5The Growing Role ofNGOs in Disaster Reliefand Humanitarian
Assistance in East Asia

Y    O S AO   three decades, East Asia has been the most disasterprone region in the world. More than  percent of all people affected bydisasters worldwide during the last  years lived in East Asia, and theregion accounted for almost  percent of total damages and nearly 
percent of disaster-related fatalities during that period. In order to meetthe urgent humanitarian needs that arise out of these disasters, civil society organizations (CSOs), especially nongovernmental organizations(NGOs), have begun playing a major role in the region in providing
disaster relief. Yet they still face many challenges. To better understandthem, this chapter reviews the theoretical framework of disaster relief
and humanitarian assistance and then assesses the contributions of civilsociety in Asia by mapping out the nongovernmental initiatives that are
taking place throughout the region in this field.

N     D          A  
The compound effects of climate change, environmental and ecologicalimbalance, growing populations and increasing population density, rapid
urbanization, deforestation, and desertification are often cited as factors
behind the increasing occurrence of natural disasters all over the world.
In Asia in particular, increasing urbanization, the shift of populations
into low-lying coastal areas, and environmental degradation seem to be
making natural and manmade disasters more frequent and severe. Table 66Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistanceillustrates the heavy toll that natural disasters have taken on East Asia.
These disasters clearly have had a serious impact on human security—aswell as national security—in the region. In addition, they have posed amajor obstacle to sustainable development in Asia’s poorer countries as
tremendous efforts to spur economic growth come to naught in the end.
Table . Summary of natural disasters, –DeathsPeopleaffected(millions)

Damage( billions),,,

,

,

,
(.),
(.),
(.)(.)Number ofdisasters
Worldwide
East Asia( of world)

S: Data from EMDAT International Disaster Database, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium, www.emdat.bea.

Efforts to strengthen disaster prevention, disaster risk management,
disaster awareness, and local capacity building are vitally importantin order to cope with these difficulties, but at the same time relief andreconstruction activities are especially crucial. Without effective andtimely relief activities, the insecurity of individuals and communities at atime of need will be heightened, which can eventually lead to increased
instability in the region. Also, without adequate outside help in the relief
stage, disaster-torn societies are unlikely to recover fully and will remain
vulnerable to future disasters.
NGOs have become more significant actors than ever before in disaster
relief in the region. For example, after the  tsunami in the Indian
Ocean, nearly half of the  billion pledged in disaster funding involved
programs implemented by NGOs.1 There are several reasons for this. One
practical reason is that, in many cases, the magnitude and frequency ofdisasters overwhelm governments’ capabilities. Also, there are a number of donor governments and UN agencies—such as the World Food
Programme (WFP), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), andthe United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)—that
regularly respond to disasters, but they need operational implementing
partners. Moreover, it is no exaggeration to say that NGOs have uniquecapacities and functions that governments, international organizations,and businesses lack: they can mobilize volunteers and funds in ways thatgovernments cannot, they help connect various actors to one another,and they provide specialized services that communities need to rebuild.
67

YUKIE OSAThis is also the case for humanitarian assistance for civilians caught
in conflicts and other victims of manmade disasters. Thus, discussing
nongovernmental contributions to regional security in the field of disaster relief and humanitarian assistance has particular relevance for Asia.

D       R         H         
A     
It is useful to review precisely what disaster relief and humanitarian assistance entail. Disaster relief refers to relief operations in the case of adisaster, namely a calamitous event resulting in loss of life, great humansuffering and distress, and large-scale material damage. Meanwhile humanitarian assistance involves relief operations in a time of emergency
that are based upon widely accepted humanitarian principles. Both canbe thought of as a single notion or set of activities. However, the twoconcepts have developed in a different manner, with different histories,and sometimes with different actors.
For example, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies(IFRC) play leading roles in the field of disaster relief and humanitarianassistance. However, their mandates are different and complementary. On
the one hand, the ICRC was established in  as an “impartial, neutral,and independent organization” with an exclusively humanitarian mission“to protect the lives and dignity of victims of armed conflict and otherviolent situations.” On the other hand, the IFRC, which was founded in and now comprises  national member Red Cross and Red Crescentsocieties, carries out relief operations to assist victims of natural disasters, “providing assistance without discrimination as to nationality, race,
religious belief, class, or political opinion.” In short, the IFRC is in chargeof natural disaster relief while the ICRC is in charge of humanitarian assistance for the victims of armed conflicts.
The concept of disaster relief is readily understood and quickly grasped,but the notion of humanitarian assistance was born from the ICRC and the
Geneva Conventions. In its original sense, humanitarian assistance entails
a relief operation based upon widely accepted humanitarian principles—
humanity, impartiality, neutrality, and independence—which are the keys
to securing access to all victims regardless of the race, creed, or nationalityof the recipients. Furthermore, in many instances, donors that support
disaster relief and humanitarian assistance tend to differ. The guidelines
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Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistancethat are accepted as covering disaster relief and humanitarian assistancealso differ, largely because the neutrality of military actors involved in therelief activities tends to vary based upon their missions. Acknowledging
this, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA) established “Guidelines on the Use of Military and Civil
Defense Assets in Disaster Relief ” (Oslo Guidelines, ) for disaster
relief, whereas a separate set of guidelines are utilized for humanitarianassistance in complex emergencies.2
Keeping these crucial differences in mind, it still makes sense to deal
with disaster relief and humanitarian assistance as one set of activities
because it is the same organizations that are active on both disaster relief
and humanitarian assistance, and in practical terms, the work that they
do increasingly overlaps. For example, in recent years, many natural disasters have occurred in war-torn societies, which has caused or worsened
complex emergency situations. This was the case in Aceh, Indonesia, at
the time of the  Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, as well as inrecent disasters in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Haiti.
Notably, NGOs are playing major roles in both disaster relief and humanitarian assistance. However, they also face special challenges that getto the heart of what comprises humanitarian assistance. After the end of
the Cold War, especially after the / attacks, when the “war on terror”
was launched, a variety of non-humanitarian actors started to become
involved in disaster relief operations—such as military forces (often belligerent parties), political parties, other politically motivated actors, andcommercial actors (i.e., private companies)—claiming that what they are
doing is “humanitarian assistance.” In particular, this has been the case in
Iraq and Afghanistan, where the politicization, militarization, and privatization of humanitarian assistance have taken place. At the same time, theemerging trend of linking development aid and humanitarian assistanceto broader strategic objectives, as seen in US rhetoric about the three Ds
of defense, diplomacy, and development, has been accelerating the “instrumentalization” of aid, threatening the so-called “humanitarian space.”3
However, in its original sense, humanitarian assistance denotes relief
operations based upon the humanitarian principles of humanity, impartiality, neutrality, and independence, all of which form the basis of
the “Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief ” (Code of Conduct). The code
was developed and agreed upon in  by the ICRC, IFRC, and six large
disaster response agencies4 in Kigali, Rwanda, a city that was being ravaged
by genocide and an unprecedented refugee crisis. The Code of Conduct,69

