is in its infancy, even with regard tohuman beings. There is hardly any scientific data to back therecommendation of any particular level of UV-B for any particularspecies. Until very recently, no practical methods existed forrecording ambient UV-B in the microhabitat of free-living reptiles
and amphibians. However, Ferguson et al. (2010) reported the UV
exposure of 15 species of reptiles in the field during their dailyand seasonal peak of activity, using the unitless UV index (UVI),
as measured with a Solarmeter 6.5 UV Index meter (Solartech
Inc., Harrison Township, Michigan, USA), and demonstrated
that knowledge of the basking/daylight exposure habits of any
species enables a reasonable estimation of likely UV exposures tobe made. They allocated species into four sun exposure groupsor ‘zones’, which have since been designated ‘UV-B Zones’ or‘Ferguson zones’ (Carmel and Johnson 2014; Ferguson et al. 2014).
For each zone, a range of figures was given for the mean voluntary
UVI exposures calculated from all readings (Zone Range), and forthe maximum UVI in which the animals were encountered. The
Ferguson zones are summarised in Table 1.
Any species can be assigned to one of the four zones based
upon its basking behaviour. The authors suggest that a suitable UV
gradient may then be provided in the captive animal’s environment
using these figures as a guide. Such a gradient should enable theanimal to self-regulate its exposure from zero (full shade) to the
maximum indicated for that zone, which would be provided at the
animal’s closest access point to the lamp.

Table 1. The Ferguson zones, summarised from Ferguson et al. (2010).
Species are grouped into four zones according to their thermoregulatory
behaviour and microhabitat preferences, with the UVB reference
guidelines determined from average irradiance of randomly encounteredindividuals in the field.

Characteristics

Zone range
UVI

Maximum
UVI

Zone 1

Crepuscular or shade dweller,
thermal conformer

0–0.7

0.6–1.4

Zone 2

Partial sun/occasional basker,
thermoregulator

0.7–1.0

1.1–3.0

Zone 3

Open or partial sun basker,
thermoregulator

1.0–2.6

2.9–7.4

Zone 4Mid-day sun basker,
thermoregulator

2.6–3.5

4.5–9.543

Baines et al.

The gradients created by individual lighting products
The suitability of any light source is governed by two main features:its quality (the spectrum) and quantity (the irradiance received by
the animal). The template for the ideal spectral power distribution
is the solar spectrum, under which life evolved and to which alllife on the planet’s surface is adapted. Direct comparisons of lamp
spectra with the solar spectrum are therefore required.
With regard to quantity, the irradiance at any given distancefrom a lamp is a function of the output of the lamp and the way
the light is distributed, i.e. the shape of the beam. For example,
a fluorescent tube that radiates a diffuse, relatively low level of
UV-B from its entire surface will produce a very different UV-B
gradient and basking opportunity than a mercury vapour spot
lamp that emits a very narrow beam of intense UV-B light only
a few centimetres across. The use of various lamp reflectors,
shades or luminaires can also dramatically affect the shape of thebeam and the intensity of UV at any given distance. It is therefore
important to plot an iso-irradiance chart for each lamp, to assess
its effectiveness. However, in previous studies the irradiance fromUV-B lamps has usually been measured at standard distancesfrom the lamp, regardless of the lamp type and the shape of its
beam (Gehrmann 1987; Gehrmann et al. 2004b; Lindgren 2004;
Lindgren et al. 2008).
A hand-held broadband meter is a practical instrument
for measuring both solar UV irradiance in the field and lamp
irradiance indoors. However, different brands and models of
broadband UV-B meters (range 280–320 nm) will have different
spectral responsivity. Unless they are specifically calibrated forthe spectral power distribution of a particular lamp, each meter
may give a different reading from that lamp at any given distance(Gehrmann et al. 2004a). In addition, only a very narrow band of
shorter wavelengths in the UV-B range (295–315 nm) contributeto vitamin D3 synthesis; measurements including irradiance fromlonger wavelengths may be misleading as to the effectiveness ofa lamp.
Unlike broadband UV-B meters, which respond to the entire
range of UV-B wavelengths, the Solarmeter 6.5 UV Index
meter (Solartech Inc., Harrison Township, Michigan, USA) usedby Ferguson et al. (2010) has strong filtration of the longer
wavelengths, resulting in a spectral responsivity with a 96%
overlap to the CIE pre-vitamin D3 spectrum (CIE 2006) from 290 to
400 nm (S. Wunderlich, pers. comm.). This enables a reasonableestimate of the vitamin D-synthesising potential of sunlight andany artificial source. The readings are displayed in the unitless UV
index, which is beneficial for interpretation as it is a well known
measurement of ‘sun strength’ as determined by human erythema,
which has a similar, but not identical, action spectrum (CIE 1998)
to the pre-vitamin D3 spectrum. The Solarmeter 6.5’s spectral
response falls about halfway between the two (Schmalwieser et
al. 2006). When its UVI measurements were compared with data
provided by a Bentham spectrometer, a very accurate sensor used
for UV measurements, deviations of only ±5% were found, which
are within the range commonly expected for scientific instruments(de Paula Corrêa et al. 2010). This meter is therefore suitable formeasuring the irradiance from sunlight and from a lamp at specificdistances, and for plotting the shape of the lamp’s beam, to create
an iso-irradiance chart.

Methods
A database was compiled of basic information on each species ofreptile and amphibian held by the authors’ current institutions.
Each species was assigned to a Ferguson zone based on anassessment of its basking behaviour, derived from published or
personal studies made in the field if possible, but if not, fromobservations of the animal’s behaviour in captivity. Further

44

information on the animal’s natural microhabitat and thermal
requirements was added, to assist the keeper in choosing
appropriate lamp combinations for creating a suitable lighting andheating gradient within the enclosure. The database included thefollowing information:•
Species (Latin name, common name)•
Biome (Major biome or Terrestrial Ecoregion as defined by
Olson et al. (2001) and adopted by the World Wildlife Fund(WWF 2015)•
Ferguson zone•
Photoperiod•
Winter treatment, if any (cooling, brumation orhibernation)•
Baskingzone
temperature(substratesurfacetemperature)•
Daytime ambient (air) temperature (summer and winter)•
Night ambient (air) temperature (summer and winter)•
Microhabitat, including specialist requirements added as‘comments’
A selection of 24 widely available UV-B-emitting lighting
products was fully tested by one of the authors (FB). The lamps
were switched on for 15 hours per day until a total of 105 hours
was completed before testing, approximating the industry
standard ‘burning-in’ period of 100 hours (IESNA 1999).
All measurements were carried out with the lamps in simple
fixtures, with no shades or reflectors, above a test bench, after a
30-minute warm-up period. Recordings included:•
Spectrograms (Ocean Optics USB2000+ spectral radiometerwith a UV-B compatible fibre-optic probe with cosine
adaptor: Ocean Optics Inc., Dunedin, FL 34698 USA)•UV Index (Solarmeter 6.5 UV Index meter: Solartech Inc.,
Harrison Township, MI 48045 USA)•
Total UV-B: 280–320nm (Solarmeter 6.2 broadband UVB
meter: Solartech Inc., Harrison Township, MI 48045 USA)•UV-C (Solarmeter 8.0 broadband UVC meter: Solartech
Inc., Harrison Township, MI 48045 USA)•
Visible light output (SkyTronic LX101 model 600.620 digital
lux meter: SkyTronic B. V., Overijssel, Netherlands)•
Electrical consumption (Prodigit power monitor model
2000M-UK: Prodigit Electronics, New Taipei City, Taiwan)
For those lamps emitting UV-B in appropriate wavelengths forvitamin D3 synthesis, as indicated by their spectral analysis, an isoirradiance chart mapping the UV index gradient was constructedaccording to a method described previously (Baines 2015). The
ability of each lighting product to provide irradiances within the UV
index ranges appropriate to each Ferguson zone was documented
and guidelines drafted regarding methods of lamp choice.
The species database, lamp test results and guidelines werecompiled into a draft Excel document. This was distributed to
the wider BIAZA RAWG community and to a small number ofherpetologists and private keepers with specialist knowledge.
All recipients of the draft document were requested to submit
reviews of the UV-Tool and data for additional species held in
their collections, including references to their source material
where appropriate. The first draft was distributed in December
2012, listing 190 species from the five zoological collections towhich the co-authors were affiliated. Between January 2013 andOctober 2015 contributions were received from a further nineinstitutions and ten individual contributors, bringing the total up
to 254 species of reptiles and amphibians. This is still a working
document. The database has been updated at regular intervals,
and is currently in its tenth edition, available for download fromthe Internet (BIAZA RAWG 2015). New reviews, corrections andsubmissions are welcomed.

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

Table 2. Assessment of 24 lamps used in reptile husbandry. Operating ranges also respect safe minimum distances. Fluorescent lamps emitting less than
UVI 0.5 at 15cm are not considered to be suitable as the sole source of UVB even for Zone 1 species.
Ferguson zones which can be covered using the lamp (depending
upon distance)

Company nameBrand name

Zone 1

Zone 2using shademethodSample inthis report

Date sample
purchasedusing shademethodZone 3

Zone 4using sunbeam using sunbeam
methodmethodFluorescent tubes
A) T8 (1" diameter) tubes
Arcadia

Natural Sunlight Lamp 2% UVB

60cm 18W

2008

with reflector

Arcadia

D3 Reptile Lamp 6% UVB

60cm 18W

2008with reflector

Arcadia

D3+ Reptile Lamp 12% UVB

60cm 18W

2008





Narva

BioVital T8

60cm 18W

2009



ZooMedReptisun 2.0/ Naturesun

60cm 18W

2008



ZooMedReptisun 5.0/ IguanaLight

60cm 18W

2005





ZooMedReptisun 10.060cm 18W

2011





with reflector

with reflectorB) T5 (16mm diameter) tubes
Arcadia

T5 D3 Reptile Lamp 6% UVB

55cm 24W

2011





with reflector

with reflector

Arcadia

T5 D3+ Reptile Lamp 12% UVB

55cm 24W

2011









ZooMedReptisun 5.0 UVB T5-HO

55cm 24W

2012





with reflector

with reflector

ZooMedReptisun 10.0 UVB T5-HO

55cm 24W

2012









Mercury vapour lamps
Arcadia

D3 Basking Lamp

100W

2012





Arcadia

D3 Basking Lamp

160W

2012





ExoTerra

Solar Glo

125W

2012-2013





ExoTerra

Solar Glo

160W

2012-2013



MegaRay
PetCareMega-Ray

100W

2014









MegaRay
PetCareMega-Ray

160W

2014









Osram

Ultravitalux

300W

2005-2011









ZooMedPowersun

100W

2012-2013



ZooMedPowersun

160W

2012-2013









?



