Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protectionin the Asia-Paciﬁc Region 2010

Research, Analysis and Preservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains
7 September - 7 October, 2010, Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Oﬃce,
Asia-Paciﬁc Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Agency for Cultural Aﬀairs, Japan
National Institutes for Cultural Heritage,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)

Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protectionin the Asia-Paciﬁc region 2010

Research, Analysis and Preservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains
7 September -7 October, 2010, Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Oﬃce,
Asia-Paciﬁc Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Agency for Cultural Aﬀairs, Japan
National Institutes for Cultural Heritage,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)

Edited and Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia - Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office Ground Floor
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Tel : +81-(0)742-20-5001
Fax: +81-(0)742-20-5701
e-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp
Printed by MeishinshaⒸ Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia - Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2011

The opening ceremony at the Kasugano-so Hotel with guests and ACCU staff

Mr Morikawa explained practical procedures of measured drawing of eathenware.

On-site lecture at the Dazaifu site by Mr Akashi

The closing ceremony at the Kasugano-so HotelContents
PrefaceI.

Introduction
1. General Information………………………………………3

2. Programme Schedule ………………………………………7

II.

Proceedings
1. Opening Ceremony………………………………………11

2. Summary of Training Course……………………………13

III.

Country Reports by ParticipantsIV.

Final Reports by Participants

V.

Appendix
A. List of Participants
B. List of Lecturers…………………… 29…………………………249…………………………………………347……………………………………………351

C. List of Interpreters and Tutors……………………………354

D. Staff Members, ACCU Nara………………………………354

Preface
The Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for
UNESCO (ACCU) was established in August 1999 with the purpose of serving as adomestic centre for promoting cooperation in cultural heritage protection in the AsiaPacific region. Subsequent to its inception, our office has been implementing a variety
of programmes to help promote cultural heritage protection activities, in cooperation
with Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan (Bunkacho); the International Centre for the
Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM); National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo and Nara; the Nara Prefectural
Government; the Nara Municipal Government; universities, and museums.
The ACCU Nara’s activities include, training programmes for the human resources
development, international conferences and symposia, the training of young leadersin cultural heritage protection, updating website for the dissemination of information
relating to cultural heritage protection, and the world heritage lectures in highschools. In addition to those programme, ACCU Nara has begun offering “the Local
Training Workshop” since 2007, which dispatches a group of lecturers from Japan andimplements the practical training on cultural heritage protection on sites. At the sametime, we have also set up the system of “International Correspondents” for the purposeof promoting information exchange and networking with the countries in the AsiaPacific region, and appointed correspondents from participants in the past ACCU Naratraining programmes, who periodically send latest news on cultural heritage protectionin their country. This system is also useful for us to keep in touch with them and toknow their activities in each country.
In particular, the training courses on cultural heritage protection in the Asia-Pacificregion have comprised a significant part of our activities for heritage protection, with
two themes in alternate years: “Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures”
and “Research, Analysis, and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains.” This
was the eleventh training course on “archaeological sites and remains” and sixteen
participants from across the Asia-Pacific region gathered in Nara to join the course inhigh spirits.
In the Nara region where the capital was located 1300 years ago, there survives alarge number of ancient structures and archaeological remains which are unique inthe world; there are ample human resources working on a daily basis to carry outiconservation; and the philosophy of restoration has been accumulated through many
years’ experience and is widely accepted by the local community. So, ACCU Nara
has chosen “Nara” as the training venue because we can take full advantage of its
environment.
I believe the participants were able to learn not only the techniques and knowledge
relating to conservation and restoration of archaeological remains but also theimportant role of local community by visiting the cultural heritage on-site: the way
how local people cared for the cultural heritage; their views and willingness to protect
heritage and hand it down to posterity; and their daily society-wide efforts. I am surethe participants understood the need and importance of respecting the views andinitiative of the local community as well as joining hands with them in the conservation
activities.
Finally, I would like to express my profound appreciation to the distinguished lecturers
who offered their expertise in clear terms and to the organisations which provided us
with generous support necessary for implementation of the training programmes. I
would also like to extend my appreciation to sixteen participants, who actively took
part in the programme and helped each other in a friendly atmosphere to acquire latest
knowledge and techniques in a far foreign country, Japan. Success of this training
depends on their future efforts in the field of heritage protection in each country.

NISHIMURA Yasushi
Director
The Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)

ii

Introduction

Introduction
1. General Infomation
2. Programme Schedule1. General Information
Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia - Pacific Region 2010
- Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains(7 September – 7 October 2010, Nara, Japan)

1. OrganisersThis course is jointly organised by Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan); the Asia-Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU); the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM); and the National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties [Tokyo and Nara], in cooperation with Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in
Cultural Heritage; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan; the Japanese National Commission for
UNESCO; Nara Prefectural Government; and Nara Municipal Government.

2. Background
In Asia and the Pacific region, there are various forms of cultural heritage which are of great value
from a global point of view. Proper investigation, analysis, preservation and development of thesesites and remains are required of heritage professionals, in order to ensure that this important
cultural heritage is safeguarded for future generations. ACCU Nara in partnership with ICCROM
and Bunkacho has been organising training courses since 2000 on this topic with a view to building
the capacities of professionals who have been working on cultural heritage protection in the region.
This training course aims to provide participants with the latest methodologies and technologies forinvestigation, conservation and management of archaeological sites.

3. Dates and Venue
Course dates: From 7 September (Tuesday) to 7 October (Thursday) 2010
Venue: Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO[Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office, 757 Horen-cho, Nara, Japan]

4. Objectives of the Training Course
The objectives of the training course are:• to provide participants with knowledge of principles and methodologies for protection ofarchaeological sites;• to provide participants with knowledge of the principles, methodologies and techniques
concerning management and utilisation of archaeological sites;• to provide participants with knowledge and skills related techniques of recording and analyticalmethods for archaeological remains;• to provide participants with an opportunity to establish the network with colleagues from theregion and share experiences.

3

5. Training Curriculum● Lectures- Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites- The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan- Conservation and Utilisation of Cultural Heritage Resources in Japan- Introduction to Archaeological Prospection- Introduction to Environmental Archaeology- Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods- Introduction to Dendrochronology- Introduction to Conservation Science● Practical Training and On-site Lectures- Workshop on Recording of Archaeological Features and Artefacts- Workshop on Conservation Treatment of Artefacts- Study Tour on Preservation, Development and Utilisation of Archaeological Sites● Presentations and Discussion- Presentations by participants on the current status of archaeological conservation in each country,
and exchange of views- Discussion of future issues on the conservation of cultural heritage- Recapitulation of the training sessions

6. Participants in the Training Course● Application Procedure
The training course is offered to participants from the following 37 signatory countries of the UNESCOWorld Heritage Convention (see below). The application form should arrive at ACCU Nara no later
than 20 June 2010 along with the endorsement of the UNESCO National Commission or UNESCO
Liaison Office in the country concerned or the endorsement of the member of Japan Consortiumfor International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage. The documents necessary for application are thefollowing.
(1) Application Form (Form 1)
Please attach a copy of the passport, if an applicant has a valid passport.
(2) Report Relating to the Applicant’s Achievements in Archaeological Heritage Conservation.
This achievement report should be written by the applicant and should be a brief summary ofpresent and previous work related to the theme of archaeological heritage conservation. This report
should be no longer than 5 – 7 pages and will be weighted heavily in selection of the participants.
(3) Letter of Recommendation by NATCOM or by the member of Japan Consortium for International
Cooperation in Cultural Heritage(4) Letter of Recommendation by the head of the organisation to which the applicant belongs (Annex 1)(5) Certification for English Proficiency (if obtained)

4Completed applications should be sent to the secretariat of the ACCU Nara Office at the address below
by post or/and e-mail. Only complete application with all necessary documents will be considered.
The following are the 37 signatories of the World Heritage Convention from Asia and the Pacific:
Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Iran,Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kyrgyz, Lao P.D.R., Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia,
Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rep. of
Korea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tonga ,Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,Vanuatu, and Vietnam.

● Qualification Requirements
Applicants should be:1) those who are professionals, 45 years old or younger, who are engaged in the conservation,
preservation, restoration or management of archaeological sites and who can make effective use of
the results of the training course upon returning to his or her home country;2) those who have a good command of English, the working language for all lectures, so that they
can deliver presentations and write reports from the training sessions (ACCU Nara Office and
ICCROM shall be allowed to utilise all contents of presentations and reports, including drawings
and photographs, for future publication and cultural heritage protection programmes);3) those who can attend the entire training programme;
4) those who submit all of the required documents (listed above) within the deadlines outlined;5) those who will most likely continue exchanging information and interacting with ACCU after
returning to their home countries;6) those who were not previous participants in training courses organised by ACCU Nara Office(however those who have participated in International Youth Exchange Programme andInternational Education Exchange Programme can apply for this programme).

7. Notification of Screening Results
After consulting with other organisers, ACCU Nara will select 16 people (one participant per nation, in
principle) from among all applicants around the end of July. Successful applications will be informedof the results along with each National Commission for UNESCO and the Japan Consortium forInternational Cooperation in Cultural Heritage.

8. Certificate of Completion
Each participant will be awarded a certificate upon completion of the course.

9. Language of the Training Session
English will be the working language throughout the course.

510. Expenses
Expenses during the Training Course shall be borne by ACCU Nara, as follows:(1) Travelling expenses:
Each of the participants (except those from Australia, Republic of Korea, and New Zealand) shallbe provided with an economy class return air ticket from the nearest international airport from theirresidence to Kansai International Airport, and transportation fees between Kansai International Airport
and Nara.
(2) Living expenses:
Participants shall be provided the basic living expenses incurred during the training course from 6
September (Monday) to 8 October (Friday) 2010. Arrangements for accommodations (a room forsingle occupancy) will be made by ACCU Nara.

11. Secretariat
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office,757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 JAPAN
Tel: +81-(0)742-20-5001 Fax: +81-(0)742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp

6

2. Programme Schedule
Month Date

Morning (9:30-12:30)(Lecturer / Venue)

Afternoon (13:30-16:30)(Lecturer / Venue)

7

Tue.

8

Wed. Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites

9

Thu. Presentation and Discussion: Country Reports by Participants I

Opening Ceremony(Kasugano-so Hotel)

Orientation Session(ACCU Nara)(Gamini WIJESURIYA / ACCU Nara)(INABA Nobuko & WIJESURIYA / ACCU Nara)
10 Fri.

Presentation and Discussion: Country Reports by Participants II(INABA Nobuko & WIJESURIYA / ACCU Nara)

11 Sat.
12 Sun.
13 Mon. The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan
14 Tue.

Conservation and Utilisation of Cultural Heritage Resources(SUZUKI Chihei / ACCU Nara) (Cases in Japan)
Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice I: Nara Palace Site

(SUZUKI / ACCU Nara)(SHIMADA Toshio & ISHIMURA Tomo / NNRICP)
15 Wed.
16 Thu.

Lecture and Workshop: Documentation of Archaeological Artefacts

September(MORIKAWA Minoru, KUNITAKE Sadakatsu and SHIBA Kojiro / NNRICP)

17 Fri.
18 Sat.
19 Sun.
20 Mon.
21 Tue.

Introduction to Archaeological Prospection of Sites

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology(KANEDA Akihiro / NNRICP)
22 Wed. Lecture and Workshop: Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains(YAMAZAKI Takeshi/NNRICP)(NAKAMURA Ichiro / NNRICP)

23 Thu. On-site Lecture: Utilisation and Management of Sites in Practice
24 Fri.

(KANEGAE Ichiro / National Museum of Ethnology; Haniwa Factory Park at Shin-ike kilm site)
Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice II: Imperial Palace Sites at Asuka and Fujiwara(SUGIYAMA Hiroshi / NNRICP)

25 Sat.
26 Sun.
27 Mon. Lecture and Workshop: Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remains
28 Tue.

(KOHDZUMA Yohsei / NNRICP)
Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remaines Introduction to Dendrochronology(Wakiya Soichiro / KOHDZUMA Yohsei / NNRICP)
29 Wed. A Study Tour: Maintenance and Utilisation of Sites in Practice(OKOCHI Takayuki / NNRICP)(SHICHIDA Tada-aki/ Yoshinogari Site, Saga Pref.)30 Thu. A Study Tour: Maintenance and Utilisation of Sites in Practice(AKASHI Yoshihiko and IMAZU Setsuo / Dazaifu Site, Fukuoka Pref.)A Study Tour: Maintenance and Utilisation of Sites in Practice

1

Fri.

2

Sat.

3

Sun.

4

Mon. Lecture and Discussion: Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains I (Risk Management)

5

Tue.

6

Wed. Writing Final Reports

7

Thu. Submission of Final Reports / Closing Ceremony(YOSHITAKE Manabu / Korokan Site and Fukuoka-jo Castle, Fukuoka City)

October(Montira UNAKUL / ACCU Nara)
Lecture and Discussion: Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains II (Utilisation for the Public)(Montira UNAKUL / ACCU Nara)

NNRICP: Nara National Institute for Cultural Properties
ACCU Nara: Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO

7

1. Opening Ceremony
2. Summry of Training Course

Proceedings

Proceedings1. Opening Ceremony
The opening ceremony of the 2010 training course was heldon 7 September 2010 at the Kasugano-so reception hall in
Nara City, with sixteen course participants and honourable
guests from Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan (Bunkacho),
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties(NNRICP), Nara Prefectural Government and Nara
Municipal Government.
Mr Shimazu from ACCUThe opening addresses were given by Mr SHIMAZU
Masakazu, Secretary General, Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre
for UNESCO (ACCU); Mr NISHIMURA Yasushi, Director,
ACCU Nara Office; Mr MINAMI Shinpei, Head, Officefor International Cooperation on Cultural Properties,
Cultural Properties Department, Bunkacho; Mr Gamini
WIJESURIYA, Project Manager, ICCROM; Mr NAMBA
Yozo, Head, Planning & Coordination Section, Nara

Mr Nishimura, Director of ACCU Nara office

National Research Institute for Cultural Properties; Mr
KOIDE Tsuneki, Deputy Director, Cultural Affairs Division,
Nara Prefectural Government; and Mr NAKAMURO
Taketoshi, Superintendent, Nara Municipal Board of
Education. In the above mentioned speeches, organisersand guests extended warm greetings to all participants
and stressed the importance of mutual understanding Mr Minami from Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japanand international network in the field of cultural heritage
protection and wished their stay in Nara will be fruitful andenjoyable. Mr NISHIMURA hoped that all participants takethis opportunity to exchange information and views on issuesof cultural heritage protection as well as to broaden theirknowledge of Japan during their stay for one month. At theend of the ceremony, the participants introduced themselves

Mr Wijesuriya from ICCROM

and a group photo was taken with staff and guests.
After the ceremony, the participants proceeded to the Nara
Prefectural Office, where they were welcomed by the Deputy
Governor of Nara Prefecture, Mr KUBOTA Osamu. He
greeted them and gave brief overview of Nara Prefecture,and the participants also asked him about the prefecture.
Then, they were ushered to the roof floor of the government
11

Mr Namba from NNRICP

building, where many historical monuments designated World
Heritage can be observed with fine views. In the afternoon,
an introduction to the training course was given regarding
the course theme, objectives, logistics, and requirements.
Following this, presentation about daily life in Japan for
visitors was made, followed by an open question period.

Mr Koide from Nara Prefectural Gov.

Mr Nakamuro from Nara Municipal Gov.

Meeting with Deputy Governor of Nara Prefecture, Mr Kubota

Meeting with Deputy Governor of Nara Prefecture, Mr Kubota

12

2. Summary of Training Course
Various experts delivered a series of lectures during this Training Course. The following is a complete
list of the lectures with a brief description of their contents.

■ Global Trends in Conservation of ArchaeologicalSites (8 Sept.) Gamini WIJESURIYA (ICCROM)
The lecture began with a brief introduction of ICCROM: Its
organisation, member states, mandates, and activities in thefield of cultural heritage conservation. Then, Mr Wijesuriya
asked the fundamental question, “What is heritage?” “Whatis preservation?” and “Why is it done?” to facilitate thediscussion in the group and he was willing to have any
questions as they arise.
Mr Wijesuriya-

Conservational Conservation Approach (CCA) andAuthorised Heritage Discourse (AHD) with specificcase examples of restoration in Sri Lanka, Mexico andZimbabwe-

Some dissenting views against CCA and AHD wereintroduced by considering diversity, continuity andcommunity.

-

Developments in heritage management thinking fromthe traditional one to current world trends-

Lecture by Mr Wijesuriya

Three types of approaches to conservation: Conventional,
value-based and living heritage approaches■ Presentation and Discussion (9 - 10 Oct.)INABA Nobuko (Tsukuba University) and Gamini
WIJESURIYA (ICCROM)
Each participant made a presentation on the present situationand needs for cultural heritage protection in their respective

Mr Wijesuriya and Prof. Inaba

speciality and shared their experiences with colleagues.
Both common and unique challenges in their countries wereraised by the presentation. There were especially manyquestions about the preservation of Myanmar cave painting
in the class. Then, Prof. Inaba lectured on Japanese laws
and regulations related to cultural properties protection withintroducing Japanese cases and Japanese architecture.
Presentation by the participant

13

■ The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan / Conservation and Utilisationof Cultural Heritage Resources (Cases in Japan) (13 Sept.) SUZUKI Chihei (Agency for
Cultural Affairs, Japan)- Introduction to various cultural properties in Japan: tangible, intangible, monuments, culturallandscapes and groups of traditional buildings- History of the law for the cultural properties; the system and measures for protection- Case examples of preservation and utilisation- An overview of fourteen World Heritage sites in Japan- Case examples of cultural landscapes in Japan; rice terraces, a lakeside district, waterfront
landscapes, irrigation canals, pottery villages, rural landscapes, etc.
- The protection system of cultural landscapes in Japan

Lecture by Mr Suzuki■ Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice: Nara Palace Site
(14 Sep.) SIMADA Toshio & ISHIMURA Tomo (NNRICP)- The lecture on an outline of Nara Palace Site and the fundamental plan 1978 and its revision in basic
concept: guidelines for conservation and management; and practical challenges on maintenance andutilisation- Mr Shimada underlined that the reconstructed building was a modern architecture only showing one
possibility; the scale of podium and the position of pillars were based on the supposition.
- A question was raised on how many reasonable evidences of unearthed artefacts from Daigokuden
sites to enable the reconstruction.
- The basic principle was not to damage underground sites.
- Three display method in the site
• flat display (two-dimensional)• partial-three dimensional display for wells, ditches and ponds• reconstruction (three-dimensional)- It is needed to re-establish clear-planning for site management: To whom, what to show; and how we
14can use; active public utilisation.
With the information imparted during the morning lecture, participants toured the site while hearing anelaborate explanation; Amidst the bustle of the 1300th Anniversary celebrated at the site, they observed
the reconstructed First Imperial Audience Hall (dai-ichiji daigokuden), the Second Imperial Audience
Hall site (dai-ichiji daigokuden ato), Archaeological Features Exhibition Hall, various displays for
public utilisation, and reconstructed Eastern Palace Garden.

The reconstructed Former Imperial Audience Hall(dai-ichiji daigokuden)

The well of the Imperial Domicile■ Lecture and Workshop: Documentation of Archaeological Artefacts (15-17 Sep.)
MORIKAWA Minoru, KUNITAKE Sadakatsu and SHIBA Kojiro (NNRICP)[Earthenware]- Lecture session:▶

General information on earthenware: its history, types, how to distinguish, and firing▶

How to draw measured drawings / How to observe earthenware / Reminders for handling
earthenware▶

Tools for measured drawings of earthenware: a triangle, a straight edge ruler, a divider, mako(contour gauge), and callipers

Lecture by Mr Morikawa

15

- Workshop:
Participants were divided into four groups and each lecturer helped the group in drawing. Some ofthem appeared to have difficulty grasping the idea of drawing a cross section on the paper.
▶

Measured drawing of ancient earthenware:• sueki: blue gray form of high-fired pottery• hajiki: plain, unglazed and reddish-brown earthenware[Stone objects]
After the lecture on a method and procedure for stone artefacts drawing, participants began to practicemeasured drawings: The process was divided into seven steps while the program was paced to matcheveryone’s speed and at each stage, their progress was monitored before proceeding to the next level.
Everyone remained focused during the work and they exchanged stone tools with one another topractice again when the drawing work was pretty much completed.
Under the guidance of lecturers, they also toured theresearch sections at NNRICP to observe how unearthed
artefacts including earthenware, roof tiles, wooden
objects, metal objects, stone tools, and mokkan wooden
tablets were stored at the Artefacts Organising Room.

A hands-on session of measured drawing of artefacts using set squares, rulers etc.

16

■ Introduction to Archaeological Prospection of Sites (21 Sep.) KANEDA Akihiro(NNRICP)At first, Mr Nishimura introduced the role of archaeological prospection besides excavation; a methodof obtaining information without physically altering the site. Then Mr Kaneda lectured in detail;principles, methods/techniques and equipment.
- It is important to recognise that both excavation and archaeological prospection have merits anddemerits.
- A lecture on prospection methods: topography determination by aerial photographs; ground
penetrating radar (GPR) prospection; electric prospection; magnetic prospection; electromagnetic
prospection, etc.
- Actual procedures for implementation of prospection;
establishment of prospection zones and survey lines,
and preparation such as land clearing, ground surface
observation and ensuring safety- Introduction of tools and equipment: participants tried
to use GPR equipment with keen interests
Lecture by Mr Kaneda■ Introduction to Environmental Archaeology (21 Sep.) YAMAZAKI Takeshi (NNRICP)The lecture began with the question, “What is environmental archaeology?”, and participants seemed
to be highly interested in the subject and listened diligently. After the lecture, they proceeded to thespecimen preparation/storage room and observed various animal bone specimens.
- The role of NNRICP in the field of environmental archaeology- What an actual excavation is alike; important on-site cautions; various methods of analysing
unearthed artefacts- Importance of multifaceted analysis; such as pollen analysis, plant opal or seeds analysis should be
combined to obtain complementary and consistent research results by cross-checking- Introduction of soil sieving methods for sample preparation: dry sieving, wet sieving and flotation- Preparation of extant animal bone specimens and identification of animal remains: shells, animalbones fragments, teeth, horns, etc.

Lecture by Mr Yamazaki

17

■ Lecture and Workshop: Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains (22 Sep.)
NAKAMURA Ichiro (NNRICP)
Throughout the lecture there were many questions, indicating the high level of interest. Questions
touched upon the models of cameras and editing software used in the institute; methods of photography
most suited for publications; how to take photographs with people in them; and how to colour black
and white photos.
- Significance and the purpose of taking photographs of cultural properties- Cameras used for photographing cultural properties: a 35 mm single-lens reflex camera; a medium
size camera; a large camera; a digital single-lens reflex camera- Mechanism by which a photograph is taken: film, focus, exposure, diaphragm and shutter speed- Lighting for photography; main light irradiation direction
After the lecture, participants worked in pairs to take twenty photographs and learned how to handle
the camera. Then they visited the laboratory where film was digitised.

Lecture by Mr Nakamura■ On-site Lecture: Utilisation and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice (23Sep.) KANEGAE Ichiro (Takatsuki City Board of Education)

After visiting the National Museum of Ethnology and observed on their own, free to focus on displays
from their own country or whatever interests them, participants moved to Shin-Ike Haniwa Production
Site and visited the kiln site and restored housing. They were curious about haniwa production
methods and its usage and there were also questions on durability issues with the outdoor displays.

National Museum of Ethnology

Lecture by Mr Kanegae on site

18

Imashirozuka Burial Mound:- Future plans to open the site as a park to the general public- Supplemental information on haniwa: Haniwa was made by placing the clay directly on the floor
and shaping with the hands and spatula instead of on a potter’s wheel.
Takatsuki Research Center for Archaeological Operation:- A lecture on management plans for Tsugeyama Burial Mound- Observation of the earthenware and haniwa unearthed from the burial moundImashirozuka Burial Mound

Takatsuki-shi Reseach Center for Archaeological Operation■ Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice: Imperial Palace
Sites at Asuka and Fujiwara (24 Sep.) SUGIYAMA Hiroshi (NNRICP)
Under the guidance of Mr Sugiyama, participants toured the Asuka-Fujiwara region, an ancient capitalfrom the end of the sixth century to the beginning of the eighth. During the walk, they expressedinterests in many things, including Lycoris radiata flowers, rice paddies, the temple gates, andespecially the excavation site at Fujiwara Palace Site. Many questions were asked about excavation
techniques and site management using planting flowers and trees. The on-site display (replica) was
employed to give them an idea of the size of the Kitora Burial Mound.
- Ishibutai Burial Mound- Asuka Historical Museum- Asukadera Temple- Sakafuneishi Archaeological Site

Asukadera Temple

Ishibutai Burial Mound
Asuka Historical Museum

19

Lecture by Mr Sugiyama on site- Kawaradera Temple- Fujiwara Palace Site

Lecture by Mr Sugiyama

Fujiwara Palece Excavation Site

Sakafuneishi Archaeological Site

■ Lecture and Workshop: Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remains(27 Sep.) KOHDZUMA Yohsei (NNRICP)The session began with an introductory lecture on deterioration of cultural heritage with caseexamples, their conservation methods and specific techniques for restoration. During the session,
many questions were asked on conservation treatment such as a kind of paper used for conservationof unearthed artefacts, the durability time limit of acrylic resin used for reinforcement, and chemicaltreatment against the eroding effect of plants on stone tablets, etc.
- Regular monitoring is critical.
- The natural environment should be taken into account for restoration.
- Hands-on session with urethane resin, used when lifting up fragile artifacts in outdoor settings- Introduction of equipment and machinery for archaeological site survey• Schmidt hammer: for measuring strength of hard rock• Equotip (Equotip Piccolo): for measuring strength of soft rock• Percussion stick: for determining difference in density and composition of rock
• Needle penetrometer: measuring strength of rock by pushing a needle into rock

Lecture by Mr Kohdzuma

20

■ Conservation Science of Archaeological Sites and Remains (28 Sep.) WAKIYASoichiro (NNRICP)- The mechanism of erosion due to water in soil strata; the giant stone heads of moai in Easter Island
were used as a case example.
- Experiment of sandstone which has been subjected to reinforcement and water-repellency treatment;
Water-repellency treatment is only applied to the top, and is therefore not effective against erosion
due to groundwater.
- Analysis of the impact of exposed displays on archaeological sites- Tour of research facilities at NNRICP: Everyone seemed to be interested in equipment and asked
how to use machinery• Freeze dryer for waterlogged organic archaeological artefacts• High energy X-ray CT scanner for cultural properties• Gas chromatography equipment etc.

Lecture by Mr Wakiya■ Introduction to Dendrochronology (28 Sep.) OKOCHI Takayuki (NNRICP)- General outlines of dendrochronology (tree ring dating)• Relationship between dendrochronology and archaeology, climatology, and hydrology• The work of Andrew Ellicott Douglass, the founder of dendrochronology• What is skeleton plotting? / How to make a skeleton plot? / The tree ring widths are measured
visually and plotted like a bar graph, with the narrow rings shown long and the wider rings
short.
- Dendrochronology research in Japan• Tree ring dating using digital images• The process of rendering tree rings into data, and tree ring dating of cultural properties- Case study examples• Tree ring dating of the wooden well of Saidaiji Temple: Data from dendrochronologicalanalysis, Nihon Shoki chronicles, and mokkan wood strips found from the well were collated
to reveal the history of the well.
• Data obtained from tree ring dating analysis were used to determine the year in which Horyuji
21Temple was built.
• Application of micro-focus X-ray CT in the study of art history

Lecture by Mr Okochi■ A Study Tour (1): Maintenance and Utilisation of Sites in Practice (29 Sep.) SHICHIDA
Tada-aki (Saga Prefectural Board of Education)
After having video presentation of Yoshinogari site in the lecture hall supplemented with detailed
explanations, participants toured the Yoshinogari Historical Park with Mr Shichida to survey how thesite, the largest ancient moat-enclosed settlement in Japan, was managed and utilised for the public.
They looked around to learn the practical techniques for restoring structural remains and showed
special interest in the restored buildings of the site and the lifestyle of the people during Yayoi period.
- Northern Burial Mound: the role of burial jars in that period- Northern Inner Enclosure: the center for ceremonies and rituals- Southern Inner Enclosure: the watchtowers and entrances with explanation of lifestyle andresidential districts in the Yayoi period- Exhibition Hall: the display of unearthed artefacts from the sites such as burial jars in various
shapes, wooden artefacts, metal objects and mirrors

Yoshinogari Historical Park

22

Lecture by Mr Shichida on site

■ A Study Tour (2): Maintenance and Utilisation of Sites in Practice (30 Sep.) AKASHI
Yoshihiko / IMAZU Setsuo (Kyushu National Museum)- A presentation on an outline of Kyushu National Museum: its role, exhibition principles, the layout
and structure of the buildings and artefacts displayed in exhibition halls.
- A facility tour of the museum: the repository of a collection, laboratories for conservation treatmentof cultural properties and latest facilities such as X-ray CT scanning equipment.
- At the Mizuki site, they were also given lectures on historical background of the site andarchaeological remains: Mizuki consisted of moats and earthworks as a fortification in 7th century
to defend the county from the invasion of China and Korea.
- Lectures on the brief history of Dazaifu and architectural remains unearthed at the site at the site ofDazaifu Governmental Office.
- Observation of the castle gate cornerstone, earthwork and warehouse at Onojo castle■ A Study Tour (3): Maintenance and Utilisation of Sites in Practice (1 Oct.) YOSHITAKE
Manabu (Fukuoka Municipal Board of Education)
Participants visited and observed Korokan (National Historic Site), which was the ancient guest housefrom the 7th to the 11th century and also a window for international exchange with Tang China andShilla Korea. The group then toured the second floor of the Fukuokajo castle gate to see carbonised
members during the fire which destroyed the castle gate.
23

- The conservation history of Korokan site from its discovery to the process of excavation,conservation and restoration; the positional relationship with Dazaifu; and unearthed ceramic ware
- The prominent characteristic of Korokan site is the discovery of a high number of ceramic ware fordaily use and most questions had to do with the usage of ceramic ware and glazes.
- Observation of Shimonohashi Otemon gate of Fukuokajo castle site (national historic site), whichsuffered serious damage from fire ten years ago and was restored by dismantlement.

■ Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains I (Risk Management) (4 Oct.)
Montira UNAKUL (UNESCO Bangkok)
The lecture on Heritage at Risk:- Case examples of heritage at risk in the Asia region- What is heritage value?
- What is the qualification for being listed on the World Heritage List? [Most questions were aboutauthenticity issues.]- Main risk factors to heritage: Hazards (external threat) and vulnerability (inherent weakness)- How do we reduce risks at heritage sites?
After equipped with knowledge on risk management principles, participants were assigned to fourgroups and discussed how to reduce risks at heritage sites. Each group selected an abandoned village
site in Fiji, Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan, Borobudur in Indonesia and Taj Mahal in India respectively as
a topic of discussion and presented effective strategies for risk management concluded in the group.

24■ Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains II (Utilisation for the Public) (5 Oct.)

Montira UNAKUL (UNESCO Bangkok)- Measuring various impacts: society, culture, economy, tourism etc.
- Visitor management; actions to minimise the impact of tourists- Seven key principles for heritage interpretation• access and understanding• soundness of information sources• attention to setting and context• preservation and authenticity• planning for sustainability• concern for inclusiveness• importance of research, evaluation and training- Forms of interpretation methods of site: printed information, signage, exhibits, narrated visualpresentations, videotape presentation, websites, film, guide etc.
- Discussion in the same four groups on the interpretation of Heijo Palace site which celebrated
1300th anniversary, followed by presentation.
Under the three themes (risk management, heritage interpretation, and visitor management) participants
wrote notes on memo pads regarding challenges and good practices in their own countries, and posted
them on the white board for presentation. Issues and current status on themes became apparent.

■ Writing Final Report (6 Oct.)
The participants wrote final reports of the training course.
■ Closing Ceremony (7 Oct.)The closing ceremony was held at Kasugano-so Hotel in the afternoon. Mr Nishimura, Director of
ACCU Nara, made the closing address and wished their newly acquired knowledge and techniquesfrom the training programme would bear fruit in the field of cultural heritage protection. Mr NAMBA
Yozo from NNRICP also made a speech and congratulated the successful completion of the training
programme and wished to cooperate for the sake of cultural heritage protection and research activities
together in the future even after they went back into their own countries. Then, Mr Nishimura awarded25

a certificate of completion to each participant with words of appreciation of their efforts. Mr Bhuvan
Vikrama from India and Ms Mary Grace D. Barretto-Tesoro made speeches and expressed theiracknowledgements and heart-felt gratitude for the organisers and lectures on behalf of all participantsby looking back one month training in Japan.

The closing address by Mr Nishimura

Ms Mary G. L. D. Barretto-Tesoro
from Philippines

The closing address by Mr Namba

Mr Bhuvan Vikramafrom India

26

Awarding a certificate of completion

Country Reports
by Participants

Country Reports by Participants

Bhutan
Tshering Namgyal
Deputy Executive Engineer / Project Manager
Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage Sites
Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restorationin Bhutan
Introduction
Although archaeological exploration of Bhutan has been limited, evidence of civilization in the region
dates back to at least 2000 B.C. Aboriginal Bhutanese, known as Monpa, are believed to havemigrated from Tibet. The traditional name of the country since the seventeenth century has been
Drukyul,meaning Land of the Drukpa (Dragon People) and also being a reference to the dominantbranch of Tibetan Buddhism that is still practiced in the Himalayan kingdom.
The earliest transcribed event in Bhutan was the passage of the Buddhist saint Padmasambhava (alsocalled Guru Rinpoche) in the eighth century. Bhutan's early history is unclear, because most of therecords were destroyed after fire ravaged Punakha, the ancient capital in 1827. By the tenth century,
Bhutan's political development was heavily influenced by its religious history. Various subsects of
Buddhism emerged which were patronized by Mongol and Tibetan overlords. After the decline of theMongols in the fourteenth century, these subsects vied with each other for supremacy in the politicaland religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the Drukpa subsect by the sixteenth
century.
For centuries, Bhutan was made up of feuding regions until it was unified under King Ugyen
Wangchuck in 1907. The British exerted some control over Bhutan's affairs, but never colonized thecountry. Until the 1960s, Bhutan was largely isolated from the rest of the world, and its people carriedon a tranquil, traditional way of life based on farming and trading, which had remained intact for
centuries. After China invaded Tibet, however, Bhutan strengthened its ties and contacts with India inan effort to avoid Tibet's fate. New roads and other connections to India began to end its isolation. In
the 1960s, Bhutan also undertook social modernization, abolishing slavery and the caste system,
emancipating women, and enacting land reform. In 1985, Bhutan made its first diplomatic links with
non-Asian countries.
Bhutan, the hermit kingdom, the land of the thunder dragon, has been and still is one of the most
reclusive countries in the world. Until a few decades ago, its geography made the country inaccessible.
After the abdication of the last Druk Desi (a civil administrative leader) in 1904, the establishment of
the monarchy in 1907 replaced the Buddhist clergy with the king, who was invested with full authority,

129

both religious and secular. The third king began major political, social and economic reforms, whichwere continued by the fourth king. The fourth king appears to have been a rare example of anenlightened, benevolent monarch who ceded responsibility to the parliament, abdicated in favor of hisson, insisted on the drafting of a constitution, discussed political affairs inside and outside of thecountry, proposed the unprecedented formation of political parties, and decided to hold the first freeelections in 2008. He even wrote Bhutan’s novel contribution to economics, the concept of “Gross
National Happiness,” into the new constitution. All in all, Bhutan presents itself as a very unusual statein transformation, since the transformation is not the outcome of an internal uprising, a breakdown of
the old order, war or international pressure, but rather stems from the realization that the country has
to adapt to the demands of modernity.
We have over two thousand temples and monasteries scattered in every corner of the country. There is
not a single village without a temple. The monastery is the focal point of religious and culturalactivities in the Bhutanese village, where people gather for annual religious festivals and for public
meetings. On the average, each of Bhutan’s twenty provinces has around a hundred monasteries. Mostof the monasteries in the village belong to the local community while the rest normally belong to thegovernment.
The majority of the monasteries date back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but many havetheir roots as far back as the seventh and eighth centuries. The Semtokha Dzong, built in 1629, is theoldest dzong (monastery-fortress) in the country. As the first dzong built by the Zhabdrung Ngawang
Namgyal, who established the dual system of administrative and religious rule, the Semtokha Dzong
was a symbolic establishment of the political and religious authority of the Zhabdrung in Bhutan in theearly seventeenth century. Two Portuguese Jesuit priests, the first known European travelers to Bhutan,
visited the Semtokha Dzong during its construction on their way to Tibet in 1629.
Both in form and design, as monastery architecture, the dzong is one of the most elegant andharmonious examples of fortress building in the world. Though massive, Bhutanese dzong architecture
is not heavy, having both form and elegance and a rare blending of harmony and proportion.
Protection and restoration activity in Bhutan usually involves architectural or engineering heritage
assets such as dzongs and other heritage buildings. Bhutan has a number of different forms ofprotection for buildings and structures, including ancient monuments. Dzongs and other structures areprotected by the Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage Sites of the Department ofCulture. Successful heritage management for a building generally requires that it continue to be used,
as unused buildings are likely to deteriorate quickly. If the purpose for which the building was
originally constructed is no longer viable, then other uses, often requiring sympathetic modification,must be found.
Heritage sites such as the Trongsa Dzong, or its watchtower Ta Dzong, can best be understood, andare most easily accessed and experienced, by the public when they are in operational condition.

230

Moreover, the heritage skills associated with such heritage assets, such as visiting a Gonkhang (sacredchapel), can only be maintained if the temple is used. Restoration to a working, if not pristinecondition, and creation of exact working replicas are therefore part of the practice of heritage
management.

Problems in Cultural Heritage Protection
For Bhutanese cultural heritage, agents of deterioration include physical, chemical and biologicalfactors, which require environmental monitoring and control of temperature, relative humidity, light,
atmospheric pollutants, and so forth. But there are problems in the preservation of wooden, rammedmud, and stone architectural heritage structures besides such physical factors or natural calamities. We
also face problems from the end users, as the conservation of cultural heritage has always been part ofthe people’s life, even though the idea of conservation has been introduced in Bhutan as a new andmodern concept. Bhutanese people practiced the preservation and restoration of their cultural heritage
over many centuries, and as a result we see the great dzongs, monasteries and monuments standing
today.
But popularly held attitudes are a problem all over the globe for the conservation and protection ofhistoric monuments as edifices of living culture, and they contribute to making it an uphill task forconservation workers in our country as well. It is common experience for architects, engineers, andmanagers, given the task of implementing conservation projects, to meet with negative reactions andsubstantial interference, starting from the top decision makers on down to the general public and end
users of heritage sites. The general public and end users (who are monks in case of Ta Dzong inTrongsa) always prefer newly constructed buildings to more dingy, older conserved structures, as
places for living. The Royal Government of Bhutan always emphasizes the importance of balance
between economic growth and preservation of the country's rich ancient cultural and spiritual heritage,
but the problem is that policy makers and the clergy need to be educated more fully on the value ofconservation and restoration.
I would like to cite an example from my experience in Trongsa Dzong and Ta Dzong renovation
projects. The people from the community and the monks always insist on new timber components
being used, rather than having the old ones restored and reused. End users always ask why, whenfunds are available, all components are not being replaced with new materials, as funds may not be
available in the future so there may not be another opportunity to do so. It is like saying “old is gold,
but new is better.” This is just one problem we face along with hundreds of others while carrying out
the protection and restoration of ancient monuments in our country. Additional problems involve, forexample, Buddhist beliefs and practices which contradict with the ethics of modern conservation.
We often end up having to explain definitions of restoration and conservation to the clients. The
following concrete definitions have to be understood before we begin with the work. Restoration is a3
31

process of carrying on alterations and repairs to a building with the intention of restoring it to its
original form, often involving reinstatement of missing or badly damaged parts, so it usually includes
replication, meaning a new work in an old style. While often necessary after a disaster, it is generally
regarded as more drastic than conservation, which suggests retention, repair, and maintenance. Let mequote an example from the European point of view. It says “Although architects such as Boito urgedthat ‘restoration’ should be less comprehensive and destructive, many churches were altered to makethem conform to what was regarded as their ‘original’ state: this often involved the removal of
Baroque and other accretions (even whole façades) and their replacement with conjectural designs.”
A further problem we face at heritage sites or conservation projects in Bhutan is that most of ourheritage sites are living monuments, with the exception of some ruins. Clergy, and caretaker residents
who reside in these heritage buildings, undeniably pose many threats to these structures. Anotherfactor is due to usage of the structures, as there is much wear and tear from an increasing population ofresident monks and visitors. Also, almost all of the dzongs, monasteries, temples and other heritagebuildings are made of stone, rammed mud, and wood, etc., and have poor qualities of water resistance.
The management of water, sewage, waste, and fire is generally very poor and constitutes a major issue
and pertinent challenge to all our heritage buildings.

Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection
Bhutan has numerous ways of identifying and protecting important heritage places. Decisions about
managing heritage places are carried out under relevant laws at all levels of government. The Division
for Conservation of Architectural Heritage Sites, of the Department of Culture, is responsible foradministering the key national heritage law.
In the course of working as an engineer and Project Manager at Trongsa Dzong and Ta Dzong for overa decade, I have come to understand that instead of preaching dos and don’ts of conservation to thepeople and end users, it would be better at the initial stage of every project if we undertake to makethem aware of how to take care of such structures, which will eventually help in prolonging the life ofthese structures in our country.
There is a great need for a law, which could be titled the “Immovable Cultural Heritage Protection
Act,” which would take care of all cultural heritage in the country. UNESCO has such an international
act in place, but we do not have a similar national act, which should coordinate with the international
one. The following are the some of the requirements for our country:a) National Heritage Laws. We need to compile a national heritage list, which will record the placesof outstanding heritage value of our nation, including important monuments which are in ruins. These
places are to be protected under the Bhutan Government's national heritage laws.

432b) Managing National Heritage Sites. The way in which a national heritage site is managed can
impact the value as heritage of that place. The Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage
Sites has expertise and tools available to assist site managers, to ensure that this value is protected andpreserved for future generations. We need to work together for managing national heritage sites andneed to create user-friendly documents, which will explain the management process for places
included on the national heritage list. We should have proper guidelines, which will be referred towhen necessary.
c) Caring for National Heritage Sites. National heritage sites are owned and managed under a rangeof tenures and arrangements. For example some places are privately owned while a statutory authority
manages others. We need to create a proper system of care for national heritage sites in Bhutan.
d) Applying National Heritage Management Principles. Owners, managers and decision makers
should understand the heritage value of the sites listed, and observe the national heritage management
principles when preparing and implementing management plans and programs.
e) Developing Management Plans. A management plan helps to guide daily management issues, andassist in the decision-making and approval processes. It is recommended that all national heritage sites
develop a management plan. All relevant staff and those involved in the management of the placeshould be trained in the use and implementation of the management plan.
f) Making a Referral. Persons having responsibility for a proposed action need to make anassessment to decide whether or not the proposed action is likely to have a significant adverse impact
on the national heritage value of the place. If so, that action should be referred to higher authorities fora decision. Since Bhutan is a developing country, we need to have such a referral system in place.
g) Finding Assistance. A heritage professional can assist in the preparation of a management plan andthe assessment of potential impact of proposed actions on heritage value. Informal advice can also be
sought from the Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage Sites, Department of Culture,
Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs, of the Royal Government of Bhutan.

Conclusion
In conclusion I would like to emphasis the need for a continued focus on the problems and needs for
cultural heritage protection and restoration activities in Bhutan. These problems and needs include
survey and documentation, interventions, legal protections, and a continuous process of monitoringand maintenance of the cultural heritage in Bhutan.

533

Cambodia
PHOEUNG Dara
Technical Officer / Archaeologist, Office of Archaeology in Angkor Park
Department of Conservation of Monuments in Angkor Park and Preventive Archaeology
APSARA Authority

Neak Poan Temple and Archaeological Research
I. Neak Poan temple
1. Location
The Neak Poan temple is located in the northeast part of the Angkor area, in Nokor Thom district,
Siem Reap province (Fig. 1). It is 2.5 km due east of Preah Khan temple and 2 km west of Ta Som
temple, and its entrance is from the road running east-west between these two monuments. The pathleads south from that road for 300 m to Neak Poan temple. Neak Poan temple is in the outermost Zone
1 at Angkor, which contains the most significant archaeological sites in the country and therefore
deserves the highest level of protection. This temple is one of 91 temples inscribed on the World
Heritage List in 1992.