YUKIE OSA

like most professional codes, is voluntary. It is applicable to any NGO, be
it national or international, small or large. It lays down the  principles
to which all NGOs should adhere in their disaster response activities andgoes on to describe the relationships that agencies working in disasters
should seek with donor governments, host governments, and the UN
system. Eighteen years have passed since the Code of Conduct was createdin . Still today, the code remains relevant and the number of signatory
NGOs from around the world has increased to .5
In keeping with the code’s principles, humanitarian action can only serve
the interests of the recipients, not political motives, religious interests,
or other agendas. For NGOs that value these principles, the recent trendof humanitarian action by non-humanitarian actors who do not abide byhumanitarian rules threatens the very basis of humanitarian assistance.
This has the potential to give rise to a gap in perceptions between those
who view NGO efforts on disaster relief and humanitarian assistance solely
through the lens of regional security on the one hand and NGO leaders
who understand just how important it is from a long-term perspective toplace the utmost priority on operating in accordance with humanitarianprinciples on the other.

The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red
Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief) The humanitarian imperative comes first.
) Aid is given regardless of the race, creed, or nationality of the recipients andwithout adverse distinction of any kind. Aid priorities are calculated on thebasis of need alone.
) Aid will not be used to further a particular political or religious standpoint.
) We shall endeavor not to act as instruments of government foreign policy.
) We shall respect culture and custom.
) We shall attempt to build disaster response on local capacities.
) Ways shall be found to involve program beneficiaries in the managementof relief aid.
) Relief aid must strive to reduce future vulnerabilities to disaster as well as
meeting basic needs.
) We hold ourselves accountable to both those we seek to assist and thosefrom whom we accept resources.
) In our information, publicity and advertising activities, we shall recognize
disaster victims as dignified human beings, not hopeless objects.
S: International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

70

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian AssistanceN G O C         R    S       
The fundamental principles of humanitarian assistance presented in the
Code of Conduct serve two essential purposes.6 First, the principles serve
as operational tools that help in obtaining both the consent of belligerents and the trust of recipient communities. Second, they also embody
humanitarian action’s single-minded purpose of alleviating suffering unconditionally and without any ulterior motive. In this sense, humanitarian
NGOs strictly speaking will not operate for the purpose of contributing
to regional security, or at least contributing on a hard security issue. In
other words, even if NGOs’ disaster relief and humanitarian assistance
operations have positive or negative impacts on the hard security issues,
it is not through their deliberate actions but rather as unintended acts or
byproducts of those activities.
However, if we conceive of regional security from a broader humansecurity perspective, NGOs can be said to be making significant contributions to regional security. In fact, there are a number of positive
and negative impacts or byproducts produced by NGOs in the courseof providing disaster relief and humanitarian assistance, some of which
are outlined here.

Positive Impactst "TTFSWJDFQSPWJEFSTUIBUEFMJWFSGPPE OPOGPPEJUFNT BOEXBUFS BOEUIBU
provide medical and psycho-social services, shelter, and protection, NGOs
can save lives and livelihoods, limit the physical and psychological damageof catastrophic events, and make a sustainable recovery more likely.
t /(0TDBOCSJOHUSBOTQBSFODZBOEDBOQSPQPTFDPOTUSVDUJWF BMUFSOBUJWF
policies to the government.
t /(0TDBODIBOOFMJOGPSNBUJPOGSPNEJTBTUFS[POFTUPUIFSFTUPGUIFXPSME
when governments are not doing this sufficiently.
t "MUIPVHIOPTJOHMFPSHBOJ[BUJPOJTBCMFUPDPWFSBMMPGUIFOFFETPGUIFBGfected communities, the NGO community as a whole comprises a variety
of sectors and geographical focus areas, and it thus can meet the needs ofsociety and contribute to regional stability.
t *ONBOZDBTFT /(0TBSFUIFmSTUUPBSSJWFJOUIFBĉFDUFEDPNNVOJUJFT 
filling crucial gaps until the assistance from UN agencies or governments
arrives. In some cases, NGOs can secure access to regions where, due topolitical situations, UN agencies or governments cannot.

71

YUKIE OSAt *GBJEJTHJWFOQSPQFSMZBOEFĉFDUJWFMZUPUIFBĉFDUFEQPQVMBUJPOTJOBDcordance with the Code of Conduct, it will contribute to the stability ofthe disaster-affected country and region.
t /(0TBSFTPNFUJNFTUSVTUFENPSFUIBOUIFHPWFSONFOUCZNJOPSJUZPS
marginalized populations, and thus in some instances they can assess andhelp fulfill the needs of these populations more effectively than governments, enhancing human security and preventing societal grievances frombeing further exacerbated.
t "JEDBOCVJMEMPDBMDBQBDJUZUPSFTQPOEUPEJTBTUFSTCZFNQMPZJOHMPDBM
staff (not just as interpreters or drivers), purchasing local materials, andtrading with local companies.
t "JE DBO TUSFOHUIFO MPDBM DJWJM TPDJFUZ JG JOUFSOBUJPOBM /(0T XPSL
through local NGOs as partners (not as subcontractors) in planningand implementation.