?



Metal halide lamps
Iwasaki EYEColor Arc manufactured prior to
2011

150W

2009-2010

Iwasaki EYEColor Arc manufactured after 2011

150W

2009-2010Lucky Reptile Bright Sun UV Desert

35W

2012





Lucky Reptile Bright Sun UV Desert

50W

2008





Results
Species database
The entries to date (254 species) are listed in full in the Appendix.
The contributors for each species and their recommended reading
and reference lists are not included owing to space limitations,but are present in the UV-Tool Excel working document available
online (BIAZA RAWG 2015). Further contributions are still beingsought, and the BIAZA RAWG Focus Group intends to edit andexpand the database as more information becomes available.

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016



UV-B lamp test results
Table 2 lists the lamps that were included in the trial, andsummarises their ability to provide irradiances within the UV index
ranges appropriate to each Ferguson zone, at practical distances
beneath the lamp. Figure 1A–C graphs the UVI irradiances ofindividual lamps at increasing distances from the surface ofthe lamp, with the UV index meter positioned perpendicular tothe lamp, directly beneath its central point. Figures 2 and 3 areexamples of iso-irradiance charts and spectra for four distinct
types of UV-B-emitting lamp: a standard-output T8 (25 mm

45

Baines et al.

Figure 1. UV Index irradiance recordings. (A) UVB-emitting fluorescent tubes (T8 and T5 versions); (B) mercury vapour lamps; (C) metal halide lamps.

diameter) fluorescent tube, a mercury vapour lamp, a metal halide
lamp and a T5 (16 mm diameter) High-Output (T5-HO) fluorescenttube fitted with an aluminium reflector. Each of the full lamp test
results for all 24 lamps are accessible from links on the same
website page from which the Excel working document may be
downloaded (BIAZA RAWG 2015), as well as from links within the
UV-Tool itself. New lamp test results will be added to this website,
and their links will be added to the working document, as they
become available.

46

Discussion
Lamp test results
The UV output of lamps sold for use with reptiles and amphibians
varies enormously, not just from different types of lamp, but also
from different brands with similar specifications. Although only
one lamp from each brand was tested in this trial, previous tests(FB, unpublished data) have shown that considerable differences
may exist between individual lamps of the same brand andJournal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

A

B

C

D

Figure 2. Full ultraviolet and visible light (UV-VIS) spectrum of samples of four types of UVB lamp. A mid-day solar spectrum with the sun close to the zenith(Solar altitude 85.4°) is overlaid onto each chart - but note the different irradiance scales. This enables comparison of the spectral power distribution of
the lamp with that of natural sunlight, which has a completely continuous spectrum from a threshold around 295nm. (A) UVB-emitting fluorescent tube
(T8 version): ZooMed Reptisun 10.0 UVB 18watt T8 fluorescent tube. Distance 10cm. (B) Mercury vapour lamp: ZooMed Powersun 160watt lamp. Distance
30cm. (C) Metal halide lamp: Lucky Reptile Bright Sun Desert UV 50watt lamp. Distance 30cm. (D) UVB-emitting fluorescent tube (T5 version): Arcadia T5HO D3+ 12%UVB 24watt T5 fluorescent tube in aluminium reflector. Distance 10cm.

specifications. This may be due to small differences in manufacturesuch as internal positioning of lamp elements, thickness of glass or
coatings, etc., but the UV-B output may also vary with external
factors such as fluctuations in the voltage of the electrical supply
and the ambient temperature. UV-B output also decays withuse, primarily due to solarisation of the glass envelope under UV
bombardment, but also due to chemical changes in phosphors or
halide mixtures or the blackening of glass from sputtering fromageing electrodes. Ideally, lamp output should be monitored
regularly. Most products decay only slowly, however, after the
initial ‘burning-in’ period. Included in the full lamp test results aremeasurements taken from seven of the UV-emitting fluorescenttubes from Arcadia (Arcadia Products plc., Redhill, UK) and
ZooMed (ZooMed Laboratories Inc., San Luis Obispo, USA), eachlamp representing a different brand, put into use for at least a fullyear (4000 hours of use at 10–12 hours per day). After burning-in
for 105 hours, the mean reduction in UVI, from new, was 12.6%(range 6–23%). At the end of 4000 hours the mean reduction in
UVI, from new, was only 39.9% (range 30–48%). These results
suggest that some brands may not need replacement for at least
one year. Not all products have similar longevity. For example, one
brand sold by a different manufacturer showed a reduction in UVIof 64% from new after only 1000 hours’ use – about three months
at 10–12 hours per day. This product was therefore renderedineffective at any practical distance after only three months (FB,
unpublished data).
Spectral analysis reveals that none of the lamps in this trial
emit harmful non-solar UV-B radiation (<290 nm). All of thelamps emit at least some UV-B in the range required for vitamin

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

D3 synthesis, although the so-called ‘full spectrum’ fluorescenttubes, Narva Biovital (Narva Lichtquellen GmbH, Brand-Erbisdorf,
Germany), ZooMed NatureSun (ZooMed Laboratories Inc., San
Luis Obispo, USA), and the Iwasaki EYE Color Arc metal halide lamp
manufactured after 2011 (Iwasaki Electric Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan),emit insignificant amounts except at extremely close range.
Iso-irradiance charts
The iso-irradiance charts enable comparison of the UV gradients
between different lamps and reveal important differences inthe surface area beneath the lamps that receives any specified
irradiance. For example, as indicated in Table 2, both the Arcadia
T5 D3+ Reptile Lamp 12% UV-B fluorescent tube (Arcadia Products
plc., Redhill, UK) and the Lucky Reptile Bright Sun Desert 50watt
metal halide lamp (Import Export Peter Hoch GmbH, Waldkirch,
Germany) are able to produce a gradient suitable for a Zone 2
animal at a safe distance. However, the iso-irradiance charts
for these lamps indicate that the fluorescent tube fitted with areflector provides a UV index range between 0.5 and 1.0 acrossan area over 130 cm in diameter at a distance of 85 cm (Figure
3D), whereas the same zone of irradiance under the metal halide
lamp is achieved at 45 cm, but the footprint is less than 25 cm indiameter (Figure 3C). The practical uses for these two lamps will
therefore be very different. Effective UV coverage needs to be atleast as wide as the whole body of the animal.
Mercury vapour and metal halide lamps emit significant infrared
radiation as well as UV and visible light. When creating a thermal
gradient, just as with a UV gradient, the whole of the animal’s
body must fit within the optimum upper temperature zone. For

47

Baines et al.

Figure 3. UV Index iso-irradiance charts for samples of four types of UVB lamp. These charts are for the lamps with spectra illustrated in Figure 2. (A) UVBemitting fluorescent tube (T8): ZooMed Reptisun 10.0 UVB 18watt T8 tube. (B) Mercury vapour lamp: ZooMed Powersun 160watt lamp. (C) Metal halide
lamp: Lucky Reptile Bright Sun Desert UV 50watt lamp. (D) UVB-emitting fluorescent tube (T5): Arcadia T5-HO D3+ 12%UVB 24watt T5 fluorescent tube inaluminium reflector.

basking species, this means creation of a basking area in whichappropriate UV, visible light and infrared radiation cover the entire
body of the animal. Lamps with wide flood-type beams or multiple
lamps above the basking zone are often necessary.
When lamps are installed in enclosures, any shades andreflectors, mesh guards, even nearby objects such as branches
and foliage will affect light and UV distribution. Iso-irradiancecharts are no substitute for in-situ measurements; they are merely
guides to aid lamp selection.
Using the Ferguson zones
Figure 4 summarises the zone ranges recorded by Ferguson et al.
(2010) and illustrates the way in which we propose they might beused to create suitable UV gradients for any species based upon its
thermoregulation behaviour.
Ferguson et al. (2010) provide two sets of figures:
1. ‘Zone ranges’: all the UVI readings for the microhabitats atthe time and place the reptiles were found were averaged.
For example, the average exposure of crepuscular or shadedwelling species fell in the range between UVI 0 and 0.7,
the ‘partial sun or occasional baskers’ were in a range from
0.7 to 1.0, and so on. This figure might be considered asuitable ‘mid-background’ level of UV for the species inquestion.

48

2.

‘Max UVI recorded’ refers to the highest UVI that thereptiles from each zone were found to occupy in this study.
Obviously this figure might reflect a ‘one-off’ exposure – asingle reptile found out in mid-day sun – but it gives anestimate of the maximum levels this type of animal might
encounter naturally. This might be considered as a guideas to the upper acceptable limit for the UV gradient to beprovided in captivity.

We suggest that a suitable UV gradient, chosen to match thezone to which the reptile or amphibian is allocated, may then be
provided in the captive animal’s environment, enabling the animal
to self-regulate its exposure. A full range of UV levels may beprovided, from zero (full shade) to the maximum suggested by thezone assessment (at the closest point possible between the animal
and the lamp). We have used the information from the Ferguson
et al. (2010) study as a basis for our suggestion that there are two
ways of supplying UV to reptiles and amphibians kept indoors in
captivity.
‘Shade’ and ‘sunbeam’ methods
The ‘shade method’ provides low-level background UV over alarge proportion of the animal’s enclosure using the zone ranges
as a guide to appropriate ambient UV, with a gradient from the

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

Figure 4. UV index estimates based upon the Ferguson zones. Columns 1 to 5 of the table identify the characteristics of each zone as presented by Ferguson
et al. (2010). The original 15 species of reptiles studied in their natural habitat in Jamaica and south and west USA are shown in column 5. In the column
6 are examples of species commonly held in captivity, assigned to Ferguson zones based upon their known basking behaviour. Arrows link animals fromeach zone to either shade or sunbeam methods of UV provision as proposed in the BIAZA UV-Tool (2012) and indicate typical lamp types suggested foreach method.