Neak Poan temple

Baray

Baray Yasothara
Baray Toeuk Thla

Angkor Thom

Angkor Want temple

1. Map of Angkor Zone

34

2. History
Neak Poan temple (Fig. 3) is one of the temples built by King Jayavarman VII (1125–1215) in the late
twelfth century, and is dedicated to the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara of Mahayana Buddhism (Fig. 8).
This unusual small monument (pronounced ‘Pouan,’ which designates a cruciform arrangement ofponds with a sanctuary tower on a circular island in the middle) is a highly symbolic structure sittingin the middle of the Jayatataka Baray, or reservoir (3,500 m by 900 m), on what was formerly an
island (Fig. 2); it may represent the sacred Himalayan lake of Anavatapta. This lake was famous for its
miraculous healing properties and as the source of four great bodies of water issuing through themouths of a lion, an elephant, a horse and a man. However, this Buddhist symbolism only came later,
during a period of rebuilding, and it was originally a royal Hindu site, named in an inscription of Preah
Khan temple as Rajyasri (Fortune of the Kingdom). At the end of the thirteenth century, the Chinese
envoy Zhou Daguan gave a number of other aspects of this monument: “The northern lake lies one
and a quarter miles to the north of the walled city. At its centre stands a square tower of gold withseveral dozen stone rooms. If you are looking for gold lions, bronze elephants, bronze oxen, bronze
horses, here is where you will find them.”

2. Aerial photo of Jayatataka Baray and Neak Poan temple

3. Baray and Neak Poan temple, 1940

4. Neak Poan temple, 200935

Some historians believe that Neak Poan temple indeed represents Anavatapta, the mythical lake in the
Himalayas whose waters are thought to cure all illness. Neak Poan temple was originally designed for
medical purposes, as it is one of the many hospitals that Jayavarman VII built. It is based on theancient Hindu belief of balance. Four connected pools represent Water, Earth, Fire and Wind. People
believed that going into these pools would balance these elements in the bather, thus curing disease. In
the middle of the four healing ponds is the central water source. There is a statue of Balaha(Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva transformed into a horse, Fig. 7), as a symbol for preventing drowning.

6. One of the four small chapels

5. Neak Poan temple, 2009

7. The horse, Balaha

8. Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara statue on the north36

3. Architectural plan
The artificial island, on which Neak Poan temple and its surrounding ponds are located, symbolicallymarks the center of Jayatataka Baray, which is associated with Preah Khan temple. The investigation
carried out for the monumental part of this island was based on observations made by Henri Marchal(Figs. 9-10) and Maurice Glaize (Fig. 11) during the clearance and conservation. This unit includes asmall Prasat (temple) dominating a circular base enclosed by the two entwined nagas giving thecurrent name to complex. This symbolic small island is surrounded by square platforms with banks ofsandstone steps at each cardinal point and chapels, opening on a platform of smaller dimensions. This
unit is supplemented by four other laterite chapels that cannot be measured for reason of the nature of
their materials.

9. Neak Poan as observed by H. Marchal

10. Neak Poan, tentative reconstruction

The architectural history of this monument can be divided into two stages. The central sanctuary, inthe first stage, lacked its current corner motifs and false doors. The platform supporting this firstversion of the central Prasat, already circular but less prominent, was perhaps surrounded by theprincipal basins. It is during the second period of construction that the secondary basins with theirchapels were constructed.

11. Plan of Neak Poan temple

12. One of the four small ponds
37

The architectural decoration of the central sanctuary enables us to place the original stage of thismonument at the beginning of the first half of the Bayon temple style, when only the major part of Ta
Prohm temple and center of Preah Khan temple were present.
Like the West Baray and East Baray, each with of which has its Mebon, the baray of Preah Khan was
designed with an island temple in its middle. Although the Jayatataka Baray is now dry, the island wasof substantial size, at 300 m square. At its centre is the main pond, 70 m square, with four smaller
ponds, each 25 m square, joined to it at the cardinal points. In the centre of the main pond, a tiny
circular island 14 m in diameter supports a sanctuary tower. Surrounding these parts of the complex
were perhaps other ponds, now dry.
4. Symbolism
Dedicated to the Mahayana Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the form of Neak Poan temple is modeled on
the famous site of Anavatapta in Buddhist cosmology. Healing waters flowed out from the lake in the
cardinal directions, through fountainheads in the forms of a lion, an elephant, a horse and a human, thesame four creatures found upon the drum of the famous Sarnath lion capital. At the center of Neak
Poan is a square pond, and in its middle is small, circular stone tower, on a round stepped plinth, inturn encircled by two nagas, their raised heads facing east and their entwined tails to the west. The
whole is surrounded by four smaller ponds, connected by water spouts, which are in the heads of ahorse (Fig. 15), an elephant (Fig. 14), a lion (Fig. 16), and a human (Fig. 13). The latter head may be
another instance of Jayavarman using his own features, a practice already much in evidence
throughout Angkor.

13. Human

14. Elephant

15. Horse

16. Lion

It would appear that a Buddhist priest, standing on the steps that enter the central pond, poured sacred
water by hand into a spout, which then flowed out through the carved heads and down upon theworshippers, who stood below, inside small chapels, not visible to the priest. The devotees stood uponor sat on pairs of carved, stone feet, directly beneath the heads, to receive the sanctified and healing
wasters.
5. Ritual of the Treatments
The ancient temples that have survived until now are parts of functioning religious temples, and theirreligious meanings are of great significance. We can generally say that a Prasat, or temple, is viewed
as a settlement of the gods. So people built various temples for their villages and cities in order to38

conduct festivals in front of the gods. Another reason is that human beings cannot meet the gods inheaven for prayer, so humans made sculptures of the gods and built the temples close by, so they could
offer prayers.
The Neak Poan temple has a different architectural plan from other temples. It is of interest not only tohistorians of architecture, but to tourists and villagers as well. The structural plan of the Neak Poan
temple is a central tower surrounded by water in rainy season, with medicinal trees.
In Preah Khan temple’s inscription (census number k. 908), describes Neak Poan temple in the fortyfirst phrase as follows: “There exists one flamboyant glamorous and outstanding islet rising in the
middle of a big pond surrounded with other small ponds where all sin, vice, blemishes, are cleansed
and washed away.” Researchers have always interpreted this inscription as meaning that Neak Poan
was a place for curing all kinds of sickness. The water emerge from the four gargoyles carved in theform of a human head on the eastern pediment, a lion’s head on the southern pediment, a horse’s headon the western pediment and an elephant’s head on the northern pediment. In line with Indian myth,
the archaeological scholars considered the water spurting out of the gargoyles as symbolizing thewaters of the four major rivers flowing from the Himalayas. These four rivers were seen as originatingin paradise, and amongst them is the famous Ganges river. Even in the present day, people of India
come to this river to bathe, and to clean away sin and vice.

17. People praying to Avalokitesvara

18. People treating disease?

19. People praying at the central tower

20. Items used for prayer

39

The temple was also constructed in accordance with a myth which today only a few people know. This
epic describes a group of merchants who suffered an accidental shipwreck, and were cheated by agroup of female giants on an island. All of the merchants were saved by Avalokitesvara in the form of
a horse. It should be emphasized that Avalokitesvara is a major deity in Mahayana Buddhism.
Avalokitesvara has the duty to save and assist human beings (Figs. 17-18). Sculptors portrayed thisMahayana Buddhist theme on the platforms of chapels at Jayavarman VII’s hospital. This implies thattreatment of diseases was important at that time. Besides Avalokitesvara, there is another Mahayana
deity, Bhaisaya Guru, who is a Buddha of medicine.
Up to the present day, local residents have never known the Mahayana Buddhist myth pertaining to
Neak Poan. But there is belief that the temple is effective in the treatment of disease (Figs. 19-20). For
example, we see four small laterite shrines built separately in each of the cardinal directions. They are
now almost covered completely with soil. These four shrines were called Prasat Hora, meaning“fortune teller shrines.” Local people came to the shrines to pray and to have the causes of theirdiseases, thought to lie in an imbalance among four basic elements, divined from their symptoms. The
local residents also believe that herbs growing in the temple have effective medicinal qualities. It is aphenomenon that all kinds of medicinal herbs in the Angkor area grow in the middle of ponds. For
instance, local villagers can find oil vine everywhere in Angkor, but they prefer to pick oil vine at the
Neak Poan temple rather than anywhere else, because they think the vine from Neak Poan is more
effective than that from other places. We also have many other medicinal plants (Khmer words for
medicinal herbs): voeur preng, eisei psom thnam, treal sva, tro yeung, kchas, voeur kuy, popel khe,kagn cheu baydach, svay kokit, prah dongkap, angkrong, sang kheur, treak, roveang, andat trokout,
trolom pe, chheu pleung, pong ro, chom bork, voeur meas, por preus, am pous, makak prei, angree
dark, kro boa, khnol prei, chrei kram, sro mor, kantout prei, ktom, kom phneang, agn chagn, khlengkong, ang kol, khchet, krolagn, prah komchat. All these names come from local people.
6. Iconography
The iconography of Neak Poan also reflects its Buddhist history. The circular island in the middle isencircled at its base by two nagas, their heads on its East side and their tails entwined on the west.

22. Tails of two nagas entwined behind the temple

21. Heads of two nagas in front of the temple

40

They seem to represent the naga kings Nanda and Upananda (Figs. 21-22), linked in Hindu mythology
with lake Anavatapta, and give the monument its modern name, which means “entwined serpents.”
The top of the circular steps that form the temple’s platform is ringed with lotus leaves. Another set,
inverted, forms the base of the tower.

23. East pediment: cutting of Siddartha’s hair
23. East pediment: cutting of Siddartha’s hair

24. North pediment: the “Great Departure”
24. North pediment: the “Great Departure”

25. West pediment: Buddha meditating under the
Bodhi
tree
25.
West
pediment: Buddha meditating

26. Statue of Avalokitesvara transformed into a
26. linga
Statue of Avalokitesvara transformed into a linga

under the Bodhi tree

The sanctuary opens to the east, with blind doors on the other three sides. Originally the temple wascruciform with doors opening on the all four sides. Later, three doors were closed and elephants placedat the corners, making the temple round. A standing Avalokitesvara is carved on each of the blinddoors. Above the one facing north, whose head was recently stolen in 1995, the pediment shows the“Great Departure” (Fig. 24). On the east pediment is the cutting of Siddartha’s hair (Fig. 23), on thewest pediment is the Buddha in meditation under the Bodhi tree (Fig. 25), while that on the south isunrecognizable. The tower itself is in the shape of a pointed arch, topped with a lotus bud. Just east of
the island, the statue of a flying horse rises from the water. Clinging to its tail and its flanks is a groupof men. Although unfinished, the horse is clearly Balaha, one of the forms taken by the compassionate

41

Bodhisattva Avaokitesvara, and in this instance he is helping seafaring merchants escape from an
island inhabited by female giants. Balaha also appears in the hidden part of the terrace of the Elephants
in Angkor Thom. Stone images are found on the other three sides of the island: a statue of Vishnu to
the west, some lingas to the south, and an unrecognizable image to the north.
Four small chapels link the main pond with the smaller ones; only their vaulted roofs appear above thelevel of the terrace surrounding the pond, and these are decorated with pediments and half-pedimentswith standing Avalokitesvara figures. But one of the statues of Avalokitesvara was transformed into alinga (Fig. 26) during the reign of King Jayavarman VIII. Within each chapel, water poured by a priest
from above into a central spout passes through a conduit to emerge from a mouth, in the eastern chapelin the form of a man’s face, and the others are a lion in the southern chapel, a horse in the west, and anelephant in the north.

II. Archaeological Research
On 28-30 July 1995, the International Co-ordination Committee for the Safeguarding andDevelopment of the site of Angkor (ICC) discussed and made recommendations about Angkor andwater. Mr. Fournier, the Reporter General, presented these recommendations and the conclusions of
the workshops and of the plenary session. The Angkor temples occupy an exceptional place among
World Heritage sites. Therefore the Kingdom of Cambodia may consider tourism to continue being amajor source of revenue. However, while acting to conserve the relevant archaeological structures, it
should also simultaneously take into account the necessity of preserving the environment andmaintaining the natural resources, particularly the food resources, on which the population lives.
Furthermore, it is necessary to integrate the local population into the development of the region.
These considerations led to the organization of a colloquium, entitled “Angkor and Water,” held by
the Higher Council for National Culture of Cambodia, l’Ecole Francase d’Extreme-Orient, and
UNESCO, during which three working groups met to discuss the following: the management ofhydraulic systems in archaeological structures; the management of hydraulic systems in agricultural
structures; socio-economic constraints on the management of water. The three working groups also
issued specific recommendations on different themes they had discussed. These groups concentrated
their discussion on the three aspects of the enhancement of the barays (reservoirs), the canals andditches, and the stability of the monuments. But I would like to comment on the first aspect, theenhancement of the barays, which has relevance for various barays in the Angkor area, including theEast Baray (Yasodhara), the West Baray (Toeuk Thla), and especially Jayatataka Baray. In discussionsof baray enhancement, historical, sociological, pedagogical (understanding of the site), aesthetic(tourism), technological, and finally, hydrological issues were all addressed. For the Jayatataka Baray,
it was noted that from a historical point of view, this was the last hydraulic work built by King
Jayavarman VII, a fact that was part of the site’s historical coherence. From a sociological point ofview, there would be no problem in filling it with water, since there is no village there, it being
situated upstream from the site. Also, from a hydrological perspective, there are very few breaches in42

its dikes, and it has the advantage of having at its centre the particularly remarkable site of Neak Poan
temple, which would benefit from the reservoir being refilled. Finally, doing so would also be usefulfor agriculture. It was also recommended that Jayatataka Baray be filled with water with the intent ofreturning the baray to its original level, preferably by building up its dikes. Should difficulties ensue incarrying out this plan, then an alternative solution should be found. In order to carry out theserecommendations, it became necessary to have a project of archaeological excavation at Neak Poan
temple.
1. Archaeological Excavation at Neak Poan Temple
Neak Poan temple can be called a special building, constructed in the middle of a water reservoir
known as Jayatataka Baray (reservoir of Jayavarman VII, or Northern Baray), and it probably dried up
after the Angkor period. Thus the people who are living in the Angkor area call this water reservoir
Veal Raja Tadaka, meaning the field of the royal water reservoir. With support from the ICC, startingin 2007 the Apsara Authority tried to bring water from the outside and fill the baray as it had been in
ancient times. But in October 2007, while in the process of opening the water gate to allow the water
to flow into the baray, there was a storm called Ketsana hitting some parts of Cambodia, including alarge part of Siem Reap province. This storm brought too much water, causing floods in some placesin the Angkor region with high levels of water. The water of the Northern Baray also irregularly
flooded, posing threats to the structures around the Neak Poan temple. In order to carry out this work,
to understand better the archaeological remains and especially the historical value of the temple, theDepartment of Archaeology in Angkor Park has planned a project of archeological excavation at the
Neak Poan temple site.
The members of the Department of Archaeology in Angkor Park conferred with members from Ecole
Française d’Extaime Orient (EFEO) about plans for the archaeological study of this temple site,making a special visit to the site with Mr. Eric Lopis (INRAP), who has given valuable assistance formany archaeological research and excavation projects in the Angkor area.
For the first stage of this work, it was important to make a topographic map of the area around thetemple, to help in understanding the functions of the general structures of Neak Poan temple and thearea around the temple, and in particular to know clearly about the evolution of the entire history of
the temple. Next, choices were made for the locations of excavation trenches and their positions werelaid out. This work was divided into two parts, namely, the locations for excavation at Neak Poan
temple, and locations for excavation inside the water reservoir (Jayadataka Baray).

Neak Poan Temple
Preah

Khan

Baray Jayadataka43

27. Trenches at Neak Poan temple

28. Trenches at Neak Poan temple

This year, 2010, we started excavating in the big pond at the central tower. We divided the work atfour trenches (H, I, J, K) among six archaeologists (Chhouk Somala and San Kosal at Trench H, Hou
Nolamony and Tho Thon at Trench I, Seng Chantha at Trench J, Phoeung Dara and Thoeurn Sokhon
at Trench K) and 40 workers. The purpose of excavation work at Trench J is to study the reasons fordamage to the pond (choosing as places for excavation spots near the steps of eastern pond, at thelocation of the horse in the central pond, and at the steps east of the central tower), and in Trenches I,
H, and K it is to study about the structures of the small chapels at these three places, where presently
many kinds of ancient objects and statues are stored separately (in Trench I there are many lingas,
Trench H is at a place used to store a reclining statue of the god Vishnu, while Trench K is at a placeused to store the statues’ supports).
2. Review of the Preliminary Results of Archaeological Excavation at Trench J
Trench J is located to the east of the central tower, between the tower and the staircase on the easternside of the central pond. It was set up in order to check the condition of the foundation of statue of thehorse Balaha, for future reconstruction by DMA. Originally the trench was opened 0.6 m wide by 1.5
m long. However, the buried laterite causeway connecting the tower to the eastern bank of the central
pond was found unexpectedly, so the trench was repeatedly enlarged in order to investigate its
structure, foundation system, and the condition of the causeway and its relationship with the temple.
The whole trench was divided in to three sections (A, B, C). A is located to the southwest, B to thenorthwest, and C located on the southeast side of the causeway (Fig. 28).

44

29. Trench J in front of the central tower
29. Trench J in front of the central tower

30. Foundation of the horse Balaha and the
30.ofFoundationof the horse Balaha and thecore
the causeway
core of the causeway

31. South side of the laterite causeway
31. South side of the laterite causeway

32. North side of the laterite causeway
32. North side of the laterite causeway

NEAK POAN

LEGEND

Cross Section S/N: Laterite

NP : 2010
Trench : J (East)
Scale : 1/20
Drawer : SAN Kosal: Sand stone: Foundation mass or core
: Rocks

Horse Balaha
0m

A
3a

2
3b

-85 cm1

3c-85 cm

2

3d

4

3e
3f

0m

B

1

5

3

4

6

7a
7b

5

7c
7d

6

8

7e
9

South

0m

1m

33. Profile of Trench J

45

North

ChinaMA Chaolong
Deputy Director / Assistant Professor
Longmen Grottoes Academy

Conservation Research Report on World Cultural Heritage:
Longmen Grottoes
The Longmen Grottoes, distributed on the cliffs along the banks of the Yi river to the south of
Luoyang, an ancient capital city in China, represent an extremely important part of the Chinese art ofstone carving, and a most splendid and glorious chapter of stone carving in world art. Developed
between the fifth and the eighth centuries, the grottoes are masterpieces situated between the early andmiddle periods of the history of Chinese stone carving. Standing on two hills today are 2,345 niches
housing more than 100,000 statues, and 2,800 steles with inscriptions containing more than 300,000
Chinese characters.

Picture 1. Bird's-eye view of Longmen
The Longmen Grottoes comprise one of the three major treasure houses in China of stone
inscription and art, and were inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2000. But they have also been
subjected for 1,500 years to many destructive forces, such as pollution, weathering, water leakage,
plant and animal growth, and collapsing rock. These adverse factors threaten the cultural relics’
long-term preservation, making it difficult for researchers working on the conservation and restorationof the Longmen Grottoes.

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46

Picture 2. Landscape of Longmenshan, the west mountain

IˊLocation and Environmental Context
The grottoes are carved on the cliffs at Longmen along the banks of the Yi river, where the two
mountains Xiangshan (to the east) and Longmenshan (to the west) stand facing each other. Seen from a
distance, they appear to form a natural gate, where the Yi flows northward through a gorge. The stone islimestone from the Middle and Upper Cambrian eras, and is of medium hardness, suitable for carving.
The stone is characteristically soluble, however, especially in the presence of carbon dioxide and water.
The area has a temperate continental monsoon climate, with distinct seasons, excellent natural
surroundings, and suitable temperatures. The average rainfall amount and temperature are 593 mm and14.5º, based on long-term data.
IIˊMain Problems of Conservation
For over 1,500 years, the Longmen Grottoes have sustained destruction from human forces as well as
natural disasters. The grottoes face many problems. For example, some rocks are badly corroded, andPicture 3. Indistinct, weathered carving

Picture 4. Weathered carving

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47

some sculptures covered with coatings of calcite from the limestone. Exposure to rain and the resulting
weathering of the rocks, plus the growth of wild grass and trees are also serious problems. As a result,cracks can be seen in the rock at the bases of the caves, with water leaking through some of thecrevices, and in some places the rock has collapsed. The surface of the sculptures is also deteriorated
and damaged. This weathering of the carvings is a serious problem at the Longmen Grottoes, as thecrusting, peeling, or other types of changes caused by weathering are most harmful to the cultural
relics. It is impossible for us to root out damage from weathering, but we can improve theenvironmental conditions of the grottoes to slow its speed.
IIIˊTreatments and Measures Used for Conservation
Ever since the 1970s, planned conservation and restoration projects have been initiated andimplemented. Reinforcement with steel riveting has been used to strengthen the rocks, a seep-proof
layer of cement was applied on the top of the caves, plank pathways and staircases for touring havebeen repaired and constructed, and enclosures along the sides of sites needing protection have been set
up. Various engineering conservation plans have been used experimentally in trying to solve theproblems mentioned above. However, no specific methods have been found that provide permanent or
long-term conservation and management for the caves with regard to mass displacement of rock,leaking in the caves, or weathering on the surface of the sculptures. Meanwhile, it is hoped that further
research will secure the durability of the previous strengthening by steel riveting and water-proof

Picture 6. The biggest Buddha after restoration

Picture 5. The biggest Buddha before restoration

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layers of cement. This would give a fundamental guarantee for the security of the Longmen Grottoes.
Thereafter, further research can be carried out by the conservation staff at Longmen with regard tocave water leakage and the weathering of the stone sculptures.
Since 1991 we have carried out large-scale renovation projects in the surroundings of theLongmen Grottoes, demolishing unharmonious buildings in the protection zone, and closing limekilns
and quarries, steps made when applying for status as world cultural heritage for the Longmen Grottoes,
which was successful. Subsequently the Luoyang government has made the World Heritage Site thefocus of a new start, and has continued strengthening its investment in the renovation of thesurroundings. Two bridges over the Yi river were built to the north and south, outside the protection
zone, which drastically improved the problem of automobiles passing through. In April 2003 further
shielding of the protection zone was carried out, realizing a promise to UNESCO. The surroundings
and environment quality have thus changed greatly.
From 2002-08, the UNESCO Conservation and Restoration Project for the Longmen Grottoes
was conducted as aid given gratis by UNESCO, utilizing the “Japanese Entrusted Funds for theConservation of Cultural Heritage” for its operation. It consisted of cooperation between China, Japanand UNESCO, with the purpose of carrying out conservation and restoration work on the Longmen
Grottoes. The total investment in the project was 1.25 million U.S dollars. The Project was officiallysigned in November 2001 and brought into effect in January 2002. It divided into two periods. The
focus of the first period (2002-05) was the collection of topographic and geological survey data, themapping and monitoring of the grotto environment and damage, and experimental work involving
materials and technology. In the second period (2006-08), major efforts were devoted to conservation
and restoration work in three experimental caves. At present all work has been successfully completed,and has resulted in significant achievements.

Picture 7. Leakproof cement shelf

Picture 8. Leakproof wooden shelf

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IVˊClassification of Natural Damage at the Longmen Grottoes
As a huge site of immovable heritage, the Longmen Grottoes have been subject to various types ofnatural damage for ages. Classification of this damage has been difficult but important basic work.
Having been studied for years, the natural damage at Longmen Grottoes can be grouped into three
categories: the collapse of the statues and rock around the caves and niches, water leaking into thecaves, and weathering of the sculptures. Each of these consists of several subtypes. We have searched
for accurate descriptions and definitions of these various types. It turns out that the classification ofsuch damage has played a significant role in the conservation of the Longmen Grottoes.
AˊCOLLAPSE OF STATUES AND ROCK AROUND CAVES AND NICHESThis is a type of major natural damage. After 1,500 years, in many cases the rock around the caves andniches has been lost. Due to the development of crevices, blocks of rock become isolated from theparent rock on the cliffs. After some time, these isolated blocks fall down of their own weight, or due
to the ground shaking. For these reasons, many statues have lost their heads, arms, hands or other partsof their bodies. Sometimes parts of the statues themselves collapse. The damage can be divided into
the following subtypes.
1. Loss. Medium or large parts such as the heads, hands, arms, legs, etc. are lost. It is impossible
to restore such losses.
2. Rupture. Wide cracks have split the rock into two or three parts, but it has not fallen off yet.
3. Separation. A piece has a tendency to fall off, always for small parts linked to the rock massor base.
4. Detachment. Parts of rocks or statues have become isolated.
BˊWATER LEAKING INTO THE CAVES
Cause of leaking water. The Longmen Grottoes were excavated in cliffs of carbonate rock on two
mountains, Xiangshan and Longmenshan, along the banks of the Yi river. The rock is composed ofstrata of dolostones and limestone of the Middle to Upper Cambrian, and the Upper Cambrian layers
can be divided into deep and massive layers of fine-crystalline, micro-crystalline, and reef shoal
dolostones, while the Middle Cambrian strata divide into thinner layers of soil and zebra limestone andreef shoal limestone. Most of caves and sculptures were excavated in the middle and upper part of the
deep and massive layers of fine-crystalline and micro-crystalline dolostones from the Upper Cambrian,as well as reef shoal limestone and the soil and zebra limestone of the Middle Cambrian. The mineralcomposition of the rock where the caves are located is uniform, with high mechanical intensity, good
durability, but with dissolubility. Even though the rock itself is impervious to water, a lattice
percolation network has been formed by the development of many kinds of cracks, such as layer
cracks, unloading cracks, weathering and tectonic cracks, which intersect each other. This network has
become a path for seepage, providing access for the entry of rainfall. Almost all large and medium

550

caves in the Longmen Grottoes have problems of leaking water to various degrees, some being very
severe such as Qianxi Temple Cave, Wanfo Cave and Kanjing Cave, etc. After careful research, it has
been confirmed that layer cracks and unloading cracks are the main causes for leaking water in caves
at the Longmen Grottoes.

Picture 9. Leaking water on the Wanfo Cave roof

Picture 10. Standing water on the floor of Wanfo Cave

Picture 11. Leaking water running through cracks on

Picture 12. Biological growth on the floor, caused by

the north walls, inside Ludong Cavewater dripping from the roof of Yaofang Cave

Damage from leaking water. The carbonate rock where the caves are located is susceptible to erosion
caused by leaking water. Rain seeps into the caves through tectonic and layer cracks, eroding the rocksurfaces along the sides of the cracks, enlarging them into wider gutters and troughs. It directly
destroys the sculptures. It can also leave sediments on surfaces of the cave walls and sculptures, theresidue of a slurry of dissolved limestone which covers the cave walls and sculptures so badly that
their artistic value is unrecognizable. Percolating water can also increase the humidity inside themini-environment after entering the caves, accelerating the condensation of water in the summer, sothat salt inside the sculptures is drawn out by the water and crystallizes with the change between ahumid and a dry environment. These various problems together accelerate the breakup of connections
between rock granules at the surface, leading to an expansion of cracks, and resulting in damage to the

651sculptures, such as surface cracking, flaking, and separation of matter, etc. After entering into caves,the percolating water, together with gaseous carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, cause
hydration, oxidation and acidification on sculpture surfaces, and can result in surfaces disintegrating to
the point of becoming unrecognizable. Percolating water also runs into the sculptures and provides
conditions for the growth of microorganisms, and acids created during the growth and decompositionof these microorganisms accelerate the disintegration and loss of recognizable features at the surface.
According to measurements of percolated water, its ph value in the presence of microorganisms is in
the slightly acidic range, from 5.6 to 6.2. Its erosive effect on the sculptures cannot be neglected.
Damage from leaking water mainly includes the following.
1. Deposition of dissolved limestone. Limestone dissolved by water is left upon evaporation as alayer covering the walls and sculptures in the caves, rendering many of the statues or small
niches no longer visible.
2. Microorganisms. Microorganisms grow at areas around the points where water leaks in,making those portions disharmonious with the rest of the walls and statues.
3. Erosion. Leaking water erodes the surface of the rocks and statues continuously, making thesesurfaces fragile and weak.
4. Stains. Discolorations left by water on the surfaces of rock and statues, making those areas
disharmonious with the rest of the grottoes.

Picture 14. A Buddha eroded by water and dust

Picture13. Carvings covered with sediment

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CˊWEATHERING OF SCULPTURES AND STELES
The weathering of sculptures and steles, which is familiar and serious, especially in the southern partof grottoes, is far more difficult to resolve. Geologically speaking, the weathering is caused by suchfactors as rainwater, solar radiation, wind, temperature difference, organisms, etc. The weathering
appears first on statues and steles exposed to sunlight, wind and rain, and later becomes visible on
statues in the caves. Damage from weathering can be divided into the following sub types.
1. Exfoliation. All or part of the surface of rocks separate gradually from the parent rock, usually
parallel to the surface. Such loss cannot be restored. According to its morphology, exfoliation
can be subdivided into many types, such as flaking, scale, granular, powder, banded, etc.
2. Dissolution. Dissolving of the surface, in either a uniform manner or unevenly, or limited to aparticular spot producing a solution hole.
3. Fracturing. The appearance at the surface of fissures or micro-fissures.
4. Pitting. This is formed by the action of wind and water on rocks over thousands of years.
5. Nicking. Various marks made on the surface, independent of carving and molding, usuallyfrom manmade behavior.
6. Encrustation. This may be caused by the crystallization of a carbonate from within the rock,or through efflorescence from the deposition of soluble material brought to it.
7. Discoloration. This may be the result of oxidization or rainfall, or soiling from any type ofpollution on the surface, including rusty spots, oil stains, ink marks, organic secretions, andother chemical materials, etc.
8. Surface deposits. This may be from falling dust or the activities of organisms, which are easy
to clear up by gentle mechanical actions, or a harder crust or film, caused by falling dust oracid rain.

Picture 15. Ink mark853

VˊFactors Affecting the Longmen Grottoes in the Future
AˊDEVELOPMENT PRESSURESThe Longmen Grottoes are located in an agricultural and forested region. There are many
development-related activities, such as the leveling of hills, quarrying, mining, logging, grazing,storing inflammables and explosives, which could pose a threat in this region. Since the demarcationof the zone for the protection of the Longmen Grottoes in 1962, those activities are strictly controlled.
In 1983, a wider zone restricting construction (for greater protection) was demarcated. In this zone, nofacilities that may endanger the safety of the cultural relics shall be constructed, nor any buildings or
structure disharmonious with the environmental features of the sites to be protected for their historicaland cultural value. It is also strictly forbidden to cut the forests, reclaim waste land, mine, conduct
explosions, level the hills, or quarry in this zone.
BˊENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESThe Longmen Grottoes are located in a mountainous area in western Henan province, and on thesouthern edge of the Heluo basin. Based on years of monitoring, the area in which the Longmen
Grottoes sit is known to have the following environmental conditions.

Picture 16. Ice freezing

Climate. With a northern temperate continental monsoon climate, Longmen has four clearly
demarcated seasons. Characteristic of this climate is a cold winter with little rain or snow, dry andwindy conditions in spring, a hot and comparatively rainy summer, and fine weather with longsunshine in autumn. The average annual temperature is 14.5º, with the average hottest monthly
temperature 27.4º and the average coldest monthly temperature being -0.5º. As for humidity, it is 75%
in the hottest month and 63% in the coldest month, averaging 65% annually. Total annual rainfall is

954593 mm (averaged over many years), of which 60% falls in summer. The most rainfall in atwenty-four hour period is 105 mm, and the greatest hourly rainfall is 39.1 mm. There are 200 frost
free days and 28.3 thunderstorms in a year. The absolute highest ground temperature is 69º. The
greatest wind power is force 8. As described above, the monsoons and wide temperature range cause
frequent expansion and shrinkage of the rocks, and can easily lead to the intensification of theweathering of the carvings at Longmen.
Atmospheric conditions and environmental quality. The average annual value of sulfur dioxide was
0.038 mg/m3 and that of nitrogen dioxide was 0.027 mg/m3. The ph value of rainfall is 6.19 on the
average. Air pollutants resulting from industrial development may increase the acidity of rainfall,
thereby worsening the corrosion of the surfaces of the carvings and the rocks on which they standfrom the water leaking into the caves. This will not be helpful in protecting the grottoes. What is
encouraging, however, is that the Longmen Grottoes are located in an area with a comparatively large
cover of forest and vegetation, and comparatively little industrial pollution. Thanks also to years ofeffort at environmental improvement, the air and environmental quality are fairly good.
Environmental vibration. Among the threats in the surrounding environment, the Longmen Grottoes
are exposed to vibration from the movement of trains and automobiles, which has a large impact upon
the safety of the cultural relics. As for the re-routing of the highways, the People’s Government of
Luoyang City constructed two highways in 2003, away from the zone marked for the protection of theLongmen Grottoes.
CˊNATURAL DISASTERS AND PREPAREDNESSThere are no earthquakes or wind storms in the area where the Longmen Grottoes are located, withfloods being the only natural disaster. Passing the Longmen valley from the south to the north, the Yi
river flows 1 km through the grottoes on the two hills. During flooding seasons in summer, the waterin the river rises, sometimes reaching 0.5 m above the sightseeing paths. A few caves become flooded.
In order to reduce the leaking of the caves and the washing of the carvings by rainfall during rainyseasons, leakproof cement and steel plates have now been laid and drainage ditches have been built
atop the grottoes.
The growth of wild grass and tree roots has led to the expansion of crevices in the rocks, and has
worsened the problem of leaking in the caves. In order to control the situation, the trees and wild grassthat grow around the caves, which may endanger the safety of the caves and statues, are cleared on aregular basis.

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Picture 17. The river overflowing its banks

Picture 18. Flood water reaches the carvings

Picture 19. Animal damage

Picture 20. Plant damage

DˊVISITOR/TOURISM PRESSURESAs a tourist resort since ancient times, Longmen receives continuous flows of visitors all the time. It
ranks first in China in terms of the number of tourists received by a grotto site. The cumulative numberof tourists, calculated from 2000, reached 1.6 million in 2009.
Most tourists come to Longmen in spring or autumn when the temperature is comparatively
lower than that in summer. Since most of the statues remain in the caves where the temperature ismore stable than outside, and protective railing has been set up around all grottoes to prevent the
tourists entering the caves, an increase in the number of tourists will not add pressure to the carved
artistic works, although it may raise the temperature somewhat.

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VIˊMain Conservation Tasks at Present
For a long period, we had focused our efforts on conservation for rescue. In recent years, we have been
more concerned with daily maintenance and engineering conservation. These tasks receive most of ourattention each year. As a result, the grottoes are in a good and stable condition. However, much further
research is necessary to resolve challenges such as the weathering of statues, water seeping into thecaves, and the need to increase tourist capacity. As a result of the inscription on the World Heritage
List by UNESCO, international and bilateral collaboration has become more and more frequent, andeffective projects such as the UNESCO Conservation and Restoration Project for the Longmen
Grottoes, carried out over a period of several years, have played a significant role alongside civil
collaboration projects. Benefiting from this, the seven members of our staff have all attended different
training courses or other study opportunities at various times over these years. However, due ashortage of funds, we have been unsuccessful for a number of years in having a specialized laboratory
established. A simple and low-grade lab is unsuitable for the growing demands of conservation andrestoration work. So we applied two years ago for a soft loan from Italy to establish a modern specializedlaboratory. When it is completed in two more years’ time, we will have a brand new, advanced and modern
specialized laboratory for conservation and restoration work.

Picture 21. Maintenance work on the Vairocana Buddha (17.14 m tall)

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Picture 22. Water leakage control project, Qianxisi Cave

Picture 23. Environmental monitoring station

Picture 24. Leaking water monitoring

According to the complexity and nature of the work, we have routinely carried out many
comprehensive projects and plans that consist of interdisciplinary collaboration. From this I have gainedmuch experience and various kinds of scientific knowledge involved. In addition, many different
difficulties have been met and solutions prepared relevant to my working environment: for instance, how tobuild up a complete and systematic working record of conservation; how to link archival records,
environmental monitoring, and damage investigation with final treatments and assessments in acomprehensive fashion; how to consolidate and restore strongly-weathered layers on the surface of statues

1358

in the open air.
More difficult work requires us to make decisions on up-to-date tasks. What should be done and what
can be done for conservation? What techniques and treatments should be applied for this purpose? Is it
reasonable to carry out any restoration in the caves before the leaking water is completely prevented andcured?
We feel the responsibility is more serious and urgent with regard to the acceleration of decay anddamage. We are searching new methods and chances for collaboration to solve these problems, andwelcome all types of international societies to take part in the conservation of the Longmen Grottoes, which
belong to the World Heritage and contribute to the memorialization of human history.

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Fiji
Ulaiasi MOTONIKUMIField Research Officer
Institute of iTaukei Language and Culture
Ministry of Indigenous Affairs

Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage in Fiji
Introduction
Fiji was first inhabited by the early iTaukei (indigenous people) about 3,400 years ago. The iTaukei,
who are part of the Melanesian group of people, lived a purely traditional life before Abel Tasmansighted Fiji in 1643. Then, there was an influx of European missionaries, explorers, whalers, tradersand even ex-convicts. This resulted in Fiji being ceded to Great Britain in 1874. The British, who set
up the first colonial government, introduced the Native Administration to guarantee that the native
Fijians were developed without disturbing their culture. Since independence in 1970, the Fijian
Administration continues to be an important institution in Fiji. Successive governments havesupported the protection and promotion of the iTaukei language and culture.

General Information on iTaukei ICH
Like other indigenous peoples of the world, the iTaukei value their native culture dearly. This culture
is closely related to the land, and the chiefs are always at its centre.1
Although the intangible cultural heritage (ICH) also includes contemporary rural and urban practices,2
this indigenous Fijian ICH report focuses mainly on traditions inherited from the past. Revisiting andresearching these past traditions and customs involves looking at the vanua3 (the land).

1

Tuwere, I. S. Vanua: Towards a Fijian theology of place (Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South

Pacific, 2002), p. 52. The turaga (chief) and the ka vakaturaga (chiefly thing) stand at the centre of the vanua.
2“What is Intangible Cultural Heritage?” (UNESCO pamphlet, 2009), p. 4.

3Tuwere, Vanua. On the vanua, Ravuvu explains that: “the Fijian term vanua, has physical, social and culturaldimensions which are interrelated. It does not mean only the land area one is identified with, and the vegetation,
animal life and other objects on it, but it also includes the social and cultural system – the people, their traditions
and customs, beliefs and values, and the various institutions established for the sake of achieving harmony,solidarity and prosperity within a particular social context….” Ravuvu, A. The Fijian way of life (Institute ofPacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1983), p. 70.

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Indigenous Fijians, like indigenous peoples around the world, are unique because we are born intovery particular family roles and responsibilities. Responsibilities of a particular family would include
special knowledge and skills that are passed down from generation to generation. These are regarded
highly as God-given heritage not easy to part with, unlike matters of choice or preference.
The special knowledge and skills encompassed by Fiji’s intangible heritage can be classified asfollows: (1) traditional beliefs and knowledge, including religious beliefs, knowledge of theenvironment, natural history, social structure, kinship; (2) arts and entertainments such as music,
dance, and games; (3) traditional technologies of daily life and livelihood, such as agriculture, fishing,house building, pottery, canoe construction and sailing, barkcloth manufacture, and the preparation
and use of costumes and ornaments, food, and medicine; (4) oral traditions, including fables, legends,
and historical accounts.
As in most indigenous cultures, the majority of the intangible aspects of the indigenous Fijian culture
are mainly unrecorded. Indigenous Fijian customs, language, dances, traditional etiquette, etc. are oral,
and so their preservation rests pivotally on continual usage and observance. However, the spread of adominant global culture, combined with the influence of, among other factors, a cosmopolitan
livelihood, an apathetic youthful population, and an emphasis on economic development, has placed
intangible heritage in a precariously desperate position, being continually threatened and exploited.
Fiji is a multiracial country but this paper will focus mainly on the protection and preservation of theindigenous Fijian culture.

Institutions and Measures that Safeguard Fijian ICH
Governmental institutions, NGOs, and legal measures directly involved in the management of Fiji’s
intangible heritage are briefly described in the following sections.
Fiji Museum
The Fiji Museum is governed by the Museum Act, which also helps in the safeguarding of ICH. The
museum became a government agency in 1929, with the mission of researching and preserving thecountry’s history and culture. It is also tasked with the identification and surveying of heritage sites. It
is very important to preserve the story of these particular sites, especially fortifications, which are also
legally protected by the Museum Act.
National Heritage, Culture and Arts
This department, established in 1999, is the primary adviser to the government on policies that affectindigenous culture and heritage, and coordinates existing government agencies in planning and61

implementing complementary activities. It is the responsible agency and point of contact in thegovernment for statutory bodies and NGOs, namely the Fiji Arts Council, National Trust of Fiji and
the Fiji Museum. Moreover, the department acts as the link to UNESCO for the cultural sector,
through the Fiji National Commission.
Ministry of Education
Governed under the Education Act, the Ministry is also contributing towards the safeguarding of ICH
in Fiji. At present the iTaukei language, an intangible heritage and the main means of communicating
traditional knowledge, is receiving priority at present for inclusion as a compulsory subject in primaryand secondary schools in Fiji. 4 Besides, in its “20 Year Development Plan (2001-2020) for the
Enhancement of Participation of Indigenous Fijians and Rotumans in the Socio-Economic
Development of Fiji,” the government strongly recommended the integration of the Fijian knowledge
system within the official knowledge system. This involves the inclusion of Fijian language, literature,
culture, and performing arts in the curriculum – to be tested through exams like any other subject andnot regarded as an extra-curricular activity.
Tertiary Institutions
At present in Fiji, tertiary institutions such as the University of the South Pacific, the University of Fiji,and the Fiji Institute of Technology have included ICH in their teaching curriculum. Apart from local
institutions, there are international institutions which also carry out the study of iTaukei ICH. These
include the University of Hawaii and Auckland University in New Zealand.
iTaukei Institute of Language and Culture
The Institute is governed by the iTaukei Affairs Act, and operates under the Ministry of iTaukei
Affairs, which foresees the wellbeing and governance of the iTaukei in Fiji. Established in 1986 by aresolution of the Great Council of Chiefs and with the endorsement of the cabinet, the Institute is
responsible for promoting the understanding, preservation, and development of indigenous language
and culture. It undertakes research both in archives and in the field, and acts as a resource center, forlocal and overseas researchers, with its substantial archive of books, journals, audio and visual records
and other resources on iTaukei language and culture.
Legal Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Fiji
In 2003, the Institute became involved in the drafting of legislation for the protection of traditional
knowledge and expressions of culture (TKEC). While the drafting of this legislation was in progress,
the government felt a need to conduct a cultural mapping project, to inventory all aspects of TKEC of4

Teaching of vernacular languages is an item listed in “The Way Forward” of Pillar 2, “Developing a Common

National Identity and Building Social Cohesion,” of the People’s Charter for Change, Peace and Progress.

62the iTaukei in Fiji. On January 7, 2010, the Fiji government agreed in principle to ratify the UNESCO
2003 convention, regarding the current inventorying of TKEC, as carried out by the iTaukei Instituteof Language and Culture, as the foremost implementing arm of this policy for the Department of
National Heritage, Culture and Arts.
Cultural Mapping Project: An Ongoing Government Initiative for Protection of Fiji’s ICH
Need for this project arose from the draft legislation on TKEC. The government, through the Ministryof iTaukei Affairs, recruited and trained officers to meet the need. After conducting a pilot test, theactual program began in 2004. By 2009, five provinces had been mapped and the officers were half
way done with the sixth province. The cultural mapping is hoped to be complete by 2014.
Cultural mapping involves the collection, recording, and documentation of iTaukei tangible andintangible cultural heritage in all fourteen provinces in Fiji. The information collected through cultural
mapping will then be covered by the legislation for the protection of Traditional Knowledge andExpressions of Culture.
Provinces mapped so far are Serua, Rewa, Namosi, Tailevu, Lomaiviti, and parts of Ra. The remaining
provinces that are still yet to be mapped are Ba, Bua, Cakaudrove, Kadavu, Lau, Macuata,
Nadroga/Navosa, and Naitasiri.
The program at this time is operating with a staff of fifteen members. There are six project research
officers classified under the iTaukei Intellectual Property Rights project and supervised by a project
Administration Officer. In addition, the Institute has recently recruited eight more to serve on the
project. The eight consist of four transcribers, two editors and two database operators.
The various roles of those working in the project, details of the database being compiled, and theoverall structure of the project are described in the following sections.
Project Research Officers
These persons are responsible for: collecting and recording data; interviewing and consulting
respective leaders of a mataqali, a landowning kin group; compiling fieldwork reports; submitting
individual and monthly work plans; reporting directly to the project Administration Officer. The six
project officers are grouped in pairs (one male and one female) to make up a team. These three project
teams are each assigned to one village per week. Hence, three villages can be covered in one week.
Project officers spend a week in the office after four weeks in the field. This serves to allow project
officers to compile all data, recuperate, and prepare for the following weeks of fieldwork.