Negative Impactst &WFOXIFOBJEJTHJWFOJODPOGPSNJUZXJUIUIF$PEFPG$POEVDU JGJUJTOPU
well coordinated among agencies, it creates serious gaps between socialgroups or target communities, which can result in political and social
instability.
t *GUIFBJEJTOPUHJWFOJOBDDPSEBODFXJUIIVNBOJUBSJBOQSJODJQMFT JUXJMM
create distrust of international society and humanitarian agencies on thepart of both the host government and recipient communities.
t 8JUIPVUTVĊDJFOUDPPSEJOBUJPO BOJOnVYPG/(0TDBODBVTFDPOGVTJPO
and overwhelm government agencies and local mechanisms for dealing
with disasters, sometimes making the situation worse.
t *GUIFBHFODJFTJNQPSUGPSFJHOHPPETXJUIPVUQSPQFSQMBOOJOH UIFBJEDBO
damage the local economy and markets.
t *GBJEBHFODJFTIJSFBSNFEHVBSETUPQSPUFDUUIFJSHPPETGSPNUIFGUBOE
their workers from harm, they will send the implicit message that security
and safety are derived from weapons.
t 4JODF/(0TBSFPGUFOTJOHMFJTTVFPSHBOJ[BUJPOT UIFZUFOEUPGPDVTFYDMVsively on their own specialty (food, water and sanitation, health, HIV/AIDS,
shelter, landmines, children, people with disabilities, etc.). This often results
in a failure to consider the comprehensive human security of recipientsin the field, while giving the wrong message or partial information to thedonor community. This hinders donors from understanding or grasping
the whole picture of a disaster.
t 8IFOHPWFSONFOUQSJPSJUJFTEJGGFSGSPNUIFIVNBOJUBSJBOOFFETTFFOBTmost crucial by NGOs, tensions and conflicts between the governmentand certain organizations (or the entire aid community) can result.

72

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistancet %POPSTUPEJTBTUFSSFMJFGPSHBOJ[BUJPOTPGUFOXBOUUPFBSNBSLUIFJSDPOtributions for particular activities related to specific disasters, and as thenumber of specialized disaster relief organizations grows, earmarked
funding tends to become a larger proportion of overall funds available forthe disaster response. However, the inflexibility of this funding can leadto overfunding for some localities and issue areas, diverting funding fromother disasters and areas where it is also needed and, ultimately, affecting
overall security.

While humanitarian action itself is not a political project directly
contributing to regional security, its positive and negative impacts are
sometimes too serious to ignore. Therefore, NGOs are obliged to know
or at least to be conscious of the serious impact that their aid can haveon regional security.
To what extent, however, are NGOs actually aware of this impact? Oneof the indicators of its awareness is whether they have signed the Code of
Conduct. If an NGO is sensitive to the political connotations or political
impact of their activities, it is highly likely that it is also very much aware ofhumanitarian principles and has committed itself to the Code of Conduct.
In fact,  NGOs from around the world had signed the Code of Conduct
as of August . Among these, the number of signatory NGOs from
Europe and North America amounted to more than  percent of the total.
By contrast, just  signatory NGOs are from East Asia, comprising lessthan  percent of the total. Only  of them hail from Northeast Asia, of
which  are Japanese NGOs while the other is from Hong Kong. None
are from Mainland China, Taiwan, or South Korea.
This trend can be explained by several factors. First, the number ofNGOs working in the field of disaster relief and humanitarian assistancein East Asia is small compared with those in Europe and North America.
Second, Asian NGOs in the field of disaster relief and humanitarian assistance still have a short history, and the number of NGOs that are sensitive
to or aware of the global standard of disaster relief is rather small. Third,
it might be the case that most of the NGOs in the region see the Code of
Conduct as being exclusively the initiative of Western societies and thus
not applicable to them.
In any case, in most Asian countries, it can be said that disaster relief
and humanitarian assistance NGOs are not highly aware of the principles
of humanitarian assistance and therefore are not particularly sensitive tothe relationship between their aid and its political impact. This is in clear
contrast to the more established NGOs, mainly from Europe and North73

YUKIE OSA

America, whose experiences have made them determined to resist thepoliticization of humanitarian aid.

W I  A      N          I            E   A  
In recent years, NGOs around East Asia have become much more active indisaster relief and humanitarian assistance, although their level of development and operational focus vary considerably from country to country.

Japan
Although the s and early s saw the birth of some Japanese organizations that are still active today, the first generation of major humanitarian organizations were established in the late s and early s, whenmany NGOs were created in response to the outflow of refugees from
Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos. The initial activities of these NGOs focusedon emergency assistance, delivering food and non-food items, but they
later shifted and expanded to rehabilitation, development, and advocacy.
In the s, public interest in international issues increased throughmedia reports on events such as the famine in Africa. Meanwhile, interestin global environmental problems began to grow. As a result, a second
generation of Japanese organizations emerged that focused on this new setof issues. At the same time, the number of Japanese branches or partnerorganizations of international NGOs also began to increase.
By the late s, the need to share information and experience among
NGOs grew as the number of organizations increased. To meet theseneeds, networking NGOs were established. In the s, more NGOs
were created than ever in response to a series of major crises: the Gulf War, the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines, the genocidein Rwanda, and the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia. In the s, thework of NGOs started to receive greater public recognition. The active
contribution of NGOs in the aftermath of the  Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake also contributed to greater public recognition. The favorable
trend resulted in the groundbreaking passage of Japan’s NPO Law (Law toPromote Specified Nonprofit Activities) in , which made the incorporation and operation of nonprofit organizations much easier.
From the late s through the s, new schemes were launched that74