highest zone range value close to the lamp, to zero in the shade.
This would seem to be the method of choice for shade-dwelling
animals and occasional baskers, i.e., those in zones 1 and 2. Most
amphibians, snakes and crepuscular lizards have been allocated tothese zones. Fluorescent T8 (26 mm diameter) UV-B tubes create
low levels of UV irradiance, similar to those found in outdoor shade
on a sunny day, over a relatively large area close to the tube, witha gradient to zero at greater distances from the lamp. They would
therefore appear to be particularly suitable for the shade methodin small enclosures and vivaria, where the maximum UVI required
would be no higher than UVI 0.7–1.0. In larger enclosures, highoutput T5 (T5-HO) (16 mm diameter) UV-B fluorescent tubes may
be used, as these can be positioned further from the animals, toachieve the same low UVI at animal level.
The ‘sunbeam method’ is designed to provide a higher levelof UV for species known to bask in direct sunlight. The aim is toprovide UV levels in the basking area that are similar to thoseexperienced by a wild animal in direct sunlight in its natural
habitat during a typical early to mid-morning basking period. Thisis the time when most basking species absorb solar radiation forlong periods. In the tropics and sub-tropics, in open sunlight onclear days between 8.30am and 9.30am local time, the UV index
is typically in the range UVI 3.0–5.0 (FB, unpublished data). Thishigher level needs to be restricted to the basking zone (simulatinga patch of sunlight) with a gradient to zero into shade. This method
would seem appropriate for animals in zones 3 and 4, many ofwhich are diurnal reptiles, and for some partial sun/occasional
baskers from zone 2. Some mercury vapour lamps, metal halide
UV-B lamps and high output T5 (T5-HO) UV-B fluorescent tubes(16 mm diameter) can produce much higher levels of UV-B than
T8 fluorescent tubes, up to levels typical of natural sunlight. These
lamps can be positioned to irradiate a brightly illuminated basking
zone with appropriate levels of UV-B for the entire photoperiod,so that suitable UV exposure occurs whenever the animal chooses
to bask. We suggest that ‘Max UVI recorded’ should be a guide to

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

the maximum permitted for each zone, with the exception of zone
4. Although some zone 4 reptiles have been observed basking at
UVI 9.5 or above (Ferguson et al. 2010, 2014), even these spend
the majority of their basking time in the early morning and lateafternoon, when levels are around UVI 3.0–5.0. It follows thatthe most appropriate levels for zone 4 animals, too, will be inthis range. We suggest that for safety, UVI 7.0–8.0 should beconsidered the absolute maximum UVI at reptile level for zone 4
reptiles under artificial sources of UV-B, since the UV spectrum
from artificial lighting is not the same as from natural sunlight.
If keepers do not have access to a UV index meter, the isoirradiance charts and irradiance tables to which the UV-Toolis linked may be used to identify suitable distances at whichappropriate levels for both ‘shade’ and ‘sunbeam’ methods areachieved by different lamps.
Special considerations: nocturnal species
Traditionally, it has been assumed that nocturnal and crepuscularspecies do not require UV lighting because their lifestyle precludes
exposure to daylight, and/or they obtain all the vitamin D3 theyrequire from their diet. Although carnivores may obtain sufficientvitamin D3 from the bodies of their prey, the natural diets ofinsectivores are unlikely to provide any significant amounts of thevitamin (Finke and Oonincx 2014), making cutaneous synthesis
the most likely primary source.
More than 60 years ago, reports were collected of supposedly
nocturnal reptiles experiencing at least some exposure to
daylight, either by occasional daytime forays or by incidental
exposure to light in their sleeping places (Brattstrom 1952). House
geckos, Hemidactylus frenatus and H. turcicus, are often seen
in daylight around dusk and dawn (FB, pers. obs.) and Tarentola
mauretanica can regularly be seen basking in the sun for periods
throughout the day (MG, pers. obs.). Without evidence from 24hour observational field studies, it cannot be assumed that any
nocturnal species receives no sunlight at all. Many snakes, such as

49

Baines et al.

the black ratsnake (Pantherophis obsoletus) vary their diel patternsof activity depending upon ambient temperatures, increasing
diurnal activity in the cooler months (Sperry et al. 2013).
It has been speculated that crepuscular species may synthesise
vitamin D3 by emerging into sunlight at dusk and dawn. However,when the sun is close to the horizon, the atmosphere filters out
almost all the UV-B wavelengths required for vitamin D3 synthesis;
species which can benefit from such low levels of UV need skinwith very high UV transmission. Some nocturnal geckos, forexample, fit into this category. Short wavelength UV-B has beenshown to be transmitted through the full thickness of skin of thenocturnal gecko Coleonyx variegatus to a depth of 1.2 to 1.9 mm,
in stark comparison with diurnal species such as the desert lizard
Uta stansburiana, in which transmission was restricted to between
0.3 and 0.9 mm (Porter 1967). In the same study, Porter foundthat the skin transmission of seven species of snake reflected
their behaviour, such that the highest transmission was seen in
the most completely nocturnal species, and the lowest in diurnal
species, with crepuscular snakes in between. This suggests one
way in which low levels of UV-B may enable adequate vitamin D3
synthesis in nocturnal species. Carman et al. (2000) demonstrated
that the skin of the nocturnal house gecko Hemidactylus turcicus
can synthesise vitamin D3 eight times more efficiently than skinfrom the diurnal desert lizard Sceloporus olivaceous – suggestingthat this is an adaptation either to lower levels of available
ultraviolet light in its microhabitat, or to very short exposure tohigher levels, during brief day-time emergences from shelter.
Leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) synthesised vitamin
D3 when exposed to low-level UV-B; 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels
in exposed animals were 3.2 times higher than controls receiving
only dietary supplementation (Wangen et al. 2013). Crepuscularsnakes such as the corn snake, Elaphe guttata, have also beenshown to synthesise vitamin D3 in the skin when exposed to lowlevels of UV-B from fluorescent lamps (Acierno et al. 2008).
Mid-day UV-B filtering into the daylight sleeping places ofnocturnal animals may also be sufficient to enable adequate
cutaneous synthesis. As far as we are aware, no published fieldstudies exist recording the ambient UV-B in the daytime locationof inactive nocturnal animals. However, UVI meter readings
between UVI 0.1 and 1.2 have been recorded beside leaf-tailed
geckos (Uroplatus sp.) sleeping in daylight against tree trunks in
Madagascar (L. Warren, pers. comm.)
The vitamin D3 requirement of some nocturnal species may below; passive absorption of dietary calcium by vitamin D-deprived
leopard geckos, for example, appears to be effective enough toprevent metabolic bone disease (Allen et al. 1996). However, theparacrine and autocrine functions of vitamin D3 are independent
from calcium metabolism; more research is needed to assess thefull effects of vitamin D deficiency.
To summarise, some nocturnal animals clearly do have theability to synthesise vitamin D3 in their skin, and this would occur
naturally whenever they were exposed to daylight. So there would
seem to be no reason to withhold provision of full spectrum
lighting, provided that they are able to spend the daylight hours in
an appropriate retreat, with access to a UV-B component suitable
for a shade-dwelling or crepuscular species (i.e. Ferguson zone 1).
Hypopigmentation
Extra consideration is required when planning lighting for albino
and hypomelanistic specimens of any species, regardless of thezone allocation of that species. Melanin strongly absorbs UV
radiation. A lack of skin and eye pigmentation therefore increases
the transmission of radiation into the body (Solano 2014). Suchanimals are often popularly reported to be more sensitive to UV
and visible light (e.g. Dell’Amore 2007), and may be at increased
risk of UV-induced skin damage and cancer (Duarte and Baines

502009). They are therefore likely to need much reduced exposurelevels. Fortunately adequate vitamin D3 synthesis should still
be possible despite lower UV exposure, since reduced melaninpigment allows more UV-B to enter the epidermal cells.
Ontogenetic changes
Consideration should also be given to any ontogenetic changes
in microhabitat and/or behaviour when allocating species to
Ferguson zones. Amphibians with both larval and adult life stages
are obvious examples, but juvenile reptiles of many species also live
more cryptic lifestyles than the adults, inhabiting more shelteredmicrohabitats with relatively less ambient UV. A well-known
example of this is the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis);
juveniles are arboreal, whereas adults are ground-dwellers
foraging across open savanna as well as in woodlands (Auffenberg
1981). More fieldwork is needed to identify differences in the UV
exposure of immature animals, to determine whether they need adifferent Ferguson zone allocation from that of adults. Estimating
juvenile requirements was outside the remit of this project, butthese might usefully be added to the UV-Tool in the future.
General cautions
In applying these guidelines to the provision of UV lighting, some
general cautions must be emphasised.
Firstly, this is a very simplistic assessment, with very wide
interpretations possible. This is intentional; the concept isdesigned to enable creation of wide, safe UV gradients combinedwith heat and light gradients, enabling reptiles and amphibians
to photoregulate and thermoregulate simultaneously, throughout
the day. This requires the sources of UV, visible light and infrared
radiation to be positioned close together, simulating sunlight,
and creating a basking zone at least as large as the whole bodyof the animal. Multiple lamps may be required in some cases;
the effects are additive for all wavelengths, so overlapping beams
must be used with caution. It also requires provision of adequate
space and shelter, away from the lamps, for suitable gradients
to form. Provision of shade is vital for all species, regardless of
their Ferguson zone. Even zone 4 reptiles must have a UV gradientfalling to zero in shelters away from the light. All guidelines to dateare still very experimental; the exact UV requirements of reptiles
and amphibians are still largely unknown, and it is vital to monitor
the animals’ responses and record results.
Secondly, basking temperatures and ambient temperatures
must be suitable, to ensure basking behaviours – and therefore
UV exposure times – are natural, neither abnormally short nor
prolonged.
Thirdly, lamps should always be positioned above the animal,
so the shape of the head, and upper eyelids and eyebrow ridges
when present, shade the eyes from the direct light.
Fourthly, all lamps present an electrical risk, and many alsopresent the risk of thermal burns and UV burns if the animal
can approach too closely. All bulbs should be inaccessible to theanimals; wire guards may be necessary. Wide wire mesh should
be chosen where possible, to maximise light and UV transmission(Burger et al. 2007).
Finally, ordinary glass or plastics must not be placed anywhere
between the lamp and the animal, as these normally blocktransmission of all UV-B. Some high-transmission glass andspecialised UV-transmitting acrylics will, however, allow a certain
proportion through, although even these materials selectively
block shorter UV wavelengths. Spectral analysis conducted by
one of the authors (FB, unpublished data) indicated that 3 mm
UV-transmitting acrylic (Clear Sunbed Grade UV-T Perspex Acrylic
Sheet: Bay Plastics Ltd., North Shields, UK) permitted 80.9%transmission of UV-B at 300 nm. UV-transmitting twin-wall acrylic
roofing panels (Plexiglas Alltop SDP16: Evonik Industries AG,

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

Essen, Germany) permitted 58.8% transmission at 300 nm. For
comparison, a 4 mm sheet of high-transmission, low-iron glass(Planibel Clearvision Glass: AGC Glass Europe, Louvain-La-Neuve,
Belgium) transmitted 16.9% of UV-B at 300 nm, compared to only
0.4% transmission through ordinary 4 mm window glass.