63

The teams of researchers are thus tasked with the important responsibility of collecting raw
information from villages across the country. When in the field, they conduct interviews following the
research framework used in the Institute with informants selected by village elders. The topics covered
are the special knowledge and skills comprising Fiji’s intangible heritage, as enumerated above, under
the categories of (1) traditional beliefs and knowledge, (2) arts and entertainments, (3) traditional
technologies of daily life and livelihood, and (4) oral traditions.
In addition, part of their research is to trace past migration paths taken by the tribes researched and tofind supporting evidence, such as stories that can be identified with abandoned heritage sites. These
heritage sites, their archaeological remains, and intangible traces in the form of stories, are all
evidence of early tribal activity. We are currently in negotiation with our Fiji Museum Department fortraining in the use of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to assist us in our heritage research.
At the moment, we are capturing data by taking video and digital footage, and we work closely withtraditional owners in identifying their long forgotten village and fortification sites for preservation
purposes. The Institute is now establishing a heritage site registry of all heritage sites, and it is my
responsibility to reserve one day out of four in a village to visit, take photos and videos, and collectinformation on these heritage sites.
Apart from all of the above tasks carried out by the researchers, each male researcher must also keep arecord of all heritage sites from villages in which research has been undertaken. There is an officer
within the team who collects and stores all data on a historic site and the stories behind it. An Excel
spreadsheet is used to store this information because there is no database at present. In addition, there
has never been any work in Fiji where all of the heritage or historic sites are recorded in an inventory.
The information stored includes the name of the site, the (village) owner of the site, its location andrelevant stories related to the particular site. We always try our best to look for ways of safeguarding
this information better.
We believe this Training Course on Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage will enable Fijito make progress in what we have started regarding heritage sites in our beloved Fiji, using theexperience and training provided by the ACCU. It will broaden our understanding of the importance ofcombining archaeological and anthropological knowledge in preparing archaeological assessments andreports on the heritage and historic sites identified.
Transcribers
These four are responsible for transcribing recorded audio materials. In addition, they are responsible
for typing the transcriptions before passing them on to the editors for editing.

64

Editors
The editors are responsible for the following.
x

Editing the transcribed information, according to the database settings and format.

x

Editing the audio recordings according to specified audio formats for the database(corresponding with audio log sheets), and making backup copies.

x

Editing digital image descriptions entered into computer.

x

Editing video footage according to the database format.

x

Editing and cross-checking information entered into the database (for evaluation).

Data Base Operators
The two database operators are responsible for the following.
x

Digitizing audio recordings and making backup copies of the materials digitized.

xEntering descriptions of digital images (to ensure proper alignment when used) and making
backups.

xEntering information into the database, on audio/video/digital images and on transcribed
information.

Administrative Officer (Project)This person is responsible for: coordinating and implementing the project; consult with cultural
authorities and stakeholders; preparing and designing awareness programs, and assessment andmonitoring procedures; providing policy advice and analysis; submitting reports, financial forecasts,
work programs, and budget estimates; reporting directly to Director of IFLC.
In a proposal already submitted for restructuring the project, including its budgetary aspects, anadditional seven field officers and a Senior Research Officer are to be recruited. In addition, all field
officer positions will be upgraded to Executive Officer rank to compensate for the nature of the work,and the specific skills and qualifications needed for research duties.
The Traditional Knowledge and Expressions of Culture (TKEC) Database
In 2005, a database system was developed for the project to facilitate the input of edited data collectedfrom the various villages and provinces. Local and foreign consultants carried out the necessary IT andlanguage configurations to suit our needs for data storage. It was the first ever software created toreceive commands in the indigenous iTaukei language, which put to good use the linguistic andinterpretive professionals in the Institute. This is in anticipation of those who will later access the data.
The system has enhanced proper storage of the information accumulated from the field, and ensured
that each cultural expression is filed appropriately. In this way, the data are retrieved easily and65efficiently when needed, to be accessed by custodians and individuals/parties with the traditionalbearer’s consent. Records entered into the database are based on the domains outlined earlier, in thefollowing format: text, images (digitalized photos), audio recordings and accompanying film footage.
Hence, each Fijian village will have entries of aspects of its ICH in our database.
Structure of the Project
The diagram below is a detailed illustration of the program’s organizational structure.

Main Threats to iTaukei ICH
The main threats to the iTaukei intangible cultural heritage are as follows.
x

Challenges in regards to staffing, funding and logistical issues.

x

Loss of important aspects of Fijian culture, without any chance of revitalization, through thedeaths of key custodians. The research team took three years to cover the first three provinces,
and at this rate all fourteen provinces may require a total of twelve years for completion, andsince only 1.5 % of Fiji’s population of 445,907 is aged 70 or older (according to the Bureau

66

of Statistics, as of 2003), there is a high risk of losing valuable information that our old people
have. In addition, as of 2003 the death rate for Fijians 70 years and above is 107.58 (per100,000) for males and 94 for females. This shows that old people who are custodians of theculture and language are dying at fast rate.
x

Rise in rural-urban migration and emigration, among indigenous youths. This contributes to a
vacuum in the transmission of know-how, skills, and practices from the older to the younger
generations.

x

Reduced amounts or lack of recognition and due acknowledgement given, through financial
and non-financial means, for the contribution of the iTaukei population to an innovation, a
new creation, or to a research activity in which the indigenous population served as theprimary informant

Conclusion
The cultural mapping project since its inception has managed, with governmental support, to carry out
the scope of work required as mandated by the Great Council of Chiefs. It is a national project
intended to cover the fourteen provinces in Fiji, and so far all or parts of six provinces have been
mapped.
In light of what has been discussed in this report, the following is envisaged as Fiji’s expectation forthis training workshop.
x

To help showcase Fiji’s efforts in safeguarding its Intangible Cultural Heritage, especially thework of the Ministry of iTaukei Affairs, and the iTaukei Institute of Language and Culture.

x

To learn from Japan ways to improve the protection of ICH.

x

To strengthen Fiji’s network with international organisations for the protection of its ICH.

67

IndiaBhuvan VIKRAMA
Assistant Archaeologist
Archaeological Survey of India, Agra Circle

Safeguarding Archaeological Sites: Ahichhatra, a Case Study of
Challenges for the Protection and Preservation of Cultural Heritage
Introduction
Archaeological sites are a primary repository of the cultural heritage of the land and people. In the
Indian context, an archaeological site is defined as “any area which contains or is reasonably believed
to contain ruins or relics of historical or archaeological importance which have been in existence for
not less than one hundred years, and includes— (i) such portion of land adjoining the area as may berequired for fencing or covering in or otherwise preserving it, and (ii) the means of access to, andconvenient inspection of the area” (Sec 2 [d], Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites andRemains Act, 1958). India is a country with roots deep in antiquity. There are many archaeologicalsites which show, unlike counterparts in Europe and America, multicultural sequences indicating along continuity of human settlement. In the post independence era, i.e. after 1947, India’s
archaeological heritage was reduced as the most ancient centres of civilization had gone to Pakistan.
All the focus was trained on exploring ancient sites and plotting them on the archaeological map ofIndia. In this endeavour, many sites were brought to light from various periods in antiquity, ranging
from Early Harappan to Ochre Coloured ware, Painted Grey Ware, Northern Black Polished Ware andseveral subsequent historic phases. The monumental heritage was more or less known, documented,
conserved and protected during the British period. But only a few ancient sites were known andunderstood in that phase of Indian archaeology.
Since excavating all the sites and retrieving the ancient relics and remains is neither feasible nornecessary, only a handful of these have been excavated, while a large number of ancient sites havebeen declared of archaeological importance and given centrally protected status under the provisionsof Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, and its predecessors.
Declaring an archaeological site as a centrally protected site provides relative safety for these sites. It
is one form of protection for safeguarding archaeological sites, which should serve that purpose forquite some time, but population pressure and the resultant need to bring maximum amounts of land
under cultivation pose a great threat to these archaeological sites, as they have only been protectedunder a central government Act, but the ownership of the land remains in most cases with state
governments or private citizens.

68This peculiar situation of dual management often proves a great hindrance in the preservation andsafeguarding of archaeological sites. Where the actual ownership of a protected site lies with the state
government, the ancient landscape is often used for the construction of schools, dispensaries, offices
and staff quarters of the various government departments and the site is damaged, while for other sites
which are under private ownership, the land may be appropriated for agriculture/cultivation. There areseveral archaeological sites that continue to be inhabited and the entire ancient area is covered withmodern structures, and older houses are replaced by modern construction. In short, development is thebiggest threat to archaeological sites.
Accordingly, transferring ownership from state governments or private hands to the central
government, and in particular the Archaeological Survey of India, is the best remedy for such dangers
to archaeological sites. But the cost of compensation for the land would be enormous, and therefore
not feasible as the number of such sites is too large. In such a situation, a different approach is being
adopted at the archaeological site of Ahichhatra, located in the Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh.
Ahichhatra: A Case Study
Ahichhatra, located near village Ramnagar, 11 km away from the Aonla subdivision of Bareilley
district in Uttar Pradesh, is one of the most extensive early historical sites in India. It covers an area of
about 225 hectares and is surrounded by a defensive wall almost 6 km long. Hiuen Tsang, who visited
the site in seventh century, mentioned Ahichhatra as Ahi-Chi-Ta-lo. Ptolemy identifies this place as
Adisadra. The tradition of associating this site with kings and religious teachers protected by serpentsis very strong. Tradition maintains that the ancient fort was built by Raja Adi an Ahir, whose futureelevation to sovereignty was predicted by Drona when the latter found him sleeping safely under the
expanded hood of a serpent.
Ahichhatra was the capital of North Panchala. According to the Mahabharata, the capital of Panchalaextended from the Himalayas in the north to the Chambal river in the south. The kingdom was
captured by the Kurus. The kingdom of Panchala attained prominence during the early centuries ofChristian era. The Buddha preached here seven days in the favour of the serpent king, and the site wasmarked by Ashoka with a stupa. General Cunningham identified the remains of this stupa built byAshoka. Later, Ahichhatra formed an administrative division under the Gupta Empire.
The site is triangular in shape, and devoid of any physical encroachment. It is surrounded by threevillages lying in its immediate vicinity, namely Anandapur in the southeast, Nasaratganj in the northand Ramnagar in the west. The earliest documentary evidence, the map prepared by Cunningham in
1862, shows that all three villages were of nearly the same size (Fig. 1), but at present Ramnagar has

69

outstripped the other two (Fig. 2), due to its popularity as a Jaina pilgrimage centre, and its location on
the road connecting Aonla and Shahbad.
The popularity of Ramnagar as a Jaina centre relating to Parsvanath has lead to the construction of
temples of the Jaina sect and large dharmashalas, rest house complexes to accommodate large numberof pilgrims. This phenomenon has resulted in a marked increase in demand for land, which in turn has
resulted in the conversion of agricultural land into sites for new construction.

Fig. 1. A. Cunningham, Annual Report vol.1-2, 1871

Fig. 2. Google image

THREATS TO THE SITE
The site of Ahichhatra is devoid of any encroachment since the first records of it were made, except
for a small temple and few sheds and structures used to house the archaeological remains found at thesite from time to time. The land within the site belongs to the state government and private citizens.
Some of the government land has been leased out to farmers, and most of the land is therefore undercultivation. Factors posing a threat to the site may be summarized under the following headings.
Agricultural activities. Although farming does not directly damage the site below 30 cm in depth, it
accelerates the rate of erosion of the protective topsoil. Also, the use of modern agricultural equipment
such as tractor-drawn ploughs, harvesters, etc. has hastened the appropriation of land at the site forcultivation. Due to this expanding agriculture, large and small bodies of water in and around the site
are gradually silting up, resulting in a complete changeover in the ancient landscape.
Awareness about the antiquity of the site. Knowledge about the ancient nature of the settlement,
instead of protecting the site through pride generated among the local residents, has on the contrary
resulted in greed for the rich material remains it possesses. Belief that the ancient city has buriedtreasure has produced relic hunters, both large and small scale, who have formed a network forillegally retrieving and marketing of the ancient remains from the site. Local people scavenge the site
in search of ancient material, and some even dig at the site.

70

Construction activities. Growth of population in the surrounding villages has necessitated theconstruction of more houses. The large site proves a great source of readily available ancient burnt
bricks, and brick robbing has become a great threat to the site’s survival. Outside of the fortified area,
which is close to the road where large-scale construction projects are launched for rest houses andtemples, smaller ancient mounds are levelled with backhoes and other mechanised excavators.
Accordingly the ancient landscape is being reshaped at a much faster pace.
Archaeological Excavations. The site has been subjected to archaeological excavation many times
since its discovery in 1862-63. Several structures and remains were exposed and left that way, only todeteriorate and decay. As no measures were taken to drain rain water from near the excavated remains,most of the smaller structures have changed drastically. Wherever structural conservation was
attempted in the past, it did not match the original material and fabric of the structures, and therefore
failed to arrest the decay, and in effect resulted in degrading the appearance of the site. Further, theexcavations and subsequent conservation efforts were done piecemeal, and without proper
documentation of the methodology. This makes subsequent efforts towards reconstruction of theremains almost impossible. Excavation is truly destruction.
The archaeological site which was first brought to the notice of the educated world in 1871 thus
reached, by the time the present author visited the site in 2004, a vulnerable condition where the above
factors were combining to ruin it completely.
STRATEGY FOR THE PROTECTION AND PRESERVATION OF AHICHHATRA
Protection and preservation are the two main concerns involving the physical landscape of the site, andthe data comprising its archaeological content. The strategy to be followed for these two aspects,
protection from physical damage and preservation of the data, is as follows.
Physical protection. The site had been declared as a centrally protected archaeological site under theArchaeological Act in the year 1920, but there was no demarcation of the boundaries of the protected
property on the ground, so it was decided to demarcate the land first and place proper notice boards inclear view claiming it as a protected ancient property. But the site is too large for manual surveillance,and moreover is not under central ownership, so the entry of villagers cannot be restricted, nor canunauthorised digging be stopped completely. Unless the entire archaeological area, which is more than
300 hectares, is taken over by the central government, the site may not survive for long.
Preservation of the archaeological data. As the mere declaration of protection for the site has notproved a satisfactory solution for preserving the archaeological features, and acquisition of land is still
far from realization, it was decided to preserve data from the site using modern technology in digitalformat, through extensive surface studies with minimal excavation. Therefore, a multidisciplinary71

project was initiated, involving the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur (IITK). IITK carried out
Global Positioning System (GPS) surveys, a Total Station survey, and a Ground Penetrating Radar(GPR) survey. Later on the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany (BSIP), Lucknow, also became
involved, with a view to carrying out the sampling of organic material for botanical studies, as well as
for 14C dating of various archaeological strata. For incorporating all the data thus generated, aGeographic Information System (GIS) platform was developed.
DIGITAL ARCHIVING AND EXCAVATIONIn the year 2007 preparations were once again underway for work at Ahichhatra, but this time the site
was destined to see the application of new technologies in archaeological investigation in addition to
traditional methods. A project for Multidisciplinary Studies at Ahichhatra, Bareilly, was initiated incollaboration with IITK. Global Positioning System (GPS) and Total Station surveys were done
extensively to generate dense data for preparing contour plans and elevation models, and also threedimensional fly-through models. High-precision GPS, with an accuracy of 1 mm, was used courtesy of
IITK. The entire site was gridded following the established practice. In addition to the GPS survey, aTotal Station survey was used to generate dense data of the study area (Fig. 3), which was utilized togenerate a contour map (Fig. 4) and digital elevation models (DEMs) (Figs. 5-6). Digital elevation
models helped in understanding the land use pattern and identification of ancient water bodies, and thenature of archaeological deposits within and outside the site. Satellite images were used to understandthe peculiarities of the ancient landscape, and the reasoning behind the establishment of the settlement
at the spot and its gradual expansion.

Fig. 3. Google Earth image

Fig. 4. Contour map made with Total Station

72

Fig. 5. DEM based on Total Station data

Fig. 6. DEM-2 based on Total Station data

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) was used selectively to procure two- and three-dimensional profilesof the subsurface features for later verification by excavation, and also alongside excavated remains, tocheck the veracity of the GPR profile, and to find the horizontal and vertical extents of the remains.
Further, after establishing the reliability of GPR data by matching them with excavation results,
extensive GPR profiles were generated for many other regions. One of the GPR profiles tentatively
established that there probably existed another defensive wall within the city, indicating the possibilityof separate fortified localities within the cityscape (Fig. 7). Areas close to excavated remains were alsoscanned with GPR and good confirmatory results were obtained (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7. (top) GPR profile; (below, left) Street pavement; (below, right) fortification wall matching the GPR profile

Fig. 8. Three-dimensional GPR profile and an excavated trench

73Various types of satellite images were processed and analysed for inferences about archaeological data,in conjunction with the GIS platform that was developed. For the first time since General Cunningham,
attention has been focused on the vast spread of low-rising habitation mounds, punctuated with astring of isolated mounds of some height towards the west beyond the walls.
Surface study and satellite images helped in making detailed identifications of openings in the
defensive wall. Although at present, due to animal and human traffic and agricultural activities (theuse of tractors, excavators, etc.), the defensive wall has been breached at several point which now on
ground appear as majestic gateways, after study of the analysed data a set of parameters was definedfor identifying the gates.
1. Cup-shaped formation in the wall protruding into the city space, which might have served as aholding area.
2. Projecting bastions on either side of the opening.
3. Linear depressions, forking or otherwise, leading from the opening inside the city. These
depressions are the streets.
4. Small but tall mound/s immediately outside the opening. These were temples of the custodian
gods of the routes (baat mangala/marg devta/dikpala) and/or sarais (travellers’ inns).
5. Large open space immediately inside the openings, from where streets issue. This condition isapplicable only to major gates which probably allowed entry for goods and traders.
Applying these parameters nine gates were identified, of which six were major entry points fulfilling
all five conditions, while the remaining three were smaller and fulfilled at least two conditions (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Identification of gateways and street network74Some 34 trenches were opened on the five mounds located immediately outside one of the major gatesin the west wall, which fulfilled all the parameters, and good results were obtained ranging fromMauryan period to the tenth and eleventh centuries A.D. The data also confirmed the premise that themounds outside the defensive wall openings were the remains of temples or sarais. On a mounddesignated ACT IVA, a series of three north-facing temples was found in outline (Fig. 10 A), i.e. atwhere the temples had stood, while on the much larger and higher mound ACT IV, evidence of theexistence of a group of temples was unearthed. Two circular structures were also evidenced, but theiraffiliation to Buddhism could not be established, and due to the majority of links being to the Brahman
faith, especially of the Vaishnava affiliation, these circular structures may be regarded as circular or
apsidal temples of the same faith (Fig. 10 B).

A. Remains of 3 temples, mound ACT IVA

B. Temple complex, mound ACT IV
Fig. 10

Apart from generating physical data relating to the site, the project also aims to develop a database forthe artefactual remains from the site, which can not only record the data but also share the information
with the GIS database for study in three-dimensional space. This will further help in creating a virtual
site, where students can even be trained.
BENEFITS OF THE PROJECT
The entire project has involved small scale excavations only, to support and verify the results obtainedby the application of new digital technologies. This project has also involved the presence of working
teams for most of the year, so a healthy message has been passed on to the local people that theproperty belongs to the nation, while the local people will benefit from it in many ways. Villagers
were engaged as labourers in the project, and this involvement helped promote a feeling of association
among the villagers with the site, besides helping them financially.
The project is still under way, and even when the work teams are not there in the field, villagers lookafter the site as their own and report any act of damage or attempt thereof.

75

The project is aimed at preserving the archaeological site in its totality including the landscape,artefacts and archaeological features left by men, and also to develop a mechanism to monitor any
change in the future. Thus, the site is at least digitally preserved for the time being.
Acknowledgements
This study is fresh and unique, not only in its findings but also in its being the concerted effort of abroadly based and young team who have worked in spells at the site. The project would not have been
a possible without the initiative of the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi,
and the interest shown by the Director, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, and the able guidanceof Dr. Onkar Dikshit (Prof. and Dept. Chair, Civil Engineering, IITK) who supervised the GPS andTotal Station surveys and the development of the GIS database, and Dr. Javed N. Malik (Assoc. Prof.,
Dept. Of Civil Engineering, IITK) who conducted the GPR surveys at the site. The project was
sustained through timely contributions of Amit Tare, Abhijit, Ashutosh, Satish, Khalid, Sravanthi (M.
Tech. Students, IITK), Mishra, Shitala Tripathi, Maurya (technical staff of IITK), Y. P. Agarwal,
Rakesh Tiwari, C. B. Singh, Lochan Singh Chahar (technical staff, Agra Circle, Archaeological
Survey of India).
References
Amit Tare. 2007. “A GIS based approach to study of Archaeological Site: A case study ofAhichchatra.” A thesis submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree ofMaster of Technology in Civil Engineering, IIT, Kanpur.
Archaeological Survey of India. 1871 (reprinted 2000). Cunningham Report Vol. I.
Archaeological Survey of India. 1963. Indian Archaeology: A Review.
Archaeological Survey of India. 1964. Indian Archaeology: A Review.
Bhuvan Vikrama, Onkar Dikshit, et al., 2007. “Preliminary Investigations for Ahichhatra Using Geoinformatics Techniques.” Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in History and Archaeology 2(2):287-99.

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Indonesia
Fahmi Prihantoro
Lecturer
Faculty of Cultural Science
Gadjah Mada University

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection Activities
in Indonesia
Introduction
The Indonesia Charter for Heritage Conservation (2003) defines heritage according to the following
criteria.
a. The heritage of Indonesia is natural, cultural, and landscape heritage. Natural heritage is a
special construct of nature. Cultural heritage is the legacy of thought, emotion, intentions, andworks that spring from people of over 500 ethnic groups in Indonesia as individuals andtogether as one nation, and from the interactions with other cultures throughout its length ofhistory. Cultural landscape heritage is the inextricable unity between nature and cultural
heritage in space and time.
b. Cultural heritage includes both tangible and intangible legacies.

Cultural heritage in Yogyakarta, Indonesia (images by the author)

Cultural Heritage protection is the management of heritage through research, planning,preservation, maintenance, reuse, and selected development to maintain sustainability, harmony, andthe capacity to respond to the dynamics of the age, in order to improve the quality of life. Much ofIndonesia’s heritage has been degraded, damaged, destroyed, lost, or is threatened due to neglect,
incompetence, and mismanagement for short term gain, and by special interest groups. This is allowed
by low public awareness of the need for cultural heritage protection. For example, a recent incident in77

1

July 2010 saw the robbing of gold and other artifacts from the museum collection in Sonobudoyo
Museum Yogyakarta.
As an instructor in the Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Gadjah Mada
University, I have some experience with research on Indonesia’s cultural heritage, and issues involved
in its conservation and protection. I want to explore the problems and needs of cultural heritage
protection in my country based on my activities and experiences.
General heritage protection activities in Indonesia
A brief look at the various heritage protection activities in Indonesia can be made under the following
headings.
1. Conservation. Conservation is the management of heritage through research, planning,preservation, maintenance, reuse, and selected development to maintain sustainability,
harmony, and the capacity to respond to the dynamics of the age, and improve the quality oflife. This is one aspect of most activities in cultural heritage protection, such as theconservation of temples, heritage buildings, heritage areas, and sites.
2. Research. Research in cultural heritage is one of the activities done by both the government
and universities. This activity includes surveys, excavations, and recording and analyzing data.
3. Revitalization. Revitalization is the process of re-establishing economic, social, and culturalactivity in an area or street. It aims to convert cultural heritage buildings etc. from a lifelessstate to an active one.
4. Regulation. The national regulation addressing conservation is Legislation #5 of 1992 on
Cultural Heritage. This regulation focuses on tangible heritage. Now, regional governments at
the provincial and city levels also have regulation (Perda) to support the national regulation.
5. Education. The government and NGOs have the responsibility to educate all of the people, toimpart knowledge and awareness of the need for cultural heritage protection. NGOs also
educate the young people, meaning primary school students.
6. Awarding cultural heritage preservation. In the case of Yogyakarta, the government gives
awards for cultural heritage preservation. To show appreciation to the owner of such property,
the government also has a policy of decreasing the building tax.
7. Publishing a homeowner’s conservation manual. This book contains a practical guide forrehabilitating, retrofitting, renovating, reconstructing, and maintaining traditional houses. It
explains both traditional and modern conservation techniques which are needed forconservation. This manual also provides knowledge of the conservation process, to help
homeowners understand the value of their houses and proper ways of conservation, such as
what should be conserved, and how to plan and undertake conservation work.

782

8. Utilizing underwater heritage. There is policy for utilization of the underwater heritage. While
shipwrecks have large potential economic value as a way to generate government income, themain purpose of excavation and utilization of these cultural objects is to put the historical,
scientific, and cultural aspects as the top priority. This means that exploration, excavation andconservation should follow proper archaeological methods, and that artifacts must be kept by
the government, to enrich national and local museum collections for education.
9. Holding festivals and exhibitions. Festivals and exhibitions of cultural heritage are aimed at
introducing and promoting interest in a broad spectrum of cultural heritage. They areespecially useful for elevating public knowledge and awareness.
Problems and needs based on my experience
Based on the experience I have had working in the field of heritage conservation in Indonesia, I will
briefly describe the problems and needs of my country in this area are as follows.
TECHNICAL CONSERVATION
I have experience in the conservation of the historic mosque in Purworejo, Central Java. This mosque
was built in 1750. In this case we maintained the original condition of the material of the building
while inhibiting the process of decay. The materials of the mosque include the wood used in the floor,
walls and roof. We excavated the floor of the mosque mainly in the area of the four main wooden
pillars. Here we found the original floor, dating from the same time as when the mosque was built.
Then we tried to preserve the Arabic inscriptions on the mosque wall. Also, part of the roof waschanged, requiring new material having similar form and quality as the original.
One of the main problems is how to preserve while changing parts using new materials. We havedifficulty getting similar forms and quality of material for the same part of the mosque. The new floor
tiles and roof tiles must be ordered from another city at a high price. For the wooden pillars as well,
we have to pay a high price. This has become a big problem in preserving cultural heritage.

Various old floor tiles (images by the author)

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Sometimes we lack skilled laborers for preservation activities. There are differences in themethods used to build new and old buildings. For example, in the past nails were not used, though
now they are common.
Based on other experiences I have had in conservation, additional steps that are vital for protecting
cultural heritage, especially heritage buildings, are as follows.
1. Documenting. Documentation is a very important task to begin even before undertaking
conservation work, because it is related to research on the authenticity of building. The resultsof documentation are needed to analyze the cultural significance of a building, as well as its
architectural, social, and economical value. Complete documentation will be very helpful forhomeowner and planers.
2. Evaluating the heritage building. It is important to understand the main problem of thebuilding before deciding how to alter it. Problems related to the building, such as damage
caused by earthquakes or aging, or due to lack of proper maintenance, should be identified andunderstood through this evaluation.
3. Knowing the regulations on conservation. It is important to know in detail the regulations,especially local ones, relevant to conservation. For example, at the municipal level there may
be a mayor’s decree explaining the territorial status, land use, and intensity of space utilization
related to physical building.
4. Setting conservation objectives. Before beginning the conservation work, it should first be
determined what is valuable about the building. This is important in that it will make clear
which part of the original building must be repaired and which part must be altered.
Conservation work will be easier if the new function does not differ greatly from the previous
one. For example, this will be true for a house becoming a place of lodging, because theadaptation will be easier to do, and the risk of losing original elements can be minimized, so
the cost will be cheaper.
5. Determining what must be preserved and what may be altered. Basically, conservation must
be preceded by an evaluation of the current condition of the building to determine which part
must be preserved in its original form, and which parts can be altered. Parts of the housewhose originality and authenticity should be preserved need to be distinguished from otherparts, for which alteration is possible provided it does not damage the building’s architecturalvalue. If the house is to be handed down to several heirs, the unity of the structures should betaken into consideration.
6. Considering alternative choices for change or adaptive reuse. Conservation of a building isoften misunderstood as keeping the building exactly as it was, but alternatives should berecognized and considered. To carry out such alterations, first we must identify the originalfunction and spatial arrangement of the building. Alteration of the building’s function will

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probably require new construction and techniques, therefore we must consider structural unity
between the new and old parts of the building.

New floor tiles (image by the author)

Original facade (image by the author)

In my opinion, conservation activity is complicated and difficult. It also needs highly skilledlaborers and a long time to carry out properly. In addition, conservation activity is costly. In the future,preservation activity should be not only the government’s responsibility, but shared by the communityand private sector as well.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND EXCAVATIONAs an instructor at Gadjah Mada University, I have experience in research and excavation at various
archaeological sites. In my country there are many archaeological sites. From prehistoric to historicsites, rural and urban heritage can be found easily. Every year we conduct research and excavation for
training students of my university.

Research and excavation activity, 2010, at the Plered site (images by the author)81

5

In the case of research and excavation conducted at the Plered site, however, we face problems
such a lack of follow up regarding this research and excavation. We only collected the data, without
the necessary follow up. There are no future plans for work at this site. The university has no funds tocontinue, and no plans for doing so in the future. Under conditions such as these, in research andexcavations, we always stop collecting and analyze the data. Then data will be placed in storage.
In 2010, we found a new temple on the campus of Indonesia Islamic University, Yogyakarta. It is
unique temple, very different in character from other temples in Indonesia. How to preserve the temple
on the campus has become a challenge for archaeologists in Yogyakarta. I have been trying to solve
the problem with my students. We have an idea for preserving the temple without destroying thecampus or temple. We suggested the temple serve as a basement below the library building. The
temple could thereby also become a museum. We presented this idea in the student academic
competition. As the result, we were the winner in this competition.
In my opinion, the idea for preserving the temple without destroying it, and offering a creative
reuse of the temple, is a good example of problem solving in cultural heritage protection.

We presented our idea to preserve the temple on the campus (image by the author)

CONFLICT OF INTEREST IN THE REVITALIZATION OF HERITAGE BUILDINGS AND SITESIn reality, there are big problems involved in the revitalization of heritage buildings and sites. Many
heritage buildings have been destroyed, and the sites then changed with new buildings, especiallythose with economic functions such as supermarkets or malls (i.e. trade centers). At the base of theconflict are different points of view and understandings of cultural heritage. Academics want topreserve the cultural heritage, but on the other hand the private sector, and sometimes government as
well, wants to destroy cultural heritage structures in favor of new or modern buildings. The reason isto develop the economic sector.
I have some direct experience in this type of case. The owner of a heritage building wanted torebuild and change to a new building for economic reasons. We held a meeting between the82

6government and the owner. As an academic I tried to give a “win-win” solution, but the owner did notagree. Finally there was no agreement, and the heritage building was destroyed.

Before destruction

After destruction began

This case can inspire us as a reminder that conflict of interest is very dangerous for cultural
heritage protection. Economic reasons can become dominant, leaving no compromise solution, and theability of the law to enforce protection is weak.
But I also have experience in preserving cultural heritage without destruction. The reuse of aheritage building in line with economic interests can achieve this. We can preserve the building facade
while changing the building for a modern economic function, for example, as for a restaurant.

Heritage building reused as a restaurant (image by the author)

REGULATION AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
Regulation is one of the important tools for cultural heritage protection. In my country there are bothnational and regional regulations. But in actuality, regulation has little power to solve many problems
in cultural heritage protection. The main problem is a lack of enforcement of the law. There are manycases such as the robbing of museum collections, destruction of heritage buildings and sites, andillegal heritage trade, all becoming threats for cultural heritage protection activities.

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It would be easier for any concerned party to carry out conservation if each city or country had its
own regulation on the conservation of cultural heritage. There should also be efforts to generate aconservation mechanism so that the main task of each concerned government institution can be
managed to support each other and not overlap. To support this conservation mechanism, it would be
advisable to construct a legal board consisting of representatives of related institutions, bothgovernment and non government.
Making regulation known throughout society is also important. All people have to know about
cultural heritage regulation. Through seminars, workshops, and training, knowledge of heritage
protection through regulation would be received by many more people.
PUBLIC AWARENESS AND IGNORANCE
Cultural heritage, bequeathed from the generations that have preceded us, is the vital foundation andthe initial capital for the development of the Indonesian nation in the future, and for these reasons,must be conserved and passed along to the next generation in good condition, without loss of value,
and if possible, with an enhanced value, to form the heritage for the future.
Much irreplaceable Indonesian heritage is degraded, damaged, destroyed, lost, or threatened
through neglect, ignorance and incompetence on the part of the public. There have been trivializationand impoverishment of culture, and the weakening of the creativity, initiative and self confidence
which are urgently needed in the face of a turbulent, rapidly developing world.
In my experience, many people plead ignorance of the law and its cultural heritage preservation
mechanisms. They fail to understand the need and the means for conserving their cultural heritage. So
we need a solution about how to raise public awareness. It is important to raise the awareness of allparties (government, professionals, the private sector and the local community, including its youth) on
the importance of cultural heritage through education, training, public campaigns, and other persuasive
approaches.
Conclusion
I believe that cultural heritage protection is an important activity for my country, because the historicaland cultural values of Indonesia are reflected in the natural, cultural, and landscape heritage. We havea responsibility to take care of the cultural heritage for the future of the nation. “The great nation is anation which preserves its cultural heritage.” Nevertheless, preserving cultural heritage is not easy to
do. There are many problems regarding heritage protection. We need solutions in order to solve these
problems. This has become the challenge for us, demanding our commitment to cultural heritage
protection.

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8

Kazakhstan
Janna PROSKURINA
Chief of Department
Ethnographic and Archaeological Remains Renovation Department
Research and Production Center of Historical and Cultural Heritage

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration
Activities in Kazakhstan
1. Background: Cultural heritage protection up to 1995
Issues of preserving the cultural heritage of the Republic of Kazakhstan include a wide range ofproblems, of historical, cultural, archaeological, ethnological, methodological, technical, organizational, legal, financial, and socio-economic character.
From the moment the organizing of preservation and restoration services began, under the Ministry of
Culture of Kazakh, SSR in 1967, around 30,000 immovable historical and cultural monuments havebeen identified and taken under state preservation, including around 10,000 artifacts of medievalarchitecture, monumental and urban construction arts, and 20,000 archaeological compounds
containing the remains of ancient and medieval settlements, towns, irrigation systems, cemeteries,
sanctuaries, petroglyphs, and other cultural objects and landscapes. Chronologically, these materials
divide between those of ancient periods, belonging to the Paleolithic, Bronze and Iron ages, and thosefrom medieval epochs, the periods of Turkic, Arabic, Mongolian, Jungar, and other conquests.
Materials of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the time of the Russian Regency, which comprisesignificant ensembles possessing cultural value, are taken under local categories of preservation. With
the exceptions of the excavations of the Otrar site and Issyk barrow, which were done by thearchaeological team of the Institute of History, Ethnography and Archaeology of Kazakh, SSR, allreconnaissance and archaeological work up to 1992 was undertaken by archeology, history, andcultural artifacts collection units of the Kazproyektrestavratsia (Kazakh Restoration Project) Instituteof the Ministry of Culture, which engaged faculty members of institutions of higher education of therepublic along with foreign experts.
In response to industrial and agricultural reclamation of land in Kazakhstan, steps for thereconstruction of historical towns and settlements, the formation of new zones for developing
historical and urban construction outline plans of cities and settlements possessing heritage, and for
creating a registry of and collecting artifacts, were taken by the Institute. Within a few years, 28
historical towns and settlements were examined, and 25,000 immovable artifacts were recorded andcertified by this group of professionals, spurred by the enthusiasm of being first restoration workers at85

the national level. On the initiative of Bayan Tuyakbayeva, Director of the Institute and a chairpersonof the regional council of ICOMOS, a global project of Soviet times, the construction of a channel forthe transfer of Siberian rivers into Kazakhstan and Middle Asia, was suspended, and later, with thesupport of other scientific institutions and ministries from different republics, was rejected. Prior tothat, several expeditions into Central, Northern and Western Kazakhstan were organized to survey theartifacts, which were on the way of the channel route.
From 1985 to the early 1990s, in order to undertake the complex preservation of monuments, eight
historical-cultural and archaeological museum-reserves, twenty-four restoration workshops in regional
centers, and nineteen regional inspection centers of preservation of material culture artifacts werecreated. Scientific and restoration work for artifact preservation was undertaken in the main historicalcenters of the Republic (in the cities of Turkestan, Shymkent, Taraz, Almaty, Talgar, Zharkent,
Semipalatinsk, Uralsk, Guriyev, Shevchenko, Petropavlovsk, etc). The main tasks of the restoration
were to preserve as much of authentic remains as possible from being destroyed by the development ofmodern facilities and agriculture, by the effects of nature, or by total reconstruction. Another task was
to recreate the historical landscape, and when possible preserve the original appearance and functionof monuments and their surroundings.

Mausoleum of Hodja Ahmed Yasawi, before restoration

86

Mausoleum of Hodja Ahmed Yasawi, after restoration

Restoration of the dome made by the Kazproyektrestavratsia Institute87Petroglyphs of Tamgaly: Preventing exfoliation of the stone

Petroglyphs of Tamgaly: Erasing modern graffiti

88With support from UNESCO and the regional council of ICOMOS, the training of specialists forconserving and restoring artifacts was undertaken in Finland, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and India.
In 1991, after Kazakhstan gained its independence, there was need for new evidence of the nation’s
culture. Large-scale archaeological excavations, governed by a newly established Institute ofArcheology under the Ministry of Education and Science, took place all over the Kazakhstan. To
mention just a few of the ancient and medieval settlements, they include Turkestan, Sauran, Shymkent,
Sairam, Baba-Ata, Kulan, Akyr-tas, Taraz, Kostobe, Aktobe, the Tamgaly sanctuary, the vicinities of
the cities of Almaty, Talgar, Kayalyk, Sarayshik, Zhayik and others, as well as Neolithic andPaleolithic period settlements such as Botay, Shoktas and Koshkurgan.
Many of the recovered materials required immediate measures for their preservation. The only methodof conservation for archaeological remains at that time was backfilling. Attempts at conservation bymethods of hydrophobic polymer coating and thermal processing were ineffective, costly, and nondurable. All these problems required the creation of scientific laboratories, the coordination of efforts
by experts in the spheres of the natural sciences and humanities, the development of complex
programs and projects on a national basis, and the preparation of the appropriate technical, scientificmethodological, and legal bases needed for successful solutions. To this end, the law of the Republiɫ
of Kazakhstan on preserving and using cultural heritage was ratified by the Parliament in 1992.
This is when the Department for Historical and Cultural Heritage was established within the Institute,supported by an integrated governmental program for preserving and using the cultural heritage. The
department cooperated closely with the academic Institutes of History and Ethnology, of Archeology,of Geology, of Construction Materials, and also with the laboratories of the Uzbek Scientific ResearchInstitute of Restoration and the Russian Restoration Association. Combined architectural andarchaeological expeditions for studying and conserving the unique artifacts of the history and cultureof steppe civilization were organized.
All these activities were stopped in 1995 due to liquidation of this sector and the privatization of its
facilities. Thus a scientific, industrial and professional basis for the preservation and restoration
activities of the Republic, being created within decades, was destroyed, resulting in the subsequent
destruction of artifacts, both under the influence of natural conditions, as well as damage on the part ofvisitors.
Separate restoration works continued to be done, but the sponsorship and funding were chaotic andunsystematic, and the specialists not always aware of the specific nature of Kazakhstani artifacts.
Accordingly, for instance, Turkish specialists with the company Vakif Insaat undertook work on
strengthening the structure of the hanaka (mausoleum) of Akhmed Yassawi in Turkestan city,89connecting a reinforced concrete groundwork slab with a foundation of piles penetrating to a depth of
up to 12 m, injecting wall cracks, providing a water resistant shield for the roof, and reconstructing thedrainage system. These restoration works had both positive and negative sides. It should be noted thatthe attempt to provide a water resistant steam-conducting roof resulted in the creation of an extraneous
half-meter layer of material, distorting the architecture of the open courtyard at the roof. Unfortunately,
this roof reconstruction did not resolve the problems of condensation at the sub-dome and sub-arc
parts, which continue to become damp.

A view before restoration, 1979

Water resistant shield forming an extraneous layer

Damp ceiling even after installation of a water resistant shield

90

The placement of a modern reinforced concrete
groundwork slab under all the walls of the building
eliminated the danger of local sagging caused bychanges in subsoil water levels. At the same time,
however, the monument lost one of the importantcomponents of this ancient edifice in its capacity as ascientific artifact, and the possibility of studying it
further.
Some drastic solutions sometimes resulted in the lossof authentic portions of the monument. For example,
while undertaking restoration work with whitegypsum plaster on the interior of the monument,
authentic gypsum-clay coatings of the walls anddomes of the rooms, on which earlier the traces of
unique polychrome paintings, with gold-plating andepigraphy of the kumdal technique, were completely
destroyed.
Furthermore, a so-called restoration of the uniquecentral double-leaved door of the hanaka, made of avaluable species of wood, is viewed by us as a total
crime. The door has a three-dimensional carved
ornament with bronze details completely encrustedwith bone, mother of pearl, silver, and gold. The
rosettes of the door panel framings contained
theological sentences and syncretic signs of Sufi
learning. All of these were scraped off with anabrasive cloth and the smooth surface covered with aso-called conserving lacquer. A unique work of art of
the fourteenth century was thus actually lost.

Examples of improper restoration91

2. Interlude of 1995-2000: Effects visible at Tamgaly
The results of liquidating the sector of monuments preservation and scientific-restoration researchduring the period 1995-2000 were reflected especially vividly in the conditions of another artifact ofancient art, emblematic for Kazakhstan – the concentration of petroglyphs at Tamgaly (Tanbaly),
which was inscribed on the list of World Heritage Sites in 2004.
This archaeological landscape was discovered in the course of an expedition lead by A. G. Maximova
in 1957. Examining the petroglyphs together with archaeological objects located at features (ancient
settlements, burial mounds) in the vicinity allowed differentiation of the remains by major historicalperiods, extending from the second half of the second millennium B.C. to modern times (nineteenthand twentieth centuries). The total number of Tamgaly petrogyphs amounts to around 5,000 items,
dividing into five groups in terms of space. The entire area of the heritage complex, including as its
most significant part the rocks with carvings, settlements, and burial mounds, plus the buffer zones
amounts to approximately 3,800 hectares.

92

Settlements, burial mounds and assets of the Bronze AgeRock art93

The second group of petroglyphs

The third group of petroglyphs

Different images of rock art (deer, dogs, bulls, horses, footprint, carriage)

94

Images of bulls belonging to the Bronze Age

Anthropomorphic images of the Bronze Age95

Of special value are the unique images of the Bronze Age, made with the characteristic Tamgaly
technique. The central object of the complex of features is a sanctuary. This multi-figured compositionof people, the heads of whom radiate with beams of light, is made on a rock surface 7 x 4 m in size.

96

The scientific value of the Tamgaly petroglyphs is defined as justified for inscription on the World
Heritage List by criterion iii: “The dense and coherent group of petroglyphs, with sacred images, altars
and cult areas, together with their associated settlements and burial sites, provide a substantial
testimony to the lives and beliefs of the pastoral peoples of the central Asian steppes from the Bronze
Age to the present day.” The Tamgaly artistic tradition thus represents a holistic and universal conceptof the Asiatic steppes in the mid-second millennium B.C. in a specific landscape. None of the otherrock carvings of Kazakhstan known at present have greater reason than Tamgaly, a unique open air
temple, for inclusion among the representative cultic artifacts of the steppe peoples in this manner.
During the 1970s and 1980s, archaeological and geological explorations were done at Tamgaly,
although they were characterized by only occasional fieldwork and a lack of coordination ofarchaeological and scientific research at the site.
An important stimulus that ensured a change in the quality of planning and execution of both scientificresearch and conservation work at the complex was a new state project called the “Tamgaly rockcarvings conservation,” in which the Kazproyektrestavratsia Institute played the roles of coordinatorand executor. By engaging specialists of various scientific institutions for project, within a short periodof time the Institute was able to obtain significant data and start work on conserving the petroglyphs.
Specifically, in 1990-91 a geodesic survey was done, and maps at scales of 1:500, 1:200, and 1:100
were prepared for sites containing the most important ensembles of artifacts. Geological andgeochemical research was undertaken to develop methods for conserving the petroglyphs. In
developing the conservation methods and selecting the materials, Kazakhstani specialists consulted
with M. K. Nikitin, head of the chemical-biological laboratory of the Russian Museum of SaintPetersburg. The first experimental work on conserving the rock surfaces with petroglyphs was done by
the restorers L. F. Charlina and N. N. Taipina, and by the architect E. N. Ripinskaya. In 1992 a groupof restorers supervised by S. B. Shigoretz (“Alton,” Saint-Petersburg) undertook the application of
mastic to cracks, removal of grafitti, and patching of large fragments with drawings that were revealed
while clearing rock slides at the second group of petroglyphs. Also, water drainage was arranged.
Thus by 1994, the research necessary for defining the cultural significance of Tamgaly was done,
together with justifications of the borders of its territory and the preservation zone. However, the lackof funding did not allow the complete preparation of materials and of documentation. Excavations andstudy of the Tamgaly petroglyphs stopped. Continuation of the urgent work of conserving thepetroglyphs became impossible. The collapse of previously formed mechanisms for managing andpreserving the monuments aggravated the critical condition of Tamgaly.
Lack of control and care led to both natural and anthropogenic damage to this monument and its
landscape. The previous years of fruitful work, the results and goals of which were thoroughly and97regularly reported to the wider community by the mass media, secured popularity for the monument,
which in 1995-2001 resulted in an uncontrolled flow of tourists, posing a threat of destruction for the
petroglyphs. The traditional topography of Tamgaly became badly distorted. A road was constructed
through the canyon, which up to the summer of 2001 was used regularly to transport heavy equipment
along the rocks of the petroglyphs of the first to fifth groups. As a consequence, not only was thedisintegration of the rocks increasing, but also the carving of modern autographs and drawings above
the ancient petroglyphs became popular. Housing and industrial construction appeared on the territoryof the Bronze Age burial mounds of Tamgaly 5 and 6, and for the construction of two more farms on
the periphery of Tamgaly, rocks with petroglyphs from nearby locations were used.