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistanceallowed Japanese government agencies to provide funding for NGOs. In
addition to subsidies for NGO projects started by the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs (MOFA) in , the Postal Savings for Global Voluntary Aid
initiative was launched by the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications(currently “Japan Post”) in  in order to encourage citizens with postal
savings accounts to donate a portion of their interest earnings to NGOs
active in overseas development. During the latter half of the s, theJapan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) also started to strengthen
its cooperation with NGOs.
In , a novel mechanism, the Japan Platform, was created to enable
Japanese NGOs to enhance their ability and capacity to respond to major
natural disasters and humanitarian crises overseas. Japan Platform conducts such aid through a multisectoral cooperative system where NGOs,
the business community, and the government of Japan cooperate closely
as equal partners and maximize their respective sectors’ characteristics
and resources. As of November , , Japan Platform had  NGOs as
members, including  Japanese NGOs and  Japanese affiliates of international NGOs.7 Among the international NGOs with which the latter are affiliated, just  is from elsewhere in Asia (Good Neighbors Japan,
which originated in Korea in ), while the others are from Westerncountries. Incidentally, while several member NGOs had already signed
the Code of Conduct even before Japan Platform was created, all NGOs
are now required to sign it when they become members of Japan Platform.
Japan Platform has played a major role in the response to the massive
disaster that struck Japan on March , —a . magnitude earthquake,a -meter high tsunami, and the subsequent nuclear meltdown at the
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. It quickly mobilized to provide
emergency assistance for victims in the Tohoku region and, thanks inpart to its established relations with donors in the business community,
was able to raise over . billion (approximately  million) frombusinesses, individual donors, and many others in the initial year after thedisaster. These funds have been distributed to member NGOs as well as
nonmember NGOs to be utilized for emergency assistance. In addition,
Japan Platform has played an important role in coordinating among various NGOs involved in relief operations through its headquarters in Tokyo
as well as its field offices in Miyagi and Iwate Prefectures.
Other Japanese NGOs played important roles in the aftermath of the/ triple disasters as well. Japan has long been one of the world’s top
providers of official development assistance (ODA), but since the endof the US Occupation, it has rarely had the experience of receiving aid
75

YUKIE OSA

itself. Therefore, despite having been a long-time supporter of the UN
system for disaster relief, the Japanese government was not accustomed
to being on the receiving end and was therefore not set up to utilize thatassistance itself. Also, the ODA and overseas disaster relief expertise andknowledge that MOFA and JICA have accumulated over the years could
not be effectively utilized in response to the / disaster because thegovernment organization at the center of the / relief activities was, bynecessity, the Cabinet Office. The role of MOFA was limited to serving
as a liaison for the influx of international foreign aid. As a result, a huge
gap emerged between Japanese disaster relief efforts and international
standards, and it has been NGOs that have filled that gap by trying to apply such international guidelines and approaches as the so-called SphereStandards (Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster
Response), rights-based approaches, gender-sensitive disaster management approaches, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities. Japan Platform was also able to facilitate this process throughits close relationship with UN agencies such as the UNHCR and WFP.
Thus, Japanese NGOs played broader roles than simply providing services.
However, due to several challenges that the Japanese NGO community faces, this latent strength has not been fully utilized yet. First, Japan
Platform members and many of the other major Japanese NGOs involvedin post-/ disaster relief are primarily internationally focused organizations, so their missions, structures, and staffing are not geared toward
a domestic emergency response. Furthermore, just like the UN representative offices in Japan, many of the Japanese affiliates of internationalNGOs were established simply for fund-raising purposes. Therefore,
many of the internationally known NGOs with Japanese affiliates were
not able to play the same role they have in response to other catastrophic
natural disasters.
Second, since NGOs are not sufficiently acknowledged and accepted
as major relief actors by those in the Cabinet Office, by municipal andlocal governments, or by beneficiaries, they have often been treated as“volunteers” rather than professional relief organizations. Precious time
was lost on NGOs introducing themselves and on initial coordination.
The third challenge has been the nuclear issue. The number of NGOs
working in Fukushima, where the nuclear meltdown occurred, is muchsmaller compared with those active in Miyagi and Iwate Prefectures.
During the initial emergency phase, the small number of NGOs working in Fukushima Prefecture8 concentrated on deliveries of emergency
kits including food and other supplies, but uncertainties about how the76

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistancerebuilding and resettlement of local populations would proceed madeit very difficult for them to set up programs geared toward the recovery
stage. This is completely new and unknown territory for Japanese NGOs.
The experience and lessons learned in Fukushima should be passed alongand shared with the broader international aid community.

China
The Chinese NGO sector has grown a great deal, with recent disasters—
notably, the  Sichuan and  Yushu earthquakes—stimulating not
only an increase in the number of NGOs and NGO programs dedicatedto disaster relief but also an increase in NGO networks dedicated to supporting the organizations themselves. However, it can be pointed out that
this trend is only true for disaster relief, not the field of humanitarian assistance. Therefore, it should be no surprise that there are no signatories
to the Code of Conduct from Mainland China.
Many new NGOs emerged after the  Sichuan earthquake, and many
humanitarian nonprofits active in the Sichuan region or at the national
level redirected their efforts toward disaster relief. NGOs that became
active in disaster relief after the Sichuan earthquake included groups suchas the Development Organization of Rural Sichuan, Surmang Foundation,
Sichuan Quake Relief, AIDS Prevention Education Project for Chinese
Youth, Li Ka Shing Foundation, as well as the Red Cross Society of China.
Notably, many of the nonprofit initiatives in China related to disaster
relief focus on NGO support and civil society capacity building as opposed
to direct aid work within affected communities. They have been contributing to disaster relief by organizing efficient responses and disseminating
information to build resilience to disasters.
In contrast to the mainland, Hong Kong boasts a vibrant nonprofit
sector with a long and unique history. Philanthropy is deeply rooted in
the city, drawing on both Chinese and British traditions, and as a result,the participation of Hong Kong NGOs in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance tends to be largely through philanthropic activities, often
through business-related organizations and other groups that focus ona broad range of social issues. In fact, Hong Kong ranked highest in theworld in terms of per capita donations in response to the  Indian
Ocean tsunami.9 The emphasis on philanthropic engagement rather thandirect relief may help account for the fact that only one Hong Kong NGO,
Oxfam Hong Kong, is a signatory to the Code of Conduct.
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YUKIE OSA

Most of the major NGOs in Hong Kong that focus specifically on overseas aid are branches of international NGOs, such as Save the Children
Hong Kong and World Vision Hong Kong, although there are a handful of
nonprofit initiatives with local roots—such as the Crossroads Foundation’s
Global Hand program—that aim to coordinate relief activities by promoting Internet-based networking and providing online disaster relief tools.