Summary
Very few field studies have been conducted on the natural UV
exposure of reptiles and amphibians. However, an estimation of asuitable UV range for any species may be made using knowledgeof its typical basking behaviour and its microhabitat. In indoor
enclosures, careful positioning of UV lamps enables creation of a
UV gradient within this range, which can be incorporated into full
spectrum lighting to simulate sunlight.
The BIAZA RAWG UV-Tool is a working document in which species
are allocated to UVI ranges (Ferguson zones) according to theirbasking behaviour. Information is also provided regarding suitabletemperature gradients, photoperiod and microhabitat, to assist
construction of the photo-microhabitat. UV-B lamps vary widelyin output and beam characteristics, but links to lamp test results
are available in the UV-Tool. Lamp choice will depend primarily on
the Ferguson zone of the animal, which determines the required
UV gradient, and the size of the enclosure, which determines the
distance at which the lamp can be placed. Final positioning of thelamp (or lamps) is determined by using a UV index meter; if nometer is available, the charts and figures published in the test
results may be helpful if the same lamps are being used.
Since this is a working document, we encourage submission of
new species data to the database, and updates of lamp test results
are planned.

Definitions
Irradiance is the radiant power received by a surface per unit area.
The units are microwatts per square centimetre (µW/cm²).
Illuminance is the total luminous flux received by a surface perunit area. This is a measure of the apparent brightness of anilluminated area to the human eye. It is calculated from the productof the spectral irradiance (µW/cm² per nanometre of wavelength)with the human luminosity function, which represents the eye’s
response to different wavelengths. This weighting is required
because human brightness perception is wavelength-dependent.
The unit is the lux. Since animal eyes have different spectral
sensitivities, it is only a crude estimate of the brightness perceived
by any non-human species, but equivalent luminosity functions
for reptile and amphibian species are lacking.
The UV index (WHO 2002) is an international standard measurementof the intensity of human erythemally-active (sunburn-producing)
UV radiation. It is calculated from the product of the spectral
irradiance (µW/cm² per nanometre of wavelength) and the humanerythemal action spectrum across the range of UV wavelengths.
This weighting is required because shorter UV wavelengths aremuch more damaging than longer wavelengths. The UV index isunitless.

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the following contributors to the species
microhabitat assessments. Zoological institutions and organisations:Birmingham Wildlife Conservation Park (Adam Radovanovic); Blue
Planet Aquarium (Joe Chattell); Bristol Zoo Gardens (Tim Skeltonand Adam Davis); Chessington World of Adventures (Keith Russell
and Rea Walshe); Chester Zoo (Matt Swatman and James Dale);
Cotswold Wildlife Park (Iri Gill); Durrell Wildlife Conservation

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Trust (Matt Goetz and Christopher Pye); Hadlow College, Kent
(John Pemberton); Living Rainforest (Lisa Clifforde and Rob Ward);
Marwell Wildlife (Dan Garrick); Newquay Zoo (Dan Garrick);
Sparsholt College (Steve Nash); Wildlife and Wetlands Trust (Jay
Redbond); ZSL London Zoo (Iri Gill, Ben Tapley and Sebastian
Grant) and members of the Three Counties Tortoise Group. Guest
contributors: Andy Beveridge; Chris Davis; Gary Ferguson; Greg
Fyfe; Jeffrey Lambert; Christopher Michaels; James Miller; Roman
Muryn; Jim Pether and Terry Thatcher.

References
Acierno M.J, Mitchell M.A., Zachariah T.T., Roundtree M.K., Kirchgessner
M.S., Sanchez-Migallon Guzman D. (2008) Effects of ultraviolet
radiation on plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 concentrations in cornsnakes (Elaphe guttata). American Journal of Veterinary Research 69:
294–297.
Allen M.E., Oftedal O.T., Horst R.L. (1996) Remarkable differences in the
response to dietary vitamin D among species of reptiles and primates:
Is ultraviolet B light essential? In: Holick M.F., Jung E.G. (eds). Biologic
Effects of Light 1995. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 13–30.
Antwis R., Browne R. (2009) Ultraviolet radiation and vitamin D3 inamphibian health, behaviour, diet and conservation. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology
154: 184–190.
Auffenberg W. (1981) The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Avery R.A. (1982) Field studies of body temperatures and thermoregulation.
In: Gans C., Pough, F.H. (eds). Biology of the Reptilia 12, Physiology C.
Physiological Ecology. London: Academic Press, 93–166.
Baines F.M. (2015) Make yourself an iso-irradiance chart. A simple
guide to mapping a UV index gradient. http://www.uvguide.co.uk/
makingspreadcharts.htm (accessed 10 October 2015).
BIAZA RAWG (2015) British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquaria
Reptile and Amphibian Working Group UV-TOOL PROJECT. http://
www.uvguide.co.uk/BIAZA-RAWG-UV-Tool.htm (accessed 10 October2015).
Bidmon H.J., Stumpf W.E. (1996) Vitamin D target systems in the brain of
the green lizard Anolis carolinensis. Anatomy and Embryology 193:
145–160.
Blaustein A.R., Belden, L.K. (2003) Amphibian defenses against ultraviolet-B
radiation. Evolution & Development 5: 89–97.
Brattstrom, B.H. (1952). Diurnal activities of a nocturnal animal.
Herpetologica 8: 61–63.
Burger R.M., Gehrmann W.H., Ferguson G.W. (2007) Evaluation of UVB
reduction by materials commonly used in reptile husbandry. Zoo
Biology 26: 417–423.
Carman E.N., Ferguson G.W., Gehrmann W.H., Chen T.C., Holick M.F. (2000)
Photobiosynthetic opportunity and ability for UV-B generated vitamin
D synthesis in free-living house geckos (Hemidactylus turcicus) andTexas spiny lizards (Sceloporus olivaceous). Copeia 2000: 245–250.
Carmel B., Johnson R. (2014) A Guide to Health and Disease in Reptiles &Amphibians. Burleigh, Australia: Reptile Publications.
CIE (1998) Erythema Reference Action Spectrum and Standard Erythema
Dose. Vienna, Austria: Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage(International Commission on Illumination). Publication CIE
S007E-1998.
CIE (2006) Action Spectrum for the Production of Previtamin D in Human
Skin. Vienna, Austria: Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage(International Commission on Illumination). Publication CIE 174–
2006.
de Paula Corrêa M., Godin-Beekmann S., Haeffelin M., Brogniez C.,
Verschaeve F., Saiag P., Pazmiño A., Mahé E. (2010) Comparison
between UV index measurements performed by research-grade andconsumer-products instruments. Photochemical & Photobiological
Sciences 9: 459–463.
Dell’Amore, C. (2007) Albino alligator makes zoo debut. http://news.
nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070514-white-gator.html(accessed 10 October 2015).
Dickinson H.C., Fa J.E. (1997) Ultraviolet light and heat source selection
in captive spiny-tailed iguanas (Oplurus cuvieri). Zoo Biology 16: 391–
401.
Duarte A.R., Baines F.M. (2009) Squamous cell carcinoma in a leopard
gecko. Exotic DVM 11: 19–22.
Ferguson G.W., Brinker A.M., Gehrmann W.H., Bucklin S.E., Baines F.M.,

51

Baines et al.

Mackin S.J. (2010) Voluntary exposure of some western-hemispheresnake and lizard species to ultraviolet-B radiation in the field: howmuch ultraviolet-B should a lizard or snake receive in captivity? Zoo
Biology 29: 317–334.
Ferguson G.W., Gehrmann W.H., Brinker A.M., Kroh G.C. (2014) Daily
and seasonal patterns of natural ultraviolet light exposure of thewestern sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus graciosus gracilis) and the dunes
sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus). Herpetologica 70: 56–68.
Ferguson G.W., Gehrmann W.H., Karsten K.B., Hammack S.H., McRae M.,
Chen T.C.,
Lung N.P., Holick M.F. (2003) Do panther chameleons bask to regulate
endogenous vitamin D3 production? Physiological and Biochemical
Zoology 76: 52–59.
Finke M.D., Oonincx, D. (2014) Insects as food for insectivores. In: MoralesRamos J.A., Rojas M.G., Shapiro-Ilan, D. I. (eds). Mass Production ofBeneficial Organisms. London: Elsevier, 583–616.
Fleishman L.J., Loew E.R., Leal M. (1993) Ultraviolet vision in lizards.
Nature 365: 397.
Gardiner D.W., Baines F.M., Pandher K. (2009) Photodermatitis andphotokeratoconjunctivitis in a ball python (Python regius) and a bluetongue skink (Tiliqua spp.). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40:
757–766.
Gehrmann W.H. (1987). Ultraviolet irradiances of various lamps used inanimal husbandry. Zoo Biology 6: 117–127.
Gehrmann W.H., Horner J.D., Ferguson G.W., Chen T.C., Holick M.F.
(2004a) A comparison of responses by three broadband radiometers
to different ultraviolet-B sources. Zoo Biology 23: 355–363.
Gehrmann W.H., Jamieson D., Ferguson G.W., Horner J.D., Chen T.C.,
Holick M.F. (2004b). A comparison of vitamin D-synthesizing abilityof different light sources to irradiances measured with a Solarmeter
Model 6.2 UVB meter. Herpetological Review 35: 361–364.
Govardovskii V.I., Zueva L.V. (1974) Spectral sensitivity of the frog eye inthe ultraviolet and visible region. Vision Research 14: 1317–1321.
Hannon D.E., Garner M.M., Reavill D.R. (2011) Squamous cell carcinomas
in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). Journal of Herpetological
Medicine and Surgery 21: 101–106.
Hertz P.E., Fleishman L.J., Armsby C. (1994) The influence of light intensity
and temperature on microhabitat selection in two Anolis lizards.
Functional Ecology 8: 720–729.
Holick M.F., Tian X.Q., Allen M. (1995) Evolutionary importance for themembrane enhancement of the production of vitamin D3 in the skinof poikilothermic animals. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 92: 3124–3126.
Honkavaara J., Koivula M., Korpimaki E., Siitari H., Viitala J. (2002)
Ultraviolet vision and foraging in terrestrial vertebrates. Oikos 98:
505–511.
Hossein-nezhad A., Holick M.F. (2013) Vitamin D for health: a global
perspective. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 88: 720–755.
Ibañez P. (2012) Solar water disinfection (SODIS): A review from bench-top
to roof-top. Journal of Hazardous Materials 235: 29–46.
IESNA (1999) Guide to Lamp Seasoning LM-54-99. New York: Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America.
Juzeniene A., Moan J. (2012) Beneficial effects of UV radiation other than
via vitamin D production. Dermatoendocrinology 4: 109–117.
Karsten K.B., Ferguson G.W., Chen T.C., Holick M.F. (2009) Pantherchameleons, Furcifer pardalis, behaviorally regulate optimal exposure
to UV depending on dietary vitamin D3 status. Physiological andBiochemical Zoology 82: 218–225.
Lindgren J. (2004) UV-lamps for terrariums: Their spectral characteristics
and efficiency in promoting vitamin D synthesis by UVB irradiation.
Herpetomania 13(3–4):13–20.
Lindgren J., Gehrmann W.H., Ferguson G.W., Pinder J.E. (2008) Measuring
effective vitamin D3-producing ultraviolet B radiation using Solartech’s
Solarmeter 6.4 handheld, UVB radiometer. Bulletin of the Chicago
Herpetological Society 43(4): 57–62.