98From 2001, UNESCO has taken an active part in preserving Tamgaly. In that year, with the assistanceof UNESCO, the first grant was allocated for undertaking the urgent measures of preserving,conserving and managing the Tamgaly compound, and by 2004 the complex was already inscribed on
the World Heritage List.

Training courses on conservation organized by UNESCO

The phenomenon of petroglyphs such as those at Tamgaly needs further study. Their genesis andevolution still are the main historical questions. The modern way of studying these materials fails toprovide unambiguous answers. None of the known large monuments of the vast region is comparable
to Tamgaly in regards to the representativeness and inclusiveness of the repertory of petroglyphs of
the Bronze Age, and the obvious professionalism of their artistic depiction, and the exhaustive
completeness of the organic connections of the petroglyphs with the extraordinary landscape,functionally organized as a cultic center.
Other serious problems visible at Tamgaly, which occurred over this interlude from around 1995-2000,
may be listed as follows:99

x

Spontaneous privatization of state lands in the early 1990s, and a lack of controllingmechanisms, which resulted in the demolition or partial destruction of the monuments, caused
by utilization of these lands for new construction or agricultural purposes.

x

Spontaneous restoration work conducted by non-professionals, much in the manner of therestoring of historic mosques and mausoleums by groups of worshipers, often without proper
planning and with inappropriate use of modern building materials such as concrete, ceramictiles or even plastic.

x

Emergence of so-called “black archeology,” taking and selling historical assets for profit.

x

Proliferation of unauthorized archaeological excavations.

3. The situation of protecting cultural heritage today
Presently the state of the Republic of Kazakhstan pays great attention to issues of cultural heritage.
This is due not only to the necessity of raising national consciousness and patriotism as a part of thenational policy of sovereign Kazakhstan, but also from increasing interest on the part of the global
community, international organizations, and research institutes studying the processes ofanthropogenic reclamation of territories of the steppe zones of Eurasia, and the ancient contacts of thepeoples of northwestern Europe, western Siberia, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, India, Iran, the Middle
East and Egypt, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan. The most global of these interrelations were thegreat transmigration of peoples in the third to seventh centuries, and the Silk Road from the second
century B.C. to the twelfth century A.D. Thus, the cultural heritage of Kazakhstan is recognized as not
only of importance to the republic, but also as part of such phenomenal occurrences of panhumannature as the formation of the Indo-European, Scythian-Saki, and Finno-Ugrian cultural affinities.
In 2003, at the meeting of Committee of UNESCO and ISESCO affairs in Kazakhstan, B. T.
Tuyakbayeva, already director of the Historical and Cultural Heritage Research and Development
Center, proposed a “Cultural Heritage” state program. The project was supported by the chairman of
the committee, I. N. Tasmagambetov, and in four days an appeal to the President of Kazakhstan was
published, in which the urgent tasks and issues of studying and preserving the country’s historicalcultural heritage were defined.
The goal of this program is, first of all, the forming of a national and state consciousness andpreserving the cultural heritage as the spirituality of the nation. Archaeological works, proposed forstudy in accordance with the program, were selected with consideration for the degree of previous
research, their significance from the point of view of historical-cultural values, and their value for thedevelopment of a tourism infrastructure.

100

In the period from 2004 to the present, large amounts of new archaeological materials have been
excavated, with projects focused on conserving and restoring them. Other historical and cultural
materials, which had been discovered earlier, have also been prepared and studied.
At the moment, archaeological and preservation/restoration activities are not experiencing a funding
deficit. Annually, around $25,000,000 is allocated centrally to the cultural heritage program alone, notincluding funding from local budgets. However, the laudable striving of relevant agencies to handle
simultaneously vast amounts of materials has revealed another problem, namely their insufficientexperience and lack of core professional personnel. Consequently, ill-judged decisions are made,which is unallowable for such a valuable fund of information and knowledge as the artifacts of thisculture. Of course, restored monuments attract greater numbers of visitors than ones in ruins, but
drastic decisions and ill-conceived renovations, not based on sufficient evidence, decrease the value ofthe restoration undertaken and negate its scientific significance.
The problem of preservation of archaeological heritage in Kazakhstan has its unique features, in its
technological and methodological aspects, and also in the legal maintenance of these actions. As I
have already mentioned, at present more than 30,000 immovable monuments of history and culture
have been taken under protection, and more than 20,000 of them are archaeological remains in aruined condition, and these numbers continue to grow with each newly discovered monument. The
methods of preservation of archaeological monuments practiced today in Kazakhstan, according to the
Venetian charter of 1964, do not seem to be very effective. The reason is that the overwhelming
majority of these monuments are made from adobe (sun-dried, rather than kiln-fired bricks) and theexisting conservation means today cannot provide guarantees for strengthening them. Consequently,
with the purpose of protecting these remains from the natural elements and to prolong their lives, theprovision of stationary cover is strongly recommended. But besides destroying the appearance of themonuments themselves and their historical landscape, these measures have other weak points such as
the necessity of organizing security services to protect them from vandalism, which is not possible forsuch a great number of monuments spread over a big territory, and many in the uninhabited steppe.
These problems of protection were taken into consideration by specialists from the Research andProduction Center and comprehensive methods of preservation for the historical and cultural heritage
were worked out, including both conservation aspects and the integration of this heritage into the vital
activities of society, by including it in social and economic plans for development of the regions where
it is located. This method of protection has been presented and comprehensively described in the
catalog of norms and standards (SNIP RK B1-7-01), “Instructions on coordination of expertise andapproval of project documentation on regeneration of historical monuments of architecture and townplanning, including those in a ruined state.” Using these instructions, provided by the consolidated
work of specialists in different spheres, renovation projects of historical centers have been conducted,

101with the development of a tourism infrastructure, in Almaty, Zhambyl, South Kazakhstan, Mangystau,
Atyrau and the West Kazakhstan regions.

4. Projects of Regeneration
In this report I would like to note some of the programs for regenerating several significant historicalcompounds, proposed by our center and showing vividly the necessity of controlled integration ofthese places into the life of society, as a natural means for perpetuating their timeless value.
Kazakhstan is one of the states where nomadic peoples have lived from ancient times using mobile
housing, such as yurts, tents, marquees, lean-tos, and other various portable constructions, as well as
structures fixed on wheeled platforms. The culture of building mobile housing, being based on pole
constructions and removable covers, long ago reached significant levels of technical and artistic
perfection, as witnessed by the descriptions of medieval authors. But the non-durable nature of thematerials, in terms of poor resistance to fire, damp, and the destructive impact of some species of
insects, has not allowed these constructions to last. Individual, isolated samples can be observed in themuseum exhibitions of some countries, such as Turkey, Uzbekistan, and Russia. Artistic forms ofmobile housing were transferred to religious stone constructions, mounds, mausoleums and chapels,some of which have remained to the present day. From the middle of first millennium, urban culture
started to form in the territory of Kazakhstan. Due to historical turbulence and cruel destructive wars,
the ancient towns of Kazakhstan were also destroyed and lay in ruins. Thus, two foci have emerged in
the archaeological studies of Kazakhstani heritage: research on both nomadic and settled culturalmonuments.

RESTORATION OF THE PALACE MOSQUE IN THE ANCIENT SETTLEMENT OF OTRAR
One of the fundamental research projects of the second focus mentioned above is the large-scale, longterm excavation work at the Otrar site, undertaken from 1966 to the present. In the medieval period theOtrar oasis was one of the largest centers of urban civilization of Kazakhstan. This oasis included
more than 60 settlements, castles, and small towns. The center was Otrar – a site in the shape of apentangle, with an area of around 300 hectares and with a height of up to 18 meters.
The period of existence of this town spanned the fourth to the seventeenth centuries. Issues in the
study of Otrar include the origin of urban culture, and the development of the construction arts in thehistory of the town. Problems concerning the exhibition of excavated objects from Otrar, and ofconserving and restoring them were not raised initially. Attention was paid to these matters only when
the remains of capital buildings such as the palace, a cathedral mosque with a madrasah, andbathhouses, etc., started to be uncovered at the excavations. For the preservation of the discovered
artifacts, temporary tents and waterproof coatings and encasings are used. Also, some backfilling has
been done for preservation.

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For the convenience of visitors, pathways and observation platforms of bricks are being made. As
experience shows, these efforts are inefficient, expensive and non-durable. Such conservation methods
are especially unsatisfactory at massive features such as housing, and as a rule, the basic structures ofa site’s fortifications. The destruction of such conserved sites is usually revealed by the next season.
Here we should emphasize that developing a method of conserving the sun-dried bricks is the maintask at Kazakhstani sites.
The purpose of the project and its significance for Kazakhstan. The project aims at restoration of theinitial architectural and artistic appearance, while preserving the functional purpose of the monument,
introducing it into the system of local and international tourism along the path of the ancient Silk Road.
The ancient settlement of Otrar has a two-thousand-year old history, from the first centuries up to theeighteenth century A.D., and is undoubtedly an important part of the cultural heritage, not only of
Kazakhstan, but of the international community as well. Investigations of this monument, andconservation and restoration of the initial architectural and artistic appearance of some portions of thehistoric buildings such as the palace mosque, will give the chance to preserve the ethnographic,
cultural, architectural and artistic traditions of the people who inhabited this region.

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Project description. Ancient Otrar is known as the birthplace of the famous Medieval philosopher andscientist Abu Nasr Al-Farabi. Also, it is the place where Emir Timur, the founder of a huge empire,died in 1405. The work of investigating this settlement began in 1969, and has been carried out by theInstitute of History, Ethnography and Archeology of the Academy of Science of Kazakhstan.
City buildings dating from the tenth through eighteenth centuries, including baths of the eleventh tofourteenth centuries, and pottery workshops of the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, were all examined.
One of the most interesting areas turned out to be the citadel precinct (Arka), where the palace
complex, built with kiln-fired bricks, was formerly located. It fell to ruins in the fourteenth century,
but was later furnished with buildings from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries erected at the site.
During the excavations only the area of the palace mosque, built from the end of the fourteenth to thebeginning of the fifteenth centuries, was explored. It was constructed simultaneously with themausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi in Turkistan. The Otrar mosque consists of indoor and outdoor
parts. The indoor part is 60 x 20 m in size. The entrance was constructed in the form of a portal withrectangular pylons of 2.7 x 1.35 m. One of these pylons, with a height of 1.7 m, is well preserved. The
mosque had cylindrical minarets, 2 m in diameter, attached to the corners of the portal. By examining
the four surviving steps of the stairs of one of the minarets, the spiral-shaped staircases of all of themcan be restored, with entrances of 1 m in width from the inner side of the portal.

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The architectural plan of the mosque could also be recognized in the surviving features of thebasement and the walls, in one of which remains of a mikhrab niche with square pylons on its sides
were found. The wall has a doorway leading to the street. The Otrar assembly mosque belongs to thepiers-cupola type of construction, well known in the mediaeval architecture of Central Asia.
According to the available evidence, this mosque was most likely constructed for the noble estate.
Even supporting structures, such as walls, piers, portal pylons, etc., were made of high quality kilnfired bricks. A significant role was played by the architectural decoration of the walls, which were all
paved with ceramic tiles and glazed bricks with ornamental and syncretic zoo-morphic images. The
mosque had a garden of 60 x 55 m surrounded by walls of kiln-fired bricks. The entrance, darbaza,
together with a toilet and other necessary facilities, was located in the western part of the yard.
The project envisages a complex of works, including the complete restoration of the mosque, withpreservation and conservation of the remaining features, and regeneration of its original function. The
partial conservation made in 2003-04 seems not to have been effective since the ruins, even if wellpreserved, attract only the attention of scientists. Other important features of this monument, such as
its architectural and artistic appearance, touristic, religious and educational importance, are thus being
neglected. In our opinion, only through conservation which both professionally restores the historicalobjects and integrates them into the vital activity of today’s society can they be preserved from further
destruction and disintegration.

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REGENERATION PROJECT OF A PORTION OF THE TURKISTAN CITY HISTORICAL CENTER
Another significant monument of the urban culture of Kazakhstan is the compound of the hanaka(mausoleum) of Khoja Akhmed Yassawi, including not only the preserved monumental edifices of
Timurid period architecture, such as the hanaka, hilvet (underground mosque), an oriental bathhouse,mausoleums of Kazakh khans, but also the ruined remnants of fortification and irrigation constructions,streets and housing of a Medieval town site.

Hanaka (mausoleum) of Hodja Akhmed Yassawi, fourteenth century

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Upper left: Hilvet (underground mosque), twelfth century. Bottom left, right: Mausoleum of Rabiya
Sultan Begum, fifteenth century. Photo and general view.

Oriental bathhouse, sixteenth century. Photo and general view.

Taking into account the national and international significance of the historical monument, townplanning and architecture (criteria i, iii and iv), the hanaka of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in 2003 became
the first monument in Kazakhstan to be inscribed on the World Heritage List.
The purpose of the project and its significance for Kazakhstan. The project aims to revive thearchitectural and ethnic-cultural atmosphere of the Medieval center of an ancient city of Turkistan,along with the establishment of pilgrimage, tourist and ethnographic sites on the basis of restored
historical buildings. Turkistan was the first capital of the Kazakh state. Its medieval center, with anarea of 88.7 hectares, is under governmental protection.

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Location. The monument occupies the northern part of medieval Turkistan and lies next to its citadel
and necropolis from the southern side, and to the modern city from the eastern side. Turkistan is one of
the main centers of the steppe section of the Silk Road, and is located in the valley of the Syr-Darya
foothills of Karatau mountains. At present it is the administrative center of the Turkistan region.

Project description. The city of Turkistan was founded in the fourth to sixth centuries at the site of acastle settlement known as Shavgar Yassy. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, between the city andits necropolis, there was a hilvet on the way to a ziarat (pilgrimage), according to sufi the of Yassavite

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order. In the fourteenth century, the emir Timur created the mighty spiritual center of the Syr-Darya
region, Desht-i-Kypchak. In the fifteenth century the headquarters of the Kypchak khans were shiftedfrom Sygnak city to Turkistan, and the second city citadel appeared next to the existing residence of
Turkistan’s ruler from the eastern side of the necropolis and hanaka. After the consolidation of thethree Kazakh clans (the Younger, Middle and Elder zhuzes) in the sixteenth century, Turkistan became
the capital of the Kazakh state, and the Khan’s headquarters were located in the citadel. In the
necropolis, next to the hanaka, the mausoleums of Tawakel, Tauke, Dzhangir, Yesim, and Ablaykhans, the establishers of the Kazakh khanate, were placed, which turned the old necropolis into amemorial complex.
The medieval city of Yassy (Turkestan)

Periods of formation of
the historical center of
Turkistan
1. Kultobe, fifth c.
2. Citadel, thirteenth c.
3. Citadel, Abul Mamed
Khan, eighteenth c.
4. Hanaka of Akhmed
Yassawi and necropolis

The necropolis and the headquarters were surrounded with defensive walls with towers, gates, moats
and bridges, and this territory of 4.5 hectares became the sacred zone of the city. To the south of it, astorage pond was constructed, and a city bath was built in the southwest. A trading center for sales offresh goods and inns emerged at the western gates of the city which, existing until the fifteenth century.
During the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, the territory of the city was growing intensely. Dwellings
were formed using the so called makhala type, dwelling blocks connected with narrow blind streets,
and each having its mosque. By the nineteenth century there were total of 40 mosques in Turkistan,
one per makhala block. These dwelling blocks were differentiated according to the class andprofessional estates of the residents, with the clergy blocks located closer to the necropolis and citadel.

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The merchants had occupied the central and the most ancient part of the city, between the trading
center (bazaar) and citadel. The housing blocks surrounding the citadel from the northeast and north
were covered in rich decoration, and belonged to the most prosperous part of the population. The
Khan’s headquarters and the military garrison were located inside the citadel. According to a statisticalreport of the nineteenth century, in the city of Turkistan there were about 1,200 houses, with apopulation estimated at 5,000 people.

A Makala Mosque. Photo and sketch.

Besides the houses with crafts shops of artisans such as potters, carpet weavers, jewelers, tanners, etc.
there were also small shops producing bricks, wooden and iron objects, and soap in the city.

Plan of the dwelling housing found during archaeological excavations.

At present, the medieval core of Turkistan represents a city with a 4.5 m deposit of cultural layer, anda street network that can be identified, plus monumental religious and civil buildings of the twelfth
through nineteenth centuries, with details of the fortifications of the citadel and the city preserved.
Today all necessary materials are available for regeneration of this unique medieval city. Some ofthese monuments (ritual buildings: the hanaka of the Khoja Ahmed Yassawi; the hilvet or the first110

dwelling of the sufis, Auliye Kumchik Ata; Chila-hana, a headquarter mosque; a mausoleum of Rabi’aSultan Begim, the grand-granddaughter of Timur; the medieval eastern bath; the remains of thefortification of the citadel with towers and gates) have already been restored. But this is a very smallpart of the city and much more needs to be done in order to restore it to its original appearance. The
present project assumes the regeneration of the housing area of the northern part of the city, with aterritory of 12 hectares of already ruined by 1980 (due to the modern city planning). Relying on thearchitectural and archaeological evidence, graphic materials, written sources of the fifteenth tonineteenth centuries, and mostly, preserved photos taken from 1910-52, when the medieval dwellings
still existed, there is a chance to restore the ruined parts of this city with a high level of authenticity.

The core of medieval Turkistan, with the cultural layer identified. Google Earth view and a model.

Dwelling houses of medieval Turkistan. Preserved features.

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The portion of the historical part of the city proposed for restoration is attached to the outer side of thecity walls, behind which the arterial road of the modern city lies, thus separating the modern city
medieval one. In this area, according to the above-mentioned evidence, there were about 6-7 dwelling
blocks of compactly placed one- and two-stored houses. Each block included a public center,
consisting of a mosque and medresse (dormitory), with a garden and 10-12 farmsteads. The farmstead
generally was inhabited by 5-10 family members and functionally was divided into two parts, maleand female. All premises were connected by an inner garden. The entrance, with a stable, woodshed
for agricultural tools, living and bedrooms belonged to the male part. The backside of the yard, with akitchen, and bedrooms for women and children represented the female part. The premises on thesecond floor, except for the guest room above the gates, also belonged to the female area. This guest
room had a window facing the street, with all others facing the inner-garden, thus the streets had theappearance of narrow clay corridors. All parts of the premises on both floors had exits to the yard andwere connected between themselves by a terrace. Sometimes the terrace was constructed only on thefirst floor, roofed on the second by a mezzanine, thus considerably increasing the area and creatingshaded spaces in the yard. The yard was considered to be the central part of the farmstead and as a rulemuch attention was paid to its improvement: it was fitted out with a small rectangular pool (haus), awell, many fruit trees with bird cages on them, and grape bushes all around. It was paved with stone or
kiln-fired bricks of 30 x 30 x 6 cm in size. Some of the yards were covered with layers of colored clay.

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In some large yards there were mounted yurts on clay platforms, thus preserving nomadic traditions
until the twentieth century. Some stone platforms for yurts were found on the precincts of the Khan’sheadquarters inside the citadel.
The project envisages utilization of the restored buildings, taking into account a harmonious
combination of historic and modern features. Thus, the block on the main street, situated next to theancient city’s northern gates, is foreseen as a tourist complex. Eight or nine restored farmsteads could
accommodate about 300 tourists, and provide them with comfortable conditions for their stay andentertainment. The block located to the west from the tourist complex, also connected to the mainstreet, is planned for use as a pilgrimage complex. In this block, besides the dwelling houses supplying
the necessary premises, for the ritual needs of the pilgrims a quarter mosque with a sacred garden for
100 persons is planned for restoration. The block next to the city citadel, consisting of 9 farmsteads,
will be restored for utilization as a cultural and ethnographic center, including an ethnographic theaterand museum, spaces and premises for exhibiting the national cuisine, kumis, and chayhanas, places for
conducting national games and sports, plus horse stables and technical rooms. A small block of 4
farmsteads in between the above-mentioned complexes is planned to be used as a handicraft village.

Project sketches

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114

REGENERATION PROJECT FOR THE MEDIEVAL CITY OF TALGAR
Purpose of the project and its significance for Kazakhstan. The project aims at the museumification ofa medieval city site, the reconstruction of a living quarter, and the architectural and archaeologicalstudy of the monument, plus the inclusion of the complex into national and international tours of theancient Silk Road. The medieval city of Talgar is unique historical evidence of the art of townplanning in the northeast of the Semirechie region, and is a property of national and international
cultural importance.

Project description. The Talgar city site is identified with the famous Talhir city on the Great Silk
Road, where it crossed the Ili valley. Medieval Talgar was one of the largest political, economic, andcultural centers of ancient Kazakhstan. Here, in the foothills of the Zailiyski Alatau, even in the age of
the Saka and Uisun states, numerous settlements were concentrated. The archaeological remains found115

show that along with livestock herding, farming through irrigation also played an important role in thelife of the ancient population of Semirechie. The city was founded at the locus of an agricultural
settlement of the eighth century, and in the tenth century geographical treatise Hudud al-Aalem(Boundaries of the world), the Persian author describes Talhir as the political center of the lands of the
Djikelei and Tuhsi tribes, which later entered into the Karahanid empire. The city existed until the endof thirteenth century, and possibly its destruction was connected not only to the political instability ofthe second half of that century, but also to one of the area’s most destructive earthquakes which took
place at that time. At present, the ruins of Talgar represent an elevated rectangular mound, surroundedby the guttered fortress walls and a moat behind them. The area of the fortified citadel is 9 hectares.
Towers were located at the corners and on the perimeter of the citadel. Two entrances which led into
the city were situated on opposite sides, and were connected by a stone paved road which divided thecity into two, almost equal, parts. Different buildings adjoined the fortified part of the city, organized
as a kind of trade and handicraft suburb.

In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the territory of Talgar had increased to approximately 30
hectares. It was built up with houses and farmsteads. Usually, the farmsteads consisted of a part forliving, being a house and a big yard, with a nomadic tent or yurt made of felt and wood. Among the116archaeological remains found there in 1968, when excavations first took place, were a dwelling quarterof 18 farmsteads, pottery workshops, a jewelry shop and a bakery. Large amounts of ceramic materials
were collected, as well as pieces made of iron, bronze and glass.

The medieval city of Talgar. Reconstruction.

The development of crafts and the rise of the city’s economy contributed to the strengthening of itsrole as a trading center in the region. Many luxury pieces of art brought from different countries suchas China, Japan, Iran and India have been found. Talgar was one of the largest centers for the
production of iron and steel articles. Talgar blacksmiths knew the secret of Damascus steel production.
The main works of restoration planned for Talgar, as a capital of a vast region from the eighth to thethirteenth centuries, are as follows:x

Installation of a fence around the citadel territoryx

Ceasing of accidental illegal farming and the organization of a park zone along the Talgar
river

x

Restoration of the excavated dwelling quarterx

Conservation of the main roads with their original pavementxConservation of the remains and restoration of the ruined parts of the main entrance to the cityin the northeastern part of the wall, and of the two entrance towers

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x

Reconstruction of the farmsteads with their full interior and exterior decorations, with theirlater utilization as an ethnographic museum for the culture of the Djikili and Tuhsi tribesx

Restoration of the castle ramparts

Portion of the reconstructed farmstead.
Plan

General view

Plan of the farmstead quarter

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Advantages of the project. The project promises mixed approaches to the creation of ideal conditions
for the preservation, presentation and modern utilization of this unique monument of the historic townplanningcultureof

Kazakhstan.

Keeping

in

mind

the

culturalandcognitive

importanceofthis monument, as well as
its location close to Almaty
and its relatively good levelof preservation, the settlementof

Talgarwas

included into the state listof touristic sites, and a
touristic and ethnographic
complex is planned to beorganized on this basis.

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NOMADIC CULTURE MUSEUM
Important regeneration projects of our center include the restoration and preservation of monuments
representing the other focus in the archaeological studies of Kazakhstani heritage: nomadic field
settlements, wheeled housing and other means of mobility, along with ethnographically distinct
military devices. Due to the non-durability of the materials used by nomads when making such
constructions, reinstating them with their particular multiple artistic elements and detail represents
quite a complicated process, including analyzing graphic, ethnographic and archaeological materials,
as well as written sources.

Nomadism, as a specific form of household and community setup of tribes united by commonalities ofterritory and culture, formed on the Eurasian continent in the second millennium B.C., and existed inseparate regions until the twentieth century. The mobile lifestyle fostered in nomads a specific state ofmind, their own concepts of world order, their own moral criteria, values, and codes for communal
living, as well as their own arts, beliefs, customs, rituals and traditions – in short, their own culture. In
the process of the formation of this nomadic culture, which occurred sometimes through interaction
with settled populations, values at a panhuman level also emerged. These values first of all include themythology of the nomadic peoples, reflected in the sacred writings of the Indo-Aryans, the Rigveda

120and the Avesta. They are also embedded in the imagery of the language, its sayings and proverbs, andin traditions, rituals, games, and the depictive arts, which all represent forms of intangible heritage.
While looking at the significance of nomadic culture in the formation and development of global
civilization, it should be noted that increased attention is now being paid to studying nomadism as animportant cultural phenomenon in itself, and as a valuable source of information. Kazakhstan, as aterritorial and ethnic successor of the traditions of the Central Asian nomadic culture, and on whose
territory multiple evidences of the Saka-Uisun and Turkic cultures remain, is in a unique position toact as unifier of scientific programs, and organizer of all information relating to nomadism.

Turkestan

AlmatyProject of the Museum of nomadic civilizations in Almaty

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122

Mobile Constructions

Arrangement of mobile constructions in a caravanserai

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Exhibition of the nomadic headquarters of the Saka general (Khan). In this exhibition, one of five
constructions of the mobile headquarters of the Saka general (Khan), representing the nomadic
military palace complex of the Saka (Scythian) time, is portrayed.
Its pre-fabricated detachable construction allowed it to be used during migrations and military marches,
as well as during stationary periods. The renovation of the complex was conducted by the scientificand producing center, “Historical and cultural heritage,” from investigations based on archaeologicaland graphic materials, and bibliographic and archival documents. The remains of such sites were
found in a northern suburb of Almaty city (Terenkora settlement), and at locations 16 and 200 km eastof Almaty (close to Tuzusay settlement and on a ritual site of the river Charyn). Similar settlements of
the Saka-Uisun time were also found along the Bolshoy Almaty channel, the cultural levels of whichwere destroyed during the construction of the channel.
Ceramic remains and stratigraphic materials from these archaeological settlements reveal the existence
here of numerous semi-settled sites of the Saka time. The round and oval-shaped plans, singlecolumned construction, and locations of these headquarters indicate the succession of architectural anddecorative traditions of semi-settled Sakas of the Uisun and Turk times. This is why, for the124

reconstruction of this complex, both graphic documents and written sources belonging to the Middle
Ages were used, which complemented the archaeological data and enabled restoration of lost parts of
the architectural and decorative forms of these constructions.
Clearly recognizable representations of these constructions are found in miniatures of the sixteenthand seventeenth centuries, in the archives of the Istanbul National Library, the Institute of Easternculture of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences, the National Gallery Friar in Washington, the Bodleian
Library of Oxford University, the Paris National Library, the Windsor Royal Library, and in several
Persian and Indian miniatures, and in those made for Navoi and Babur-name poems, as well as ingravures of Bartholomew from Behen.

In order to restore the decorative parts of the marquee, remains were used from different
archaeological excavations of burial mounds (kurgans) in Issyk, Berel, and Pazyrlyk, where the Saka
leaders were buried, and also from the descriptions of these constructions made in accounts written by
Plano Carpini and Giloma de Rubruk. Remains of single-columned marquees were also found on thenorthern side of the Black Sea among the monuments of the Skiff and Saka habitat. Constructions here125reach 9-12 m in diameter. Sockets from pegs which held the ropes of the marquee allow making aparallel between these marquee complexes and those found in Kazakhstan and in the Altay region of
Russia. Other archaeological remains and written documents also indicate that ethnic and cultural
relationships existed among Central-Asian nomads and peoples inhabiting the northern side of theBlack Sea.
Architectural characteristics and decorative elements. The construction is 10 m high and 9 m indiameter. The main carrying elements are the column and beam-and-rope frame forming a junction
disk (wheel), which symbolizes a celestial chariot. This wheel with its beams, or rays, spreading out
from it, form the internal space of the construction, and serve as basis for the carrying wooden beams
which are holding the cupola.

From the outside, the marquee is covered with felt decorated with strips of brocade, and with silk frominside. The interior design of the construction was implemented in accordance with the ancient
ideology of the Skiffs and Sakas, based on scientific investigations showing the first single-columned
marquees belonging to the Skiff and Saka nomadic period.
The upper space, the so-called “celestial world,” is separated from the “lower world” by a decorative
frieze (baskur in Kazakh, meaning a part of headgear). This way of decoration was widespread in the
Middle Ages in nomadic and even in monumental architecture, and is preserved until the present day.
The façade of the upper, sacred part of the marquee is decorated with bronze gryphon heads, a
tradition coming from the zoo-anthropomorphic ideology on which the art and architecture of the Saka
tribes were based. Numerous sculptures and graphic illustrations of these creatures are found inarchaeological monuments of the Skiff and Saka, the Hun, Uisun, and the Turk periods, pointing out

126the stability of these theological notions of the Central-Asian nomads, and on succession of theircultural and decorative traditions.

127

128

Fragment of interior construction

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Kyrgyz Republic
Aidai SULAIMANOVA
Research Scientist / Archaeologist
Institute of History and Cultural Heritage
National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic

Preserving and Restoring Cultural Heritage in Kyrgyzstan
In Kyrgyzstan, monuments of the cultural heritage of farmers and nomads have been recorded for the
Neolithic up to the modern period. These include ancient stone-working sites, funerary and memorial
structures, settlements, stone sculptures, rock paintings and other artwork.
Many have undergone various kinds of destruction, the reasons for which lie in diverse factors.
Furthermore, state policy for the preservation of these sites or structures has not been developed
sufficiently until now.

I. A History of Preserving Cultural Heritage
During the Soviet period in Kyrgyzstan, prior to the 1970s restoration and conservation was conducted
mainly by specialists from Tashkent (Uzbekistan) and central organizations of the former USSR, whoworked on archaeological and architectural remains of medieval settlement sites. The Leningrad
Hermitage played an important role, as its workers took an active part in excavating and preserving thearchitectural complexes of the medieval epoch. Many restorers from research centers and museums of
Kyrgyzstan were trained at the laboratories of the Hermitage. The All-Union Research Institute for
Restoration of the Ministry of Culture in Moscow was also active, and its staff directly participated in
the work of conserving archaeological materials, and provided advisory services to local specialists.
At the beginning of the seventies, a special structure was organized in Kyrgyzstan under the
Ministry of Culture in order to implement restoration and conservation activities on historical andcultural heritage. The medieval brick monuments (the Manas mausoleum, Burana minaret and ruins ofmausoleums, the Uzgen architectural complex, etc.) and stone monuments (the Tash-Rabat) in all theregions of the country became the major objects of interest.
Towards the end of the decade, a special sector on restoration and conservation was organized at
the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, whose
workers were trained through practical work in the laboratories of the All-Union Institute. While thisorganization was short-lived, the experience and skills the specialists received there were quite usefulduring their work on the sites of the ancient settlements of Ak-Beshim and Ak-Chui (the Chui and
Ketmen-Tyube valleys).
In the late eighties, the special “Research and production restoration workshops” (SPSW)
were transformed into the Kirgizrestavratsiya, which was designated the Research and Development

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Design Institute, with a powerful production base with several divisions in the regions. The sphere of
their activity, which nowadays covers various themes, considerably increased as well, to include
everything from preparing plans for the preservation of historical cities, up to conserving rockpaintings.
In the early nineties, in connection with general economic and political issues of the post-Soviet
epoch, the activity of this institute was practically terminated. Its legal successor has become the
Research and Development Design Bureau (RDDB, also Kyrgyzrestavratsiya) under the Ministry of
Culture, which, unfortunately, had neither the needed material and technical base, nor sufficientnumbers of professional restorers having adequate experience and work skills.
However, even in such conditions, restoration and conservation of architectural andarchaeological heritage during independence were carried out within the limits of various national
projects, such as Manas-1000 (1993-1995) and Osh-3000 (1997-2000), etc., with the support ofinternational organizations and foreign countries.
In 2002, the conservation activities on the Cholpon-Ata rock-paintings restarted. They were
implemented by the RDDB, with financial and technical support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ofGermany, including German specialists who worked with staff of the Issyk-Kul Reserve-Museum.
With money provided by the US Embassy in 2003, the same organization carried out theconservation of the cupola of the Shah-Fazil mausoleum in the Safid-Bulan Village (Jalal-Abad
Oblast).
A significant role in preserving historical materials and in training local personnel was playedby the UNESCO project financed by the Japanese Targeted Fund, and implemented at three medieval
sites of ancient settlement of the Chui valley, the Red Small river (the Nevaketa), Ak-Beshim (Suyab),and Burana (Balasagun), in the years 2004-08.
Within the scope of this project, our scientists and specialists had the opportunity to improve ournation’s experience through their involvement in the concrete conservation of monuments, and also
through education and joint work with international experts. Various methods of conservation wereapplied on the archaeological materials of these ancient settlement sites, from simple backfilling of the
excavated features (the ruins of the medieval Christian complex on Ak-Beshim, Ɋ-1, Ɋ-7 on the Red
Small river), up to building floorings over some of them (the citadel and Buddhist temple on the Red
Small river). Among these, the method of preserving ancient walls with overlays of modern partial
reconstructions of the destroyed sites (as at Mausoleum 4, Burana) is particularly effective.
The international seminar on the “Conservation of the wall painting of Central Asia” in 2008-09
in Dushanbe, organized by the National Research Institute of Cultural Properties (Tokyo) and theInstitute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of
Tajikistan, with financial support from the Ministry of Culture of Japan, for the purpose of training thepersonnel in the field of conservation of wall painting, was also a highly positive event.
It will be apparent from this short survey, on the development of restoration and conservation
activities of archaeological and architectural heritage of Kyrgyzstan, that in the Soviet period there131

existed a rather effective state system in order to support such activities. Since the 1990s such work
has been implemented as part of archaeological excavations, or as one of the components of general
restoration activities within the framework of separate national and international projects.
Special efforts have been made on the part of specialists and the public to provide training for
personnel in various institutions of the country (the Kyrgyz National University, Manas KyrgyzTurkish University, Kyrgyz State University of Architecture, Building and Transport, American
University in Central Asia). But although this formal education is available, the small number ofgraduates do not always have the opportunity to be employed in the profession they have chosen.
We hope that with political and economical stabilization in the country, new national programson historical and cultural heritage that envisage both the management of cultural properties, and thetraining of personnel in methods of conservation and reservation, will be established. The step-by-step
implementation of such projects is assumed to take place up to 2020.

II. Descriptions of Previously Restored Monuments
In Kyrgyzstan, the first activities aimed at preserving monuments were carried out on two medievalarchaeological and architectural complexes, Burana (the Chui Valley) and Uzgen (the Southeast
Fergana). The Burana ancient settlement site is uniquely identified with the city of Balasagun (tenth to
thirteenth centuries), state capital of the Karakhanids, the first Turk dynasty that officially accepted
Islam, and Uzgen for a short time was the center of the Khanate western part, then it was the center of
the Fergana appanage of the same state. In these cities, after the spread of Islam, architectural
structures were built linked to its religious traditions: minarets, mosques, madrasahs and mausoleums.
Restoration projects dating from the previous century at these and several other sites aredescribed in the following sections.
THE BURANA COMPLEX
The Burana complex (Fig. 1) consists of a minaret, three mausoleums, and an additional structure also
provisionally identified as a mausoleum, although regarded by some as a mosque. These separate
structures, and the restoration work performed until the end of the twentieth century, are described in
the following sections.
The Burana minaret. This is one of the oldest minarets built with kiln-fired brick in the Central Asian
region, and dates back to the end of the tenth century (Goryacheva 1983: 32; Goryacheva 2010: 137).
The minaret consists of an infrastructure in the form of a sturdy platform, made of stone andkiln-fired brick, buried in a foundation pit up to 5.6 m in depth, with the length on each of its sides of
12.3 m. The building is made of a recently-added octagonal base, while the re-faced conical tower waspreserved up to 22 m in height.
The tower is decorated with six horizontal ornamental belts. The whole of the decoration was
built of standard brick that protrudes of 3-4 cm.

132

Fig. 1 Aerial view of the archeological site of Burana (Renato Sala, 2005)

The mausoleums. In the early seventies, during archaeological work in the vicinity of an ancient
settlement site, the lower parts of three mausoleums came to light near the mediaeval minaret. Later, astructure regarded as a fourth mausoleum, also near the minaret but to the northwest, was revealed.
The so-called first mausoleum (to the east of the minaret) was an octagonal structure built ofkiln-fired brick (sized 23-26 cm), with the preserved socle (plinth) standing 1.8 m high, having a
diameter up to 11 m, and walls 1.7 m thick. The brick was laid mainly with clay mortar, with only inthe upper lining using ganch (gypsum) mortar.
This richly decorated mausoleum is reconstructed as having stood more than 15 m high, with
its interior decorated with paintings and ornamented borders, and carved terracotta and embroidery
bricks on the exterior (Masson and Goryacheva 1985: 53-54, 57; Gorycheva 2010: 138).
The second and third mausoleums, located northeast of the first, are near the east city wall.
The uncovered features of both mausoleums were in fact identical, being circular structures having
diameters of 10 and 10.5 m, with separate portals (12 and 14.7 m) facing east.
The structural material is square kiln-fired brick, as at the first mausoleum. The portals wereflanked by three-quarter pillars and decorated with embroidery bricks and borders, and are more
uniform than in the first mausoleum. All the three above-mentioned mausoleums date back to theeleventh and twelfth centuries (Masson and Goryacheva 1985: 57; Goryacheva 1983: 42).
The fourth mausoleum is rectangular in plan, and measures 16.3 x 14 m. It consists of one
room with a single exit to the east, located in the middle of the wall. It was also built of kiln-fired
bricks measuring 17 x 17 x 5 cm, with clay mortar.

133

When excavating this mausoleum, it became clear that it had no formed portal and separate
pylons at the entrance. The interior had shallow-carved gypsum apparently covering all the surfaces of
the walls and floor. Stylized floral motifs, traditional for Islamic architecture, were used (Goryacheva
2010: 138, 239).
In 2005, when cleaning obstructions from the upper part of the northern wall, a small piece ofthe gypsum decoration, with elements of floral design, was discovered.
V. D. Goryacheva distinguishes four periods in the function of the structure. Its initialconstruction may have been carried out between the tenth and eleventh centuries, then a second period
was from the eleventh to twelfth centuries, when carved terracotta was used for decorating thestructure, and the last two stages fall already within Mongolian times (Goryacheva 2010: 138).
When excavating the interior of the structure, some burial places were uncovered. But according
to some researchers, this burial place is believed to be a mosque (Goryacheva 2010: 138). However,the dimensions of the structure, the absence of a mikrab (arched alcove), and uncovered burial places
contradict this interpretation.
Previous restoration work. The first repair and restoration work on the Burana minaret was conducted
in 1927. At the time, attention was paid mainly to restoring the lower part of the tower, which had
been destroyed by local residents almost up to three meters in height above the present ground level.
Twenty new arch girders were inserted into hollows of the octagonal base to replace the lost medieval
logs. Evidently, these logs served not only for the horizontal bandaging of rows of bricks of the basic
laying, but also for communication with theexterior ornamental lining. The foundationof the shaft was thus restored, and all thepreserved parts of the ornamental lining
were conserved and carefully fixed. In theupper part of the body of the tower, themost damaged parts were rebuilt withbrickwork.
Bricks for restoration bricks were
fired in sizes corresponding to the medieval
formats, and a special kiln was built on thesite.
The next stage of work on restoring
this monument came in the 1960s and 70sof the previous century. The design
investigations were conducted in the 60s,

Fig. 2 Minaret of Burana, before and after restoration

but the restoration work only started in the 70s through the efforts of the SPSW. The archeological andarchitectural investigations were carried out in two directions: the lower parts of the minaret were134

investigated and possible constructions links were sought for a mosque that had not been preserved; all
the territory of the major part of the site of ancient settlement was investigated, for which excavation
was conducted at various sites. As a result, three more monuments of monumental architecture,
attributed to the dynasty as mausoleums were discovered (these being the first, second and thirdmausoleums described above).
During the restoration, the destroyed parts of ornamental compositions of the octagonal base andthe upper shaft of the minaret were restored (Fig. 2).
For the archaeological remains, including features of all the mausoleums, conservation work
was carried out consisting of partial laying of the walls and portals, up to the maximum level of theheight of the monuments at the time of discovery.
Special restoration brick was used for the work, corresponding to the medieval dimensions, andmanufactured in production workshops in Frunze (now Bishkek). Technological analysis of thecompositions of bricks and binding mortars had been previously carried out.

THE UZGEN COMPLEXThe Uzgen complex consists of a minaret and three mausoleums. These separate structures, and therestoration work performed until the end of the twentieth century, are described in the following
sections.
The minaret. In its form as a result of restoration in 1920, this structure consists of an octagonal baseon a square platform, topped by a cone-shaped shaft and lantern platform, preserved to a total heightof 27.4 m (Fig. 3). The entry to it is in the southern part of the base, on the side of the mausoleums.
The minaret was built of kiln-fired brick, sized 25 x 12 x 4.5-5 cm, using gypsum mortar. The steps
were built of kiln-fired brick as well.
The shaft of the minaret is divided horizontally into
twelve ornamental belts, alternately wide and narrow.
In the opinion of the majority of specialists, the Uzgenminaret dates back to the eleventh century (Nusov 1963: 41;
Bernshtam 1997: 337; Goryacheva 2010: 137).
The mausoleums. The three mausoleums are arranged in a row,
standing next to one another (Fig. 4). The earliest and largest ofthem is the middle mausoleum, measuring 11.28 x 11.44 m
externally and 8.4 x 8.4 m internally, and 13 m high. It is builtof oblong bricks, 30 x 15 x 4 cm, and stands on a foundation of
4-5 layers of stone fixed with clay mortar. In all four outercorners there are three-quarter columns with diameters of about
96 cm.
Fig. 3 Uzgen minaret, after restoration135

At the corners of the entry alcove there are also three-quarter columns. The facade wall decor
includes a carved layer of plaster and a set of carved polished bricks. The square room of the plan wascovered with a cupola, sitting atop an octagonal drum with arched alcoves on the sides. Under the tierof the arches a carved gypsum frieze was located with lancet and semicircular arches. The walls werebuilt with a lining of brickwork, coupled with small bricks and plastered with gypsum.
There is no common agreement on dating this mausoleum, with some placing it in the tenthcentury, others in the eleventh, and still others to the period between the eleventh and twelfth centuries
or entirely to the twelfth century.
The northern mausoleum
was added in 1152, as indicatedby the inscription on the portal
arch. In plan it has the form of asquare, with outer dimensions of
12.2 x 10.2 m, and measuring
7.53 x 7.57 on the inside, and is
12 m high. It is built mainly ofbricks, sized 28-29 x 14-14.5 x
4.5 cm. On the southwest or front
part, there are powerful pylons
supporting the forward facing
portal. The brick pillars at thecorners of the portal alcove areplaced in a casing of blocks of

Fig. 4 The Uzgen mausoleums, before restoration

carved terracotta. The ways of
decoration used for the portal are very diverse. The mausoleum has a simple interior. The inner space
represents a cubic volume roofed by a cupola sitting atop a small octagonal drum. The door openings
are on the western and southern walls. A deep alcove is located in the northern wall.
The portal of the northern mausoleum is considered to be an example of the classic Central
Asian style for this type of item (Zasypkin 1930; Bernshtam 1997; Nusov 1963; etc.).
In 1186, one more mausoleum, the southern structure, was attached to the southeast side of the
middle mausoleum. The width of its portal is 8.7 m, the diameter of the cupola 6.4 m, and the height isabout 11 m. It was built of bricks of various sizes, but the 27-28 x 13-14 x 4-4.5 cm dimensions
predominate.
The composition of the main, or western front of this mausoleum also consists of a deep entry
alcove, edged with scotia molding and ornamental ribbons. The portal corners are flanked withpowerful three-quarter columns. The interior of the square room is simple, roofed by the cupola, atop abelt bearing alcoves with lancet arches, and in the corners are located sills with three small arches.
There are three door openings, no windows, and a shallow alcove arranged in east wall. The laying of136

the walls was done on the shell auger system. The monochrome terracotta casing of the portal of thesouthern mausoleum is the richest ornamental treasure of the twelfth century, in which there are about
fifteen different motifs. From the historical inscriptions on the portal, preserved fragmentarily, twodates are seen reporting on the burial place within the mausoleum of two representatives of the Uzgen
branch of the dynasty of Karakhanids: July 17, 1185 and February 27, 1187.
Restoration work. The first restoration project known at the complex was in the 1920s, when local
residents repaired the base of the minaret, and built the lantern which still crowns it in the present day.
In 1924-28, the mausoleums of Uzgen were studied from the perspectives of architectural andartistic value, as well as their archaeological aspects, within the framework of the repair andrestoration activities implemented by the Central Asian Committee on the matters of museums andprotection of monuments of ancient times, art, and nature, and again by the Central State Restoration
Workshops of the Glavnauka of the People’s Commissariat of Enlightenment of the RSFSR in 192829. These studies were carried out by specially invited experts from Samarkand (Goryacheva 1983:
70).
The restoration works started in the mid-seventies, and they were conducted by the SPSW of
Ministry of Culture of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, before the end of the decade. As a result,the cupola and the upper part of the portal of the middle mausoleum were restored, the terracotta
casing of the portals of the northern and southern mausoleums, and portions of the interiors of all threestructures were also restored. The minaret underwent similar restoration, both on the base, and in theornamental parts of the basic shaft (The historical … 1979: 6-9).