TaiwanMeanwhile, many of the Taiwanese NGOs involved with disaster relief
and humanitarian assistance began by providing aid in response to disasters at home, although some have expanded to overseas aid. In general,
their assistance is not confined to Asia but goes to countries around theworld. For example, a number of NGOs such as the Taiwan Red Cross
Society and Taiwan Root Medical Peace Corps dispatched teams to Haiti
after the  earthquake, and the Eden Social Welfare Foundation, anational organization for the disabled, has been providing aid to victimsof disasters and conflicts in places such as El Salvador and Afghanistan.
Historically, Taiwan’s efforts to provide disaster relief have, in many cases,
been colored by cross-straits politics and Taipei’s desire to pursue “disaster diplomacy.” This has been particularly true of Taiwan’s aid for natural
disasters in Mainland China.

Korea
Unlike Chinese NGOs, Korean NGOs have been active in both disaster
relief and humanitarian assistance. Korean NGOs began large-scale efforts at overseas relief work by fundraising and dispatching medical relief
teams to Rwanda in response to the  genocide. Since then, the number of NGOs working in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance has
multiplied dramatically, going from virtual nonexistence to comprising avibrant sector of Korean civil society today. Prominent service providers
for disaster relief include NGOs such as Good Neighbors, Community
Chest of Korea, Korea Food for the Hungry International, World Vision
Korea, and Global Civic Sharing.
The efforts of Korea’s NGOs are visible around the globe, and thegovernment allocates millions in US dollars to NGO efforts in addition
to financing its own official aid. Korean nonprofit initiatives in disaster78

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistancerelief are very internationally focused, covering crises in Latin America,
Africa, and Europe, as well as in Asia. However, not a single organization
has yet signed the Code of Conduct. This shows that the community is
still young in terms of international standards of disaster relief and humanitarian assistance.
One notable incident involving a Korean humanitarian group highlights
the grave risks that NGOs, even ones that are not dispatching professional
aid workers, can face when their work becomes entangled with security
issues. In July , a group of  South Korean aid workers mainly froma Christian organization were kidnapped in Afghanistan. After  daysof negotiations,  were released but  were killed. In the end, the South
Korean government agreed to withdraw troops and missionaries fromAfghanistan in exchange for the release of these captives.

ThailandThai NGOs involved in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance tend to be
domestic in scope. Nevertheless, four are signatories of the Code of Conduct,
namely Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) Thailand,
Catholic Office for Emergency Relief & Refugees, Human Development
Forum Foundation, and Thailand Burma Border Consortium.10
Prior to the  tsunami, emergency relief in Thailand tended to deal
more with manmade disasters such as the influx of Cambodian refugees
across the Thailand-Cambodia border and refugees from inside Myanmar(Burma) at the Thailand-Myanmar border. These initiatives have been
conducted mainly by international NGOs that have affiliates operating in
Thailand, although there are a number of groups formed by local citizens
and refugees.
Many of the organizations active now in disaster relief were createdafter the  tsunami. The general pattern has been that they begin withemergency disaster relief and then continue with longer-term efforts torebuild the affected communities.11 The majority of the nonprofit organizations that emerged in direct response to the tsunami tend to focus
on specific local communities and regions rather than operating at thenational level. Interestingly, however, many of the tsunami survivors whostarted these highly localized and community-based nonprofit initiatives
were in fact foreign nationals.

79

YUKIE OSAPhilippines
The Philippines is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world,
and its civil society sector is one of the most vibrant in Asia. Therefore it
is no surprise that there are many Filipino NGOs involved in responding
to the frequent typhoons, floods, landslides, and other natural disasters
that strike the country. They perform a wide range of functions, serving
as grassroots-level service providers, raising funds, and disseminating
community-based disaster management techniques. A number of organizations are also involved in humanitarian assistance in response tolongstanding conflicts in Mindanao and elsewhere.
However, Filipino NGOs engaged in disaster relief and humanitarianassistance tend to be strictly domestic in focus. Very few indigenous organizations are active internationally, and those that respond to overseas
disasters and crises typically have limited themselves to collecting anddisbursing funds. Accordingly, just four Filipino organizations have signed
the Code of Conduct, and two of them are affiliates of overseas NGOs.

Indonesia
In the immediate aftermath of the December  tsunami, a wide rangeof local and overseas NGOs sprang into action to provide disaster relief in
Aceh and elsewhere. In fact, a year after the disaster, a study by Indonesia’s
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency found that the staff of  local
NGOs and  international NGOs were still active in the disaster zone.12
The number of NGOs engaged in the disaster response can be seen as a
product of both the magnitude of the disaster and the growing role of civilsociety organizations in Indonesia, as it has gone through a democratictransition in recent years. Since the  financial crisis and the subsequent
fall of the Soeharto regime, the number of NGOs has expanded rapidly,
and they have become active on a wide range of issues.
Now, the spectrum of NGOs involved in disaster relief in Indonesia
runs from large-scale service providers like the Indonesian Red Cross andMuhammadiyah (the -million-member-strong Muslim social welfareorganization), to local-level organizations that work in different communities in Aceh and elsewhere to promote economic development andlong-term recovery, build disaster resilience, and help people escape aid
dependency. A number of organizations such as the Indonesian Society
for Disaster Management are involved in government advocacy on disaster80

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistance

preparedness, others promote information sharing on technical issues
related to disaster risk reduction, and major policy institutes such as theCentre for Strategic and International Studies Jakarta sponsor policy
dialogues on disaster-related issues.
Indonesian NGOs are still not highly active in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance overseas, although some that gained experience
with the Aceh disaster have begun to operate small programs in othercountries. One indigenous NGO—Amwin Al-Muayyad Windan—and
two Indonesian affiliates of overseas NGOs—Al-Imdaad Foundation(Indonesia) and HOPE Worldwide Indonesia—are signatories to theCode of Conduct.