52

MacLaughlin J.A., Anderson R.R., Holick M.F. (1982) Spectral characterof sunlight modulates photosynthesis of previtamin D3 and its
photoisomers in human skin. Science 216: 1001–1003.
Manning B., Grigg G. C. (1997) Basking is not of thermoregulatory
significance in the “basking” freshwater turtle Emydura signata.
Copeia 1997: 579–584.
McGuigan K.G., Conroy R.M., Mosler H.J., du Preez M., Ubomba-Jaswa E.,
Fernandez-Moehn L.D. (1974) The effect of quality of light on agonistic
behaviour of iguanid and agamid lizards. Journal of Herpetology 8:
175–183.
Michaels C.J., Preziosi R.F. (2013). Basking behaviour and ultraviolet
B radiation exposure in a wild population of Pelophylax lessonae innorthern Italy. Herpetological Bulletin 124: 1–8.
Nietzke G. (1990) Zur Durchlässigkeit von UV-Strahlen der ReptilienHornhaut (Ordnung Squamata). Salamandra 26: 50–57.
Olson D.M. and 17 others (2001) Terrestrial ecoregions of the World: a newmap of life on Earth. BioScience 51: 933–938.
Porter W.P. (1967) Solar radiation through the living body walls of
vertebrates with emphasis on desert reptiles. Ecological Monographs
37: 274–296.
Rossi J.V. (2006) General husbandry and management. In: Mader D.R. (ed.).
Reptile Medicine and Surgery, 2nd edn. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders
Elsevier, 25–41.
Schmalwieser A.W., Schauberger G., Grant W.B., Mackin S.J., Pope S. (2006)
A first approach in measuring, modeling, and forecasting the vitamin
D effective UV radiation. Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society
for Optics and Photonics Remote Sensing 6362–6389.
Sievert L.M., Hutchison V.H. (1988) Light versus heat: thermoregulatory
behavior in a nocturnal lizard (Gekko gecko). Herpetologica 1988:
266–273.
Sievert L.M., Hutchison V.H. (1989) Influences of season, time of day, lightand sex on the thermoregulatory behaviour of Crotaphytus collaris.
Journal of Thermal Biology 14: 159–165.
Sievert L.M., Hutchison V.H. (1991) The influence of photoperiod
and position of a light source on behavioral thermoregulation in
Crotaphytus collaris (Squamata: Iguanidae). Copeia 1991: 105–110.
Soehnge H., Ouhtit A., Ananthaswamy H.N. (1997) Mechanisms of
induction of skin cancer by UV radiation. Frontiers in Bioscience 2:
D538–D551.
Solano F. (2014) Melanins: skin pigments and much more – types, structuralmodels, biological functions, and formation routes. New Journal of
Science 2014: Article ID 498276. doi:10.1155/2014/498276
Sperry J.H., Ward M.P., Weatherhead P.J. (2013) Effects of temperature,
moon phase, and prey on nocturnal activity in ratsnakes: an automatedtelemetry study. Journal of Herpetology 47: 105–111.
Tapley B., Rendle M., Baines F. M., Goetz M., Bradfield K. S., Rood D.,
Lopez J., Garcia G., Routh A. (2015). Meeting ultraviolet B radiation
requirements of amphibians in captivity: A case study with mountainchicken frogs (Leptodactylus fallax) and general recommendations for
pre-release health screening. Zoo Biology 34: 46–52.
Tattersall G.J., Eterovick P.C., de Andrade D.V. (2006) Tribute to RG Boutilier:skin colour and body temperature changes in basking Bokermannohyla
alvarengai (Bokermann 1956). Journal of Experimental Biology 209:
1185–1196.
Wangen K., Kirshenbaum J., Mitchell M.A. (2013) Measuring 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in leopard geckos exposed to commercial ultraviolet
B lights. ARAV 2013: 42.
Webb A.R., DeCosta B.R., Holick M.F. (1989) Sunlight regulates the
cutaneous production of vitamin D3 by causing its photodegradation.
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 68: 882–887.
WHO (2002) Global Solar UV Index: A Practical Guide. Geneva, Switzerland:World Health Organisation.
WWF (2015) Terrestrial ecoregions. Washington DC: World Wildlife
Fund.
http://www.worldwildlife.org/biome-categories/terrestrialecoregions (accessed 10 October 2015).

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Dwarf Crocodile

Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman

Osteolaemus tetraspis

Paleosuchus palpebrosus

Sphenodon punctatus

Cook Strait Tuatara

Morelet’s Crocodile

Crocodylus moreletii

Rhynchocephalia

Spectacled Caiman

Philippine crocodile

Caiman crocodilus

Common Name

Crocodylus mindorensis

Crocodilia

Scientific name

4

1

1

1

1

1

Biome

3

2–3

2–3

2

2–3

2–3

Ferguson
Zone

14:10

13:11

12:12

13:11

12:12

13:11

Photoperiod

Hibernation

Winter treatment(if any)

30

30–32

35

30–35

31–36

30–35

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

13–20

25–30

25

25–30

26–30

25–30

Summer

12–17

23–25

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

12–15

24–26

>20

24–25

24–26

Summer

6–9

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

Microhabitat
A - Fossorial; B - Leaf litter; C - Forest floor; D - Rocks, crevices or burrows; E - Foliage or shrubs; F - Grassland or savanna; G - Semi-arboreal; H - Arboreal; I - Riparian or wetlands; J - Aquatic.

Photoperiod (as usually given in captivity)
Tropical - 12h all year; Subtropical - 13:11h summer:winter; Temperate - 14:10h summer:winter

D

I

I

J

IJ

I

Microhabitat

Winter treatment:
Cooling: The temperature is reduced for a period, usually co-incident with winter. The animal reduces activity and feeding may cease, but it does not necessarily go into an extended, torpid state.
Brumation: The animal becomes torpid for a period which may last weeks. Co-incident with winter.
Hibernation: The animal undertakes preparation and goes in to a torpid state for an extended period - duration in months. Physiological changes occur within the animal. Co-incident with winter and seen mostly in animals ofnortherly latitudes.
Aestivation: The animal becomes torpid for a period of days or weeks. Co-incident with hotter weather.

Thermoregulatory behaviour
Ferguson zones:
1 - crepuscular or shade dweller; 2 - partial sun/ occasional basker; 3 - open or partial sun basker; 4 - mid-day sun basker.

Biome
WWF major terrestrial biomes: 01 Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests; 02 Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests; 03 Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests; 04 Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests;
05 Temperate Coniferous Forests; 06 Boreal Forests/ Taiga; 07 Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands; 08 Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands; 09 Flooded Grasslands and Savannas; 10Montane Grasslands and Shrublands; 11 Tundra; 12 Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub; 13 Deserts and Xeric Shrublands; 14 Mangroves.

Key

Appendix: Microhabitat assessment

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

53

54

American Green Anole

Jamaican Blue-pants Anole

Anolis carolinensis

Anolis grahami

Grand Cayman Iguana/ Blue Iguana

Guatemalan Black Iguana

Ctenosaura palearis

Cyclura nubila lewisi

Utila Iguana

Ctenosaura bakeri

Cayman Brac Iguana/ Sister Isles
IguanaCentral Netted Dragon

Ctenophorus nuchalis

Cyclura nubila caymanensis

Collared Lizard

Crotaphytus collaris

Rhinoceros Iguana

Prehensile or Monkey-tailed Skink

Corucia zebrata

Cuban Rock Iguana

Frilled Lizard

Cyclura cornuta cornuta

1

Four Horned Chameleon

Cyclura nubila

2

Meller's Chameleon

Chamaeleo melleri
Chameleo trioceros
quadricornis
Chlamydosaurus kingii

2

02/07

02/07

7

7

13

14

3

3

4

4

3

4

3–4

3–4

08/13

2

1

3

2

2

3

2

3

3

1

3

1–2

2

3

2

1

2

2

1

1

FergusonZone

04/05/
10/13

13

Giant Hispaniolan Galliwasp

Yemen Chameleon

Celestus warreni

Calumma parsonii

Chamaeleo calyptratus

1

Parson's Chameleon

Calotes versicolor

1

Brown Leaf Chameleon

Oriental Garden Lizard, Eastern
Garden Lizard, Bloodsucker

1

Bronchocela cristatella

Brookesia superciliaris

1

Fiji Banded Iguana

Bornean bloodsucker/Green Crested
Lizard1

1Brachylophus bulabula

Cuban Brown Anole

Plumed Basilisk

Anolis sagrei

Basiliscus plumifrons

Jamaican Brown Anole

Martinique Anole

Anolis lineatopus

Anolis roquet summus

1

4

1

Rough-bellied Mountain Horned
DragonAcanthosaura capra

Acanthosaura lepidogaster

Biome
1

Common Name

Two-horned Mountain Horned
DragonSquamata: Lacertilia

Scientific name

13:11

13:11

13:11

13:11

12:12

13:11

13:11/14:10

14:10

12:12

13:11

13:11

13:11

13:11

13:11

12:12/13:11

12:12

12:12

13:11

12:12

12:12

12:12/13:11

13:11

12:12

12:12

14:10

13:11

13:11

Photoperiod

Cooling

Brumation /Hibernation

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

40

40

40–50

40–50

40–45

40–50

40–45

40–48

30–35

40

32

29–32

35–40

35–45

30–35

40

30

30–32

30–32

30–35

30–40

34–36

25–30

30–35

30–35

30–32

30–32

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

28

28

30–35

30–35

25–33

30–35

30–35

25–32

27–29

30

20–30

25–37

25–35

26–28

20–30

25–30

21–26

26–30

27–32

25–30

25–30

25–27

25–30

25–30

25–30

23–28

23–28

Summer

26

26

28–32

28–32

30–32

26–30

25–30; 10–15(Brumation)

25–27

28

17–27

24–26

20–30

22–26

24–26

18–20

18–22

18–22

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

21

21

25–28

25–28

23–25

24–28

24–28

20–26

23–25

25–27

15–20

23–25

24–26

15–26

22–25

15–20

20–24

20–25

24–26

20–25

20–24

20–25

20–25

20–25

18–22

18–22

Summer

20

20

22–25

22–25

22–25

20–22

18–22; 5(Brumation)

20–23

23–25

10

21–23

15–24

20–22

18–22

10–15

14–18

14–18

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

D

D

DF

DF

H

H

DEFG

DF

H

GH

H

H

EH

ABD

EH

DEG

E

EH

H

CEI

EG

H

EG

EGH

EG

G

G

Microhabitat

Baines et al.