SHAH-FAZIL MAUSOLEUM
The mausoleum of the Shah-Fazil is a monument of the eleventh century. It is located in the settlementof Safid-Bulan of the Jalal-Abad Oblast.
The monument represents a building with a cupola-centric composition consisting of a singlechamber structure (Goryacheva 2010: 143). The squat, square base tier (with outer dimensions of 11.7
x 11.1 m, and measuring 7.84 x 7.84 inside) stands on a stone rubble platform 36 cm high, and isroofed with a lancet-shaped cupola, placed atop a high octagonal drum. The total height of themausoleum is 15.5 m. It is built mainly of bricks (two sizes, 27 x 15.5 x 35 cm and 32 x 32 x 5 cm),using loess-based mortar connecting it to a layer of gypsum (Nusov 1963: 47-48; Imankulov 2005:
102-3).
The main northwest front of the structure has three openings onto the yard side. The window isin the southwest wall. In the southeast wall, there is a mikrab alcove.
Ornamental compositions covered all the surfaces of the interior and the cupola. The
ornamentation is represented by floral, geometric, and epigraphic motifs (Nusov 1963: 50).
Restoration work on the complex began in the late seventies of the previous century, and has
proceeded, with significant breaks in time, up to the beginning of this century. The major restorations

137

are concentrated on the cupola and the mausoleum interior. In the course of restoring some of the
gypsum decoration, serious deviations were admitted from the recommendations contained in therestoration project.
In 2003, with a grant from the US Embassy, the RDDB of the Kyrgyzrestavratsiya Instituteattempted to repair areas of improperly restored decoration, and conducted restoration work on the
cupola as well.

MANAS MAUSOLEUM
Another monument, from the Mongol period, is amausoleum known among local people as Manas
kumbez (mausoleum). The monument is locatedsoutheast from the city of Talas, near thesouthwestern

side

of

the

Manastyn-Chokusu

mountains. The building consists of a cubiformbody covered with a double top, spherical inside andin the shape of a ribbed-pyramidal roof and wall on
the outside. Walls are built with kiln-fired bricks, 23
x 23 x 5 cm, over a clay mixture. A double layer ofplaster was put on the inside surface of the walls,
the bottom one made from clay, and the upper one
from gypsum. An arch, a trumpet arch, and theinside of the top are made with brick and alabaster.
The floor is covered with kiln-fired bricks atop

Fig. 5 Manas mausoleum, after restoration

layers of clay and adobe. The artistically formed
portal, in the south wall, is faced with architectural and terracotta tiles. The decor is varied, and has
harmonious proportions of floral, geometric, and epigraphic patterns. Key elements of the portalcomposition are two equal ribbons with religious and historical inscriptions, the last of which was readby V. Bartold in 1899 and M. Mason in 1925. A. Belinitskii is thought to have decoded it. Nowadays
the most acceptable date of death for a woman buried in the mausoleum is the first day of Ramazan of
the year 734 (6 May 1334 in the Gregorian calendar), as considered by researchers.
In planning earlier restoration work, it was noted that remains of a multi-faceted, ribbed drum
covering part of the spherical top of mausoleum were seen in old pictures published by Mr. M.
Masson and Mrs. G. Puganchenkova. Besides, during the cleaning of the mausoleum, facing brick wasfound, which was probably from the facing of walls under a hip roof. According to this evidence, Mrs.
G. Pugachenkova implemented a reconstruction of the mausoleum with its covering as a pyramidribbed top (Masson and Pugachenkova 1950).
The accuracy of this reconstruction was confirmed by work of the Ministry of Culture of theKirgiz Soviet Republic conducted in 1968-70. Part of the west wall of the structure was opened as a138

control for earlier surveys in 1945, revealing evidence for a hipped roof (Pomaskin 1972: 30). Also
found were bricks with ornamented wooden paving blocks, used for a transitive fascia between the
drum and hipped roof. Therefore, restoration of the monument was implemented on the basis of thescientific analysis of these original materials (Fig. 5). However, a hipped roof covering the dome of
the monument is to this date considered unacceptable by most population of the valley. In massconsciousness, the kumbez mode was roofed with the inside spherical cupola, without an outside cover.
That is why an appropriate organism of the country should give its proposal on changing the surface ofthe monument.

TASH-RABAT CARAVANSARY
Another monument on which
earlier restoration work was
carriedout

mountainous

is

the

high-

caravansaryofTash-Rabat, located in the Inner
Tien-Shan, in the western partof the At-Bashi valley. It issquare in plan, measuring 32.4 x
35.1 on the outside, built withcolliery shale extracted in thesame area. The front part isflanked by ornamental towers(Fig. 6). Inside there is a central
corridor, a square hall, and anumberofsmallerroofed

by

one

large

rooms

Fig. 6 Tash-Rabat caravansary, before and after

andeighteen smaller cupolas. The ornamental design of the interior is represented by fragments ofgypsum-faced plaster in some of the rooms, graphic carvings, and bas-reliefs (Peregudova 1989: p. 25).
The building was constructed in the Karakhanids epoch, in the eleventh to twelfth centuries, andit functioned up to the Timurids time and performed as caravansary servicing a distance of the GreatSilk Road, which went through the Tash-Rabat and Torugart passes and led to Kashgar.
As a result of the restoration work carried out by the SPSW under the Ministry of Culture in
1978-80, the cupolas and portal upper part were restored.

III. Conservation Work on Burana Mausoleum 4
In 2005, conservation work was conducted at one of the mausoleums of Burana complex, known in
the reports as “Mausoleum 4,” within the framework of the UNESCO/Japan Trust Fund project,139

“Preservation of Silk Roads Sites in the Upper Chui Valley in Kyrgyzstan: Navikat (Krasnaya Rechka),
Suyab (Ak Beshim) and Balasagyn (Burana).
Two groups worked on this heritage site, consisting of local specialists and experts from foreigncountries (Kazakhstan, Italy and Austria). One group focused on documentary issues, and the other on
maintenance. There were specialists of all types, including chemists, architects, and archaeologists.
Managers of these groups were foreign experts such as Dr. Enrico Fodde (University of Bath, UK) and
Mr. Tarsis Stevens. Several of the participants in these groups were researchers in training.

Major threats and evaluation of damage. Evaluation of the general condition and destruction of
Mausoleum 4 until the time of conservation was documented by making descriptions and taking
photos of the general appearance of the mausoleum, while devising a system for dividing the building
into designated parts.
Before the work began, the ruins of the building and the nearby square were covered by highgrass and long-lived plants, such as shrubs of the genus Ephedra, wormwood, etc. Whole bricks andfragments lay scattered around. Most of these items had fallen from the upper parts of nearby walls,
which were revealed after archaeological work began.
Cleaning. Vegetation was cut to the level of the roots, and the dispersed bricks were collected. The
surviving surfaces of features were cleaned from rubbish using dustpans, shovels and brushes. This
work was carried out under the supervision of archaeologists at the most important sites, such as thethree sufa (offering platform) niches (Fig. 7).
Inside the building,superficialcleaning without
penetrating to the culturallayer was carried out, as
the ancient floor level ofthe mausoleum had notbeen studied completely.
Fig. 7 Southern wall of Mausoleum 4

Selection of the material for wall conservation. For the conservation of the mausoleum walls,
materials were selected that are necessary for strengthening the layers of kiln-fired bricks, and forplastering the upper parts of walls with a fluid clay solution.
The manager of the conservation group, Dr. E. Fodde, and the chemist, Mrs. N. Sitnikova,
developed a special technology for making a complicated solution for the layered bricks. The
composition consists of clay, mixed with the following (in proportion, by weight): lime putty (11),140

gypsum (1), soil (13), sand (60), and chamotte (15), the latter being pounded fragments of medieval
kiln-fired brick from the mausoleum (Fodde 2008: 85).
In order to produce the clay for the mixture, clays were selected from different parts of thesurrounding area, such as the Burana ancient settlement site, some open mines, and places where clay
was extracted by local inhabitants outside of the monument.
After clearing the overlying material, the top rows of the walls were smeared with a thin layer ofthe liquid clay solution, to a thickness not exceeding 3-5 mm. This procedure was repeated several
times, as soon as each layer dried, to prevent the coat from cracking. As a result, it provided a coverthat protected the walls from natural precipitation and deterioration of their surface. The coating may
be repeated at least once a year.
Monitoring of this conservation method showed that it is not expected to last for a long period.
After a period of rain, the newly created clay cover dissolved and flowed down the walls, and after
they dried up there formed a thin crust covering both brickwork and the joints between them.
In this case, this method of protection was recommended to use as a temporary measure, forinstance for brickwork that had become exposed to the air, and for which this treatment should be
repeated twice per year. It is presumed that this work may be conducted as part of the activities of themuseum’s employers, after adequate short-term training.

Documentation, evaluation of damage, and proposals for reconstruction. The group working on
documentation completed a full topographic survey of the mausoleum. All of the data were entered forcomputer manipulation.
After completion of the survey, the conservation group made a partial surface cleaning of theside walls in order to create a photo documentation of the physical condition of the features prior to
the start of conservation work.
The main damage to the walls was visible just after cleaning overlying materials from the upperparts. Those parts that were thus covered over were in satisfactory condition despite being exposed
thirty years ago in an archaeological excavation. Compared with the upper parts, the foundations andother wall parts suffered more.
With the participation of both groups, as well as that of local and foreign experts, proposals
were discussed for a reconstruction of the mausoleum. The best plan proposed to reconstruct a part ofwall in the southwest sector. This proposal was detailed in written documents that contained
descriptions and photo materials.
Each group participating in the maintenance selected a specific area for work. All of these weremarked and indexed on a topographic plan of the site.
The work cycle began with cleaning the seams between bricks, blowing off dust with the help ofa bulb-type blower. The seams were then rinsed with water and again treated with a blower. A
conservation solution was applied using specially produced metal sticks with desalinated heads.

141

Strongly crumbled bricks were removed by splitting off with the help of a knife and a narrow
trowel. In their place were put sound bricks matched in size. Each conservation replacement ofarcheological bricks was marked by a hole made with manual drill.
Most of all, the brickwork on the surface of a sufa and the top part of a wall suffered. Therefore,
the most cracked and crumbled examples were replaced. In some places, seams with insignificant
width were filled with a conservation solution. The applied layers did not exceed 2-3 cm limit that wasnecessary for drying out quickly, after which this procedure was repeated until achieving the necessary
volume.
All these procedures were implemented taking into account a direction from top down. Aftercompletion of the work, a photographic record was taken of each part, and pictures printed out noting
all types of conservation measures, using appropriate conventional signs.
Preparation of the conservation solution was made in batches, several times per day based on thevolume of work. This process was usually conducted by an expert chemist. Sometimes this work was
entrusted to participants of the project and workers under obligation to observe the procedure.

After completion of the conservation of the side surfaces of walls, material overlaying
the horizontal surfaces was removed. Cracked and fragmentary bricks were also removed.
Protective layers were applied to these places, sometimes in multiple layers. Moreover, thiswas applied to the horizontal surface on the top part of walls, to protect them from adverse
factors (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8 A protective layer on the surface of the top part a wall, Mausoleum 4

Subsequent monitoring of the remains has shown that this work was successful, and an optimum
conservation method which might be used for features built with kiln-fired bricks. The same opinion
was shared by both the experts and the representatives of the Kyrgyz community.

IV. Conservation Work at Other Archeological Sites
THE CHRISTIAN COMPLEX AT AK-BESHIM

142

A Christian complex was investigated by the Kyrgyzstan-Russian Expedition in 1996-2001 on the
territory of the ancient medieval settlement Ak-Beshim (tenth-eleventh centuries), located 10 km
southwest of Tokmok town in Chui valley (Semenov 2002: 11-43).
The complex was partially subterranean, and is built from large blocks of bricks (pahs, with aheight up to 85-90 cm), with high cornices and domes, in 6-7 rows of brick, with passages and niches,overlapped with dome-shaped arcs of different types. The monument is dated to the tenth and eleventh
centuries (Semenov 2002: 44-114).
In 2003, the first measures were taken in the Christian complex for conservation of the temple
walls made from adobe bricks, by backfilling with soil after covering the features with a layer ofporous material (geofabric).
The same method has been used in conservation works at other archeological sites.

KRASNAYA RECHKA
The ancient settlement of Krasnaya Rechka, dating from the sixth to the beginning of the thirteenth
centuries, is located 35 km to the east of the city of Bishkek in the Chui valley. It consists of a centralcomplex of ruins – a citadel, two shakhristans (town territories), and a necropolis – and is surroundedby two rings of walls. A citadel, and several structures in a shakhristan, being a Karakhanid house andbuildings, and a Zoroastrian necropolis have been excavated. Suburban manors of the eleventh andtwelfth centuries, a suburban palace of the ninth to twelfth centuries, and two Buddhist temples,
provisionally named the “first” (eighth to ninth centuries) and the “second” (seventh to eighth
centuries), were located to the south of the central ruins of the ancient settlement.

Second Buddhist temple of Krasnaya Rechka. The second Buddhist temple was discovered in 1938
by A. N. Bernshtam, and in 1961-63 investigations were continued by P. N. Kozhemyako. From 1978
up to the present, V. D. Goryacheva has been involved in this monument’s investigation.
The temple was erected on the remains of an earlier monumental structure made from adobe
bricks. A part of the temple consisted of a sanctuary, square in a plan (dimensions 5.5 x 5.5 m) with asurrounding corridor having four bends and unequal in width, changing from 2.5 m before the entry to
the sanctuary and widening to 3.15 m at the back, where a sufa with a sculpture of Buddha in nirvana
was located.
The interior included sculptures, fresco painting on loess surface and stucco decor on the walls
and ceilings. Rebuilding of the temple took place not later than the middle of the eighth century,
resulting in a three-way bypass corridor around the sanctuary. The entry to the cella (inner chamber)
was emphasized by the extension of the portal with a dome-shaped niche and five-steped stairs, andfigures of Bodhisattvas were placed on platforms along the lateral walls before the entry. Afterrebuilding, the fresco paintings on the walls and ceilings were renewed (Bernshtam 1952: 37-46;
Kozhemyako 1989: 12, 18-19; Goryacheva and Baipakov 1989: p. 73).

143

Conservation works. As there are no specialist restorers in Kyrgyzstan, when work at the second
temple terminated the excavated sectors were fully backfilled. A sculpture was covered with a layer of
paper and a roofing of felt.
In 1962 a group of restorers from the State Hermitage under the leadership of P. I. Kostrov wasinvited for continuation of the work. A western corridor-shaped room was opened again. A sculpture
was subjected to cleaning and impregnation with strengthening compounds, divided into parts, takenfrom its place and sent to the Hermitage for further restoration work (Kozhemyako 1989: 22-24, 38).
At present it is available in the vaults of this museum. Work on its restoration has not been carried out
yet.
In 1983-84, N. A. Kovaleva carried out conservation work on excavated areas of the site, andbrought back some fragments of the architectural decorations and other items for exhibit (Kovaleva
1989: 129-38).
Further conservation work has been carried out within the framework of the UNESCO/Japan
Trust Fund project, “Preservation of Silk Roads Sites in the Upper Chui Valley in Kyrgyzstan,” in2004-07.
Walls of the cella were covered from both sides with conservation walls, and coated with adobeclay plastering. Small spaces were left between the medieval and conservation walls, partially filledwith sand in order to avoid direct interference.
The conservation walls were strengthened from the outside by several pillars. A middle part of
the northern wall of the cella was protected by modern walls of around 0.7 m in thickness, up to 1 m inheight, and coated with plastering. They used adobe bricks, produced locally.
Preserved parts of the southern and northern walls of the bypass corridor were conserved bybackfilling over layers of geofabric.
A shed supported by poles was erected at that time above the temple. Such a structure wasneeded to protect the temple from adverse natural factors (Fig. 9). After erection of the shed, ahistorical wall was exposed, released from a previously built conservation wall. Clay with underlying
geofabric was used for backfilling the outside of the southern and western walls of the bypass
corridors of the sanctuary.

Fig. 9 Shelter over the second Buddhist temple

144After exposure of the southern wall of the corridor, partial conservation was made inside,
because that side has been damaged most of all. It was infested with a number of bird nests and small
animals. We described the conditions and made photos of the damage, then cleared out the largest
damaged portions and flushed them with water. After that, clay mortar was prepared fromconservation bricks. Before filling the pits with mortar, a thin layer of geofabric was placed inside, todelineate the conservative mortar from the medieval brickwork.
Metal fencing was arranged along the perimeter of the structure, which serves as protection
against undesirable anthropogenic and any other interference. Kyrgyzrestavratsiya RDDB was
involved in its design and implementation. Monitoring of the monument’s condition shows that theestablished goals have not been fully achieved.

Bibliography
Bernshtam A. N. The Historian-archeological essays Central Tian-Shan and Pamiro-Alaya. The
materials of the study on archaeologies. No. 26. M.-L., 1952.
Fodde E. Fired Brick Conservation in the Kyrgyz Silk Roads: the Case of Burana’s Mausoleum 4.
Journal of architectural conservation. Volume 14(1). 2008.
Goryacheva V. D. The Town culture Turkic kaganats on Tian-Shan (the medium VI - begin XIII
century.). Bishkek, 2010.
Goryacheva V. D. and Baipakov K. M. Basic Results of Archaeological and Topographic Study ofAncient Settlement Krasnaya Rechka in 1978-1983. Frunze, 1989.
Imankulov D. D. The monument’s architecture of the South Kyrgyzstan XI-XX cent. Bishkek, 2005.
Kovaleva N. A. Field preservation and restoration some discovery from excavations Buddha temple ofKrasnaya Rechka. Frunze, 1989.
Kozhemyako P. N. Report on Field Archeological Works on Ancient Settlement Krasnaya Rechka in
1961// Krasnaya Rechka and Burana. Frunze, 1989.
Masson M. E. and Goryacheva V. D. Burana: History of the research and its architectural monuments.
Frunze, 1985.
Masson M. E. and Pugachenkova G.A. The Gumbez of “Manas.” M., 1950.
Nusov V. E. The Monuments of the architecture by Kyrgyzstan. Frunze, 1963.
The History reference and the archives materials on Uzgen’s architectural complex. Frunze, 1979.
Peregudova S. YA. Tash-Rabat. Frunze, 1989.
Pomaskin B. V. The Gumbez of “Manas.” Frunze, 1972.
Semenov, G. L. The Excavations of 1996-1998 // Suyab- Ak Beshim. Sank-Peterburg, 2002.
Zasypkin B. N. The Architectural monuments of Fergana // Art to Central Asia. RARIPS.

Abbreviations
RARIPS - The Russian Association Research Institute of Public Science
SSRPW - Special Scientific Restoration Production Workshops

145

Lao P.D.R.
Soukphachanh KHAMPHASOUKEngineer
Division of Monuments
Department of Heritage
Ministry of Information and Culture

Country Report on the Preservation and Restoration of Sisaket Temple,
Lao P.D.R.
I.

INTRODUCTION

Vientiane is an ancient city whose history has been recorded largely in its temples, including Vat
Sisaket, which was built from 1818 A.D. by King Anouvong, the last king of the Vientiane kingdom.
It is located in the former yard of the king's palace, inside the first Vientiane city wall. During the
1827-28 Siamese invasions, all the temples and houses in Vientiane were completely destroyed except
for Sisaket, which continued to function as a monastery throughout the nineteenth century, despite thefact that most people had fled the city. The reason the temple was not destroyed was because Siamese
troops were using it as a base. It had a reputation as being sacred and protected by spirits. They
believed that if it was destroyed, they would lose the war, so they chose to preserve it.
The first restoration, of the structure of the sim (ordination hall) and the cloister, was conducted in
1924 by Prince Phetsarath.
After the war was over the Lao people set about rebuilding and preserving their style of architecture.
In 1935, Vat Sisaket was restored on a large scale to the form we know today.
Vat Sisaket comprises a sim, surrounded by a walled cloister similar to that of That Luang. The sim is
the main attraction of the museum, where visitors can learn of its history. The four entranceways to thecloister create four L-shaped galleries with a bronze Buddha statue in each corner. Niches in thegallery walls house a total of 6,840 silver and ceramic Buddha images. On the end walls, fragments ofmurals, depicting stories like that of Kalaket and his magical horse, are still visible. The black and redlacquered columns of the cloister galleries still retain some of their original stylized stenciled gold leaf
decoration. The Sisaket wall paintings are not true frescoes, in that they were painted onto dry stucco
rather than wet plaster; this makes them fragile and over time the drawings have flaked off. The
murals have been partially repainted, but this is occasionally substandard and characterized by the useof brighter primary pigments. The architectural detailing, however, is frequently superb. Murals are a1461

tradition in most Theravada Buddhist temples in East Asia. Popular stories, legends, and moral tales
are usually illustrated.
In 1993 the library was restored by the Lao Government.
In 2004, physical and digital conservation was done with the support of the American Embassy inVientiane. The purpose of this project was to support on-site, hands-on conservation training
workshops in theory and practice, beginning with wall paintings and masonry repair of the museum
building.
From 2009 to the present, a large-scale project of restoration supported by the Lao Government has
been started, to mark the 450th anniversary of Vientiane as the country’s capital.
II. PROBLEMS FACED BY THE TEMPLE
1. Natural Causes
Because the site is located in a country with hot, humid weather, it is exposed to considerable
moisture and a high water table during the rainy season. This is one of the major natural sources of the
problems facing the temple, which can be listed as follows:x

Insects and animals. Several species of beetles (order Coleoptera), ants, termites, and otherinsects burrow tunnels inside wooden structures, eventually causing the members to break.
Bat droppings deposit oxalic and other acids on exposed surfaces. Bird droppings are also
acidic, causing chemical changes on pillars and other wooden members, and droppingsthat become extremely hard can cause obliteration, detachment, loss, etc. of portions of astructure.

x

Plants. The spread of plants, both low-growing (mosses) and taller ones (trees), can cause
breakage and disintegration of wooden structures.

x

Dust. Soil particulates moved and deposited by the wind can obliterate features ofprotruding and especially upper areas of structures.

x

Smoke. Produced by the combustion of oils, waxes, fatty substances, hydrocarbons, etc.,
smoke can discolor the surface of structures.

x

Grime. Dirt and dust, mixed with smoke or greasy substances, can also discolor.

x

Water. The many ways in which water can penetrate wooden structures, causing
discoloration and rot, or otherwise bring damage can be enumerated as follows.
-

Infiltration. Rainwater percolates into structures from their upper parts.

-

Driving rain. Water infiltrates through walls, due to rain driven by strong wind.

1472

-

Capillary rise. A source of dampness associated especially with the rise of the watertable in the subsoil during the rainy season.

-

Dispersed water. Resulting for example from a defective drainage system, excessive
rainwater, or other sources, leading to stagnant, standing water that finds its way
inside structures.

-

Erosion. The partial loss of constitutive material, which is washed away (as, forexample, by water runoff) from higher sitting areas, and often results in unwanted
deposits found at lower areas, such as the exposed area at the base of a wall.

-

Mud deposits, due to water runoff. The infiltration of water, which carries dissolved
dust or mud, leaves deposits accumulating along its way in lower areas.

2. Structural Causes
Due to the age of the structures and the materials which were used for the temple, it is faced with avariety of problems stemming from structural causes, such as the following.
x

Settlement of foundation. The subsoil has subsided irregularly under the buildings, causing
differences in level and the formation of structural cracks.

x

Earthquakes and tremors. The movements of continental plates, resulting in displacement
along geologic faults, produces local tremors that periodically threaten the structures.

x

Load. The weight of superstructures, exerted on the walls of buildings, threatens to exceed
their ability to bear, especially as the walls weaken with age, etc.

x

Changes in composite elements. Masonry (in walls, floors, and roofs), etc., made with a
combination of construction materials, weakens as some portions change, such as with the
crumbling of mortar.

x

Weakening of wood. All of the structures of the monument are made basically of wood,
which even when covered by earthenware tile is affected over time by the sun and rainwater, etc.

III. RESTORATION PROJECT
Under direction of the Department of Heritage, the Ministry of Information and Culture, a project for
restoration work at Sisaket temple has been underway from 2009 to the present. The main areas offocus for the project are as follows:xSim. Due to the condition of the temple, the restoration of this part is focusing on thewooden structure, mainly the structure of the roof, to replace some of the wooden
members and tiles which are infected by termites. Restoration work is being extended,1483

however, to parts of the wall plaster, staircases, doors, windows, and decorative images as
well.
xCloister. The restoration work on the cloister is being done mainly on the roof structure
and tiles, but it also includes the restoration of Buddha images and wall paintings of thestructure.

x

Drainage systems. All internal and external drainage systems are going to be rebuilt, toavoid future infiltration and dispersion of water, which could cause damage to the wall
paintings.

x

Library and kuti of Prince Phetsarath. Due to the condition of the building and according
to the project plan, the restoration of the library has been started in order to restore the roof
structure and walls.

All restoration work at this temple is base on original techniques and using local materials. For
example, the lime mortar used for plastering the wall of the temple is made with traditional
components: lime, sand, buffalo skin, sugarcane, and rice straw. The tiles of the temple are ceramic
items from Luang Prabang, etc.

1494

Marshall Islands
Kazutoyo WASE
Assistant Archaeologist
Historic Preservation Office
Ministry of Internal Affairs

The Role of the Historic Preservation Office for Cultural Heritage
Protection in the Mashall Islands
1. Background
GEOGRAPHY
Located in the central Pacific between 4o and 14o north latitude and 160o and 173o east longitude, theRepublic of the Marshall Islands consists of 29 low-lying coral atolls and five coral islands (Figure 1).
Twenty-two of the atolls and four of the islands are inhabited. The atolls and islands are situated in
two almost parallel chain-like formations. The eastern group is the Ratak (Sunrise) Chain and thewestern is the Ralik (Sunset) Chain; together they extend about 700 miles (1,130 km) north to south
and approximately 800 miles (1,290 km) east to west. Isolated by the ocean, the Republic is more than
2,000 miles (3,230 km) from the nearest trading centers, Honolulu and Tokyo. Its nearest neighbors
are Kiribati to the south and the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) to the west.

Fig. 1 Republic of the Marshall Islands

150There are approximately 1,225 islets spread across an area of over 750,000 square miles (1.2
million square km). With a total land area of 70 square miles (110 square kilometers), a mean height
above sea level of about 7 feet (2 meters), and soils which are nutrient poor, the nation’s agriculturalbase is limited. The marine resource base is extensive, however. The combined lagoon area totals
4,037 square miles (6,511 square km). Coral reefs fringe the atolls and serve as the only defense
against the ocean surge. The clearance over the reef in the sections that are covered by water is usually
no more than a couple of feet (Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Marshall Islands to theUnited Nations, 1992). Generally speaking, an atoll consists of a series of low-lying islets andsubmerged reefs arranged about a central lagoon, which mixes with the open ocean via one or morechannels and/or shallow passes. In the Marshall Islands, the islets composing an atoll usually form an
oval shape around a central lagoon of 150 feet (45 m) average depth. The surrounding ocean depth
plunges to over 5,000 feet (1,525 m) within two miles (3 km), and to 10,000 feet (3,050 m) within ten
miles (16 km) of the typical atoll (Forsberg 1990; Wines 1962).

LAND TENURE
Marshallese society is generally matrilineal and is composed of a number of matrilineal clans (jowi).
The most important descent group is the lineage (bwij). The bwij is the matrilineal system in which allland rights are passed down through the mother's side. Therefore, the whole group is descended,
mother to daughter, from a common ancestor or a jowi (clan). There were at least forty-four clans
spread over the atolls, and though no one remembers how members of any single jowi were related byblood, members considered themselves related. The lineage head (alap), usually the eldest male of thesenior line of the lineage, is steward of the lineage land holdings. With slightly less than 70 square
miles of land in the entire archipelago and prime settlement areas being extremely limited, land has
long been the most highly prized possession in the Marshall Islands and control of land is the central
theme of Marshallese culture. The basic land division of the Marshall Islands, weto, is a strip that runs
from the lagoon to the ocean side of an island. One or more weto are held and administered by amatrilineage line. Title is divided and shared by several levels of the society. In the pre-Christian era,the Marshallese social system distinguished between two major classes: irooj (chiefs) and kajur(commoners). The irooj held title over an island or atoll. Among the irooj, the iroojlaplap (paramountchief) were the ones with the most power while the iroojerik, the lesser chiefs, shared the power andmany of the privileges, but to a limited degree. Today, the term kajur is not used so often as the classhas been divided into the alap (land managers) and the rijerbal (workers). The alap organizes anddirects lineage activities and allots lands for use to different descent lines within the lineage. The alap
and the rijerbal make up the subjects or kajur and render services to the irooj in exchange for land use.
The irooj managed the land in a way that not only provided themselves with food but also provided forthe kajur (alaps and rijerbals). The kajur in return cultivated the land, harvested the waters
surrounding the atoll, and performed ekkan (tributes) to the irooj. The procedure is a cycle that has
been repeating for hundreds of years. The common members of a lineage have land rights, although151the alap and rijerbal change land ownership. The iroojlaplap is the only individual with permanent
land rights, unless defeated in war. Historically, one iroojlaplap (paramount chief) was able to extend
his control over most of the Ralik Chain (except Eniwetak and Ujelang). Periodically the irooj visitedthese islands to collect tribute. The Ralik Chain was subsequently divided into two districts, one
including Namu and the north islands, the other Jabat, Ailinglaplap, and the islands south. Although
all of these islands were owned by the iroojlaplap he rarely visited those further north than Kwajalein
and Ujae because they were isolated and somewhat impoverished (Alikire 1977). Within the northernatolls, stratification was less elaborate in comparison to those in the south.

OTHER INFORMATION
The weather in the RMI is tropical all year round, except from May to November which is considered
the wet season. The population is around about 61,000, excluding Marshallese living abroad. The
primary languages used are Marshallese and English. Everything basically follows US standards.

2. Historic Preservation Office
The Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is an office dedicated to preserving and recording everything
Marshallese. Dances, oral stories, traditional sites, fishing methods, canoe building and so forth are allconsidered very important parts of Marshallese culture. Our office is also in charge of overseeing
earthmoving projects, which might harm our traditional sites. We do not just monitor projects in
Majuro, the capital, but also projects from USAKA (United States Army Kwajalein Atoll). Everyearthmoving project must come to the HPO to be reviewed, and once approved applicants usually goahead with the project. The office also provides funding for a variety of local projects, and so far somelocal projects have been completed while others are ongoing. What we basically do in the office now
is work on previous grants and assist third party projects. We also help with paperwork, including land
modification permits, research permits for both archaeological and anthropological projects, anddiving permits. Since we still lack the capacity needed, we have yet to do many surveys other than the
Wotje Rice Plantation on Wotje Atoll. Other than surveys, there have been one repatriation survey
conducted by a Japanese team and several interviews have been done regarding third party projects.

GOALS OF THE RMI-HPO
From my own perspective the RMI-HPO strives on maintaining Marshallese culture and heritage
through preservation. This is the sole purpose of the RMI-HPO, to protect all the heritage that we have,both tangible or intangible, through surveys, project funding, and etc. Although the RMI-HPO hasmaintained some parts of the heritage, both tangible and intangible, there are certain problems that theoffice faces while making such achievements. These problems, involving private land, the isolation ofislands/atolls, climate change, etc., conflict with what we do, and are the biggest issues that we in the152office face. Although we face these problems in the office, we still manage to get things done byfinding alternatives to each problem.

METHODOLOGY FOR CONDUCTING SURVEYS
Before conducting a survey on the outer islands, the RMI-HPO office must set up a meeting with theChief and Mayor of the islands. It is also important that representatives of the local government attend
to the matter. The reason for this meeting is to achieve mutual understanding of what will be done on
the survey and to ask permission from the Chief to conduct the survey. It is very important inMarshallese culture to ask permission from the chief and to notify (the chief and mayor) of our daily
activities so that they can arrange everything with the locals. Once approved, our office can move
about freely; we also present a report on our activities to the mayor and chief.

3. Problems of Cultural Heritage Protection
Problems faced by the RMI-HPO involve aspects of traditional culture (land tenure), the physicalenvironment (isolation, climate change), and heritage management (looting, loss of traditional
knowledge, etc.).

LAND
One of the biggest issues that the RMI-HPO office faces is land. Although the government has all themoney, the land managers (alap) and paramount chief (iroojlaplap) own the land. Land tenure is amatter between the iroojlaplap, alap and the workers (rijerbal), and the government has no part for
any of the land. The government does not own the land. In fact, the government offices are owned forthe most part by the chiefs and land managers, and the government rents off these lands from the latter.
In some cases that confront the HPO, land owners sell off the land to the highest bidder. This was thecase in our recent survey, on a Japanese rice plantation (Figure 2) located in Wotje. The MarshallIslands Marine Resources Authority planned on making extensions on the patio area and use theplantation as a fish market. It is stipulated in our legislation that historic properties must not betouched, however, but left alone. So the plan to rebuild or make extensions was not approved, andanother site found. There are some incidents where applicants for land modification permits haveapplied for a specific site, but after their permits are approved they change the site. Since the land isowned by the locals, they just set up their homes within the old WWII structures. The HPO has very
little power over land usage, but we feel it significant that some locals have called in and reported onsome sites located in their back yards. Another example would be the Kaiuiu, an underground tunnel
used long ago to prepare breadfruit. It has not been used for long period of time, but the shortage of
HPO staff has thus far prevented us from restoring this site.

153

Fig. 2 Rice polishing plant

ISOLATION
Since the Republic of the Marshalls is so spread out, it is difficult to monitor every island and atoll,
unlike our neighboring sister countries of the FSM, Guam, Saipan, Yap, and Palau, where there iseither only a single island, or the islands are only several miles apart. At the same time, we facetransportation issues due to our national airlines, Air Marshall Islands (AMI), often having mechanicalproblems. Even when it is possible for a plane to take us to our destination, it is not guaranteed thatAMI will be able to make the return. Of course, some islands are not too far off, like Mili and Arno
Atoll, which are visible during the day. Boats are often the best solution, but are also expensive. The
only way that you can catch a ride is either rental or by round trips. Round trips are when boats travelfrom island to island, in either the Ratak Chain or Ralik Chain. Boats are not so much of a problem fortraveling to nearby islands. But some islands lie further out, and can take a least a week to reach.

SEA LEVEL RISE
The recent sea level rise caused by global warming, triggered by the “greenhouse effect,” is a criticalthreat to the Marshall Islands. The rising of the sea during the last two decades has overwhelmed the
low-lying atolls not just culturally but economically as well. Scientists predict the archipelago of the
Marshalls is among the Pacific nations that will be affected by the rising of the sea level within thenext fifteen to twenty years. For many years, the Marshall Islands Government has been concernedwith the issue, since the Marshalls lie in open ocean, and the islands are very close to sea level. We aresituated about 2 feet above sea level, with our highest point the Majuro Bridge being at 14 ft. The RMI
is also vulnerable to waves and storms, but we have not been hit seriously by any as yet. Even though
the islands have by no means been completely free from weather extremes, they are frequently
referred to in legends as “jolet jen anij,” or gifts from god. The Marshallese believe that god gavethem refuge from the harshness of the world. “However, given the physics of wave formation and the154increasing frequency and severity of storms, the Marshall Islands will likely be at even greater risk of
total inundation. The relative safety that the islands have historically provided is now in jeopardy. The
impacts are not limited to the Marshalls and its immediate neighbors.” (Permanent Mission of the
Republic of the Marshall Islands to the United Nations, 1992).

LOOTING (TAKING ARTIFACTS)
Another cause for concern is the inability to watch over everything that happens in the outer islands,
such as looting, which is taking artifacts without the HPO’s consent. This happens often in the RMI,
mostly on the outer islands. Foreigners come to apply for permits to travel to the outer islands forrecreational purposes, e.g. diving, snorkeling, and wind surfing. Before approving the permit, the HPO
briefs applicants on the legislation and on what to do and not do. The office even supplies applicantswith a copy of the restrictions regarding the “Taking and Removing of Submerged Artifacts” from the
HPO Legislation. But we have had several incidents where applicants would take submerged artifacts,
either as a souvenir or to sell. The islands applicants target are mostly those with WWII wrecks, suchas Mili, Maloelap, Jaluit, and Wotje.

RESEARCHERS
Researching is not a problem here, but some researchers are. In Marshallese culture, it is very hard to
give out information about the past, especially to outsiders. The problem is some researchers come into take information, and take it with them. They do not donate anything to the Marshalls as a token of
their gratitude, but they take information away with them and sell it. The old way of passing downknowledge here is by word-of-mouth, and while nowadays writing and recording are practiced,
previously everything was passed down only as oral tradition.

LOSS OF CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE
Cultural knowledge is the most vital part of Marshallese culture. Cultural knowledge is nearly gone in
Majuro and Ebeye, where most residents are accustomed to a Western style of life. Almost every site
in the islands has a story behind it, such as Limodrel’s well (Figure 3). When a typhoon struck Majuro
sometime in the late 1900s, this became a source of water for the inhabitants. It is said in legend that abird discovered it, descending from the sky and eventually discovering it. Another example would be
the Kaiuiu (Figure 4), an underground tunnel used to make bwiro (breadfruit). This tunnel was used toprepare bwiro in the past but has not been used since then. Without cultural knowledge, Marshallese
legends, myths, chants, and so forth will be lost. Cultural knowledge is passed down by word of mouth,
so nowadays we in the office try and record every possible bit of cultural knowledge that we can.
Youth in the Marshalls are now more interested in Western culture than in their own. This makes it
difficult for them to appreciate their own traditions. Our office has done some recording in the past,
and we preserve old chants and proverbs that are scanned and recorded in booklets. But right now wehave not actually accomplished very much, though with the help of our new archaeologist and155anthropologist we can start the recording and writing process. Almost all the elders in the Marshalls
have knowledge about past culture, but some of them have passed away. But there are still some whoknow about the culture, though most can be found in the outer islands where the culture is still alive.

Fig. 3 Limodrel’s wellFig. 4 Kaiuiu

4. Recommendations for Improving Cultural Heritage Protection
The following are recommendations in the most significant areas where improvement for cultural
heritage protection is needed in the RMI.

156

PUBLIC AWARENESSThe RMI should get to know the HPO. Right now we are not well known around the RMI, although
there are some who recognize us. But others do not know who or what the HPO is or what we do.
Applicants who apply for land modification permits do not know where the HPO is located. The
process of applying for earthmoving permits goes to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) first.
EPA then sends them to the HPO office, and this is where applicants get confused. In response to thissituation, the HPO has started radio programs just to let people know that we are here. We aredetermined and we want to protect everything Marshallese, both tangible and intangible heritage. The
radio programs revolve around information beginning with the RMI-HPO Legislation, and sometimes
we even tell Marshallese proverbs and stories just to let people know who we are and what we do.
Overall, the radio program itself has helped gained some recognition for us. Right now we want to do
school outreach programs, but we lack the resources needed to fulfill this mission. Now with ourarchaeologist coming in, we might get a start on this project.

CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGERS (CRMS)
Since our office is stationed in the capitol of the RMI, we do not know what is going on in the outerislands. The office needs someone who can help us out, and this is where Cultural Resource Managers(CRMs) play a big role in helping the HPO. A CRM is someone who is knowledgeable about his/herisland. Someone who knows where the sites are and knows the stories related to them. These CRMs
can be our eyes and ears, they can act on our behalf and monitor what is going on within their islands.
Although there is an old CRM listing from the 1990s, we need an updated listing. This is still an
ongoing project; we have already consulted with the mayors of each island and atolls to nominate aleast one or two from their districts. The RMI-HPO is also waiting for funding from the National Parks
Service to go ahead with the project. Once the money comes through, the HPO will bring these CRMs
to Majuro to be trained in resource management. After completion of the training, these CRMs will
return to their islands and report back on daily activities. The office needs these CRMs, as we cannot
be in two places at once, but with their help we can accomplish surveys quickly and efficiently.

BETTER TRANSPORTATION
Improvement in transportation is necessary to get everything back on track. Right now, our airline
service has gotten a boost. With both airlines now working better, travel to the outer islands will besmooth. Before there was only one plane that provided service from Majuro to the outer islands. And
while fuel prices have gone down now and have remained constant for the time being, our office canrent boats to go to the outer islands. It may be hard to believe, but gas prices have affected thetransportation system in the RMI. Now that transportation has improved significantly, we can go toislands and atolls that have not been surveyed. In order for our office to accomplish our goals,
transportation must be consistent.

157

PASSING ON TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Passing down traditional knowledge is the best way to keep the culture alive, either by word of mouth,or just by recording and writing. The best way possible is to get all the young Marshallese involved intheir culture. Get them more involved, show them the importance of Marshallese culture and why it
makes us different from the rest of the world. Our office must on the other hand come up with ways to
get the community involved, to promote Marshallese culture and teach our youth its importance andvalues. Another way of doing this is for the HPO office to teach the youth its cultural and historicalfindings after outer island surveys.

5. Summary
The historic and traditional sites in the Marshall Islands are valuable resources. As such, they deservean active preservation effort. The best approach for the HPO seems to be raising public awareness andto actively involve local governments in their preservation efforts. Those preservation efforts should
also be directed towards possible sources of income for outer island residents through tourism. The
majority of these sites recorded on Majuro and in the outer islands should receive preservation
measures along with the recording of the stories behind them. The primary goal of every preservation
action should be the proper stabilization of sites being threatened by natural forces or human impact.
This is especially true for sites that have been determined as significant to Marshallese history.

158

Myanmar
Aung Aung Kyaw
Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology
National Museum and Library (Mandalay)
Ministry of Culture

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in Myanmar:
Focusing Mainly on Archaeological Sites and Remains
INTRODUCTION
Myanmar is a country located in the Southeast Asia region. It lies between latitude 09 32' and 28 31'
north and longitude 92 10' and 101 11' east. Myanmar shares territory with the People’s Republic ofChina on the north, with Laos and Thailand on the east, and Bangladesh and India on the west. The
total area is 261,228 square miles (approximately 677,000 km2). There are four main categories ofregional topography in the country: mountains and valleys, plains, plateaus, and coastal regions.
Owing to their geographic and climatic conditions, the cultural heritage of each region has somedifferences, but the national identity is quite distinct.

Location of Myanmar
159

CULTURAL SEQUENCES OF MYANMAR
The land was established before the country named Myanmar was born. The land of Myanmar has
passed though geological periods lasting million of years. Among the legacy of these geologicalperiods, at the Pondaung area in central Myanmar fossilized remains from about 40 millions years ago
have been found. Based on such evidence, it is known that there were living species on the land
millions of years before human beings appeared.
Regarding human occupation, based on archaeological evidence Myanmar has a cultural outlinethat can be broken down into three major segments: prehistoric, protohistoric, and historic culture.
These will be examined in turn in the following sections.