Malaysia
As with Indonesia, civil society has been expanding rapidly in Malaysia as
NGOs become more active in a broad range of fields. However, there arenotable differences in terms of the activities of NGOs involved in disaster
relief and humanitarian assistance. Most of the Malaysian NGOs in thefield have tended to focus almost solely on service provision. Also, manyof the most prominent NGOs involved in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance have become engaged by responding to international crises
rather than to domestic disasters. In many instances, these have been
humanitarian crises that involved Muslim populations, for example the– Kosovo War, instability in Afghanistan from  on, Iraq after
the US invasion, floods in Pakistan, and deprivation in the Gaza Strip.
While some Malaysian NGOs have been active in providing disaster relief
in East Asia—for example, the Malaysian Red Crescent Society and Mercy
Malaysia raised funds for the  Japan earthquake response—the main
focus continues to be on Muslim countries. Mercy Malaysia is the only
Malaysian NGO to sign the Code of Conduct so far.

Singapore
Singapore’s civil society sector has long tended to focus more on service
provision than advocacy or other overtly political activities due to the citystate’s governance and unique history, and this seems to have carried over
into Singaporean NGOs’ involvement in disaster relief and humanitarianassistance. As a result, there are a significant number of Singaporean NGOs
81

YUKIE OSA

working in a sophisticated manner in responding to overseas crises, andtheir activities primarily consist of raising funds, helping to provide aid andrebuild facilities, and dispatching volunteer teams to aid with disaster relief
and rebuilding. The majority of the NGOs engaged in disaster relief andhumanitarian assistance focus their activities on South and East Asia, andlarge-scale initiatives have been launched to assist in Indonesia and Sri Lanka
after the  tsunami, in China after the Sichuan earthquake, in Myanmar
after Cyclone Nargis, and in Japan after the  earthquake and tsunami.
However, to date, no Singaporean NGOs have signed the Code of Conduct.

MyanmarOne legacy of authoritarianism in Myanmar has been the stunted state of
the country’s civil society. Still, there are an estimated , communitybased organizations in the country,13 and many observers note a new
vibrancy in the sector since , when community groups were forced torespond to Cyclone Nargis. Some organizations in Myanmar are officiallyregistered, and as of , there were also some  overseas NGOs working in the country.14 Historically, these organizations have had to comport
themselves in such a way as to maintain government permission to conduct
their activities. Meanwhile, the majority of organizations operate without
official government approval, including a handful of humanitarian assistance organizations that move back and forth across the borders into
ethnic areas that are outside of government control.
Many of the NGOs that now carry out disaster-related activities either
were general social welfare organizations that became involved in disaster
relief during Cyclone Nargis or were launched in response to the cyclone.
The disaster relief operations of Myanmar’s NGOs are almost without exception domestically oriented, although two NGOs are signatories to theCode of Conduct—one indigenous organization, the Metta Development
Foundation, and one affiliate of an overseas NGO, ADRA Myanmar.

R    I          , N      ,   C     
A great deal of coordination and cooperation has been undertaken at
the global level on issues related to disaster relief and humanitarian assistance. The Code of Conduct is just one example. In , based upon82

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistancethe principles of the Code of Conduct as well as international humanitarian, human rights, and refugee laws, the Sphere Project was launchedby a group of humanitarian NGOs and the Red Cross and Red Crescent
movement to establish minimum standards for disaster relief. These werespelled out in a set of guidelines called the Humanitarian Charter andMinimum Standards in Disaster Response, commonly referred to as theSphere Handbook.
The Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performancein Humanitarian Action (ALNAP) was also established in , inthe wake of the Rwanda genocide. Members include donors, NGOs,
UN agencies, academics, and independent experts. ALNAP describes
itself as “a collective response by the humanitarian sector, dedicatedto improving humanitarian performance through increased learningand accountability.”
In February , following the December  Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunamis, the Tsunami Evaluation Coalition (TEC) was established to derive lessons from the international response to the tsunami
and improve accountability to donors and to the affected populations.
At the UN level, the Inter-Agency Standing Committee was established in June  in response to a UN General Assembly resolution onstrengthening humanitarian assistance. The role of this interagency committee is coordination and policy development. To that end, it “develops
humanitarian policies, agrees on a clear division of responsibility for thevarious aspects of humanitarian assistance, identifies and addresses gaps
in response, and advocates for effective application of humanitarian principles.” In addition to the full members (UN agencies including the Foodand Agriculture Organization, OCHA, UN Development Programme, UN
Population Fund, UN-Habitat, UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP, and World HealthOrganization), standing invitees include international organizations(the ICRC, IFRC, and the International Organization for Migration) andthree NGO networks (the International Council of Voluntary Agencies,
American Council for Voluntary International Action, and the Steering
Committee for Humanitarian Response).
Similar initiatives have been underway at the regional level in Asia
involving civil society, although these tend to be limited in nature. The
sponsors of these initiatives are primarily governments or regional organizations like ASEAN, but given that the contributions from civil society
for disaster relief and humanitarian assistance have grown to a level thatgovernments cannot ignore, they are increasingly involving NGOs intheir disaster response efforts. In fact, things have evolved to the point83