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016
1
2

Bell's Forest Dragon

Angle-headed Dragon

Angle-headed Dragon

Rio Fuerte Beaded Lizard

Gonocephalus bellii

Gonocephalus doriae

82Lesser Earless Lizard

Lesser Antillean Iguana

Australian Water Dragon

Sand Lizard

Serrated Casque-headed Iguana

Painted Dragon (Starred Agama spp)

Curly Tail Lizard

Round Island Skink

Hemisphaeriodon gerrardii

Holbrookia maculata

Iguana delicatissima

Intellagama (Physignathus)
lesueurii

Lacerta agilis

Laemanctus serratus

Laudakia stellio
brachydactyla

Leiocephalus carinatus

Leiolopisma telfairi

Lesser Night Gecko

Northern Velvet Gecko

Nactus coindemirensis

Oeudura castelnaui

Scheltopusik

7

Electric blue day gecko / Turquoise
dwarf gecko

Lygodactylus williamsi

Ophisaurus apodus

2

Striped Water Dragon

Lophognathus temporalis

08/04/12

7

7

1

Lepidothyris (Riopa) fernandi Fire Skink

7

13

13

1

4

1

01/04/07

04/13

Gila Monster

Pink-Tongued Skink

Gonocephalus grandis
Heloderma horridum
exasperatum
Heloderma suspectum

1

1

7

01/02

01/02

13

Sudan Plated Lizard

Berber Skink

Eumeces schneideri

13

Gerrhosaurus major

Leopard Gecko

Eublepharis macularius

4

Panther Chameleon

Cunningham's Rock Skink

Egernia cunninghami

1

Tokay Gecko

Northern Caiman Lizard

Dracaena guianensis

13

Furcifer pardalis

Desert Iguana

Dipsosaurus dorsalis

Biome

Gecko gecko

Common Name

Scientific name

2

1

1

2–3

3

2

4

3

3–4

4

3

2

4

4

2

2–3

2

2

2

2

3

1

3

3

1

3–4

2

3

Ferguson
Zone

14:10

12:12

14:10

12:12

12:12

12:12

14:10

13:11

14:10

13:11

14:10

14:10

13:11

14:10

13:11

13:11

13:11

13:11

12:12

12:12

12:12/13:11

12:12

12:12/13:11

12:12

14:10

14:10

13:11

13:11

Photoperiod

Brumation

Cooling

Brumation

Hibernation

Brumation

Brumation

Cooling

Cooling

None / Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling/
Brumation

Cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

30 –35

None

28–32

30–32

35–45

35

35–40

40–50

30–40

35–40

ambient UK temps

35

40–50

30–40

35

34–37

35–40

30–32

32

32

35–40

35

35–40

40

32

35–40

30–35

50

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

24–28

28–30

24–27

26–28

26–30

25–30

27–32

30–35

25–35

30–32

ambient UK
temps

25–30

30–35

25–30

25–30

24–30

28–32

26–30

26–29

26–29

25–30

30

25–30

25–30

25–29

28–32

25–28

25–35

Summer

2–6

25–27

20–23

22–24

24–28

24–28

27–30

5–15

20–25

28–32

10–15

20–25

10–12

26–28

20–24

10–20

24–28

20–25

15–20

24–28;
12 – 15(Brumation)

15–25

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

16–22

22–24

20–22

22–24

20–25

24–26

23–25

10–20

24–26

ambient UK
temps

20–25

25–28

20–25

20–25

24–26

20–24

22–24

22–24

20

25

18–24

20–25

20–24

20–24

24–26

20–25

Summer

2–6

18–20

20

18–22

20–24

20–22

5–15

10–15

23–25

10–15

20

9–10

20–22

16–20

5–15

18–24

10–15

10–15

18–20; 4–8(Brumation)

10–15

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

ABCEF

H

BD

EH

G

A

BDEFG

DE

DE

EH

DF

I

GH

F

AG

D

DFG

H

H

H

DF

H

EH

D

D

D

I

D

Microhabitat

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

55

56
8
7

Texas Horned Lizard

Asian Water Dragon

Spiny-headed Tree Lizard

Inland Bearded dragon

Gargoyle Gecko

Crested Gecko

Bearded Pygmy Chameleon

Chuckwalla

Angel Island Chuckwalla

Eastern Fence Lizard

Sagebrush Lizard

Texas spiny lizard

Blue Spiny Lizard

Phrynosoma cornutum

Physignathus cocincinus

Plica plica

Pogona vitticeps

Rhacodactylus auriculatus

Rhacodactylus ciliatus

Rieppeleon brevicaudatus

Sauromalus ater

Sauromalus hispidus

Sceloporus consobrinus(Louisiana USA)

Sceloporus graciosus

Sceloporus olivaceus
Sceloporus serrifer
cyanogenys

2–3

4
04/08/
12/13
04/07/
08/12

Southern or Blotched Blue-tongued
LizardShingleback Lizard

Eastern Blue-tongued Lizard

Crocodile Skink

Jackson’s chameleon

Black-and-White Tegu

Tiliqua nigrolutea

Tiliqua rugosa

Tiliqua scincoides

Tribolonotus gracilis

Trioceros jacksonii

Tupinambis merianae

2–3
3

1

1

2–3

2

01/02/04/
07/08

1

2–3

13

Wonder Gecko

Teratoscincus scincus

2

12

Moorish Gecko

Tarentola mauritanica

4

10

4

3

4

3

4

4

2

1

Smaug (Cordylus) giganteus Sungazer, Giant Girdled Lizard

05/13

4

13

13

01/10

1

2

3–4

07/08/
12/13
1

2–3

2–3

4

3

3

3

Ferguson
Zone

1

1

08/13

2

Standing's Day Gecko

Phelsuma standingi

2
1

Yellow Headed Day Gecko

Phelsuma klemmeri

Biome

Phelsuma madagascariensis
Giant Day Gecko
grandisCommon Name

Scientific name

13:11

12:12

12:12

13:11/14:10

13:11/14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

13:11

14:10

12:12

14:10

12:12

13:11/14:10

12:12

13:11

14:10

14:10

13:11

13:11

Photoperiod

Brumation

Cooling

Cooling

35–40

36

28–32

35–45

35–40

35–40

35

Brumation /Hibernation
Cooling/
Brumation

30–32

35

35–40

35–40

30–40

30–40

50

50

25

28

29

40–45

33

30–40

30–40

35–45

30–35

30–35

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

Cooling

Brumation

Brumation

Brumation

Brumation

Cooling

Brumation

Cooling

Cooling/
Brumation

Cooling

Brumation

Cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

25–30

24–25

23–28

28–32

28–32

26–30

25–30

27

20–30

28–35

27–33

25–30

25–30

30–35

24–30

18–20

25–28

25–29

25–30

28

26–28

30–35

30–35

25–30

25–30

Summer

5–20

18–28

24–28

22–28

15–20

10–15

24–28

10–15

5–10

10–15

25–30

19–23

25–30; 15–20(Brumation)

20

22–24

10–15

25–28

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

20

16–17

23–25

20–24

20–24

18–22

20–25

22

15–20

24–26

20–25

15–20

20–25

25–30

18–20

11–16

23–25

20–25

20–25

28

20–22

20–25

25–30

23–25

23–25

Summer

5–10

14–20

18–22

18–20

10–15

5–10

20–22

10–15

5–10

10–15

15–20

16–20

20–22;10–15(Brumation)

20

18–20

10–15

22–25

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

ABCF

EH

ABCI

DEF

DF

BCDF

D

D

CF

DG

EGH

DE

EG

D

D

BEH

H

H

EFG

EGH

EGI

EF

H

EH

EH

Microhabitat

Baines et al.