PREHISTORIC CULTURE
Researchers assume that human presence in Myanmar extends back into the Pleistocene of the
Quaternary Era. Although clear evidence for settlement patterns is lacking in human remains, stone
tools have been found in early contexts in Myanmar. It is assumed therefore that people bearing
culture have been present since the history of Myanmar began. Cultures relying on stone tools can bedivided into three ages, based roughly on technological innovations: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, andNeolithic.
Early stone age tools, from the Lower Paleolithic, have been found in the Ayeyawaddy valley inupper Myanmar (Anyar region). Foreign experts have named this stone age culture of Myanmar the
Early Anyanthian, said to resemble the early stone age remains in other locations in Asia, such as Java,
China, and Northern India. Better made Pleistocene stone tools, also excavated from the banks of
Ayeyarwady valley, are called the Late Anyathian.
Among subsequent stone age finds in Myanmar, not only more delicate stone tools but also cave
paintings made by early men have been found. A well-known site of such finds is Padalin Cave,situated in the Shan state in Myanmar. The Padalin prehistoric cave was first discovered by a geologist
during exploration of this region in 1960. U Aung Thaw, the late Director General of the Departmentof Archaeology, led and excavated with an organized team at Padalin Cave in 1969. Based on theevidence of stone tools and rock paintings, Padalin Cave revealed a culture that can be compared with
the Hoabinhian and Bacsonian cultures of Indochina. The rock paintings are seen in the eastern cave orrock shelter (Cave No. 1). Designs can be identified as human hands (one with concentric circles andthe other with what looks like a human skull), the sun between two converging irregular lines (perhaps
a setting sun), and animal figures including bulls, bison, a deer, the hinds of elephants, and a huge fish.

160

Entrance view ofPadalin Cave No. 1

Cows and calves
Cows and calves

Application
Application with
with preservative
preservative
coating on painting
coating on painting

Setting sun
Setting sun

Cleaning
of oflime
whitewash
Cleaning
lime
whitewashwith chemical solution
with chemical solution

Mutilated hands
Mutilated hands

Viewof thefencingViewof thefencing

According to the radiocarbon dating of materials collected during excavation, the culture
associated with this site dates from around 13,400 BP. There is some evidence for the use of hematite(red ochre) as a pigment. Therefore this prehistoric cave represents significant material for Myanmar
and the Southeast Asia region. With regard to conservation measures, the following risk factors can be
identified for Padalin Cave.

1. Padalin is a limestone cave, and is situated far from any village.
2. During the rainy season, rainwater can seep over the mural paintings.
3. Chemical conservation work is done only rarely, and there is insufficient provision offunding and manpower.

161

PROTOHISTORIC CULTURE
The cultural sequence of the protohistoric period is very important but also very confusing, thoughscholars generally divide it into two levels of study, one of Bronze and Iron Age sites, and the other ofurban culture at city sites in Myanmar. These will be looked at here in turn.

Studies of Bronze and Iron Age Sites
The study and collection of bronze artifacts has been carried out since the early twentieth century. But
the task was not conducted regularly and most of the collections of bronze artifacts are surface finds,with systematic excavation rarely performed.
In 1998, with the discovery and excavation of the Nyaunggan burial site, the presence of aBronze Age in Myanmar was confirmed, a significant development for understandings of the culturaltransformation in Myanmar and its cultural chronologies. The Department of Archaeology of theUnion of Myanmar conducted the excavation as part of its exploration of Bronze and Iron Age sites
throughout the territory of Myanmar. Under the Three Age System, cultural transformations can bebroadly divided into those of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. This sequence of
cultural evolution has been generally accepted in many nations. Myanmar is therefore also concernedwith these cultural stages. The Department of Archaeology has been mainly involved in the study of
the Bronze Age, and the departmental report for this burial site
concluded that the tools and artifacts belonged to a transition
period from the Bronze age to Iron age. Sites of all of the threeages of stone, bronze, and iron are now know to have existed insequence in central Myanmar.

Conservation work at Bronze Age burial sites in central Myanmar

According to the results of excavations, the artifacts found in central Myanmar are as follows:
1. Skeletal remains.

162

2. Pots, jars and vessels of various designs and sizes, earthen containers for fermented drink,circular trays with stems, distillation pots.
3. Polished stone axes, with and without shoulders.
4. Stone and glass bracelets.
5. Multiple beads of materials such as stone, talc, quartz, agate, and carnelian.
6. Bronze axes, adzes, arrowheads, spearheads, etc.
7. Shallow cones, stylized female figures and bronze floral sheets, supposedly used as coffin
decorations and grave offerings.
8. Iron implements:
Regarding factors that are relevant for conservative and preventative measures, it should be
noted first that all of the excavated bronze burial sites were on cultivated lands. They can be
discovered and disturbed by digging, including that for making drainage, etc. The problems for thesites are as follows:
1. Most of the burial sites exist in cultivated fields. Accordingly, harrowing, digging,
installing drainage facilities, etc., can destroy the sites.
2. Lack of public awareness of the importance of the sites.
3. Insufficient provision of funding and management.
4. Most of the burial sites are located in fields subject to erosion by rainwater and riverflooding.
Studies of Urban Culture in Myanmar
Studies of archaeological evidence on ancient cities are one of the major tasks for the Department ofArchaeology. These are being conducted through the collection of all types of surface evidence, plus
exploration and excavation at particular sites, and conservation of exposed structures and existingmonuments.
To trace the earliest cultural evidence for ancient cities or the formation of urban centers, anexamination can be made of Beikthano, a Pyu ancient city. There are many ancient cities in Myanmar
like Beikthano, including Hanlin, Maingmaw (Pinlay), Waddi, Taguang, Kyaikkatha, Thagaya, andothers. These ancient cities are attributed to the Pyu culture of Myanmar before the historic period.
They flourished from the first to the tenth centuries AD.
Before independence, the Department of Archaeology (A.S.B) conducted work in the ancient
cities of Beikthano, Hanlin, Taguang, and Bagan. Those studies mainly emphasized the collection of
inscriptions, the conservation of existing monuments, and a few test excavations. After independence,
the Department of Archaeology was reformed under a new organizational scheme, and systematic
excavation was conducted both at those ancient cities studied previously, and at further new ancient163cities. In the archaeological studies of such ancient cities, it is important to investigate the culturaltransformation of protohistoric culture to historic culture.
Among the city states of Pyu, I would like to describe Beikthano and Sri Ksetra and theirrespective problems.
The ancient city of Beikthano. This ancient city is located in Taungdwingyi Township, Magwe districtin central Myanmar. The city wall of this city is rectangular in shape. The brick fort walls are now
reduced to an average height of about six feet. The eastern side is two miles long while the north andsouth is one quarter mile shorter. The western wall had been eroded by the floods of the Yan Pe stream
and two lakes, Ingyi and Gyogya, situated close to the low-lying western wall which edges the city
area.

Monastery remains exposed at site No. 2, Beikthano

Map of Beikthano

North view of gateway exposed at site No.13

In Myanmar, historic cities can be grouped into the three categories of early, medieval, and latehistoric cities. The ancient city of Beikthano is the earliest Pyu ancient city and is included in the early
historic cities category. It flourished between the first and fourth centuries AD.
Altogether over 50 mounds have been systematically excavated at the site by the Department ofArchaeology between 1967 and 2008. As a result, early structural remains such as the city gate, thepalace site, two-storied brick monasteries, stupas and religious buildings can now be observed. All ofthese structural remains belong to early Pyu period.
Some of the plans of the structural remains closely resemble the typical stupa base of
Nagarjunakonda in south India. Other interesting structural remains are the gateway of the city wall,164

the palace site, etc. The Beikthano archaeological site museum is situated at the northeast corner of thecity wall. Most of the objects displayed in the museum were collected during excavations. The objects
consist of different types of pottery, semiprecious stone and clay beads, burial urns, stucco carvings,
store figurines, iron objects, etc. According to analysis by radiocarbon dating, the Beikthano ancient
city dates back to the first century AD. Some archaeologists and other scholars suggest an earlier datefor its beginning, however, as far back as the second century BC.
The specific problems related to the conservation of this site are as follows:
1. Structural remains and the city wall have suffered damage due to weathering andvandalism for over one thousand years.
2. Most of the mounds within and surrounding the city wall were covered with brick debris
and growths of vegetation.
3. Insufficient provision of funding and manpower.
4. Popular pathways are a great problem in this area. People use pathways as shortcuts
instead of the main roads.
The ancient remains of Sri Ksetra. Another ancient Pyu urban site of
Myanmar, Sri Ksetra, lies about 8 km southeast of Pyay on the eastbank of the Irrawaddy and about 290 km northwest of Yangon.
Discoveries indicate a chronology in which this city attained its heightof prosperity between the fifth and ninth centuries AD.
Sri Ksetra is one of the most thoroughly explored sites in
Myanmar, with intermittent excavations conducted since 1970 andintensive digging carried out from 1964 onwards. Archaeologicaldiscoveries indicate that this city attained its height of prosperity
between the fifth and ninth centuries AD.
Most of the ancient ruins lie in the southern sector of the city
and also outside the fort walls, while burial mounds are to be found scattered throughout the locality.
Among the conspicuous monuments are three tall stupas, named the Bawbawgyi, Phayagyi andPhayamar, lying respectively to the south, northwest, and north of the city wall.
The Bawbawgyi, 153 feet high, assumes a cylindrical shape above five low circular terraces, ofwhich two are buried under the debris. This type apparently evolved from hemispherical mounds suchas the Sanchi and Amravati stupas of India. The cylindrical body is hollow up to about two-thirds of
its height, and has one opening at the base and another aperture high up in the opposite wall. On theevidence of the clay votive tablets and epigraphic finds recovered, the Bawbawgyi may be assigned tothe sixth or seventh centuries.

165

Bawbawgyi stupa

Laymyatnhar temple

Among the artifacts recovered at Sri Ksetra are
the earliest inscriptions found in Myanmar. There are
two gold plates from Maung Kan’s field in Lebaw
village, and another find of a manuscript from Khin
Ba’s mound, inscribed on twenty gold leaves anddatable to the fifth century, which consists of excerpts
from the Abhidharma Buddhist formula yedhamma
hetupahara.
Also among the finds from the relic chamber in Khin Ba’s mound is agilded silver casket, cylindrical in shape. It is embossed with the last four
Buddhas of the present world cycle seated in the earth-touching attitudeof the Gupta style. Between the Buddhas are four standing disciples, also
in relief. The trunk of a banyan tree rises from the center of the flat lid.
Originally it was adorned with twigs and leaves. Around the top of therim is a line of Pyu-Pali inscription in south Indian characters, which
identifies in the Pyu from of writing each Buddha by name: Gautama,
Konagamana, Kakusandha, and Kassapa.
Also, Chinese annals mention the visit of a Pyu mission,
including a musical troupe, to their capital around theyear 802. As concrete evidence supporting thispossibility are figurines of Pyu performing artists, foundduring the excavation of Sri Ksetra by the Department ofArchaeology. These five bronze figures are a drummer, a
dancer, a clown, a flutist and a cymbalist. Together with166

those bronze figures were unearthed five bronze Buddha images and an ornately molded bronze bell,
eleven inches in height.
The specific problems found at this site are as follows:
1. Popular pathways are a great problem in this area. People use shortcut pathways insteadof the main roads.
2. The tendency of smugglers to take valuable antiquities with the help of local people.
3. Loss of authenticity and integrity of the brick structures of monuments.
4. Insufficient provision of funding for conservation and management.

HISTORIC CULTURE: THE BAGAN KINGDOMThe historic culture of Myanmar will be introduced here through the example of Bagan (also written
Pagan). The ancient city of Bagan is known as one of the first city states of Myanmar, and was ruledby kings of the Bagan Dynasty. During the reign of King Anawrahta, the first strong and integrated
state was consolidated which included regions that later came to be known as Myanmar. Theravada
Buddhism flourished throughout Myanmar in the reign of King Anawratha. For that reason, symbolsof Theravada Buddhism such as pagodas, temples, monuments, monasteries, zayats and other religious
buildings are found everywhere in Bagan, and were built starting from Anawrahta’s day.
In ancient Bagan, more than 4,440 pagodas and temples are assumed to have been built, but
only 2,230 pagodas and the ruins of 892 mounds are now known. Due to natural disasters, some of thethousand-year-old pagodas and temples have been destroyed and have collapsed to the ground. At
present, the renovation and preservation of the ruined Bagan temples and pagodas are being carriedout by the Department of Archaeology.
Adopting traditions of art of architecture handed over from the Pyu and Mon, the Bagan people
were superior and more artistic in building religious temples suited to the flourishing of Buddhism.
The addition of elements of art and architecture obtained through relationships made with India andCeylon can be seen in their works.
The high standard of Myanmar architecture is demonstrated in the architecture and the various
Myanmar traditional arts used in their religious buildings.
Moreover, the fresco paintings on the walls of thesebuildings and stone inscriptions show that not only
architecture, but also the performing arts, were developed
as they had been in the Pyu period.
After the fall of Bagan, the kings of the Pinya, Ava,
and Konbaung periods came and repaired the old pagodas
built by their ancestors, and added more religious
buildings as works of merit in the Bagan area.

167

View of the ancient city of Bagan

The problems of this area its monuments are as follows:
1. In the Bagan area, most of the ancient monuments are located on the banks of rivers andcreeks that are being eroded by river water and rainwater.
2. Some erosion of the river banks also threatens the ancient monuments. We have to checkthe ancient monuments which are located on the river or creek banks, and we should
build up the embankments if urgently needed.
3. Everything is impermanent, and because they are more than one thousand years old,many of the monuments are coming to decay gradually. So we need to conserve themvery carefully.
4. Some binders of plaster and mural paintings consist of molasses. That is why insets eat
and destroy mural paintings. They also scratch the paintings with their legs and wings.
5. Some birds eat the fruit of banyan trees and drop the seeds on the monuments. Banyan
trees then grow on the ancient monuments, their roots penetrating into the brickwork
causing wide cracks to open. Then rainwater flows into the cracks and further damages
the walls.
6. Usually the mural paintings on the surface within reach are damaged and faded due to oilfrom people’s hands. Accordingly, we attached frames with glass over the surface where
it is within reach.

CULTURAL HERITAGE PRESERVATION IN MYANMAR
MAJOR LAWS CONCERNING THE PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGEIn Myanmar the cultural heritage of ancient monuments and antiquities has been protected since thepassage of the Burma Antiquities Act of 1957. The Government of the Union of Burma subsequently

168amended this Act in 1962. A new law entitled the “Protection and Preservation of Cultural Region
Law” was promulgated in September 1998. It consists of nine chapters, namely: (1) Title andDefinition, (2) Object Culture, (5) Protecting and Preserving the Culture Heritage Regions, (6)Applying for Prior Permission, Scrutinizing and Issuing, (7) Prohibition, (8) Offenses and Penalties,and (9) Miscellaneous.

PROBLEMS AND NEEDS FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE PROTECTION AND RESTORATIONACTIVITIESMyanmar historical sites and Myanmar ancient monuments are the heritage not only of Myanmar but
also of the world. Although we know that everything is subject to decay and therefore impermanent,
we nevertheless have the duty to conserve the heritage, and must act in time before there is irreparable
loss. Most of the ancient monuments have been damaged due to natural disasters, weather, humanbeings, insects, etc. Some sites have unique problems, though they are few. Here I have tried to figureout some recommendations for solving the common problems.
1. For some archaeological sites and remains in Myanmar, archaeological surveys have been
conducted by the government. Many ancient sites and remains are still not included in thearchaeological surveys, however, and it is highly necessary for them to be surveyed soon.
2. Because of frequent earthquakes, many ancient monuments are badly damaged. The more
flexible structures using brickwork in mud are not as badly damaged.
3. Many ancient monuments collapse due to the heavy rains. Accordingly, during rainy
periods we check around the monuments for rainwater leakage, and for water flowing on
the mural paintings which can cause the paintings to become faded and destroyed.
4. Because everything is subject to decay and therefore impermanent, the thousand-year-oldmonuments are coming to decay gradually. So we need to conserve them very carefully.
5. Erosion of river banks is also dangerous for the ancient monuments. We have to checkthe ancient monuments which are located on the river banks, and we should build up theembankments if urgently needed.
6. Problems of illumination often need to be solved by providing a curtain or bamboo screen
to shield heritage from the light.
7. Some ignorant people whitewash over beautiful paintings which have darkened with oldage. When we remove the whitewash, the layers of the paintings are spoiled because of
the lime. Usually the mural paintings on the surface within reach are damaged and faded
due to oil from people’s hands. Accordingly, we attached frames with glass over thesurface where it is within reach.
8. Promotion of closer coordination is needed between different organizations of thegovernment and the Department of Archaeology.

1699. Creation of links between the Department of Archaeology and the universities are needed
to boost the work of research, restoration and conservation though close communication.
10. It is necessary to make higher training from foreign countries available for Myanmar
archaeologists and conservators.
11. Insufficient allocation of funds from the state budget is an obstacle to implementing
heritage projects. It is necessary to enhance budgetary allocations sufficiently to copewith the Herculean task of reforming, restoring and developing the archaeological sites.

CONCLUSION
This report has touched on the cultural sequences of Myanmar and the main problems and needs for
cultural heritage protection and restoration activities in Myanmar. Currently, I am carrying out myduties with the Cultural Heritage Division in Mandalay. As for my career, I will mostly be conducting
the exploration and excavation of Bronze and Iron Age burial sites, as well as participating in primate
studies. As I am attending this training course, I strongly believe that I will be able to apply the results
to the conservation of heritage sites in Myanmar, as well as to my archaeological studies in Myanmar.
I will also share to my with my colleagues and the younger generation of heritage workers myexperience and knowledge gained from Japan.
Thank You

170

New ZealandKathryn HURREN
Regional Archaeologist
New Zealand Historic Places Trust

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration in
New Zealand1

Introduction

New Zealand/Aotearoa was the last land mass in the world to be colonised and this colonisation
happened quite late in terms of world history. Settlement predominantly occurred along the coastline
and this is where the majority of archaeological sites in New Zealand are located. Coastalarchaeological sites face pressures not only from people and development, but also from theenvironment. Archaeologists consider New Zealand’s archaeology unique because of the age and typeof sites. However due to the country’s relatively young history, many New Zealanders do not view thecultural heritage of New Zealand as significant compared to that of other nations. Unfortunately, thisview adversely affects how archaeology is treated and protected by a wide sector of the population,
including developers, local authorities, central government, and even Maori and professionalarchaeologists.
This report will look at the history of New Zealand, the types of archaeological sites that can be
identified in the landscape, as well as the organisations and legislation that manage archaeologicalsites. It is important to look at these first as they set the scene, and help to understand the challenges
that are presently found in New Zealand. Lastly, the problems and needs facing the preservation andconservation of archaeological sites will be discussed.

2

Location and Description of New Zealand

New Zealand is in located in the south West Pacific 1,500 km east of Australia. New Zealand has threemain islands: the North Island, the South Island and Stewart Island. Surrounding these main
landmasses are a number of smaller islands and island groups, such as the Chatham Islands 850 km to
the east of New Zealand, the Campbell Islands 600 km south east of Stewart Island which is subAntarctic, and further away still, the Kermadecs which lie 1,000 km to the northeast of New Zealand.
New Zealand has a land area of 270,534 sq km and has an extensive coastline which totals more than
15,000 km. It is 1,600 km long but only 450 km wide. Due to the New Zealand positions spanningseveral climatic zones, the climate varies greatly from north to south; the north can be subtropicalwhile further south the climate is generally more temperate.

171

Figure 1. Location of New Zealand in the southwest PacificFigure 2. Map of New Zealand

172

3

Colonisation of New Zealand

Scientific analysis has determined that the human occupation of New Zealand occurred from about thethirteenth century AD (Higham et al 1999, Wilmshurst et al 2008, Schmidt 1996). The first people to
make New Zealand their home were from Polynesia. In New Zealand these settlers encountered a land
completely different from their homeland. Despite this, they quickly adapted to the new environment
which they found to be abundant in wildlife and other resources. Settlement occurred mostly along thecoastline in order to exploit the abundant resources such as fish and shellfish.
The archaeological record shows a clear transition from early Polynesian settlers to the Maori thatwere encountered when the first European explorers came to New Zealand. The first of the newarrivals was Abel Tasman who sighted New Zealand in 1642. However it was not until 127 years later,in 1769, as part of James Cook’s journeys in the South Pacific to find the Great Southern Continent,that the first European people set foot on New Zealand soil. After Cook’s voyages, several other major
European expeditions came to New Zealand and gradually colonisation of New Zealand by Europeansbegan, firstly through coastal settlements of whalers and traders.
These various phases of occupation, starting with the early Polynesians who then forged a new culture
which became Maori, followed by the nineteenth century colonisation of New Zealand by Europeans,is clearly articulated in the archaeological record. The occupation and settlement happened rapidly incomparison to the rest of the world. The archaic period is from the time of settlement in New Zealandwhich is ca 1280 until ca 1500 AD. The classic period is from ca 1500 until the arrival of Europeans in
1769. The historic period in New Zealand dates from 1769.

1840 AD
Treaty of
Waitangi

ca. 1350 AD
Pearl Shell Lureca. 1500 AD
from East Polynesia End of Moa-hunting ?

Classic period
Archaic period
ca. 1280 AD
Colonisation of
New Zealand beginning of
Moa-huntingca. 1500 AD
Commencementof Pa
Construction

1642 AD
Abel Tasman

1769 ADJames Cook

Figure 3. Timeline of New Zealand Archaeology (Schmidt nd: 5)

173

ARCHAIC

CLASSIC

Figure 4. Artefacts found in Maori archaeological sites from the Archaic Period and Classic Period(from Davidson 1987)

4

Archaeological Site Types found in New Zealand

New Zealand’s environment, isolation, and climate combine to create a unique archaeological record,
which is predominantly located along its extensive coastline. This section will describe the various
types of archaeological sites found in New Zealand.

4.1 Midden Sites
The most common archaeologicalsite in New Zealand is also its mostthreatened.

Middens

are

found

throughout the archaeological record
along the coastline. Middens aredebris from cooking and everyday
activities so they mostly consist of
the shells from a range of different
shellfish,

but

also

fish

bones,

hangi/cooking stones, as well as
artefacts such as adzes, chisels, flake
tools, fish hooks and lure shanks.
Other items commonly found in

Figure 5. Midden (photo NZHPT)

174

middens are fern root beaters, patu (club) and obsidian fragments. Middens are particularly significant
because they tell us about subsistence economies, as well as sourcing of material and exchange.

4.2 PaPa are Maori fortifications that are believed to have been used in times of conflict and warfare toprotect the local population from invading or threatening tribes (iwi). Pa are associated with the classic
period of Maori settlement in New Zealand and radiocarbon dating has established that the earliest pa
date to about 1500 AD (Schmidt 1996). These structures and their associated buildings continued to bebuilt and lived in until the early nineteenth century, which is why at present there are about 6,000 pa
on record.
Pa were typically located on naturally defendable high points such as ridges, coastal headlands, andisolated hills. However, on rare occasions pa were also located next to swamps and in some cases onflat land. The basic plan of a pa includes a flat platform with artificial terracing down the slopes. It isbelieved that important people lived on the platform and the terraces were created to provide flat areas
for the general population to build shelters and live. Because people sometimes had to live in pa forextended periods storage pits are also a common feature, as indicated by rectangular or circulardepressions, and were most frequently used to store kumara (sweet potato) which was a staple food of
the Maori. Defensive features of pa sites include wooden palisades, banks, and ditches, which areusually found on the outer side of the living areas. Archaeological material that may be encounteredon pa include middens, bone, flake tools, chisels, patu and fern root beaters.
While pa were places of refuge in times ofconflict, it is also believed that they had
other functions. It is not known whether pa
were occupied permanently, but they wereamong the most secure places to store food,as well as for the chief, and his family, toinhabit. Pa were important centres oflearning and activities such as horticulture
and crafts were undertaken there. Whennotspecifically

used

as

defensivestrongholds, pa were most likely only
occasionally occupied by the general
populous, and this would have also been
dependent on seasons as groups were
frequently absent in order to undertake
tasks essential to their iwi’s survival, such

Figure 6. Kauri Point pa (photo: Kevin Jones)175

as fishing, hunting or tending to gardens. It is believed that people lived mostly in undefended
settlements and only went to pa during times of conflict. These undefended villages are known as
kainga and were present in both the archaic and classic periods.

Figure 7. Pa, Papamoa, Tauranga (photo: Kevin Jones)

4.3 Horticultural Sites
The first Polynesians travelled to New Zealand in ocean-going canoes which not only transported
large groups of people but also a number of cultigens. Because of the vastly different climate in New
Zealand it is possible that a large proportion of these failed. It is not known how many cultigens were
initially introduced to New Zealand, but at the time of European settlement six were identified as not
being native species, and of these kumara (sweet potato or Ipomoea batatas) was the dominant crop
(Furey 2006: 10). Kumara could not be grown south of Banks Peninsular, in the upper half of theSouth Island, and below this line Maori continued to hunt and gather. The colder climate and inability
to grow crops led the population in the south to be fewer than in the north.
Evidence of horticulture exists in the form of pits, modified soils and stone rows. Modified soils areoften indicated by the presence of mixed and disturbed soils and evidence of charcoal. Stone rows are
believed to be boundary markers as well as evidence of clearing land of large stones and rocks in order
to be able to grow plants. The most common indicators of horticultural activity are kumara pits.
Horticultural sites are often associated with pa because as Maori began to overexploit traditional
resources such as seals, and moa and other ground-based birds became extinct, horticultural resourcesbegan to take precedence. Crops therefore became extremely important and required protection, so
were gradually integrated into the standard format of pa.

176

Figure 8. Waikekeno Pa and stone rows (photo: Kevin Jones)

Figure 9. Karaka Point raised rim pit (photo NZHPT)

177

Gun Fighter Pa/Redoubts
Gun fighter pa or redoubts were pa that Maori adapted to be defensible against muskets which wereintroduced by Europeans. Gun fighter pa demonstrate the high level of innovation and resourcefulnessof Maori when faced with a new technology and style of warfare that diverged greatly from the hand
to hand combat that they were used to prior to European colonisation. The traditional type of defensive
systems at pa was vulnerable to musket fire because the guns could be fired down the line of ditches
and banks causing increased casualties and damage. For Maori the solution was in constructing pa
with a system of zigzagging trenches and underground tunnels running between ditches and banks.
This

designbecauseitwas

successful

allowedmovementoffor

peoplethewhile

mitigating losses from musket fire.
In addition to the trenches andtunnels,

palisadesoftightly

packed wood that absorbed the
shock

of

muskets

were

also

constructed. Archaeological artefacts

found

on

gun

fighter

pa/redoubts include musket balls,
ammunition cases, and cannon
balls.

Figure 10. Ruapekapeka, a Maori
gunfighter pa/redoubt built in 1845.
The picture above shows the site
as it is today while the bottom
picture is an artist’s reconstructionof the pa in 1845 (bottom) (source:
Department of Conservation).

Photo: Kevin Jones

4.4 Historic Sites

Once New Zealand was rediscovered by James Cook in 1769 the first Europeans began to come to
New Zealand. Settlement picked up from the 1830s and then after the signing of the Treaty of178

Waitangi in 1840 a flood of settlers from around the world began to come to New Zealand. The Treatyof Waitangi was New Zealand’s founding document, which was signed between various Maori andQueen Victoria. Most settlers were from the United Kingdom directly or via Australia, but a numberof other ethnicities also made the journey. Among them were Chinese who came to New Zealand inincreasing numbers from the 1860s to try their luck at gold mining and then moved into areas such as
market gardening. Therefore the variety of archaeological sites in New Zealand goes beyond that ofearly Polynesian and Maori. The archaeological record also documents the creation of New Zealand’s
modern multi-cultural society, encompassing early industry and technology such as mining andreclamations areas, transport developments such as roads, railways, tramways and causeways, as wellas numerous shipwrecks. Of course buildings also feature in the record like those at early whaling andsealing stations, and urban facilities such as gas and brick works.

Figure 11. Left, Cuba Street, Wellington (photo Kathryn Hurren); right, Te Aro Railway Station(photo Emma Brooks)

Depending on the material and environment archaeological sites dating from the period of early
European settlement in New Zealand and after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi can be well179

preserved. Artefacts associated with this period of settlement commonly comprise nineteenth century
bottles, ceramic stone wares and sometimes metal and bone objects if the conditions are dry. In damp
conditions leather items such as shoes, hats and purses, timber in the form of wharf piles, wooden
causeways and building piles may also be encountered.

5

The New Zealand Historic Places Trust and Its Role in Protecting and Managing
Cultural Heritage in New Zealand

New Zealand’s lead heritage agency is the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (NZHPT) which advises
and advocates for cultural heritage protection, preservation and restoration. The NZHPT manages theHistoric Places Act 1993 (HPA). The regional archaeologists of the NZHPT administer the statutory
sections of the HPA regarding the protection of archaeological sites. The HPA will be discussed below
under legislation. In addition to the Regional Archaeologist other people working at NZHPT such as
the heritage planner, Maori heritage advisor, and heritage advisors for registration and architecture,
work together to identify and protect cultural heritage.
One such tool under the HPA that NZHPT utilises to identify significant cultural heritage in New
Zealand is registration. The NZHPT register is the national schedule of New Zealand's treasured
heritage places. Registration means that a place or area is included on the Register. Registration isestablished under the HPA and compiled by the NZHPT. Registration identifies and informs owners,
the public, local communities organisations, governmental agencies and local authorities aboutsignificant heritage and assists heritage to be conserved and protected. While being on the register
does not provide regulatory protection under the HPA, most places on the NZHPT Register are listedon district plans by local councils in accordance with their obligations under the Resource
Management Act 1991 (RMA). However, if the registered place or area is archaeological in terms ofthe definition in the HPA then it is automatically protected by law.
Recent NZHPT registrations of archaeological sites include two shipwrecks: the Tasmania Maid andthe Alexandra. Another registration that is being pursued is the Nelson Boulder Bank in Nelson at the
top of the South Island. This registration will encompass the pre-European Maori, pre-1900 European
sites, as well as post-1900 European sites. The Maori sites consist of midden and occupation sites
dating from as early as the archaic period to those still in use until the historic period. As theArchaeologist in the Central Region Office of the NZHPT I organised the archaeological field workthat is a key part of the heritage assessment of the Boulder Bank, and I have subsequently been
overseeing how this is incorporated into the registration report. The field work was undertaken in
February 2010. The field work relocated previously recorded archaeological midden sites andidentified new Maori and European sites.

180

 

Figure 12. Nelson Boulder Bank Warf, house and winch foundations, Lighthouse and Military
Barracks (photos Steve Bagley)

Proposed future registration work involves reviewing the current registration of the Moa Hunter site on
Wairau Bar in the Marlborough Sounds, recognised as one of the most important archaic sites in New
Zealand. Extensive archaeological work has been undertaken at this site, with the most recent work
occurring in January 2009. This excavation involved archaeologists from the University of Otago,
NZHPT, local iwi and the Department of Conservation, and its purpose was to identify suitable
repatriation sites for a group of human remains (koiwi) that were removed from Wairau Bar in the
1940s and 1950s. Until this year those remains had been in the collection of the Canterbury Museum inChristchurch. After the completion of the excavations they were able to be returned to the local tribe,
Rangitane, who re-interred their ancestors at Wairau Bar.
Aside from registration, another form of heritage protection for New Zealand’s archaeological sites is acovenant. Covenants are legal agreements between the NZHPT and a land owner who wishes to put
protection over a site in order that it is not damaged or modified in the future, and also managed

181

appropriately. Covenants place protection over sites in perpetuity and govern appropriate activities andboundaries around sites. This means that covenants are the most effective way of protecting sites, but
because of the encumbrances on owners they are less commonly entered into.
Gazetting is another tool used by NZHPT. Gazetting a site means that legal protection is placed overthe site and an archaeological authority is required before any works that will affect the site can beundertaken. For example, important turn of the twentieth century gold mining sites, as well as thoserelating to World War I and II activities are presently not protected.

6Local Government

Local Governments are the regional and local councils (also known as regional or local authorities)
that deal with issues relevant to local decision making about local issues and services taking into
account local needs. In New Zealand there are 12 regional councils; 16 city councils and 57 district
councils. The city and district councils are collectively referred to as territorial authorities of which
there are 73 in total. The regional and local councils manage the RMA and a resource consent fromcouncil is a management tool in which the use of natural or historical resources is regulated.

7

New Zealand Archaeological Association (NZAA)

Another important group in helping preserve and assess New Zealand’s archaeology is the New
Zealand Archaeological Association (NZAA). The NZAA does not have a legislative role in theprotection and management of archaeological sites in New Zealand, but it plays an extremely importantrole by pulling together archaeologists and archaeological information in New Zealand. The NZAA
advocates, promotes and fosters archaeological research in New Zealand as well as advocating for theprotection of archaeology and cultural heritage in New Zealand by lobbying Government and councils.
The NZAA provides a number of important tools and facilities, one of which is the NZAA Site
Recording Scheme. This is a database which documents all of New Zealand’s recorded archaeologicalsites. The Site Recording Scheme was begun in 1958 and is being continually updated. Presently there
are 60,000 recorded archaeological sites in New Zealand. Recently the NZAA launched a publicallyaccessible digital site recording scheme, ARCHSITE, which allows live streaming of all the NZAA site
records. In addition to facilitating the distribution of archaeological information to archaeologists andthe general public, the NZAA also organises yearly conferences and publishes a quarterly journal
called the New Zealand Archaeological Association Journal, which are forums for presenting new
ideas and research.

182

Figure 13. Map of sites in Wellington and around the immediate coastline (map generated
from ARCHSITE)

8

Legislation in New Zealand that Protects Archaeological Sites and Remains

In New Zealand there are two main pieces of legislation that directly affect the preservation andprotection of archaeological sites: the Historic Places Act (1993) (HPA) and the Resource
Management Act (1991) (RMA). There is also the Protected Objects Act (1975) (POA) which ensures
no person shall illegally possess taonga (treasures) or export artefacts from archaeological sites.

8.1 Historic Places Act 1993 (HPA)
In the HPA an archaeological is defined as “any place in New Zealand that(a) Either –(i) Was associated with human activity that occurred before 1900; or(ii) Is the site of the wreck of any vessel where that wreck occurred before 1900; and(b) Is or may be able through investigation by archaeological methods to provide evidence
relating to the history of New Zealand.”Under section 10 of the HPA all archaeological sites are protected. In this section it states that it “shallnot be lawful” to damage, modify or destroy an archaeological site “knowing or having cause to183

suspect that it is an archaeological site”. The HPA confers blanket protection over all archaeologicalsites in New Zealand regardless of whether they are previously known about or recorded.
In order for a person to damage, modify or destroy an archaeological site an archaeological authority(consent) is required from the NZHPT before work can be undertaken. Conditions fitting the type ofsite and the proposed work are placed on the authority letter by the NZHPT Regional Archaeologist.
There are penalties for unlawful damage to archaeological sites under section 99 or 100 of the HPA
which include a criminal conviction and a fine of $40,000 for damage or modification or $100,000 for
destruction. Section 99 pertains to damage, modification to an archaeological site without an
Archaeological Authority in place, while section 100 pertains to breaches of conditions of an
Archaeological Authority.

8.2 Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA)
The RMA has a wider scope than the HPA. The role of the RMA is to ensure that any impacts on any
natural or physical resources (including historic) by a proposed activity have been assessed. Undersection 5, 6 (e), 6(f) and 8 of the RMA, councils must manage historic resources and take into
consideration the effects of any proposal on these in order to mitigate any actions which could
undermine the values which have been identified as making them important.
Councils play an important part in the management of archaeological sites as it is often during theresource consent stage that the impacts on archaeological sites are identified. How archaeology ismanaged in this process plays an important part in the management and preservation of sites.

8.3 Protected Objects Act 1975 (POA)The POA protects Maori taonga from illegal possession and trafficking and ensures that these items,
when found are deposited with the rightful Iwi (Maori tribe) or Runanga (Maori council). This rightful
possession is determined by the Crown through the Ministry of Culture and Heritage. European orother non Maori artefacts are the property of the landowner.

9

Problems with Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration Activities in New
Zealand
While the current legislative measures and work of various agencies in New Zealand aim topreserve archaeology, there are limitations in their effectiveness and there are still problematic
areas which I will now address.
9.1 Legislation Issues
The two main pieces of legislation which deal with archaeology, the HPA and RMA haveproblems which affect the management and preservation of archaeological sites in New

184

Zealand. While the legislation in relation to the RMA and HPA are excellent tools, the way
they are managed and used has serious implications for the future of archaeological sites in
New Zealand.
As discussed, the HPA is the legislation which provides protection for archaeological sites in New
Zealand. The HPA is managed by the NZHPT, which is where a fundamental problem lies because
this organisation struggles to fund the staff to do this. The NZHPT is a Crown Agency which meansthat it is partially funded by the New Zealand government, but also has to rely on donations andbequests in order to function at its current level. Presently, there are only 11 archaeologists employedat the NZHPT to cover the whole of the country, which means they are often stretched to the limit of
their capabilities and, reluctantly, tend to be reactive. In the interest of preserving archaeology, the
NZHPT archaeologists would prefer to be proactive but instead have to rely on archaeologicalconsultants, councils, iwi and other contacts to keep them informed of what is happening around thecountry.
The HPA is not well known by the general public and it often comes as a surprise to land owners,
developers, and consultants such as planners or architects that archaeological sites are protected bylaw and that there is an authority process they must go through in order to damage/modify or destroy
an archaeological site. There are widespread misunderstandings about the NZHPT, its role, and also a
general lack of knowledge regarding New Zealand’s history and the provisions of the HPA. Therefore,
because of this lack of knowledge, damage of archaeological sites is often not considered serious, eventhough the legislation makes it an offence, and many people when faced with the consequences of sitedamage maintain they have done nothing illegal. This situation is perhaps not helped by the fact thatvery few site damage investigations make it to court. This makes the NZHPTs lack of resources
evident to local iwi, archaeologists and developers, and it also shows that the NZHPT cannot
necessarily enforce the HPA to its full extent.
The final legislative issue is that the definition of an archaeological site in the HPA only protects
places dating prior to 1900. This causes confusion because while the HPA defines the parameters ofwhat is considered archaeological under law, this does not necessarily mean the post 1900 sites cannot
be considered archaeological sites, it simply means that they are not protected. There are extensive andimportant sites dating after 1900 that are extremely important to the history of New Zealand, but thesecannot be protected unless gazetted. While the NZHPT advocates for the protection of these places, it
is at the landowners’ or developers’ discretion to implement our recommendations and therefore
protection depends on whether they are sensitive to heritage values.
Despite having a regulatory role under the RMA, local councils see it as the NZHPT’s role to manage
archaeological sites under the HPA. As such, some councils ignore archaeology completely and185situations have arisen where people have been granted consent to build a house on top of a midden or
put a fence through a pit and terrace site. Once a resource consent has been issued it is hard to change
it and this places the NZHPT in the difficult position of granting an archaeological authority that will
unnecessarily damage an archaeological site simply because the potential for archaeology was not
identified at resource consent stage – the stage when through consultation with the NZHPT and NZAA
alternative plans could have been made to avoid damage and protect the site.
A common issue that I face as Central Region Archaeologist are developers or their consultants
dismissing any possibility of encountering archaeological material. The most common reason for
ignoring the possibility of encountering archaeological material is because there are no recorded sites
on the subject property or there has been subsequent development on the property. In centres such as
Wellington where there has been development activity both before and after 1900, the possibility
cannot be ignored as it is common to find remnants of archaeological material, for example Te Aro Pa(see below) or wells beneath post 1900 buildings.

9.2 Issues of Age, Significance and Ignoring Archaeological Potential
As New Zealand is a young country in terms of human settlement its archaeological record is not as
substantial or as long as in Europe or the Americas. By comparing New Zealand’s archaeologicalrecord to Europe, the Americas or Egypt many people then perceive that New Zealand’s archaeology
is less significant.
In particular, middens are commonly disregarded and thought dispensable because they do not containobjects which are recognisably archaeological to a lay person. Among those slightly better educatedabout archaeology there is also a common belief that because middens are our most abundant type ofarchaeological site, and because superficially they all look the same, that they are not as important as,
for example, a pa site. Therefore, while middens may be the most prevalent form of archaeologicalsite in New Zealand they are the most disregarded and threatened and this is enhanced further due toother factors such as coastal development and erosion.

9.3 Restoration and Preservation in New Zealand.
In my position of Central Region Archaeologist I have not been involved in any restoration activities,
which perhaps reflects the fact that restoration of archaeological sites is not widely undertaken in New
Zealand. One such recent restoration project is that of Plimmer’s Ark, a late nineteenth century wharf
structure and ship that were found under a central business district building, the Old Bank Arcade, on
the corner of Lambton and Customhouse Quays in Wellington. Plimmer´s Ark was a wrecked ship
which had beached and was used as a floating market in the 1840s. The wrecked ship was
subsequently built on in the 1860s and forgotten about. It was not until renovations were undertaken186on the building in 1997 that it was rediscovered. Some of the remains are preserved inside the Banks
Arcade building while others were taken off site for ongoing timber conservation treatment.

Figure 14. Remnants of Te Aro Pa (photo Bruce McFadgen)Figure 15. Conservation of Te Aro Pa (photo Dean Whiting)187

Another recent Wellington example involved a Maori pa site which was located beneath a twentiethcentury building in the central city. The early twentieth century building was removed to make way
for an apartment building that was to also have an underground car parking. When the remnants of Te
Aro Pa were encountered NZHPT went into discussions with the developer and Wellington City
Council, as well as local iwi, to ensure the preservation and retention of the remains. Preserving thesite was expensive and in lieu of underground car parks Wellington City Council allowed thedeveloper to add more floors to the apartment block.
Both these of examples represent sites that were preserved due to the developers realising theimportance of the sites and working with the NZHPT and their consultant archaeologists to develop an
appropriate heritage solution. Restoration and preservation are expensive and often there are not thefunds or even the skills to undertake such projects.

9.4 Coastal Erosion/Climate Change and Development
The majority of New Zealand’s archaeological sites are located on the coast and coastal development
and the coastal erosion associated with climate change pose serious problems.
In my role there are three particular coastlines where I have seen development occur which hasseriously impacted on the archaeological nature of the area. The first area is the Kapiti Coast on theWest Coast of the lower North Island just north of Wellington. The Kapati Coast is made up ofextensive dune systems with a large number of recorded midden sites. In recent years coastal
development of lifestyle blocks has seriously compromised the integrity of the archaeologicallandscape the dune systems.
In the last couple of years subdivision and development have also started to occur along the Wairarapa
coast. The Wairarapa is located on the opposite coast to Kapiti and the two areas are very different.
Unlike the Kapiti Coast the Wairarapa’s landscape is made up of steep ridges, large gullies and thincoastal strips of flat land. The area is characterised by its large isolated farms, is extremely rocky andthe topography is steep. The Wairarapa has some of the most important horticultural sites in New
Zealand including Waikekeno, which is a pa and horticultural site.
Evidence of pa, pits, terraces, garden features and middens can be identified along this coastline. In
recent years many of the farms along this Wairarapa coast have started to be subdivided and sold off.
A high number of archaeological sites are located on the flat lands or lower hills where the majority of
subdivisions are proposed, meaning that the effects on archaeology will be high. Unlike the Kapiti
Coast, the Wairarapa sites are obvious in the landscape. Often landowners will make an effort to avoid
known archaeological sites, but the issue lies in the fact that the subdivisions will introduce more
people into these areas, and it is the actions of people which most often adversely affect archaeology.

188

For example, a larger population requires increased facilities, such as roading and services, in order tomake the area more accessible. The situation in the Wairarapa highlights the prospect that as New
Zealand’s population grows the demand for places to live will also increase. This will undoubtedly
place pressure on New Zealand’s coastline and severely impact on coastal archaeological sites.
Golden Bay, Pohara and Tata Beach on the Tasman Bay Coastline, at the top of the South Island, havea history of extensive Maori occupation. Like the Kapiti Coast this area also has extensive dunes andmany marine resources that Maori would have utilised. The difference between the two coastlines isthat the Tasman Bay coast features many small settlements consisting of holiday homes, and parks,
which are popular summer holiday locations. Many of the post 1900 settlements along the Tasman
coast correspond with archaeological sites consisting of middens, occupation material, burials andhorticultural soils. Therefore, every time a person wishes to do ground works at their holiday property
they need an archaeological authority to damage, modify or destroy the archaeological site that theirhouse is on. This creates another issue in the fact that not only are the archaeological sites damaged bypeople living on top of them the information retrieved from the archaeological work undertaken on
these sites are very piecemeal. This issue will tie with the issues between research archaeology andconsultancy archaeology which will be discussed below, but first I wish to discuss coastal erosion andsea level rise.
In relation to New Zealand’s coastline a second threat to archaeological sites are the phenomena of
coastal erosion and climate change. Erosion has been an identified problem for years but it has only
been recently that the issues of erosion and sea level rising have started to be fully addressed. In a
recent article Campbell and McGovern-Wilson (2009) note that possibly up to 10,000 archaeologicalsites in the coastal zone are under threat if the sea level starts to rise. A sea level rise of 1 m will
destroy dunes systems such as those found along the Kapiti Coast and Tasman Coast, while a sea level
rise of 5 m will destroy all early period Maori archaeological sites, as well as affect those associatedwith early European settlement.
In Southland, located at the bottom of the South Island, a project known as the Southland Coastal
Heritage Inventory Project (SCHIP) is presently being undertaken to record and note the effects oferosion and identify appropriate steps to manage archaeological sites being affected by erosion (seeBrooks et al 2008, Egerton and Jacomb 2009, and Jacomb and Walter 2005 for an in-depth descriptionof the project). SCHIP also actively carries out the proposed management for each of thearchaeological sites identified in the project. In my region there are two sites which have been
identified as being actively eroded away. One site is a midden in Ngawi in Palliser Bay (recorded as
S28/187 under the NZAA site recording scheme) and the other is a registered wahi tapu urupa (burial)
and midden (recorded as Y19/109 under the NZAA site recording scheme) located at Mahanga Beachin Wairoa. Recent site visits along the Wairarapa coastline have also identified archaeological sites

189suffering from active erosion as well as sites that have completely been eroded away. Further research
into the issue of erosion and sea level change and its impact on archaeological sites in New Zealandneeds to be undertaken. The threat to our coastal sites due to environmental impacts needs to beunderstood and decisions made on how to manage the situation and loss of cultural heritage.