YUKIE OSA

where designing any initiatives without consultation with the relevant
civil society organizations can degrade or undermine the legitimacy of theinitiative itself. For example, after the  tsunami, ASEAN undertook
a concerted effort to start building partnerships on disaster relief withcivil society organizations throughout the region. It has been involvingorganizations like the Red Cross in disaster response exercises and is now
working with several NGOs on issues related to disaster preparedness.
There are also a number of important initiatives that are firmly based incivil society. For example, the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center works
with government agencies and NGOs throughout Asia to develop disasterrisk management, train disaster responders, and help establish and disseminate disaster preparedness and response guidelines for governments,
international organizations, and NGOs. A nonprofit organization basedin Thailand that operates with ODA funding from various countries, thecenter is the primary resource in the region on disaster preparedness.
Also, the Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network, a network of NGOs from  countries, was launched in  by the Asian Disaster
Reduction Center in Kobe. The network convenes workshops on disastermanagement for member NGOs and organizes a number of joint disastereducation and relief programs that bring together NGOs, governmental
agencies, and international organizations. It is a unique initiative in thesense that most of the members are indigenous Asian NGOs rather thanaffiliates of Western organizations.
Overall, although there are signs that things are starting to change,
cooperation on disaster relief in Asia is still not well developed when compared with other regions. However, the / Japanese triple disasters may
accelerate the trend toward regional cooperation since Japanese NGOs as
well as the government and business community noticed the importanceof sharing the lessons learned from this experience with their respective
Asian partners. In September , for example, a Japanese NGO called
Civic Force, a member of Japan Platform, organized a one-day symposium called the Asia Pacific Relief Summit. The meeting brought together
representatives from NGOs, businesses, and governments from aroundthe region to explore the idea of expanding the Japan Platform model ofresource pooling and NGO coordination to the regional level.
To understand the potential for greater regional cooperation, it is useful to examine the civil society response to Japan’s March  disasters
using the case of the international response as seen through the lens of
donations to the Japanese Red Cross Society. This is not only because the
Red Cross has been the major recipient of funds raised from the public in
84

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian AssistanceJapan. It is rather because donating funds to national Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies to help the victims of overseas disasters is one of the
major ways—and sometimes the only way—in which people can express
their sympathy for victims. While the level of support given for and thestatus accorded to the national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
differ from country to country, their relative predominance in terms of
public recognition and global scale makes this a valid example and helps
us to grasp some general international trends.
In the first year following the / disaster, the Japanese Red Cross received pledges for a total of . billion (approximately  million)
from  of its sister national societies all over the world that had raised
money from the public, corporations, and governments in their countries(see table ). Notably, the Red Cross Societies in Taiwan and Korea rank
Table . Assistance to Japan from Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies
Rank

Yen amountAmerican Red Cross

Society name,,,

.



Taiwan Red Cross Organization

,,,

.



Canadian Red Cross,,,.

German Red Cross,,,.



Republic of Korea National Red Cross,,,.

Red Cross Society of China

,,,.

Australian Red Cross,,,.

French Red Cross,,,.

British Red Cross,,,

.



Swiss Red Cross,,,

.



Thai Red Cross Society,,

.



Netherlands Red Cross,,

.



Singapore Red Cross,,

.



Red Cross of Viet Nam

,,

.



Austrian Red Cross,,

.



Spanish Red Cross,,

.



Italian Red Cross,,

.



Red Cross of Serbia

,,

.



Malaysian Red Crescent,,

.



Philippine Red Cross,,

.

S: Compiled by the author using data from Japan Red Cross Society -Month Report.
N: Figures as of April , . Societies located in Asia are highlighted.

85

YUKIE OSA

among the top  Red Cross donors to Japan, and  Asian societies are in
the top  worldwide. Of course, the assistance from the United States
was overwhelming, but this is understandable given the country’s strong
tradition of individual and corporate philanthropy.
Thirteen of the  national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies thatraised funds for Japan are located in East Asia.17 The top three of theseare from Northeast Asia, and their total giving amounts to . percent of
all Red Cross donations from East Asia. This shows a strong connection
between South Korea, China, Taiwan, and Japan. At the same time, thehigh level of giving through the national Red Cross Societies in East Asia
despite the region’s limited level of international philanthropy shows thestrength of the relationships among private citizens in the region. This
growing affinity among private citizens in the region indicates that there
is considerable potential for greater regional cooperation among NGOs
and other organizations.

C  
Although there is a long history of local, community-based responses,
civil society involvement in disaster relief and humanitarian assistancein East Asia has traditionally been dominated by Western NGOs andtheir affiliate organizations as well as by the region’s Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies. However, research shows that many new
CSOs have been created in response to recent major natural disasters,
especially the December  tsunami, the  Sichuan earthquake,
Cyclone Nargis in , and the  Japan earthquake and tsunami.
It also reveals that many of these organizations are so new that they
are not ready to work in accordance with international standards orprinciples, nor are they fully aware of the potential impact of their aid
on regional security.
All the same, these limitations are to be expected among young civilsociety organizations. It seems clear that sooner or later the NGO community in the region will develop to a point where it plays a much broader
and more important role in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance
operations. One reason is that, unfortunately, the region seems destined
to repeatedly face severe natural disasters and NGOs have a unique capacity to respond to them and are likely to be the only organizations able tospecialize in disaster relief. In fact, it is hard to envision how the region
can endure the heavy burden associated with the increasing number of86

Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistancenatural disasters unless local civil society plays a more meaningful rolein disaster relief.
Still, if Asian NGOs are going to play a more meaningful role, they
have a number of challenges to overcome. They need to strengthen their
institutional capacity, especially by pursuing ways to increase the level ofprofessionalization of their staff. It is crucial for NGOs, regional governments, and other key actors to search for ways to promote a greater societal
acceptance of NGOs and to encourage more meaningful partnerships
between NGOs and other sectors of society. One thing that would help
is a greater awareness among NGOs of the importance of demonstrating
their commitment to the humanitarian principles of humanity, impartiality, neutrality, and independence, and to the avoidance of any appearanceof the politicization of their activities. It is also important for NGOs todevelop a stronger financial base for their operations, and steps need tobe taken to increase charitable giving in the region and make it easier forNGOs to support themselves. The Japan Platform initiative provides one
model of an innovative collaboration with a national government, thebusiness community, and other sectors that can be emulated around theregion to mobilize financial resources.
And finally, methods to promote better coordination among NGOs—
within countries, across borders, and at the regional level—are indispensable. Even though every society in the region has its own uniquecharacteristics and history, NGOs in each country have much to learn
from one another. There is an important role for regional cooperationin enabling them to share lessons and best practices and in assisting one
another with capacity building. In particular, greater and more focused
networking among NGOs in the region that specialize in disaster relief
and humanitarian assistance will allow them to learn from one another’s
experiences more quickly and efficiently. Meanwhile, regional forums
such as ASEAN and the East Asia Summit can help by further stressing
the importance of engaging with civil society and encouraging NGOs toexpand their ties to one another. Concerted efforts to encourage greaterinteraction among NGOs in the region can thus play a crucial role inencouraging the development of civil society’s capacity to contribute
more effectively to East Asia’s response to natural disasters and humanitarian crises.