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Timor Monitor

Lace Monitor

Varanus timorensis

Varanus varius

Solomon Island Boa

Candoia carinata
11

Eyelash Viper

Bothriechis schlegelii

2

1

1

2

01/02
1

Boa Constrictor

Boa constrictor

Boiga dendrophila melanota Banded Mangrove Snake

1

1

1–2

1

1–2

2

3

3

3–4

2

2

2

4

3

3–4

3

3

3

1

1–2

4

4

4

Ferguson
Zone

1

1

Gaboon Viper

Rhinoceros Viper

Bitis gabonica

13

Woma python

Aspidites ramsayi

Bitis nasicornis

713Children's Python

Antaresia childreni

Antaresia stimsoni orientalis Stimson's Python

2

Dumeril's Boa

04/07/08

2

7

1

Acrantophis dumerili

Squamata: Serpentes

Spencer’s goanna

Varanus spenceri

1

Emerald Tree Monitor

Crocodile Tree Monitor

Varanus prasinus

Varanus salvadorii

1

7

7

07/09

Blue Tree Monitor

Bosc Monitor, Savannah Monitor

Varanus exanthematicus

01/14

Varanus macraei

Philippine Water Monitor

Varanus cumingi

1

Kimberley Rock Monitor

Black Tree Monitor

Varanus beccarii

13

Komodo Dragon

Desert Side-blotched Lizard

Uta stansburiana stejnegeri

1

Varanus glauerti

Satanic Leaf Tailed Gecko

Uroplatus phantasticus

13
01/02

Varanus komodoensis

Ornate Uromastyx

Henkel’s leaf-tail gecko

Uromastyx ornata

13

Saharan Uromastyx / Spinytailed
LizardUromastyx geyri

Uroplatus henkeli

13

Egyptian Uromastyx / Mastigure/
Dab Lizard

Uromastyx aegyptia

Biome

Common Name

Scientific name

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

13:11

13:11

13:11

13:11

12:12

12:12

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

13:11/14:10 Cooling

13:11/14:10 Cooling

12:12/13:11 Cooling

13:11

12:12

12:12

13:11

12:12

12:12

12:12

12:12

12:12

13:11

12:12

12:12

14:10

14:10

12:12

14:10

12:12

14:10

Photoperiod

32

30–35

30–35

28–30

32

32

40–45

40–45

34–36

40–50

40

35–40

35–40

35–40

45

35–40

55–65

31–36

40–50

30–40

None

25–28

40–50

45–50

45–50

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

26

27–30

26–28

24–30

29–30

29–30

28–30

28–30

28–35

30–35

28–30

30–35

30–32

26–32

28–32

28–32

30–32

25–30

30–40

26–30

28–35

25–30

20–25

23–25

30

28–35

30–38

Summer

25–27

24–26

20–26

25–26

25–26

25–28

25–28

25–30

25–30

25–27

28–30

28

26–30

26–30

30–34

22–25

28–35

28–30

18–20

16–20

21–23

30

20–25

25–30

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

22

24–26

24–26

18–24

28–29

28–29

25–28

25–28

25–28

24–28

23–26

25–28

22–26

24–26

24–26

24–26

20–24

23

24–25

23–26

20–25

18–20

18–20

20

16–18

20–25

Summer

20–22

22–24

16–22

23–24

23–24

20–24

20–24

20–25

22–25

21–23

18–20

22–25

22–25

25–28

18–23

23

21–23

10–15

15–18

17–19

20

10–18

18–20

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

CDE

EH

G

BCEG

BC

BC

ADF

DF

CDFG

C

CFG

G

DF

H

H

H

FG

DF

ADFI

CGI

H

DE

BEG

EH

AD

DF

DF

Microhabitat

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

57

58
1

Sinaloan Milksnake

Stuart's Milksnake

Savu Python

Amethystine Python

Boelens Python
Central Carpet Python/ Bredl's
PythonDiamond Python

Lampropeltis triangulum
sinaloae
Lampropeltis triangulum
stuarti
Liasis macklotti savuensis

Morelia amethistina

Morelia boeleni

Green Tree Python

Rough Green Snake

Morelia viridis

Opheodrys aestivus

Royal Python

Reticulated Python

Python regius

Burmese Python

Python molurus bivittatus

Python (Broghammerus)
reticulatus

Borneo Short–tailed Python

Python brietensteini

Orthriophis moellendorffi
Hundred Flower Snake
Pantherophis guttatus
Corn Snakeguttatus
Protobothrops mangshanensisMang Mountain Viper

Top End Carpet Python

Morelia spilota variegata

Morelia spilota spilota

Morelia bredli

02/13

Pueblan Milksnake

Lampropeltis triangulum
campbelli

1

2

1

2

01/02

1

2

1

1

1–2

01/04/05
1

1
1–2

1

1–2

1

1–2

7

04/08

1

7

3

13
4

2

1–2

2

1

1

1

2

2

1–2

2

1–2

1–2

1–2

1

1

2

Ferguson
Zone

1

01/14

07/02

2

08/10

Red–tailed Ratsnake

Western Hognose Snake

01/07

Gonyosoma oxycephalum

Green Anaconda

Eunectes murinus

1

2

7

1

1

1

13

Biome

Heterodon nasicus nasicus

Jamaican Boa

Epicrates subflavus

Green Mamba

Dendroaspis angusticeps

Black Mamba

White Lipped Viper

Cryptelytrops albolabris

Cuban Boa

Emerald Tree Boa

Corallus caninus

Dendroaspis polylepis

Horned Viper

Cerastes cerastes

Epicrates angulifer

Common Name

Scientific name

Cooling

Cooling

Brumation

Brumation

Cooling /Brumation

Cooling

Night cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

13:11

12:12

13:11

13:11

14:10

13:11

14:10

13:11

12:12

12:12

14:10

Cooling

Brumation

Brumation

Cooling

Cooling

13:11/14:10 Cooling

13:11

12:12

12:12

13:11

13:11

13:11

14:10

13:11

12:12

13:11

12:12

12:12

12:12

13:11

12:12

13:11

Photoperiod

35–40

22–28

31

30

34–36

32

30–32

30–32

30–35

30–35

28–32

28–32

28–30

30–45

35–40

35–40

30–32

30–32

30–35

30–35

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

28–32

28–30

28–32

28–32

23–25

24–26

22–25

18–32

26–30

28–30

25–28

28–30

24–28

26–30

25–30

24–28

24–28

24–28

24–30

26–32

28–32

28–32

28–32

28–30

28–30

25–30

26–30

25–30

Summer

27–29

17–19

19

12–17

10–12

25–27

22–26

24–28

20–24

22–25

10–15

10–15

14–18

24–28

26–28

25–27

20–25

20–25

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

22–26

24–26

22–26

22–26

17–19

20

18–20

18–20

24–26

20–26

26–28

18–22

24–26

24–26

20–23

24–26

24–26

20–24

22–26

25–27

24–26

24–26

24–26

24–26

Summer

22–24

9–12

16

12–17

10–12

15–20

22–26

15–20

18–21

10–15

10–15

14–16

20–24

22–24

20–22

20–22

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

CGI

CF

DF

I

BCD

EF

D

EHI

H

DEFG

BCDEGH

DEGH

E

G

DEFG

C

D

DF

ADEF

H

IJ

GH

CG

EFG

H

EH

H

DF

Microhabitat

Baines et al.

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Madagascan Tree Boa

San Fransico Garter Snake

Sanzinia madagascarensis

Thamnophis sirtalis
tetrataenia
Vipera berus

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016
4
4

Roti Island snake–necked turtle

Yellow footed Tortoise

Common Snapper

Chelodina mccordi

Chelonoidis denticulata

Chelydra serpentina

European Pond Turtle

Red Foot Tortoise

Indian Star Tortoise

Aldabran Tortoise

Emys orbicularis

Geochelone carbonaria

Geochelone elegans

Geochelone gigantea/
Dipsochelys dussumieri

1Zhou's Box Turtle

Murray Short–necked Turtle

Cuora zhoui

11Vietnamese Keeled Turtle

Golden coin Box Turtle

Cuora mouhotti

Cuora trifasciata

Emydura macquarii

1

Vietnamese/ Flowerback Box Turtle

Cuora galbinifrons

2–3

3

13

1–2

01/07

3

3

2–3

2–3

2

1–2

3–4

3

2–3

2

2–3

01/02/
07/13

4

04/08/12

4

Spotted Turtle

Painted Turtle

Clemmys guttataCrysemys picta ssp.

1

1

04/07/
08/12

Common or Eastern snake–necked
turtleChelodina longicollis
3

3

Chelodina expansa

304/07/
08/12

Sulcata Tortoise, African Spurred
TortoiseCentrochelys (Geochelone)sulcata7

3

Broad– shelled Turtle

Ploughshare Tortoise

Astrochelys yniphora

7

2–3

2–3

3

3

2

1–2

2

Ferguson
Zone

3–4

Radiated Tortoise

Astrochelys radiata

4

4

08/10

4
04/05/
06/08

1

1

Biome

13

Smooth Softshell

Spiny Softshell

Apalone mutica

Horsfield's Tortoise, Russian
Tortoise

Apalone spinifera

Agrionemys horsfieldii

Chelonia

Rhinoceros Rat Snake

Rhyncophis boulengeri

Adder

Common Name

Scientific name

12:12

12:12

13:11

14:10

13:11/14:10

12:12

12:12

14:10

12:12

13:11/14:10

14:10

14:10

12:12

12:12

13:11/14:10

13:11/14:10

13:11

12:12

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

13:11

13:11

Photoperiod

Hibernation

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Brumation

Cooling

Hibernation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling/ None

Hibernation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Cooling/
Brumation
Brumation

35–45

30

30–35

35

35

30

30–35

28–30

30–34

35

35

35

28–32

35–40

35

35

45–50

35–45

35–50

35

35

35

30–35

30

40–45

30–35

Cooling/
Brumation
Cooling

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

Winter treatment(if any)

29–31

20–25

27–30

25–30

28–30

24–26

26–28

26–30

25–31

20–30

20–25

22–30

25–28

26–28

28–30

28–30

30–35

28–32

28–32

22–30

22–30

25–30

18–24

22–28

30–35

25–29

Summer

22–25

25–27

3–7

24–28

22–24

24–26

10–15

20–28

3–10

3–7

3–7

22–24

24–26

24–28

24–28

28–30

24–26

26–30

3–7

3–7

5–10

2–6

16–20

25–30

20–25

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

20–25

24–26

18

22–24

22–24

22–24

20–24

22–28

22

22–24

22–24

22–24

25–28

24–28

24–28

20

10–16

18–24

24–28

21–25

Summer

22–25

20–22

20–23
18–22; 5(Brumation)

23–25

10

21–23

15–24

20–22

18–22

10–15

14–18

14–18

2–6

14–18

22–25

15–20

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

H

DEFG

DF

H

GH

H

H

EH

ABD

EH

DEG

E

EH

H

CEI

EG

H

EG

EGH

EG

G

G

BCDF

I

EGHI

EGH

Microhabitat

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

59

60

Reeves Turtle

Eurasian Pond Turtle

Malaysian Giant Pond Turtle

Side–neck Turtle

Yellow–spotted Amazon River Turtle

Cooters

Florida Red Bellied Cooter

Mauremys reevesii

Mauremys rivulata

Orlitia borneensis

Phrynops geoffranus

Podocnemis unifilis

Pseudemys concina ssp.