Figure 16. S28/186 eroding midden (photos Kathryn Hurren)

9.5 Research Archaeology versus Development Archaeology and the Issue of Standards
The final item that I wish to address with regards to New Zealand is a long standing issue that has tosome extent been addressed by the NZHPT through the creation of a National Research Framework in
2007. Based on a difference in the driving agent, there are two types of archaeological work in New
Zealand. One is the research driven archaeology, usually directed from either the University of Otago
or University of Auckland, while the other is development driven archaeology. The difference
between the two is that with research driven archaeology there are clear aims, methods and researchquestions to be answered. The excavation is clearly thought out, planned, and undertaken in a carefulmanner.
Development driven archaeology is in response to developmental pressure. Archaeological work
undertaken in developmental driven circumstances usually involves working under rough conditions
with a digger and construction crew waiting, not always patiently, for the archaeologist to do theirwork. The archaeological work is usually undertaken quickly and without any forethought on what
may be encountered and how the archaeological material should be excavated. Reports that come fromdevelopment driven excavations are sometimes nothing more than a description of what was
encountered, with minimal interpretation. These types of excavations, and the reports generated fromthem, provide little information of value. Therefore because in most cases these reports are the only
record of what was once there, valuable information on the past of New Zealand is being lost. There isalso to a degree an issue of standards of some archaeologists work.

190

This is obviously of concern and NZHPT has taken steps to regulate the level of information that
consultant archaeologist and developers should be providing. Research archaeology excavations areusually financed and budgeted for, however, developmental archaeology faces the problem thatdevelopers do not want to spend any more money than necessary and there is constant discussion onwhat is reasonable for a developer to pay for and what is the bare minimum of archaeological workthat is acceptable. Many developers do not see why they need to pay for the archaeological work andare constantly disputing it. They believe that because the government is imposing these rules and it isconsidered a public good then the government and the public should pay.
In relation to standards of archaeological work there is no professional archaeological organisation to
govern and manage archaeological work in New Zealand. Even though the archaeological community
is small there is a varying degree of work ethic and standards. The standard of work can reflect theskills and knowledge of the archaeologist or the type of job being working on. In relation to skills andknowledge today few students are coming through the universities with the practical skills they need
to obtain work in archaeology due to limited field opportunities or because they are not able to takeadvantage of opportunities due the necessity of working to fund their education during university
holidays. And the professional agencies, such as the NZHPT, are not providing formal on-site training
as would be expected with any other professions, such as medicine, architecture or law.

10 Measures Needed to Combat Problems of Culture Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in New ZealandFunding for the preservation of archaeological sites is a key issue that needs to be addressed. Oftenarchaeological sites are preserved by the grace of the developer or landowner understanding theimportance of the site enough to bear the cost of preserving the site by relocating their development.
This is not often the case if the developer is not sympathetic to archaeology or heritage in general. The
issue of funding is a critical one and ideally the New Zealand Government should put money forward
to help fund the restoration and preservation of sites of national significance.
Another key to addressing the problems being faced in New Zealand regarding the restoration andpreservation is to better educate people in New Zealand about its history and the significance of what
we have in order that they gain an appreciation for its importance. This can be achieved with moreeducation via the school system, by council initiatives, as well as through the NZHPT. In this way
attitudes may change, and archaeology might begin to be widely recognised as a public good and asset,
and not merely as a hindrance to development.
Another way to help protect archaeology is through the introduction of more incentives for landowners
who have archaeological sites on their property. Currently the NZHPT has an Incentive Fund, however
this is targeted towards Category I historic places. While a number of archaeological sites are191

registered many of them are not Category I and thus are not eligible for funding. Even forarchaeological sites that are Category I applications for funding are low. An incentive fund set up for
only Category I archaeological sites would undoubtedly motivate and aid owners to preserve theseplaces.
The RMA needs to tighten its provisions regarding heritage and councils need to be more active in theidentification and assessment of impacts from development on heritage. An alignment of RMA andHPA processes needs to take place with the RMA linking to the HPA. Councils need to list importantarchaeological sites in the District plan and incorporate “alert layers” in their GIS systems forarchaeological sensitive areas. Councils should have heritage advisors who can act as a link between
NZPT.
A rolling date of 50 years should be applied to archaeological sites as opposed to having a cut off dateof 1900. This means that important heritage and archaeological sites that post date 1900 will beprotected under law without the need of gazetting and the issues surrounding proving whether a site is
pre or post 1900 will no longer occur.
In my opinion the protection and restoration of archaeological sites in New Zealand would benefit
greatly from a professional archaeological organisation being formed. Such an organisation could
regulate the standard of archaeological work by accrediting archaeologists based on their skills andeducation. Mentoring for students entering the archaeological field could be a stipulation ofaccreditation, as well as attending archaeological workshops, such as those run by the Profession
Development Cell.

11 Conclusions
My discussion has demonstrated that while steps have been made, there are clearly problems that need
to be addressed in order to improve cultural heritage protection and restoration in New Zealand. I
argued that the problems in the restoration and preservations of archaeological sites in New Zealandhave to do with two major issues. The first is the perceptions and attitudes of many New Zealander’s
towards archaeological sites and the second is the implementation of the legislation. Archaeology is a
finite resource and once it is gone then it is gone. It would be a shame for New Zealanders to only
realise the importance and uniqueness of our heritage when it is too late. The many issues surrounding
cultural heritage protection in New Zealand are not easily solved and the biggest hurdle is the lack ofknowledge and understanding of New Zealand’s history feeding into attitudes of the general public,
councils, as well as the New Zealand Government. If people’s understandings were changed so thatheritage and archaeology were looked upon as cultural assets, then better protection, as well as
funding, would be more forthcoming, and I have tried, based on my experience, to point to ways
through which this could be achieved.

192

12 References
Brooks E, Jacomb C and Walter R. 2008. Southland Coastal Inventory Project Waiparau Head to
Rowallan Burn. Unpublished Report.
Campbell, M and McGovern-Wilson. 2009. Climate Change and New Zealand Archaeology.
Archaeology in New Zealand 52(3): 164-170.
Davidson, J. 1987. The Prehistory of New Zealand. 2nd Edition. Longman Paul, Auckland.
Egerton R and Jacomb C. 2009.Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project. Archaeology in New
Zealand 52 (4): 250-258
Furey, L. 2006. Maori gardening: An archaeological perspective. Science & Technical Publishing,Department of Conservation.
Greig, K. 2007. NZHPT National Research Framework: Discussion Paper.
Higham TFG, Anderson AJ, Jacomb C. 1999. Dating the first New Zealanders: The chronology of
Wairau Bar. Antiquity 73: 420-427.
Historic Places Act 1993. Government of New Zealand.
Jacomb, C and Walter R. 2005. Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project State 1: Waiparau
Head to Omaui. Unpublished Report.
New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Statement of Intent 2007-2010.
Protected Objects Act 1975. Government of New Zealand.
Resource Management Act 1991. Government of New Zealand.
Schmidt, M. nd. Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration Activites in
New Zealand Archaeological Sites & Remains. Unpublished Report.
Schmidt, M. 1996. The commencement of pa construction in New Zealand prehistory. Journal of the
Polynesian Society 105(4), 441-460.
Wilmshurst JM, Anderson AJ, Higham TFG, Worthy H. 2008. Dating the late prehistoric dispersal of
Polynesians to New Zealand using the commensal Pacific rat. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences vol. 105, no. 22: 7676-7680.

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Pakistan
Asadullah KHAN
Assistant Curator
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration
Activities and Our Experience in Pakistan
Introduction: The Archaeological Heritage of Pakistan
Pakistan possesses a rich cultural heritage extending back in time to one of the earliest known
manifestations of urban civilization. Its immovable cultural property comprises prehistoric burial sites,
Buddhist settlements, monasteries and stupas, and Hindu temples, while the Islamic period isrepresented through grand mosques, tombs, graveyards, forts, palaces, gardens and baolis (step wells).
The archaeological sites and monuments represent landmarks in the progress of human civilizationand constitute an invaluable heritage of mankind. Pakistan is one of the most ancient lands with earlyadvanced civilization in the world. It is also the birth place of advanced and famous cultures andenjoys a long and almost uninterrupted history of splendid culture. The traces of human activity during
the Paleolithic period in the Soan region of the Pothwar Plateau, the remains of the Neolithic period at
Mehargarh in Baluchistan and of protohistoric urbanization in the Punjab, Sindh and NWFP, beareloquent testimony to the habitation of Pakistan by ancient man. The early historic and medieval
periods also witnessed the growth of many civilized peoples who inherited this region. The ancientcivilizations that flourished here have bequeathed the country with valuable historic monuments andrich archaeological sites, which form the heritage of Pakistan.
The soil of Pakistan is very fertile for the promotion of tourism as its cultural heritage is rich andvaried. Here flourished one of the oldest civilizations of the world, known as the Indus Valley
Civilization. It was followed by the culture of Gandhara, flourishing here from the first century BC to
the seventh century AD, and concrete impressions of man and civilization, and then by the Mughal’srule during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.
Due to extensive archaeological surveys, as well as excavations and exploration, a large number ofcultural materials have been unearthed which testify to the uniqueness of cultural tourism in ourcountry.

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At present 402 historical and archaeological sites/monuments are declared “Protected Antiquity”
under the terms of the Antiquities Act, 1975, by the Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Government of Pakistan.
The following are archaeological sites and monuments inscribed on the World Heritage List
maintained by UNESCO.
1. Archaeological ruins at Taxila
2. Archaeological ruins at Moenjodaro
3. Shalamar Garden and Old Fort at Lahore
4. Takht-e-Bahi and Sahra-e-Bahlol, near Mardan
5. Islamic period monuments at Makli Hill, Thatta
6. Rohtas Fort, Jhelum
There are ten monuments declared as “National Monuments” under the same Act, for their importanceto the nation, and these are as follows:
1. Allama Iqbal’s Tomb, Lahore
2. Mausoleum of the Father of the Nation, Karachi
3. Ziarat Residency, Quetta
4. Wazir Mansion, Karachi
5. Khaliq Dina Hall, Karachi
6. Javaid Manzil: (Allama Iqbal Museum, Lahore)
7. Prof. Dr. Abdus Salam’s House at Jhang
8. Islamic Summit Minar, Lahore
9. Quaid-e-Azam House Museum, Karachi
10. Mohatta Palace, Karachi

The Cultural Heritage of Ghandara
Pakistan is the country where the world famous Gandharan art originated and developed in the regionof Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the city of Taxila. Even today, it retains its charm and attraction
for people from all parts of the world. Lying on the west of the mighty river Indus, the ancient land of
Gandhara comprises the Peshawar valley and areas in modern-day Swat, Dir, Buner, Malakand, andBajaur, and it has been one of the most celebrated holy lands of Buddhist piety and excellence. At
times, it also included the area now situated around Rawalpindi and Taxila to its northwest, andextended up to the south of modern Kabul. Due to its geographical position it had an important linkwith the ancient caravan route which served as a commercial and cultural medium between China and195the West. A renowned French art historian has described Gandharan art as a “Greek Buddhist art”
created by artisans of Greek and Buddhist parentage.
Archaeological interest in the investigation, research, and preservation of Gandharan sites was
initiated in the nineteenth century when a number of stupas or monasteries were excavated. Sir John
Marshall excavated at Taxila where he unearthed dozens of Buddhist stupas and monasteries. The
excavations not only brought to light various Buddhist monastic establishments, but also resulted in
the discovery of thousands of beautiful pieces of Gandharan art. With the establishment of Pakistan,interest in the study and investigation of Gandharan art and archaeology intensified, mainly due to theresearch work of two foreign archaeological missions, one Italian and the other Japanese. While the
Italian Archaeological Mission worked mainly in Swat (a region in northern Gandhara), the Kyoto
University Archaeological Mission from Japan carried out archaeological excavation at Shahbaz Garhi,
Chaneka Dehri, Maeka Sanda, Thareli, Ranigot, etc., in the Mardan District (the central region of
Gandhara) from 1983 to 1995.
The area of Gandhara is the veritable homeland of the Indus period sites and Buddhist art and cultures.
During the early centuries of the Christian era they were virtually filled with Buddhist establishmentsin the shape of stupas and monasteries representing the finest phase of Buddhist architecture. These
religious establishments were adorned with statuary as well as innumerable panels and friezes
depicting various types of Buddhist imagery. However, the art disappeared first due to the revivalismof Hinduism, and later due to the onslaughts of the White Huns. The stupas and monasteries wereturned into mounds. Since the latter half of the nineteenth century these mounds have been subjected
to excavations for the purpose of research and collecting statutes, friezes and panels. These antiquities
have filled the galleries of various museums both in the country and abroad. We have several
museums in Pakistan dealing with this aspect of Pakistani art culture.
Gandhara, although already well known, is still an object of amazement and admiration for people
today. It was the cradle of the Buddhist civilization in ancient time, which gave birth to the famous
Gandharan art in its fertile plains and mountains. This Greek-Buddhist art in stone, terra-cotta andbronze has attracted many pilgrims, scholars, students, and tourists from all over the world. The ruined
Buddhist shrines, which stand as memorials to the bygone splendour of the region, are numerous andvaried in their composition, spreading over a vast area of the bewitching land of Gandhara.
Unfortunately, the tides of time, the indifference of man, the abuse at the hands of invaders andtreasure seekers have all damaged and destroyed these cultural remains of the glorious past of theregion. However, a large number of Buddhist sites still exist in this area. Sirkap, Julian, Mohra
Moradu, Bhir Mound, Pipplan, Dharmarajika Sirsukh and Jandial are the most important sites in theancient Gandhara region (Taxila section).

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Taxila: Showcase of Ghandaran Culture
Taxila is one of the oldest living cities on the subcontinent. Its origin lies buried in the mysteries of the
Neolithic Period. Ever since then it appears to have a continuous history of waxing and waning
importance during various stages of its existence. Even today, Taxila is a flourishing town surroundedby numerous ancient abandoned settlements representing its earlier periods. It is perhaps the only
ancient city which finds favourable mention both in the earliest oriental literature – Mahabharata andRamayana – and in western sources, namely the works of Greek historians and geographers.
Nevertheless, full light on the history of Taxila did not emerge in just one day, one year or one decade.
Human labour and scholars’ sweat of more than three quarters of a century have gone into to making
the name of Taxila glow once again as it did during the first millennium BC, if not earlier. The history
and cultural richness of Taxila Valley during the early historical period (sixth century BC to the fifth
century AD) is well known to the world through the excavations of Sir John Marshall, carried out
between 1913–1934. R. E. M. Wheeler resumed the work of Marshall for a single season in 1944.
However, it was left to Marshall’s successors in Pakistan to take up further investigations in the 1960s
with renewed vigour and zeal. Whereas excavators like Dr. M. Sharif, M. A. Halim and G. M. Khan
unravelled through their excavations a hitherto unknown antiquity of this city, scholars like Dr. A. H.
Dani, Dr. M. Nazimuddin Ahmed, and Dr. Saifur Rehman Dar have contributed through their writings
much more on various aspects of it. These efforts and attempts of excavators and scholars have pushed
the history of Taxila back to at least four thousand years and placed this city at the threshold ofcivilization. Traces of history of still earlier periods are also coming to light. At that time, small but
permanent human settlements were being established and early forms of social organization had begun
to emerge.
The Taxila Valley is on the World Heritage List because of the numerous monuments that lie in the
Margala-Taxila region dating from the Neolithic to the seventh century AD. In isolation, many of theindividual sites are not particularly significant, but it is the interrelationship between them all thatmakes Taxila such an important area.
Taxila has been inscribed on World Heritage List for its potential of cultural heritage scattered over an
area of about 10 kilometres along the Taxila Valley. These remains range from the third millennium
BC to the eighth century AD. There are two prehistoric sites (Sarai Khola and Hatial), the first city of
Taxila (Bhir Mound, 600–200 BC), a Greek city (Sirkap 200 BC–200 AD), and the Kushan city of
Sirsukh (200–500 AD). Besides these cities there are numerous religious monuments of the Jain cult,Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and a unique Greek temple.

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Since these remains were uncovered under Sir John Marshall’s guidance in 1913–34 and later that of
Sir Mortimer Wheeler, Pakistani researchers (Dr. M. Sharif, Mr. M. A. Halim, Mr. M. Bhadur Khan,
Dr. Ashraf Khan) have also carried out large scale excavations in the area. Besides thesearchaeological excavations, more recently there was a South Korean mission headed by Prof. Moan
(Julian II, 2003–2004), but after the remains were exposed their maintenance became more and moredifficult, for various reasons.
It is necessary to know the actual methods of construction adopted in Taxila during ancient times.
These can be divided into the following two phases.
1. Phase I. Houses and structures of all types were built of rough rubble masonry in mud, with afacing of mud or occasionally lime plaster to strengthen the surface. Such structures possessed
little stability and when shaken by earthquakes readily collapsed. This tradition was dominantlocally, but after the invasion of the Greeks the style and shape changed. At the top level (VI)of Bhir Mound, an early style of Greek structure was found that came into use after thedestruction of Bhir in the second century BC.
2. Phase II. When the Greeks established themselves they introduced more dependable andsturdy masonry at Taxila, especially during their first experience at Sirkap city. They began bycasting around for a more stable kind of masonry, and since the local limestone was too flintlike and intractable to be chiselled into squared ashlar, they had recourse to a type of
construction, fashionable on the other side of Indus and proved by experience to be far more
durable than ordinary rubble, in which limestone blocks were dressed on the outer and perhaps
under surfaces only, and once set in place, their interstices filled with smaller bits of stone.
Secondly they reduced the height of buildings and took special precautions to make theirfoundations secure. Their dwelling houses were limited to two stories only, the lower one ofwhich was in the nature of a basement buried to more than half its height underground.

Cultural Heritage Protection Issues Illustrated at Taxila
Here we can summarize the primary problems confronted by the exposed remains at Taxila. These arevery common, but have not been properly studied and adequately sorted out. Due to their simplicity,researchers have not been motivated thus far to conduct such study, and accordingly no proper andrealistic actions have been taken.
1. Open air remains. All the archaeological remains of Taxila Valley are open air, scattered in
mountains and some on plain areas. These are directly affected by climate and natural agents.
The city sites like Bhir Mound and Sirkap were so large they could not be provided with198

proper measures for safety, and only a few stupas such as Dharmarajika, Julian, Pippla andMora Moradu have been provided with wooden roofs for this purpose and saved. Mainly,
remains are exposed to the heat in summer and heavy rains and moisture in winter. Especiallyin the monsoon season when heavy rains fall on open air sites like Sirkap, rainwater runs
through the main streets of the city and washes out the protective layers of the remains, so
after such rains archaeological remains in Taxila valley are badly in need of more care.
Large-scale remains, especially in Sirkap and Bhir Mound, collect heat in summer.
Temperatures at the sites increase more than in the surroundings, because of the limestone
used exclusively for construction in Taxila valley in olden days. When the sun’s rays strike thelimestone boulders, it raises their temperature and badly damages the material, causing it tocrumble and crack. Because of the openness of the sites, the temperature ranges required by
the archaeological remains cannot be maintained. This also causes a cycle of expansion andshrinkage of the walls in summer.
2. Deterioration of the structures. When archaeological structures are buried under the soil for
hundred of years, relatively stable temperature and climatic conditions are maintained, but
once exposed through excavation they become open to the air and sky, and are directly hit byheavy sunshine and rains. The exposed walls after some time became weaker, as piles inserted
to adjust the boulders loosen and fall out, boulders disintegrate, and walls start to crumble andfall down. Also, as mud was mostly used for mortar within the interior parts of the walls,
when the heavy rains start, rainwater slowly washes out the inside mud layers that were used
to maintain and balance the structures. Once the mud layers wash out, the structure becomes
hollow from the inside and become weaker.
3. Authenticity. When visiting the archaeological remains in Taxila valley, generally people
assume what they are seeing, such as different styles of masonry, are the forms as originallybuilt and used. This hypothesis is incorrect, as actually what is left is the inner core of thestructures. Roofs have collapsed, and the plaster applied on the walls has perished, with onlyrare patches of the original plaster still existing at different sites. Mud was mixed withchopped straw in order to bind it together. On Bhir Mound, traces of lime plaster were notfound. It is most likely that use of lime plaster started after the advent of the Bactrian Greeksin Taxila valley. Stucco was composed of coarse river bajri and lime (as described for Sirkap
by John Marshall in Taxila, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press [1952], p. 179). It was applied
on a thick coat of mud at the Block K palace. Signs of red and black paint were also visible. It
was one of the reasons why so much stucco had fallen off, but at Julian and Mora Moradu it
was directly applied on the core of the walls and remained preserved. For economical

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purposes stucco was applied on mud plaster to save the extra use of stucco for the roughfacing of walls to level up the inequalities in the walls before the lime plaster was applied.
Accordingly, most scholars did not recommend the re-plastering of walls as originally done inpast. They prefer to keep the wall structures as exposed, without plaster that was the only
safety measure against the natural agents like rain and scorching heat. In their original state,
the present walls of archaeological remains had thick layers of plaster mixture of lime plus
kanker applied. It was a layer protecting against all kinds of natural agents such as rain andheat.
For these reasons we have lost a lot of cultural heritage and are depriving our future
generations from experiencing the actual heritage remains. In developed counties of world like
Japan, cultural heritage is mostly reconstructed and consists of reproduced versions of thestructures initially made. We can preserve and present remains better than at present byapplying similar types of plaster which will not only save the structures from climatic affects,
but also provide opportunities for developing new techniques.

4. Uncontrolled plant growth. In the early days, layers of mud were applied after excavation
over the top level of the exposed structures to maintain their look and colour. Later thisspeeded the growth of natural vegetation in and around the structures. This growth included
wild grass locally known as dab, having roots penetrating up to several meters into the soil
and the remains. This penetration of dab into the structures expands the external surfaces of
the remains and causes dangerous deterioration. The growth of trees was at first overlooked
for the sake of the shade provided for the open-air sites, but later these trees grow large andget out of control, directly damaging the archaeological remains. The roots of the trees
penetrate the structural features, defacing and damaging them.

Measures to Alleviate Heritage Protection Problems
A few suggestions for measures to help counter the above problems of heritage protection are as
follows:
1. Strategic limited covering. It is understood that we cannot cover large open air sites like Bhir
Mound or Sirkap, but we can protect the existing original plaster layers locally by provision of
appropriately designed sheds. Such sheds should be translucent to permit the passage of lightand brighten the view. They will save the structures from the wind, rain and other outside
agencies. Such sheds should not dominate the surroundings and main body of the monument.

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2. Appropriate applications of plaster. We must apply plaster at the exposed structures usingmaterial similar to the original in specific areas and structures. In the future, this will help
keep the original core safe and wild growth and deterioration processes will be slower than atpresent. Especially structures of kanjur stone need more attention for the softer and moreporous nature of this material. The beautiful carvings and their detail can be highlighted bysuch applications of stucco layers as originally done in past. This will save the structures fromwild growth, and their inner cores will remain safe as originally built. In Sirkap, Stupas inBlocks A, D, E, and F can be adorned with such kinds of plaster and preserved in their
original forms.
3. Drainage systems for rainwater. Open air sites, especially in cases like Bhir Mound andSirkap, might be provided with hidden drainage systems, because in winter and the rainyseason the heavy rains hit the entire site and develop flood-like conditions in the main streets
when the rainwater has only a limited means for escape, such as through the northern maingate of Sirkap city. The resulting heavy flow of rainwater badly damages the structures. In
Sirkap, Main Street is the best space for laying this kind of drainage system. Bhir Mound,Dharmarajika, and many other archaeological sites need such drainage systems, and where
this is difficult the site may be given an evenly level surface, so that the rainwater can drainaway slowly and naturally without eroding the remains.
4. Compacting the ground. To stop natural plant growth on the floor levels, compaction is the
only way to resist wild growth especially of grass. The present surface level is actually thedeposit of years of dust and soil, so it may be removed and an appropriate layer of lime
mixture also utilized before compaction of the floors. To preserve the current sense ofaesthetics, only controllable growth of grass may be allowed on the site.

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Philippines
Mary Grace Lualhati Dolatre BARRETTO-TESORO
Associate Professor
Archaeological Studies Program
University of the Philippines

Problem and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in the Philippines
1 Introduction: The Heritage of Archaeological Sites
Heritage is defined as a ‘description of a physical entity, broadly shaped by human action’ (Skeates
2000:9). It can also mean an ‘expression of meanings, values, and claims placed on that material,
particularly as an inheritance’ (Skeates 2000:9). The National Commission for Culture and the Arts in
the Philippines has defined cultural heritage as ‘all the beliefs, values, practices and objects that give aplace its own specific character’ (NCCA 2007:1). Cultural heritage can be intangible or tangible. For
this paper, I want to focus on tangible non-movable objects such as archaeological sites, landscapes,
and built heritage. Built heritage includes ‘buildings, clusters of related buildings, and towns’ (NCCA
2007:1).
Heritage is a concept that is difficult to comprehend unless there is corresponding evidence that easilyreflects the associations of a particular group of people. For some, heritage is an aspect of culture thatgives identity to a population. This could be a custom or tradition that continues to be practised by the
population in the present because it promotes the survival of their group’s socio-cultural identity.
Heritage can be a structure, monument or object institutionalising the group’s identity. It can even be abelief whose significance has been lost yet still serves as a symbol of a group’s glorious past. A
country’s heritage is difficult to qualify for reasons such as inhabitants having diverse ethnolinguistic
and religious affiliations, shifting political boundaries, and past and present political conditions
creating and establishing social divisions. Friction or violent clashes may sometimes erupt if a symbolof one’s heritage is literally or figuratively stolen, vandalised or destroyed.
Since my background is in archaeology, I will be discussing the heritage of archaeological sites. In
archaeology, heritage may include a site, a monument, or an artefact that stands as a testament to apeople’s antiquity, origin, or history. Cultural and natural events threaten archaeological heritage. An
effective archaeological heritage management is imperative in order that the present and succeeding202

generations may have the opportunity to experience and appreciate their past. The sites and artefacts
considered in this paper are part of research projects that I am or have been a member of or headed.
The issues I will discuss here will not dwell on the familiar problems of funding, lack of technology inpreservation, conservation and protection of sites and artefacts. I am very much aware that these areimportant in heritage management. But I think that there are other, underlying concerns that obstruct
heritage management.
Skeates (2000:9-10) has defined archaeological heritage as ‘material culture of past societies thatsurvives in the present’ and the ‘process through which the material culture of past societies is reevaluated and re-used in the present’. In the process of discussing the specific problems and needs for
cultural heritage protection in each site, I will also address the issue of site perception. I propose that
cultural heritage protection is greatly dependent on how various sectors perceive sites. There should beunity in the perception of sites among different sectors to agree on how to manage heritage sites.
However, the process of re-evaluating sites is what makes archaeological heritage a politicised field.

2 Case Studies of Archaeological Sites
2.1 Lumban
Lumban is an important site as the likely provenance of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription (LCI)(Figure 1), one of the few artefacts with inscriptions found in the Philippines (Figure 2). Althoughtreated as a National Treasure, the LCI was not found in a secure archaeological context. At present,
there is still no archaeological research conducted in this area despite its seeming importance as anarchaeological site (Barretto-Tesoro in press a, in press b). Treasure hunting in the 1960s in this area
had revealed the presence of extensive burials (Locsin and Locsin 1968). In the 1980s, sand quarry
workers had recovered ‘coins, gold ornaments, stones adzes, small clay and porcelain artefacts, jadeornaments’ from the Lumban river (Villegas 1990) where the LCI was found. There is a lack of
information on the archaeological importance of the Lumban area (Barretto-Tesoro in press b) among
local residents. Lumban could have been a centre of power and trade in the tenth century AD. It wasmost probably part of a political alliance which included Tondo, Pila, and Binwangan (BarrettoTesoro in press a), based on recent decipherment of the inscriptions (Tiongson in press). Quarrying
continues, threatening the archaeological resources in the area (Figure 3). As mentioned above, the
LCI’s exact provenance is still unknown but the presence of burials along the Lumban-Pagsanjan
riverbanks point to the LCI’s most plausible context. If river dredging and sand quarrying persist,archaeologists and other scholars may not be left with anything to evaluate.

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Figure 1. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription)

Figure 2. Map of Laguna showing Lumban in relation to the Manila area
(Source: http://en.wikipilipinas.org/images/6/69/Ph_locator_laguna_lumban.png)

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Figure 3. Sand and gravel quarry in Pagsanjan-Lumban River, 1929
(Source: Philippine Photographs Digital Archive of the University of Michigan)

2.2 Batangas
My work in the south-eastern part of Batangas began in 2008. I am interested in the nature ofarchaeological resources in this section of Batangas as most sites archaeologically investigated arelocated in the western regions of the province (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2009a). In 2008, fivemunicipalities were visited as part of the survey. We surveyed mostly coastal areas. In 2009, one of
the sites recorded the previous year was excavated as part of the University of the PhilippinesArchaeological Studies Program (UP-ASP) annual field school. I was assigned to supervise the field
school for three years from 2009 to 2011. A stone structure identified as a house was excavated for
two field seasons in 2009 (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2009a) and 2010 (Barretto-Tesoro in press c). Next
year, I hope to excavate another probable stone house. To complement the 2008 survey, we conducted
another archaeological exploration in inland communities in 2010 (Barretto-Tesoro 2010).

Figure 4. Map of Batangas showing San Juan municipality(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan,_Batangas)

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I will highlight below two sites in Batangas that I deem are in immediate need of heritage protection.
Virgin Resort Cave Site, Barangay Laiya Aplaya, San Juan, Batangas (Figure 5). This site wassurveyed in 2008 (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2009a). The cave was perhaps hidden from view until resort
development in the area revealed it. Interviews with locals suggest that the looting of the cavecoincided with the construction of the resort. Reports imply that the cave was a burial site. The locals
used wood from the coffin for firewood. The site is significant as we found human bone fragments,
shell beads, and pottery (Figures 6 and 7). The artefacts exhibit designs associated with the Late Metal
Age (250 BC–500 AD) in other sites in the country. If we believe what the locals say about the
wooden coffin, it would be the first such archaeological evidence found in southern Luzon. Althoughwooden coffins have been found in other Philippines sites (Reyes 2010), the only evidence we havefor coffin use in southern Luzon is found in written accounts (Scott 1994; Tenazas 1973). The Virgin
Resort Cave Site is important because it hints at the possible spread of people, the kind of burial
methods practised in the area, and the presence of early sites in south-eastern Batangas. It thus appears
that ongoing resort development, housing projects, and road construction which are intensifying in thearea endanger archaeological resources, which have the potential to increase our knowledge of theprehistory of Batangas.

Figure 5. View from the Virgin Resort Cave Site (Photo by A. Pineda)

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Figure 6. Shell beads found in the Virgin Resort Cave Site

Figure 7. Pottery sherd of the Metal Age, from the Virgin Resort Cave Site

Structure A, Barangay Pinagbayanan, San Juan, Batangas (Figure 8). This is the site of the UPASP’s 2009-2010 annual field school. When we first surveyed Structure A in 2009, I only saw a roomwith four stone posts. Subsequent visits revealed more features associated with the ruins. It was only
during the excavations that we realised the true extent of the ruins. Structure A measures 29.60 m longnorth-south, 14 m wide on the north side, and 14.80 m wide along the southern side. The floor area
covers approximately 438.08 m2 (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2009b). The house was made of adobe blocks
cemented together with lime mortar. Archival records and artefacts recovered from the site indicate adate of mid to late 1800s to early 1900s. To date, Structure A is the first stone house archaeologicallyinvestigated. During both excavation seasons, the team also interviewed the locals to gather pertinent
information about the house. We learned that the reason for the house’s destruction was that the stones

207were deliberately collected to be recycled. One of the owners of the house ordered that the stones beused in the construction of fish ponds. The neighbours followed and collected stones for use as stove
stands, garden decoration, house foundations, and flooring among others (Barretto-Tesoro et al.
2009b). During the town’s centennial celebration in the 1990s sections of the house’s standing walls
were cleared to make way for the procession. During the last two years as we worked on this site, theteam was actively promoting the preservation of this heritage site among the locals. We visited people
in their houses, invited them to watch us excavate, distributed information programmes, put up an
exhibit, and delivered public lectures. Their use of archaeological terms in their conversations was apositive development by the second year. Thus, we were outraged and dismayed when an unexpected
incident happened towards the end of the second field season. On the day of the backfill, we
discovered that the in situ terra cotta floor tiles had been stripped off (Figures 9 and 10). One of thestudents, Kate Lim said it best, during the evaluation, by pointing out that ‘the best measure of our
success in the field is when the locals themselves protect the site’.
Barangay Pinagbayanan was the Spanish town’s original location, before it was transferred 7 km
inland because of constant flooding. Structure A is not the only stone ruin found in the community.
Remains of the old church, municipal hall, and another stone house are found within the immediate
vicinity of Structure A. The whole barangay, hence, is an archaeological site. Among the stone ruins,
it is the old church that is relatively intact, perhaps because the owners of the site had it declared as ahistorical site by the National Historical Institute.
Many have researched early Spanish towns in the Philippines. These studies however are fromarchitectural and historical perspectives. Our work in Barangay Pinagbayanan is thus the first Spanish
town to be investigated using archaeology.

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Figure 8. Structure A in San Juan, Batangas (view from the north)Figure 9. Terra cotta tiles in Trench 5

Figure 10. Trench 5 after the terra cotta tiles were removed surreptitiously

2092.3 St Michael’s Church in Camiling, Tarlac
We surveyed this site (Figure 11) in 2009 (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2009c). According to our contacts,some locals were planning to tear down the church to build a commercial structure. They sought ouradvice to assess the nature of the church for preservation purposes. The parish priest, at that time, said
that there was no truth to the information. He was simply renovating part of the church that burned
down to be used as a multipurpose hall. Our survey indicated the presence of original construction
materials including stones, bricks, and wooden beams.

Figure 11. Map of Tarlace showing Camiling, location of St Michael's Church(Source: http://www.aski.com.ph/images/map_tarlac_camiling.jpg)

The town of San Miguel was founded in 1833 and named after the patron saint, San Miguel Arkanghel.
In 1846, the construction of the original church began. It was made of hardwood logs for posts, andbricks plastered together with lime. In 1849, the church was transferred to the west of the river due toflooding. The new church was built form 1849 to 1863. It was made of stone following the Corinthianstyle. In the 1880s, an earthquake destroyed part of the church. The walls were rebuilt using bricks
instead of stone. During the 1950s, after World War II, the parish priest decided to restore the church.
The wooden floor boards were exchanged for cemented ceramic tiles. In the 1970s and the 1980s,
renovations and restorations continued. The main entrance was cemented, wooden beams wereencased in plywood, ceilings were also covered with plywood, the church repainted, lights improved
and fans installed. Another earthquake in 1990 destroyed the tower and caused cracks in the structure.
Again the church was restored. In 1996, the chalice was stolen and never recovered. In 1997, a fire
destroyed the church (Figure 12).

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Figure 12. St Michael's Church during the 1997 fire
(Courtesy of Ms. Purita Y. Tañedo)At the time of our visit, the church was not yet restored fully (Figure 13). The top of the church has
been added to but not yet complete. Luckily, the original church structure is intact, including the main
walls and buttresses, but the higher sections are new additions. We observed original church parts suchas wooden posts and doors just outside the church (Figure 14). Workers collected bricks, mostprobably from collapsed walls or posts. Attached to this church is the convent, which appears to be
Corinthian. Columns are found on the exterior of the convent, which is west of the church (Figure 15).

Figure 13. St Michael's Church with a reconstructed facade211

Figure 14. Original doors and beams from St Michael’s Church, showing evidence of burning

Figure 15. Original columns west of the church, made of plaster over brick(Photo by Elle Lim)

The arcs on top of windows were also intact (Figure 16). We observed decorations near the originalaltar wall. Beam holes had evidence of wooden beams. Capiz shell windows survive on the second
floor. The exterior pillars were also in good condition. We observed that bricks were used for the walls
and posts which were then plastered. The town’s elites used the yard west of the church as a cemetery.
The tombstones were hardly visible, as sediments have accumulated on top. Unfortunately, the yard
was full of garbage and excrement (Figure 17). Graffiti was also present.

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Figure 16. Original brick walls of the church, with arcs above windows intact

Figure 17. Garbage inside the courtyard

Original building materials like beams, rafters, and doors that were burnt or damaged during the 1997
fire lie outside the church. Some of the original wood posts were recycled into a construction work
table. Behind the convent was an extension that functioned as a baptistery. A new door was evidently
built to connect the baptistery to the church, because we observed that instead of lime mortar modern
concrete was used. Inside the church, the dome was unfinished. The windows were bare. The original
windows on the first floor of the church were covered with iron sheets.
The convent annex is now used as classrooms. Although the roof has been replaced with galvanised
iron sheets and the iron gates added, the wooden beams and brick walls were original. The beams in
the former stable, now used as the parish priest’s residence, were also original.

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Due to the renovations, the mass and other spiritual services were held on the basketball court of the
nearby school. Parishioners were able to save parts of the altar, bell, baptismal font, and a crucifix.
The baptismal font, at the time of our visit, was buried in the garden and served as a flower box.
Despite the battered appearance of St Michael’s Church including the graffiti and the garbage, themain structure is in good condition (Figure 18). The major sections of the church were intact andshould be conserved and protected.

Figure 18. Original buttresses of St Michael's Church

A local conservation group is advocating for the church’s restoration but the greater majority areunaware of its historical and heritage importance. The church’s sturdy structure still stands, despite thehistorical calamities and accidents it faced. There should be an exhibit in the vernacular detailing thechurch’s history and how it was able to overcome the unfortunate incidents. Lectures on heritage
preservation should also be shared with parishioners.

2.4 Angono Petroglyphs
The site of the Angono Petroglyphs remains controversial despite its status as a National Cultural
Treasure (Figure 19). It was first excavated in the 1960s and again in the 1990s but its date continues
to be debatable. Results of the initial excavations put the date of the petroglyphs to 3,000 BP. The
petroglyphs are on the face of a rock shelter that measures 62.84 metres long and 4.68 metres high.
The petroglyphs were engraved about 1-2 centimetres deep on the tuff deposit known as the
Guadalupe Tuff. According to the original excavators, the engravings were made with a ‘relatively
blunt instrument and not with a metal edged tool for the grooves are not as clean cut as it would bewith a metallic sharp edge’ (Peralta and Evangelista n.d: 20). There are 127 individual engravings.
There are 51 type figures which represent 78 of the 127 drawings. The rest have not yet been214

determined. The vertical figures are outlined bodies, heads, and appendages. Peralta suggests that thedrawings are of juveniles and part of a ritual process. Each engraving was photo documented, drawn toscale, and replicated through making a casting. The 1990s excavations did not come up with older
deposits.

Figure 19. The Angono Petroglyphs

I have made an initial study on the petroglyphs, assessing their nature as archaeological data (BarrettoTesoro 2008). I considered several parameters and applied them to the petroglyphs. These include
chronology, degree of completeness or bias in the surviving material, and association with otherarchaeological and natural features. Unfortunately, the Angono Petroglyphs do not meet theparameters described in this earlier paper.
At present, the National Museum of the Philippines has built a local branch within the vicinity. The
deck allows visitors to view the petroglyphs from a distance. However this view deck does not prevent
teenagers and young adults from descending into the rock shelter and engraving their names in the tuff.
The rock shelter environment greatly affects the state of the petroglyphs. Therefore, researchers should
consider the effects of humidity, temperature, acidity of the water, gasses, resident flora and fauna, andlithology on this kind of rock art. The critical challenge at the moment is how to preserve theengravings from weathering. No studies have been conducted so far to investigate the agents and rates
of weathering. The engravings are exposed to sunlight, rain, wind, and human actions.
The Instrumentation Laboratory of the National Institute of Physics at the University of the Philippines,
Diliman, initiated groundbreaking work under the leadership of Dr. Maricor Soriano. They were able215

to prepare digital casts of the two major figures (Figure 20). This method is in its initial stages. It was
first applied to paintings at the Vargas Museum at the same University. The physics team was able todetermine the painters’ brush strokes and hidden signatures. For the petroglyphs, they took photos of
the large and distinct engravings under controlled light conditions. The physics team is interested in
the development of the methodology, while as an archaeologist, I am interested in the data that cancome out of this scholarly research. The depths of the engravings and cross-sections of grooves can beassessed using computer software. The 3-D image of the engravings can also be manipulated androtated. This method allows us to preserve and protect the images without physically touching the rockshelter. Continual physical contact with the engravings also contributes to their weathering.

Figure 20. The National Institute of Physics, Instrumentation
Laboratory staff with the author at Angono in 2008

2.5 Cemeteries
I head a project called Philippine Cemeteries: Alive and Dynamic Spaces. This began in 2008 when
my class in Archaeology 241, “Mortuary Analysis,” decided to conduct field trips to various
cemeteries to investigate how the dead were treated. We also wanted to see through comparison if
factors affecting burial practices in the past are the same as today. In addition, we wanted to determine
if there are patterns that exist today which can be used to understand burials in the past. The objectivesof this project include the following:a. To promote cemeteries as areas of archaeological, artistic, cultural, historical, and heritage
studies.
b. To disseminate information on the artistry and cultural significance of cemeteries.

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c. To integrate data from cemeteries with traditional sources of information on Philippine culture
and heritage for a holistic approach.
d. To view history from various perspectives, as multiple histories are evident from how burial
structures were represented.
The research team has recognized the potential of cemeteries as sources of data for archaeological,
cultural, and heritage studies. Unfortunately, cemeteries themselves are neglected. We have seen
magnificent mausoleums, old chapels, and sculptures that need to be restored. Most of the cemeteries
in the Philippines were constructed during the Spanish occupation (1521-1898). In addition, othernotable cemeteries were those built in the early 1900s under American rule. We believe thesecemeteries are repositories of cultural beliefs regarding the dead and how the living relates to the dead.
There are many cases of cemeteries that have grand stone entrances that are either badly maintained or
not maintained at all. In some public cemeteries in Manila, the people have decided to take up
residence in places for the dead. They have assigned themselves as caretakers of mausoleums andnegotiated their stay with the families of the deceased. It is not uncommon to observe mausoleums andtombstones converted as house parts – as a wall, chair, dining table, bed, or room.
The presence of the living among the dead is also a topic that we are pursuing. Their living structures
have already altered cemeteries as places for the dead.
I am proposing that cemeteries should also be considered as heritage sites. They may not havestructures that can be seen as historical. Yet their architecture, particularly those of mausoleums,
chapels, and styles of sculptures, can be treated as material culture. As products of human actions, we
can consider how the living manipulates the dead to achieve a specific end. Thus, they are also venuesof specific claims such as political statements, political strategies, ethnic ascendancy, status
reinforcing, and identity manifestation. Therefore, people have different unconscious claims to theirheritage. Although cemeteries are not commonly seen as heritage areas, the research team thinks
otherwise.