87

YUKIE OSAN. Tsunami Evaluation Coalition, “Funding the Tsunami Response,” (July ), https://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/tsunami/TEC-Funding_Report.pdf.
. The guidelines utilized for humanitarian assistance include “Guidelines on the Useof Military and Civil Defense Assets to Support United Nations Humanitarian
Activities in Complex Emergencies” (UN MCDA Guidelines, ) and “CivilMilitary Relationship in Complex Emergencies—An IASC Reference Paper” (June, ).
. The term “humanitarian space” was first introduced by the former president of
Médecins Sans Frontières, Rony Brauman, who described it as “a space of freedom
in which we humanitarian organizations are free to evaluate needs, free to monitor
the distribution and use of relief goods, and free to have a dialogue with the people.”
As quoted in Johanna G. Wagner, “An IHL/ICRC Perspective on ‘HumanitarianSpace,’” Humanitarian Exchange Magazine no.  (December ), Humanitarian
Practice Network Website. Therefore, it includes not only physical areas at the operational level but also normative, intangible aspects such as respect and compliance with the humanitarian rules and principles among all concerned parties.
. The six NGOs include Caritas Internationalis, Catholic Relief Services, International
Save the Children Alliance, Lutheran World Federation, Oxfam, and the WorldCouncil of Churches.
. As of August . The list of signatories to the Code of Conduct is available on
the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies website at
http://www.ifrc.org/en/publications-and-reports/code-of-conduct/signatories-ofthe-code-of-conduct-/. The breakdown in this report was calculated by the author
based upon this list.
. Nicolas de Torrente, “Humanitarian Action Under Attack: Reflections on the Iraq
War,” Harvard Human Rights Journal  (): .
. Among the  current member NGOs, those active in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance include Association for Aid and Relief Japan, Adventist Development
and Relief Agency Japan (ADRA Japan), BHN Association, Care International
Japan, HOPE International Development Agency Japan, the Institute of Cultural
Affairs (ICA) Japan, JEN, NICCO, Peace Winds Japan, Save the Children Japan,
Shanti Volunteer Association, and World Vision Japan. The affiliates of international NGOs include ADRA Japan, Care International Japan, Habitat for Humanity
International Japan, Good Neighbors Japan, HOPE International Development
Agency Japan, Save the Children Japan, Plan Japan, and World Vision Japan.
. According to the Japan NGO Center for International Cooperation (JANIC), thenumber of NGOs working in Fukushima Prefecture by providing emergency relief
in the early stages of the disaster was , whereas the number in Miyagi was  andin Iwate . The contrast is clearer in the number of projects carried out by NGOs
during March to June . In Miyagi prefecture,  projects were conducted andin Iwate  projects were conducted, while in Fukushima it was only . The organizations working in Fukushima include Association for Aid and Relief Japan,
ADRA Japan, ICA, Peace Builders, and SHAPLA NEER.
. “Non-Profit Organisations,” InvestHK (Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region) website, http://www.investhk.gov.hk/resources/resources/
tc_sector_bps_ngo.pdf.

88Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistance. Thailand Burma Border Consortium is a consortium of  international NGOs from countries that provide food, shelter, and non-food items to refugees and displaced
people from Myanmar. Programs are implemented in the field through refugees,community-based organizations, and local partners. The current  members are
as follows: act for peace–NCCA (Australia), Caritas (Switzerland), Christian Aid(UK and Ireland), Church World Service, International Rescue Committee (USA),
DanChurchAid (Denmark), Diakonia (Sweden), Gandhiji Cultural (Birmania por
la Paz) (Spain), Interchurch Organization for Development Cooperation & ZOA
Refugee Care (Netherlands), Norwegian Church Aid (Norway), and Trocaire(Ireland).
. Some examples of NGOs that emerged in direct response to the tsunami are Happy
Hearts Fund, the Sriphong Phukaoluan Foundation (Krabi Relief Fund), After
the Wave Foundation, the Tsunami Volunteer Center, North Andaman Tsunami
Relief, the Ecotourism Training Center, and D-TRAC (Disaster Tracking Recovery
Assistance Center).
. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency for Aceh-Nias, “Aceh and Nias One Year
After the Tsunami: The Recovery Effort and Way Forward,” December , http://
siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEASTASIAPACIFIC/Resources/YR_exec_
sum_english.pdf.
. David Steinberg, Burma/Myanmar: What Everyone Needs to Know (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, ), .
. Soubhik Ronnie Sana, “Working through Ambiguity: International NGOs in
Myanmar” (September ), http://www.hks.harvard.edu/hauser/engage/humanitarianorganizations/research/assets/MyanmarReportFinal
Version--.pdf.
. The Japanese Red Cross Society received more than  billion (. billion).
Japanese Red Cross Society, -Month Report Glide no. EQ---JPN(April , ).
. Ibid. According to the Japanese Red Cross Society, the government of Japan encouraged other governments to provide their monetary support toward disaster relief
through their national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
. These  East Asian Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies include the Cambodian
Red Cross Society, Red Cross Society of China, Indonesian Red Cross Society,Republic of Korea National Red Cross, Red Cross Society of the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea, Lao Red Cross, Malaysian Red Crescent, Mongolian Red Cross,Philippine Red Cross, Singapore Red Cross, Taiwan Red Cross Organization, Thai
Red Cross Society, and Red Cross of Viet Nam.

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