Pseudemys nelsoni

Ornate Box Turtle

Annam Leaf Turtle

Mauremys (Annamemys)
annamensis

Terapene ornata

Mediterranean Pond Turtle

Mauremys leprosa

Eastern Box Turtle

Pancake Tortoise

Malacochersus tornieri

Terapene carolina

Diamond Back Terrapin

Malaclemys terrapin

Common Musk

Eastern Mud Turtle

Kinosternon subrubrum

Loggerhead Musk

Home's Hingeback Tortoise

Kinixys homeana

Sternotherus odoratus

Bell's Hingeback Tortoise

Kinixys belliana

Sternotherus minor

Elongated Tortoise

Indotestudo elongata

Razorback Musk

Spiny Turtle

Heosemys spinosa

Sternotherus carinatus

False, Mississippi, Northern Map
TurtleGraptemys
pseudogeographica ssp

Painted Wood Turtle

Ouachita Map Turtle

Graptemys ouachitensis

Rhinoclemmys pulcherrima

Wood Turtle

Glyptemys insculpulata

Red Bellied Cooter

Black–breasted Leaf Turtle

Geoemyda spengleri

Flat–tailed Tortoise

Leopard Tortoise

Geochelone pardalis

Pseudemys rubriventris

Galapagos Tortoise

Geochelone nigra

Pyxis planicauda

Common Name

Scientific name

4

4

4

4

4

1

2

5

5

4

1

4

01/02

4

4

1

4

7

4

4

01/07

02/07

1

1

4

4

4

1

7

7

Biome

2

2

2–3

2–3

2–3

2

2

3–4

3–4

3–4

2–3

3–4

2–3

3

3

2–3

3

2–3

3

2–3

1–2

3

2

1

3–4

3–4

2

1

3

4

Ferguson
Zone

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

14:10

13:11

14:10

13:11

13:11

13:11/14:10

12:12

12:12

12:12

14:10

13:11

12:12

14:10

12:12

14:10

14:10

12:12

12:12

13:11

12:12

13:11/14:10

13:11/14:10

14:10

13:11

14:10

12:12

Photoperiod

Hibernation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Cooling

Hibernation

Brumation

Hibernation

Cooling

Brumation

Brumation

Cooling

Brumation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Cooling

Cooling

Hibernation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Cooling

Cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

35

35

35

35

35

35

35–40

35

35

35

30–35

35

26–28

35

35

30–35

35

30–32

35

35

28–32

35

35–45

35

35

35

35

30

40–50

35–45

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

22–30

22–30

22–30

22–30

22–30

25–30

28–32

25–30

25–30

25–30

26–28

25–30

25–30

25–30

25–30

26–28

25–30

28–30

25–30

22–30

26–28

25–30

24–30

25–30

25–30

25–30

22–30

24–26

28–32

28–32

Summer

3–7

3–7

3–7

3–7

3–7

24–26

24–26

3–10

15

3–10

24–26

23–26

14

12

24–26

14

3–7

3–7

22–24

20–25

24–26

3–10

3–10

3–7

22–24

26–30

26–30

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

24–26

22–24

23–25

23–25

22–24

22–25

22

20–25

20–25

24–26

22–24

24–28

24–28

Summer

20

18–22

20–24

20–22

5–15

10–15

23–25

10–15

20

9–10

20–22

16–20

5–15

18–24

10–15

10–15

18–20; 4–8(Brumation)

10–15

20

20

22–25

22–25

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

EH

G

A

BDEFG

DE

DE

EH

DF

I

GH

F

AG

D

DFG

H

H

H

DF

H

EH

D

D

D

I

D

D

D

DF

DF

H

Microhabitat

Baines et al.

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Common Name

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Yellow Bellied Slider

Trachemys scripta scripta

Blue Dart Frog

Dendrobates tinctorius /azureus

Dyscophus guineti

Sambava Tomato Frog

Dendrobates ventrimaculatus Amazonian Dart Frog

Dyeing Dart Frog

Dendrobates tinctorius

Bony-headed Toad

Bufo galeatus

Bumblebee Dart Frog

Common Toad

Bufo bufo

Green and Black Dart Frog

Yellow-bellied Toad

Bombina variegata

Dendrobates leucomelas

Oriental or Chinese Fire-bellied
ToadBombina orientalis

Dendrobates auratus

1

Harlequin Toad

Cane Toad

Common Midwife Toad

Alytes obstetricans

Atelopus spumarius
hoogmoedi

Splendid Leaf Frog

1

Mallorcan Midwife Toad

Alytes muletensis

Bufo marinus

04/08

Black-eyed Tree Frog

Agalychnis moreletii

Cruziohyla calcarifer

12

Lemur Leaf Frog

Agalychnis lemur

01/02

1

01/07

1

1

01/02/14

1

1

04/05/
06/12

1

1

1

1–2

1–2

1–2

1–2

2

2

1

1–2

1

1–2

1

3

1

1–2

3–4

3–4

3–4

4

3

3

3

FergusonZone

04/05/12

04/05/09

1

1

1Red-eyed Tree Frog

01/02/
03/14

4

04/05/08

Agalychnis callidryas

AnuraRed–eared Slider

Trachemys scripta elegans

112Marginated Tortoise

Hispaniolan Elegant Slider

Testudo marginata

Trachemys decorata

712

Hermann's Tortoise

Egyptian Tortoise

Testudo hermanni

12

Biome

Testudo kleinmanni

Testudo graeca ibera/ Testudo
Spur–thighed Tortoise
ibera

Scientific name

13:11

12:12

12:12

12:12

12:12

12:12

12:12

13:11

13:11

14:10

14:10

14:10

12:12

14:10

14:10

14:10

13:11

14:10

13:11/14:10

13:11

13:11

14:10

12:12

14:10

14:10

Photoperiod

Dry spell

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Brumation

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Hibernation

Hibernation

Brumation

Hibernation

Hibernation

Winter treatment(if any)

30–32

30–35

26

25–30

25

30

35

35

35–45

35

30–35

35

35

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

24–28

24–26

24–28

24–28

24–28

24–28

24–26

28–32

26–30

18–23

18–26

23–25

24–26

22

24–28

18–20

23–24

22–30

25–30

25–30

25–30

28–32

28–30

22–26

20–30

Summer

22–24

22–25

22–25

22–25

22–25

22–25

23–25

24–28

24–26

22–24

20–23

20–24

20–24

20–24

20–24

21–23

24–26

22–26

11–14

11–14

3–8 (winter);
8–21 (spring)
3–8 (winter);
8–21 (spring)

16–18

20–23

17

18–14

13–15

18–19

17–20

22

24–26

20–24

22–25

10–15

10–15

Summer

22–24

20–22

20–22

20–22

20–22

20–22

20–22

BCI

G

BCD

BCG

BCEG

BCEG

H

BDFI

BDEGI

DEFIJ

2–8 (winter);
6–12 (spring)
22–24

DEFIJ

I

CI

BDI

DI

H

H

H

EF

H

EH

EH

ABCEF

H

BD

Microhabitat

2–8 (winter);
6–12 (spring)

5–10

18–20

11

8–12

10–12

17–18

14–16
(winter); 16–
18 (spring)

10–15

22–25

2–6

18–20

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

5–10

22–25

17

8–20

15–17

22–23

15–22
(winter); 22–25 (spring)

3–10

3–10

2–6

4–7

4–7

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

61

62

Golden Mantella Frog

Green Mantella Frog

Long-nosed Horned Frog

Morogoro Tree Toad

Strawberry Poison Frog

Borneo Tree ToadWhite's Tree Frog

Black-legged Dart Frog

Golden Poison Frog

Golfodulcean Poison Frog

Golden Tree Frog

Pasco Poison Frog

Reticulated Poison Frog

Feae’s Flying Frog

Mantella aurantiaca

Mantella viridis

Megophrys nasuta

Nectophrynoides viviparus

Oophaga pumilio

Pedostibes hosii

Pelodryas caerulea

Phyllobates bicolor

Phyllobates terribilis

Phyllobates vittatus

Polypedates leucomystax

Ranitomeya lamasi

Ranitomeya reticulata

Rhacophorus feae

Amazon Milk Frog

Green-eyed Frog

Lithobates vibicarius

Trachycephalus resinifictrix

Mountain Chicken

Leptodactylus fallax

Bug-eyed Tree Frog

Maranon Poison Frog

Excidobates mysteriosus

Theloderma stellatum

Phantasmal Poison Frog

Epipedobates anthonyi

Vietnamese Mossy Frog

Natterjack Toad

Epidalea (Bufo) calamita

Theloderma corticale

Common Name

Scientific name

01/02

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

1–2

2

02/07/
08/09
1

3

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

Ferguson
Zone

1

01/02

7

1

1

1

1

2

01/07

1

04/05/12

Biome

13:11

13:11

13:11

12:12

13:11

12:12

13:11

13:11

13:11

12:12

12:12

13:11

13:11

14:10

13:11

14:10

14:10

14:10

13:11

13:11

13:11

14:10

Photoperiod

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

32–40

25

30–35

36

30–35

30

26

30–35

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

28–32

20–24

20–26

22

24–28

20–22

24–28

26–28

26–28

22–28

25

26–30

24–28

24–26

24–26

24–27

24–26

26–28

25–27

26–30

24–28

18–23

Summer

26–30

20–24

20–24

22

22–24

18–20

22–25

22–24

22–24

20–25

24–26

22–24

18–22

22–24

20–24

22–24

23–25

24–26

20–24

24–26

18–21

18–22

17

22–24

18–20

20–22

22–24

22–24

18 –24

20

22–26

22–24

20–22

20–22

17–19

20–22

20–24

24–26

20–24

22–24

11–14

3–8 (winter);
8–21 (spring)
22–24

Summer

22–24

18–21

18–21

17

16–18

18–20

16–20

22–24

10–18

18–20

16–17

18–20

18–20

22–24

2–8 (winter);
6–12 (spring)

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

H

G

G

EH

BCEG

BC

H

BD

BD

BCH

DEFHI

HI

BCEGH

BEFG

BDI

BCI

BDI

BC

BDI

BDE

BCDE

DEFIJ

Microhabitat

Baines et al.

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 2016

Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 4(1) 20161

06/04/
05/08

Great Crested Newt

Himalayan Newt

Triturus cristatus

Tylototriton verrucosus

1
1

Rio Cauca Caecilian

Aquatic Caecilian, Rubber Eel,
Caecilian Worm.

Typhlonectes natans

Typhlonectes spp.

Gymophiona: Caeciliidae

1

04/05/
08/12

Fire Salamander

Salamandra salamandra

1–2

2

1

1

10/12

Kaisers Newt

Neurergus kaiseri

03/10

1

06/04/
05/08

Ferguson
Zone

Lissotriton (Triturus) vulgaris Smooth or Common Newt

Biome

1

Sardinian Brook Salamander

Common Name

12

Euproctus platycephalus

CaudataScientific name

12:12

12:12

14:10

14:10

14:10

13:11

14:10

14:10

Photoperiod

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Cooling

Winter treatment(if any)

30–35

Basking zone – Substratesurface temperature (°C)

28–30

28–30

25–28

18–23

18–23

24–30

18–23

18–20

Summer

27–28

26–28

15–18

28–30

28–30

25–28

11–14

11–14

3–8 (winter);
8 –21(spring)
3–8 (winter);
8–21 (spring)

22–25

11–14

18–20

Summer

27–28

26–28

18–20

11

8–12

10–12

17–18

14–16 (winter);
16–18 (spring)

Winter (ifdifferent)

Night – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

Oct-15

3–8 (winter);
8–21 (spring)Dec-14Winter (ifdifferent)

Day – ambient (air)temperature (°C)

IJ

I

CI

BDI

DI

H

H

H

Microhabitat

A UV-B lighting guide for reptiles and amphibians

63