3 Archaeological Impact Assessments
I have been involved with three impact assessments. The last one was from June to July 2010. This
site in Manila is known as Sta Ana. Our investigation revealed the presence of at least two older
structures belonging to the nineteenth century. The report has been submitted to the National Museumof the Philippines. The report details the excavation procedures, highlights the significance of the site217and recommends to the project proponent what it should do to protect it. If the project proponent isamenable to the consultancy’s recommendations, then it modifies its plans to be able to accommodate
heritage concerns. The Sta Ana case may be the first site in the Philippines that can be incorporated
into the building design. In the past, key archaeological areas have been subjected to commercial
development without the benefit of archaeological impact assessments. These have resulted in greatloss of archaeological resources. It is through such assessments that big companies can help protect
archaeological sites and preserve them for future generations to see. There still needs to be a lot ofconvincing for commercial companies to view site conservation as other than detrimental to theirinterests, but they can actually help in the preservation of the Philippines’ archaeological past.
In conclusion, I want to highlight the great need for heritage protection in the Philippines. Little is
known about the topic among the general public. Its discussion has been restricted to the academic
community. Due to the profits that such sites can generate, Philippine towns have become active in thepreservation of old houses and old churches in their areas. As these are tangible and known heritage
sites, it becomes more difficult for archaeological sites. There are cases where support comes from thelocal government units which are favourable for us archaeologists since such actions are selfdetermined. I find it challenging to impose the same in some areas, as they do not see the direct
benefits to their constituents. Aside from the common reason of lack of funds to support physicalstructures or a labour force to maintain and manage sites, there is a general inadequacy inunderstanding what heritage is and why it is important.
Terms and concepts related to archaeology and heritage are foreign to many people in the Philippines.
Moreover, they are sometimes encountered in the popular media where such concepts have been
tempered or altered. The media’s glamorous and romanticised views have led the public to engage indisagreeable activities that damage sites. Active archaeologists in the country are fewer than 50 and
we cannot handle all 7,100 islands. Thus, distorted views of archaeology and heritage exist because
the media promote them. Such thinking needs to be transformed. Becoming involved in heritage work
because it is viewed as a bourgeoisie pastime is not a theme inherent in the culture. Accordingly, it is
the responsibility of cultural workers such as archaeologists to make heritage issues visible when
conducting their research.
To dispel misconceptions, we must actively engage with different segments of society. We should
translate the many meanings of heritage into ways it can be perceived. This should go hand in handwith concrete examples that people can actually experience and connect with. I believe that heritage
can and will be meaningful to people if they understand that the benefits are beyond any monetary
return.

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Acknowledgements
Photos: Archie Tesoro, Anna Pineda, Elle Lim, Purita Y. Tañedo
References
Barretto-Tesoro, G. In press a. “Ang Inskripsyon sa Binatbat naTanso ng Laguna: Isang
Pagpapakahulugan mula sa Perspektiba ng Arkeolohiya” .
Barretto-Tesoro, G. In press b. “Ano at Saan ang Lumban sa Pagdating ng mga Kastila” .
Barretto-Tesoro, G. In press c. Paghuhukay sa hilagang bahagi ng Structure A sa Barangay
Pinagbayanan, San Juan, Batangas. Test Pit .
Barretto-Tesoro, G. 2008. A Review of the Angono Petroglyphs. Test Pit 13:19-24.
Barretto-Tesoro, G. 2010. The 2010 Survey of Inland Communities of San Juan, Batangas.
Unpublished manuscript .
Barretto-Tesoro, G., F. Campos, and A. Pineda. 2009a. New Sites in Southeastern Batangas,
Philippines. Report on the Survey conducted by the UP-Archaeological Studies Program in 2008.
Arquelogia Iberoamericana 4:25-48.
Barretto-Tesoro, G., P. Piper, A. Pineda, P. Basilia, J. Ceron, T. Reyes, E. Lim, K. Maguire, K.
Manalo, M.L.A Sioco, and A. Ramirez Jr. 2009b. An archaeological investigation of 'Structure A' in
San Juan, Batangas. University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program.
Barretto-Tesoro, G., T. Reyes, and E. Lim. 2009c. An Assessment of the St Michael's Church in
Camiling, Tarlac. Unpublished report. University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program.
Locsin, L. and C. Locsin. 1968. “Introduction: Some thoughts on the Pre-Ming Trade Potteries foundin the Philippines,” in A Report on the Archaeology of the Locsin-University of San Carlos
Excavations in Pila, Laguna (September 4, 1967-March 19, 1968), pp. 1-11.
National Commission for Culture and the Arts-The Committee on Monuments and Sites. 2007.
Balangkas: A Resource Book on the Care of Built Heritage in the Philippines. Manila: National
Commission for Culture and the Arts.
Peralta, J. T. and A. Evangelista. n.d. Angono Rockshelter Petroglyphs. Unpublished manuscript of
the National Museum of the Philippines .
Reyes, J. T. 2010. Reptilya sa Kabaong: Isang Pag-aaral sa Sinaunang Paniniwala sa Paglilibing sa
Banton, Romblon. Masters, University of the Philippines.
Scott, W. H. 1994. Barangay. Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo
De Manila University Press.
Skeates, R. 2000. Debating the Archaeological Heritage. London: Duckworth.
Tenazas, R. 1973. The Boat-coffins Burial Complex of the Philippines and its Relation to Similar
Practices in Southeast Asia. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 1:11-25.

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Tiongson, J. F. in press. “Ang Inskripsyon ng Binatbat na Tanso ng Laguna: Bagong
Pagpapakahulugan Gamit Ang Mga Sinaunang Diksiyonaryong Tagalog”.
Villegas, R. N. 1990. Provenance of the Lumban Codex.Unpublised manuscript.

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Sri Lanka
K.K.D. Kamal BOWATTA
Assistant Director–Eastern Province
Department of Archaeology

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration
Activities in Sri Lanka
Introduction
Sri Lanka is famous all over the world from the ancient period, due to its strategic naval links, and its
being a centre of Theravada Buddhism and the production and export of tea, and more recently due tothe ethnic conflict that prevailed for 30 years.
Moreover, in addition to the above Sri Lanka bears a rich natural and cultural heritage, bequeathed tothe present generation. Previously, the concept of heritage was limited to architectural andarchaeological heritage, and to movable objects. By today this concept has gradually stretched overtime, and as a result, Sri Lankan cultural heritage now includes not only cultural landscapes, buried
remains, the built environment, and settlements covering human development from prehistory to thepresent, but intangible elements as well, such as language, customs, and folklore, which are among thecountry's major tourist attractions. This broadening of the concept of heritage has helped to situate
heritage in its context much better and thus highlight its importance.
Sri Lankan cultural heritage is mainly managed under the direct administration of the state, with the
Department of Archaeology playing a major role in the protection and restoration of heritage. In
addition, the Central Cultural Fund, the Department of National Museums, and various other offices
and institutions spread all over the country, and at different levels including regional and provincial,are responsible for different archaeological and cultural heritage activities, and execute different duties,
with a view to manage, preserve, restore and study all of Sri Lankan cultural heritage.
However, it is clearly seen that the Sri Lankan cultural heritage is still not paid due attention forvarious reasons. There are dire needs regarding the training of professionals, and deficiencies such as alack of research in the field, inattention to archival management, lack of a general policy, insufficientpublic awareness and education, etc. This country report intends to discuss a number of these needs
and problems regarding the protection and restoration of cultural heritage in Sri Lanka.

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Lack of skilled personnel and the need for training
There is a need to provide education and training in conservation and restoration to professionals in
the field of cultural heritage management. The Department of Archaeology, established in 1890, hasmainly refrained from hiring persons without university degrees for some decades. Though several
universities produce numbers of qualified archaeologists and architects every year, only a handful of
openings are available to them to join and serve the department. The archeological field has long been
confronted with an ongoing challenge of the polarization between graduates and non-graduates.
Unfortunately, as a result of this conflict, cooperation and collaboration between these professionals
has been missing over the last decades.
The capacity for work of the few graduates who are employed in the department is often diminished,moreover, by a lack of skill or knowledge in some areas. Most of them equipped only with theknowledge given by the universities and some experience received from the excavations they
participated in during their undergraduate careers. This situation has led to a number of problems in
the restoration and conservation field. Recent incidents of discoloration of the world famous Sigiriya
frescoes are a consequence of lack of training and expertise in the field.
Providing local and foreign training in communications skills, knowledge and experience in newtechniques of excavation, conservation, restoration and preservation methodologies, and inmanagement skills, are essential to upgrade and enhance the knowledge especially of the young
graduates. Training courses, workshops and seminars in particular can be a significant way ofproviding employees substantial knowledge and experience relevant to their work. There is also anecessity to have more specialized courses in conservation and restoration fields in the universities.
Such training will help employees better understand the techniques and new trends of the field and canencourage them to play a major part in the way the organisation conducts its affairs.

Lack of attention to archaeological museums
As a whole, museums play a major role in protecting, displaying, archiving and preserving culturalobjects. In Sri Lanka, though the Department of Archaeology and the Department of National
Museums are parallel, associated institutions, the two act as different and independent entities. The
network of National Museums goes back to 1877 in Sri Lanka’s history. They preserve and display tosome extent the cultural and natural heritage inherited from the past.
In addition to the above museums, a number of archaeological museums are managed and maintainedby the Department of Archeology in several regions. They exhibit archeological findings and othercultural properties mainly recovered in archeological excavations and explorations. It should beemphasized that these museums do not hold or display recently excavated materials or archive222

documents/reports related to them.
Only few of the museums are managed and maintained properly, however, and all archeologicalobjects displayed as well as several museum buildings need attention due to this unfortunate situation.
For example, part of the palace of the last King of Kandy is maintained as the Kandy ArchaeologicalMuseum by the Department of Archeological Survey of Sri Lanka. Both entrances to the museum aresituated in a high security area. Any visitor who enters the museum has to undergo strict checking
protocols (see Photo 1). Parking facilities are restricted. The building has not been maintained properly.
Discoloration and flaking of the surface and plaster can be seen. Since the building is adopted as anarchaeological museum, the historic and cultural value of the building is ignored and neglected. Also
there is a fire risk due to the poor state of electric wiring and neglect for maintaining electric
connections properly (see Photo 2 for an example).

Photo 1

Photo 2

Security barricades in front of the museum

Unprotected wiring

The collection available for display and exhibit ranges from archaeological artifacts found in the
excavations at the Dalada Maligawa premises and surrounding areas like Gurudeniya, to artifacts
belong to the British Period, etc. All the exhibits on display show poor conservation status. They arefull of dust and the floor has not been cleaned for a long time. The display methods are very poor andnot up to acceptable standards. Most of the artifacts are displayed in open areas, placed on bricks, tyres
and other materials (see Photos 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Many cultural assets have been seriously damaged or destroyed, due to the use of inappropriate
display methods, inappropriate intervention and poor management techniques, and irreversible damage
has occurred.

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Photo 3

Photo 4

Photo 5Photo 6Since museums are non-profit institutions, levels of funding and attention are low. Nevertheless, thegoverning body or other controlling authority of the museum has an ethical duty for maintenance,
providing physical security and if possible enhancing all aspects of the museum, its collection and its
services. World Heritage City Kandy, being highly scenic and religious, and the last independent
kingdom of Sri Lanka, certainly needs to have a well planned and managed archaeological museumthat meets international standards.

Lack of education and public awareness programmes
Another problem Sri Lanka now faces is to educate the population as to the value of the cultural

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heritage. Archaeological heritage sites cannot be protected without the cooperation of the people wholive on or around them. It is true that no awareness programmes have been implemented to educate thepublic regarding cultural heritage management. To laymen, archaeological excavation is somethingscientific, of interest only to archaeologists or scholars. Also, most of the local tourists who visitarchaeological sites concentrate only on the religious elements.
Therefore, it is important to educate all Sri Lankans about the importance of conservation andespecially protection of their own heritage. Awareness should start first in the schools, universities andother educational institutions. Syllabuses should be reviewed to include history, archaeology andcultural heritage management as subjects to be taught in the schools. Secondly, awarenessprogrammes can be conducted to educate different levels of lay citizens.
After terrorism was eradicated especially from the Northern and Eastern Provinces, a considerable
growth of digging and looting of archaeological materials has been reported. The neglected conditionof the archaeological sites due to the lack of funding, staff and infrastructure facilities in the Easternand Northern Province is a good example of this situation.
Unless the public is informed about the meaning of their past and their connection with it, harmful
incidents cannot be stopped and it is hard to expect that people will preserve and protect the cultural
heritage of Sri Lanka. Therefore, necessary steps should be taken to promote local archaeology andcultural heritage protection by raising awareness which is an essential need for protecting the cultural
heritage of Sri Lanka.

Lack of general policy in protection and restoration
Protection of cultural heritage mainly depends on the growth of heritage assets and financial resources.
Although some heritage grows naturally, and factors such as the aging of buildings and objects, theincrease in the number of published materials, and changes in the view of the concept of heritage
management over time have added to the growth of cultural heritage elements. As a result, this has
increased the volume of heritage needing protection, and thereby increased the need for concrete
policy regarding restoration and protection activities.
The Cultural Property Act (1988) and Antiquities Ordinance (1940), revised in 1956 and 1998,
provide necessary legal protection for better preservation of antiquities in Sri Lanka. With theadvancement of cultural heritage management there is a need for developing strategies and policies
which cover the entire range of cultural heritage all over the country.
In addition to the seven sites already registered as World Heritage, another three sites are on thetentative list. All of the latter are natural heritage. With regard to these three natural heritage sites, Sri

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Pada, Knuckles and Hortan Plains, questions arise as to whether Sri Lanka has sufficient legal
coverage protecting these sites. At the same time, protection methods and staff need to be provided tosafeguard these sites. Since these sites cover huge areas, it has become a practical problem for the
Department of Archaeology to maintain and manage them. Therefore, authorities should take urgent
steps to impose and implement necessary strategies and policies in protecting these valuable natural
heritage sites.
There is a dire need for having a general policy in restoration to improve the level of conservation
science and to protect the Sri Lankan cultural heritage. The government and the relevant
administrative bodies should take necessary steps to introduce a general policy for restoration andprotection. When preparing policies, authorities should set objectives for developing public awarenessregarding heritage protection, and for promoting their participation in protection programmes. At thesame time, scholars from the universities and other relevant institutions should be consulted before
preparing a national policy.

Lack of records and archival management system
In some countries museums act as the chief depository of archaeological materials available. Howeverin Sri Lanka, the Department of Archaeology is the premier institution for the research, study andpreservation of cultural heritage. Established in 1890 under the British period, the organisation is
responsible for the implementation of the central legislation concerning cultural heritage.
Since its inception the Department of Archaeology has been in charge of the country's archaeological
heritage, and has undertaken a large number of exploration, excavation, conservation and restoration
projects at a number of sites throughout Sri Lanka. Under the permission and supervision of the
Department, various universities such as Kelaniya, Peradeniya, Ruhuna etc., plus the Central CulturalFund, and different missions from foreign universities and foreign funded agencies like Sida/Sarec,
have carried out significant excavations and work on conservation and restoration. Some of theseprojects can be considered as landmarks of Sri Lankan archeology. Documents and reports related tothese works have not yet been properly processed and archived, however. Also, a number of
unpublished materials prevailing from 1890, especially available at the Department of archaeology
and other related institutions and which are of enormous significance, should be archived. A proper
records management system through information technology should be introduced with networking
faculties, providing easy and speedy access to all interested.
Though it is a small country, Sri Lanka has made an attempt to register archaeological sites over thelast ten years. A documentation project called Sites and Monuments is being carried out under thisproject. This long term project intends to inventory all ancient sites and monuments in Sri Lanka.
However, due to a lack of staff and funding, etc., the project moves very slowly. Therefore, steps

226should be taken to expedite the project, because documentation, publication, and restoration of a great
deal of the vast architectural and archaeological heritage of Sri Lanka have become a major necessity.
The Department of Archives and the Department of Museums, which hold volumes of archival
heritage, are at risk because the authorities have given little attention to the management of
information from the past. In addition, these departments have not yet succeeded in developing andintroducing the tools needed to efficiently access documents and information they hold. Information
technology should be used to make heritage properties accessible more speedily. Conventional
attitudes towards holdings, unwillingness to change and the lack of funding, expertise, and training
opportunities are some of the reasons behind this situation.
As policy, copies of all items published on Sri Lankan cultural heritage are mainly deposited in threelibraries, namely those of the University of Peradeniya, the National Museum and National Archives.
They hold huge collections of published Sri Lankan materials. Unfortunately, these materials are at
risk, because the collections are housed in buildings that do not meet accepted standards fortemperature, humidity, and space for these types of documents.
Therefore, steps should be taken to preserve and archive the reports and materials on Sri Lankan
cultural heritage for the benefit of future researchers and generations. It is necessary to have goodrecords and archival management regarding both printed and non-printed materials available in therelevant institutions.

Need for protection of archaeological sites
A recent development can be seen worldwide for protecting all types of archaeological sites in their
original contexts. In situ preservation of archaeological sites is not popular in Sri Lanka, and instancesof in situ preservation are rare (see photo 7). Preservation of archaeological sites with standingarchitectural features has become a practice, while the other excavated sites with archaeological finds
are covered over and neglected. That is mainly because archaeological sites with standing architecturalfeatures are religious sites and are worshiped by Buddhists.
Now the time has come to change this attitude. Due attention should be paid to excavated sites as well.
Properly maintained, such sites could be used as major cultural attractions for local and foreign
tourists. Through proper and thorough training and knowledge about new technologies of direct site
protection and data acquisition methodologies, such examples could be developed. Appropriate site
information centers would provide better understanding of in situ preservation to the visitors,
especially the public.

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Photo 7 Ibbankattuva Megalithic Site, a rare example of in situ preservation in Sri Lanka

Need for protection of portable cultural heritage
Sri Lankan cultural heritage includes an immeasurable treasure of portable artifacts, ranging fromstone tools, beads, coins, and bones to images, lamps, pots, jewelry, etc. So far, major attention onconservation, preservation and restoration has been paid to immovable cultural heritage and very little
attention is paid to movable objects. As mentioned above, these materials are kept in storehouses andrarely displayed in archaeological museums. For example, there are two archaeological museums in
the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka, namely Seruwila and Dighavapiya. There is no full time curator atthese museums, and only two laborers attached to the Department of Archaeology, who are notknowledgeable about curatorship, look after the materials. Objects displayed are not inventoried, nor
are they properly preserved and conserved. Storage methods are not up to standard and noclassification system is followed. Most of the time the original locations where objects were found are
not mentioned, though they are found in excavations.
Movable artifacts are stacked in provincial and regional offices without classification, inventory or any
method for protection. In regard to these materials, scholars, architects, and archaeologists should takethe necessary steps of documentation with a view to reconstructing Sri Lanka’s history. At the sametime, displaying suitable materials, after proper treatment, is an essential task.
Antiquities legislation in Sri Lanka does not authorize the illegal export or import of antiquities, anddoes not permit unlawful excavation. Though the law is perfectly adequate on paper, stealthy digging
and illicit traffic in looted archaeological materials are reported throughout the country almost daily.
Increasing trends in clandestine digs are reported very often in the Northern and Eastern Provinces of
Sri Lanka.
As a measure to minimize and prevent such activities, a police division has been established affiliatedwith the Department of Archaeology Colombo Office. However, it seems that the law has not beenadequately implemented, especially in recent years.

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Problem of environmental pollution
The relation between cultural heritage and climate change has become a major issue in the Sri Lankan
context. Cultural heritage sites are threatened by pollution, local and foreign tourists, civil wars, andnatural disasters like tsunamis, which have a great negative impact on the sites. Although this has
become a major issue in Sri Lanka, it is not adequately addressed. For an example, Kandy, the hill
capital of Sri Lanka, where the World Heritage Site of the Temple of Tooth is situated, was recently
announced as an area with highly polluted air. It is said that air pollution levels in Kandy are two or
three times higher than Colombo. It is suggested that air pollution has occurred due to the naturalgeographical setting of the city of Kandy, and from not providing solutions to heavy traffic jams.
There is some indication that the World Heritage city status granted to Kandy is at risk because of thehigh level of air pollution.
In addition, environmental pollution can be seen deteriorating the cultural heritage almost everywherein Sri Lanka. Therefore, cultural heritage protection under conditions of climate change, taking
necessary measures to minimize such conditions, should be major concerns for decision makers andresearchers in Sri Lanka.

Need for popularizing cultural tourism
Cultural heritage is an essential precondition for the development of tourism. In Sri Lanka, tourism inturn has produced a source of livelihood for many communities. Sri Lanka is the foremost leisuredestination in the South Asian region, and employment growth in the tourism sector has beensignificantly higher than in the rest of the economy in recent years. After the long prevailing civil war,
there has been an increase in tourists visiting Sri Lanka.
Since the impact of the tourism is very high, proper cultural heritage management strategies should be
implemented to ensure a sustainable cultural heritage.
A good communication network is essential for popularizing cultural tourism. Lack of personnel withlanguage, presentation and management skills, and failure in implementing heritage management
plans, reduce popular attention to cultural heritage sites. Neglecting to use information andcommunication technology for popularizing cultural heritage in Sri Lanka are also reasons for reduced
attention from tourists.

Need for risk management
After the tsunami disaster, attention to risk management and preparing for disasters increased in Sri
Lanka. In addition to tsunamis, natural as well as man-made disasters, flood risks and landslides, fireand security threats are dangers to cultural heritage. Although less frequent than storms, droughts, highwinds and landslides which also damage the cultural heritage in Sri Lanka, the coastal cultural heritage229

was heavily affected by the tsunami, making it clear that such disasters are unavoidable. Although nostatistics are maintained on jeopardy posed by local and foreign tourists to cultural property, it iscertain that there is risk generated by them.
Therefore, prompt supply of necessary relief materials at disasters, providing infrastructure facilities tothe threatened area, educating staff and the public in disaster and basic risk management techniques,and providing training in them, are all essential. Knowledge of risk management and disaster
preparedness should be transferred through modern information and communication technology to all
educational levels.

Need for applying ICT in cultural heritage
The communication and dissemination of data, information and knowledge is a major cross-cutting
issue in cultural heritage. However, use of information communication technologies (ICT) is at a very
low or a primary level in the Sri Lankan cultural heritage field. For instance, other than the telephone,which is restricted to a single line, no other communication technology is used at the Eastern Province
Office. Though Internet and e-mail facilities are widespread in urban areas, obtaining such facilities atrural regional offices is still but a daydream. This situation restricts and minimizes opportunities forprotecting cultural heritage from disasters, risks, dangers, and threats of all kind. High levelcommunication technologies, activities and tools are needed to spread information on the activities
being carried out in the cultural heritage field.
There is also a need for developing communication systems to interact with the public with a view toimprove the safeguarding of cultural heritage. Creating such systems will help integrate learning about
harmful impacts on heritage, and promote the development of methods of preservation and restoration,and long-term monitoring systems to understand the nature of interventions.

Problems in cultural heritage restoration
At present, the restoration of Sri Lankan cultural heritage is receiving considerable attention. Portionsof the built heritage which are threatened are showing signs of deterioration. In the process ofcontinuous evolution and change, an integrated restoration process is required. It is necessary todevelop an appropriate process in order to avoid irreversible loss.
To minimize the deficiency in attitudes regarding restoration, the weaknesses of management
procedures, and the effects of decreases in restoration expenditures, in levels of expertise, and in
recruitment policies despite the continued growth of heritage, training and knowledge on restorationand conservation techniques should be taught to pure archaeological graduates. This will reduce thepolarization between graduates and non-graduates.

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Problems of cultural heritage threatened with destruction
Surveys carried out in the Eastern province revealed a trend of extensive destruction of archaeologicalsites. It is therefore absolutely necessary to proceed with measures against this destruction. After theeradication of terrorism from the region, there has been an increased tendency in the digging ofarchaeological sites to find treasure. These treasure hunters are being reported daily and it has becomea major cause of destruction of cultural heritage in Sri Lanka.
In recent years the intensification of development in the Northern and Eastern provinces has paved theway for agricultural work, road construction, the construction of huge bridges and buildings, and theintroduction of new settlements, so that the archaeological heritage of the country is subject to an
unprecedented threat of destruction. Moreover, no archaeological exploration or impact assessment iscarried out before starting these projects.
With upheavals in the economy and the political and cultural situation, and with industrial
development, population growth, and environmental pressure, the cultural heritage is at risk. In
particular, the wholesale destruction of landscapes can be seen in the Northern and Eastern Provincesin the name of economic revival and development.

Conclusion
As discussed above, there are a number of problems faced by Sri Lanka regarding the restoration andprotection of its cultural heritage. Also, there is the need to develop and enhance the services provided.
The more general problems which can be identified in restoration and protection can be summarized
as follows:

Lack of training, both for primary activities and as cross training

Unwillingness to be a team playerLack of solidarity and harmony within projects

Resistance to compromise and to finding balanced solutions



A tradition of poor communication



Deficiencies in the recording of movable, immovable, intangible and natural heritage

Problems of sustainability of projects due to lack of funding

Making projects of reconstruction, restoration and revitalization



Lack of methods for raising public awareness

Lack of informative, inventory and documentation activitiesProtection of the natural heritage



Lack of cultural heritage research and publications

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Finally, to promote the ability of professionals to upgrade the quality of the cultural heritage of Sri
Lanka, the exchange of experience and information, training, and research in the field of cultural
heritage and cooperation with other countries is suggested.
.

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Viet NamNGUYEN Chi Cong
Staff
Center for Preservation of the Co Loa Historical Site and Hanoi Ancient Citadel

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in Viet Nam
1 Introduction: Overview of Thang Long-Hanoi
Thang Long-Hanoi, proposed as a World Heritage site, exhibits an important interchange of humanvalues over a long span of time in an area where Northeast and Southeast Asia meet. This interchange
is reflected in a remarkable collection of artifacts, monuments, structures, urban landscapes andmorphology spanning more than 1,000 years. The resultant urban pattern and architectural and artistic
forms bear unique and exceptional testimony to the continuous development of a prototypical Asianpolitical power centre. Many events of global political, social and intellectual importance, including
the development of independent states and forms of government in the Asian region, the interaction of
Asian and European ideologies, colonialism and the post-WW2 wars of national independence, have
had an impact on the site and can be read in the site’s archeology and morphology. Significant culturaland artistic expressions were fostered in Thang Long and in turn contributed to its physical form anddecorative arts, many relics of which have been found, particularly in the archaeological sites in thecore area.
Thang Long Citadel features two sets of ramparts. The inner rampart enclosed an area named
the Imperial Citadel of Thang Long-Hanoi, with the Forbidden City (Cam Thanh) at the very centre.
The proposed World Heritage site also constitutes the core of the Dai La Citadel, dating from theperiod of the Tang dynasty (seventh to ninth centuries), and spanning the Dinh-Early Le dynasties(tenth century). The Citadel became the capital of the kingdom, under various names: Thang Long,
Dong Kinh or Dong Do during the dynasties of the Ly (1009-1225), Tran (1226-1400), Later Le(1428-1527), Mac (1527-1592), and Restored Le (1592-1789). By the time of the Nguyen dynasty inthe nineteenth century it was no longer the capital, and it was renamed Hanoi Citadel, the name bywhich it continued to be known during the French and post-colonial periods. The archaeological site at
18 Hoang Dieu Street features the earliest traces of the political and military power centre thatcomprises the proposed World Heritage property. The site dates back more than 1,300 years, but ismost illustrative of the Ly, Tran, and Later Le dynastic periods when it constituted a key part of the
Forbidden City.
The Forbidden City contained the symbolic, political and administrative centre of the wholeThang Long-Hanoi Citadel, the Kinh Thien Palace site. This site, presently occupied by a French-era
building which served as both the headquarters of the French artillery and, from 1954 to 2004, as the233High Command of the People’s Army of Vietnam, remained the centre of cultural and politicalmeaning during the entire history of the proposed World Heritage property. It is the central feature ofwhat is now the Hanoi Ancient Citadel site.
While the Hanoi Ancient Citadel area also dates back some 1,300 years, it was excised from thelarger citadel during the Nguyen dynasty and became the northern residence for the Hue-basedemperor. It features a number of structures dating from the more recent history of Thang Long-Hanoi,
including the Nguyen period, and the French and post-colonial periods. The Dragon Steps (ThemRong) and Doan Mon (Main, or South, Gate), dating from the Le dynasty period, are two extremely
significant relics of the pre-Nguyen era within the Ancient Citadel area.

2 Description
The Imperial Citadel of Thang Long-Hanoi consists of the central axis of the Nguyen dynasty’s Hanoi
Ancient Citadel and the Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street. Together these two components
also make up the core of the former Forbidden City, which was the administrative, political and234domestic centre of imperial power during the dynastic period, housing the household of the emperor
and royal family. It was from here that the kingdom was administered. After colonisation, the area
became the headquarters of French military power in Indochina. Following the foundation of the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1954, the site was consolidated as the centre of political andmilitary power for the new regime.
The Central Sector of the Imperial Citadel of Thang Long-Hanoi was the most important part ofThang Long Citadel, the National Capital of Dai Viet from the eleventh to the eighteenth centuries.
Architectural remains and archaeological finds, including palace foundations and a large number ofartifacts, attest to Thang Long Citadel’s history of more than 1,000 years. The resultant urban complex
and architectural and artistic forms bear a unique and exceptional testimony to the continuous
development of an Asian political power centre. Significant cultural, artistic and technical expressions
were fostered in Thang Long Citadel, contributing to its physical form and decorative arts, andexhibiting an important interchange of human values over a long period of time in an area where
Northeast and Southeast Asia meet.
The major components comprising the Forbidden City are described in turn, in the following
sections.
2.1 Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street
The Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street, to the west of the Kinh Thien Palace, was anintegral part of the Forbidden City from the Ly dynasty until the end of the Restored Le dynasty. The
site covers an area of 47,720 m2, and is bounded to the north by Hoang Van Thu Street, to the south by
Bac Son Street, to the east by Hoang Dieu Street, and to the west by Doc Lap Street (not including thearea of the new National Assembly Building). The first excavation was carried out between December
2002 and 2004 over an area of 19,000 m2.
This excavation revealed archaeological layers indicating that the Thang Long-Hanoi citadel site
had been a political power centre for at least 1,300 years: the archaeological record includes layers
from the Dai La period (seventh to ninth centuries) to the twentieth century. The most significant
archaeological finds include remnants of palaces, identifiable by the sophistication and substantial
nature of construction techniques. The hydrological characteristics of Hanoi’s location necessitatedconsiderable ingenuity in the construction of large buildings. Chinese Tang era techniques offoundation construction evident in the earliest archaeological layer were refined and adapted by
Vietnamese architects utilizing clay specially sourced from elsewhere, and gravel, as well as brick,terracotta, and soil. This produced a unique form of foundation for the construction of large palaces
suited to the Hanoi location. This technique is exemplified in the remains of one large structure,
consisting of thirteen compartments with 14 lines of pillar foundations, and covering an area of over
450 m2. A large number of other archaeological remains show that the same foundation technique wasused in the construction of even larger palaces.
Archaeological excavation, especially of the palace remnants from the Ly dynasty period235

(eleventh-twelfth centuries) at Section A-B, revealed evidence of careful design and planning of thecitadel. A complex of building foundations was revealed in rectangular and polygonal shapes in
configurations indicating a clear pattern of urban design. The remnants also reflect the large size andimportance of the buildings. In addition, a well-designed drainage system was uncovered. The smaller
drains served individual buildings and the larger ones provided drainage for the area more generally.
In addition, the excavations have revealed a wide range of architectural materials of a kind associatedwith royal buildings, including decorative roof figures in forms of dragon or phoenix heads, roof-top
tiles in the forms of bodhi tree leaves with relief decorations of dragons or phoenixes, and round roof
tiles with lotus and chrysanthemum decorations. All of these artifacts provide evidence of themagnificence of the former buildings at the site.
The significance of the site as an integral part of the Forbidden City was confirmed by thediscovery of a large number of high quality artifacts featuring the mark of the Imperial Palace,including porcelain, architectural materials and metal objects. The importance at Thang Long-Hanoi of
exchange is evidenced by the large number of enamel, earthenware and terracotta pottery items ofdiverse origin that have been discovered at the Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street. Datingfrom the seventh to the nineteenth centuries, these pottery artifacts originated in Vietnam, China,
Japan and Western Asia. Vietnamese enamel pottery found at the site takes various forms, including
bowls, plates, cups, vases, jars, glazed terracotta jars, vessels, pots, lime-pots, and oil lamp dishes.
Thin white pottery was typically decorated with the form of a dragon in relief, while deep blue pottery
commonly featured dragons and phoenixes painted in intricate detail. A form of transparent porcelain
as thin as egg shell was decorated inside with a relief painting of dragons and the word “Quan” or“Mandarinate” (ቭ) in the center. The images and words can be seen when the pottery is held up to thelight. These special products were the preserve of the imperial household. Some ceramic
artifacts/fragments unearthed in this site were inscribed with Chinese characters inside, such as Truong
Lac cung (㐳 ᮔ ች), Trѭong Lac kho (㐳 ᮔ ᐶ), which indicates that these utensils were used within
the Truong Lac palace. According to historical records, Truong Lac was a large, important palace in
the Forbidden City, the residence of Madam Nguyen Thi Hang, King Le Thanh Tong’s queen (14601497) and King Le Hien Tong’s mother (1497-1504).

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The Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street therefore reveals an outstanding record ofimperial occupancy of the site for more than 1,000 years. Interaction between Thang Long-Hanoi andother cultures is demonstrated by architectural styles and urban patterns that reveal the influence of
Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism, adapted to the Vietnamese context. Other objects of diverse
origin, such as ceramics and terracotta, indicate the extent to which Thang Long-Hanoi was engaged
in cultural exchange with other parts of the world. In its entirety the site bears a remarkable testimony
to the political, cultural, social, economic and domestic life of an imperial capital city over a uniquelylong period of time.
2.2 Hanoi Ancient Citadel
When Gia Long (1802–1819), the first emperor of the Nguyen dynasty, came to the throne, the royalseat of government was moved to Hue, in central Vietnam. The Hanoi citadel was reconstructed in asquare shape of about 4 km circumference with Vauban-style walls. The new facility functioned as aprovincial capital and northern residence for the Nguyen emperors.
The Hanoi Ancient Citadel component of the proposed World Heritage site consists of thecentral axis of the above-mentioned Vauban-style citadel, located to the east of the ArchaeologicalSite at 18 Hoang Dieu Street. The two sites are separated by Hoang Dieu Street. The Hanoi Ancient
Citadel is bounded by a wall constructed during the Nguyen dynasty in the early nineteenth century.
This, and the modern Hoang Dieu Street, creates a rather artificial separation between the twocomponents of the proposed World Heritage site. Prior to the Nguyen dynasty the Hanoi citadel was ofmuch larger extent, and the Forbidden City itself included both the Archaeological Site and theAncient Citadel site. The central feature of the Ancient Citadel, the Kinh Thien Palace, dating from theLe dynasty (1428), was also the symbolic, administrative and power centre of the Forbidden City as awhole. It is important to understand the two elements of the proposed World Heritage site in thisbroader, connected context.
The extant fabric of the Hanoi Ancient Citadel precinct largely reflects the more recent historyof Thang Long-Hanoi, from the nineteenth century onwards, although the underlying morphology andsome Le period elements – most notably the Dragon Steps – serve to intimately connect it with themillennium-long history of Thang Long-Hanoi. It is also likely that archaeological remains fromprevious periods exist beneath the extant structures, as excavations near the Doan Mon havedemonstrated. The walls and most of the gates of the Hanoi Ancient Citadel were constructed in theearly nineteenth century by the Nguyen dynasty, when the Hanoi citadel was used as a northern
residence by the Nguyen emperors. A number of the buildings within these walls were constructed by
the French after their conquest of Hanoi in the 1880s. More recent buildings of considerable
significance were constructed after 1954, and housed the High Command of the People’s Army ofVietnam during the American War and until 2004. The Hanoi Ancient Citadel precinct thus
demonstrates the remarkable continuity of the site as a political power centre until contemporary times.

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2.3 Foundation of the Kinh Thien Palace
The Le dynasty’s Kinh Thien Palace was erected in 1428 on the foundation of the Thien An Palace,dating from the Ly-Tran dynasties (eleventh-twelfth centuries) and Can Nguyen Palace from the Lydynasty (eleventh century). The Kinh Thien Palace was considered “one of the masterpieces of An
Nam architecture”. The importance given to this site by successive dynasties was derived fromgeomantic or phong thuy (feng shui) principles. According to this ancient tradition of urban design andarchitectural practice, the very centre of the royal citadel is the Nung Mountain or Long Do (Dragon’snavel), a place of immense ritual power. The ground is slightly raised above the rest of the citadel andthe main palace of the royal dynasty was constructed atop it. The site of the Kinh Thien Palace ispresently occupied by a building constructed by the French in 1886.
The most significant elements of the Kinh Thien Palace still in existence are the foundation andtwo sets of stone dragon steps. The existing building only partially occupies the palace site: its
forecourt, which features several large trees, was originally also occupied by the palace. The dragon
steps at the front of the site were built in 1467, and include nine stone steps, each step 20 cm high, 40
cm wide, and 13.6 cm long. The steps project 5.45 m from the palace foundation wall and are divided
into three flights separated by two stone dragons. The centre flight was reserved for the emperor, while
those flanking it were for mandarins. The two dragons are beautifully sculpted. Their heads, at the firststep level, are very large, the body tapering as it follows the ascent of the steps until it forms a sword
shape at the top. The dragons each have five claws, symbolizing royal power.

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The second set of dragon steps, at the rear of the palace foundation, were constructed at the turnof the seventeenth century. They are of a smaller scale than the steps at the front, consisting of sevensteps. The dragon is 3.4 m long, with meticulous details, including an open mouth holding a stone“pearl”, and, as with the front steps, five-clawed feet.
2.4 Doan Mon
Doan Mon (Main Gate) is the main entrance to the Forbidden City, in which the emperor’s palace was
located. A gate was first erected here during the Ly dynasty, but the existing structure dates from theearly years of the Le dynasty (fifteenth century), with restorations performed during the Nguyen
dynasty (nineteenth century). The Doan Mon, together with an area behind it formerly known as Long
Tri or Dan Tri (Dragon Courtyard), played a very important role in the ceremonial life of the royalcitadel. It featured in royal political, cultural and religious events, like the Nhan Vuong Festival, theQuang Chieu colored lantern festival (1136), the parade of imperial guards (1351), the ceremony forthe national loyalty oath (1128), and ceremonies for the mandarin examinations (1457, 1466, 1481,
1496, etc.).
As dictated by phong thuy, Doan Mon was to the South of Kinh Thien Palace, leading directly
to the Ky Dai (Hanoi Citadel flag tower). It is U-shaped, 46.5 m in width, 26.5 m deep and 6 m high. It
was constructed of stone and large square-section bricks. The total area occupied by Doan Mon is3,970 m2.

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The gate is a five arch pavilion. A stone tablet 1.5 m long and 0.7 m wide, with the words “DoanMon” (┵ 㐷) carved in it, is fixed above the central door. This door, the largest (4 m high and 2.7 mwide), was reserved for the emperor. To either side are two smaller doors (3.8 m high and 2.5 m wide)used by the mandarins and members of the royal family. There are also two secondary doors on eachside of the main entrance.
2.5 Ky Dai – Flag Tower
The Ky Dai, or Hanoi Flag Tower, was built in 1805 during the Nguyen dynasty’s Vauban-stylereconstruction of the Hanoi citadel. It stands on the foundation of Tam Mon, the outer gate of the
Forbidden City during the Le dynasty. The 33.4 m high tower is one of the few structures that survived
the French period intact. The base of the tower is square in form and consists of three levels
constructed of brick in the form of pyramid frusta, each level reduced in size. The sides of the firstlevel are 42.5 m long and 3.1 m high and there are two brick staircases leading to a paved terrace. The
sides of the second level are 27 m long and 3.7 m high. Each wall of this level is perforated by anarched door, above three of which are stone Chinese inscriptions: “Nghenh Huc” (welcome the dawn

240light) above the eastern door; “Hoi Quang” (reflected light) above the western door; and “Huong
Minh” (facing the light) above the southern door. The sides of the third floor are 12.8 m long and 5.1
m high. A door in the northern wall leads to stairs ascending to the flag tower. The tower itself isalmost entirely brick, octagonal in form and 18.2 m high; each of the eight sides has a length of 2 m at
the base, tapering gradually to the top. Fifty-four internal spiral stairs lead to the top. Light andventilation are provided to the tower by fan-shaped and octagonal ports. The tower is crowned with a
3.3 m high observation floor constructed of stuccoed brick with a rectangular window in each side. A
40 cm diameter flagstaff is fixed to the top of the tower.
2.6 Hau Lau
Hau Lau is also known as Tinh Bac Lau, the Princesses’ building, Pagode des Dames or, simply, theRear Palace. The existing structure was built during the Nguyen dynasty as accommodation for ladies
in waiting and concubines when the emperor was visiting Hanoi from Hue. At the end of thenineteenth century Hau Lau was seriously damaged and reconstructed.

Hau Lau is built of stuccoed brick. The base of the structure is a parallelepiped form, with an
entrance framed by pilasters at each end, above which are decorative friezes. The second level of Hau
Lau consists of a three-bay pavilion, the central part of which is slightly higher than the flanking
elements. The central bay has rectangular windows on either side of an arched window, each divided

241

from the others by pilasters. The side bays have blank north and south walls framed by pilasters, while
the western and eastern walls are perforated by arched openings. The central bay is topped by a twolevel gazebo with arched and rectangular windows, each level having a roof with round tiles and upturned eaves decorated with dragon heads. The uppermost level of the gazebo has a gabled roof. In
fact the building’s roof structure expresses important architectural concepts, with each element of theupper levels having eight roof sides. In Chinese and Vietnamese numerology eight is a distinguishednumber. The upper walls feature extensive use of friezes.
2.7 Bac Mon
Bac Mon, or Northern Gate, is the last remaining of the five gates of the Nguyen dynasty Hanoi
Citadel. It was built in 1805 during the Nguyen dynasty’s reconstruction of the Thang Long-Hanoi
Citadel. The structure is built of brick, with stone arched doors. Above the central door is a stone
tablet with three Chinese words “Chinh Bac Mon” (᡽ ർ 㐷) and decorative liana figures carved in it.
The base of the structure is trapezoid in shape, slanting 15 degrees and topped with a balustradeterrace with stone arris gutters. The upper pavilion has a double roof with up-turned eaves and gables.

2.8 French Buildings
A large number of buildings were constructed by the French in the late nineteenth and the first half ofthe twentieth centuries. These include the former artillery headquarters on the site of the Kinh Thien
Palace, the first French building constructed inside the citadel, in 1886, but superficially altered after
1954. Several substantial buildings were erected in 1897, in the area of Long Tri (Dragon forecourt)
between Doan Mon and Kinh Thien Palace. They include a large two-story building in neo-classical242

style used by the French military, standing on the north-south axis to the south of the Kinh Thien
Palace site. This is a brick and stucco, colonnaded structure with a balustrade and large round-holedpediment over the main entrance. It features a lantern roof, and inside, several large map cupboards
remain from its time as the strategic planning centre of the Vietnamese army. Two smaller, single
story buildings in similar architectural style, also constructed in 1897, flank the entrance to the large
building, between it and the Kinh Thien Palace. The dragon steps, thus, face the entrance to the large
building, with the smaller buildings framing the space leading to it.
The evolution in French architecture in Vietnam can be seen within the Hanoi Ancient Citadel.
A large two-story building to the east of the large 1897 building was constructed in 1930. It is also acolonnaded structure, with wide, flattened arches. Its steep, sloping roof, with bracketed eaves istypical of the architectural style from the 1920s as a more appropriate response to the environmental
conditions found in North Vietnam than the nineteenth century neo-classical style used in early Frenchbuildings.
The existence of the European style buildings exemplifies the continuity and layering of culturalvalues of the heritage site.
2.9 Building D67 and Bunker
Building D67 was erected, as its name suggests, in 1967, on the northern part of the Kinh Thien Palacefoundation. Incorporated in its construction was a deep bunker, accessible from the building and fromthe former French artillery headquarters. The building housed the General Headquarters of the North
Vietnamese Armed Forces during the Vietnam War, and contained meeting rooms for the Politburo of
the Vietnamese Communist Party, as well as the offices of General Vo Nguyen Gap, Minister of243

Defence and Vietnam’s most famous modern military figure, and General Van Tien Dung, Chief of
the General Staff. Two doors lead to stairs to the underground bunker.
The building is very modest in proportions and style. From the outside it appears much like anordinary single story house with a flat roof, but the details of its construction betray its militaryimportance. The walls are 0.6 m thick and soundproofed. There are two entrance doors, the outside
one made of 1 cm thick steel. A layer of sand on the roof protected the building from shrapnel
penetration.
The bunker is underground between Building D67 and the back of the former Artillery
Headquarters. It is 9 m deep and reinforced to withstand bombing. There are three entry and exit stairs,
accessible through steel doors, one leading to the former Artillery Headquarters and two to Building
D67. The Bunker housed meeting rooms of the Politburo and Central Military Commission.

3 State of Conservation and Factors Affecting the Property
The proposed World Heritage site has two elements, the Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street
and the Hanoi Ancient Citadel site. Although the two areas share some conservation issues, each hasquite different overall conservation needs, and the factors affecting them vary substantially.
Accordingly, each area is treated separately below.
3.1 The Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street
The Archaeological Site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street contains a large number of archaeological features
and artifacts in overlapping layers at depths of 100 cm to 400 cm from the surface. The excavated area
currently covers an area of 19,000 m2.
The movable artefacts have been removed from the excavated area for treatment and safe
storage. The architectural remains are largely the foundations and lower walls of palaces and large
residences. The building materials include wood, tiles, bricks, stone, terracotta, mortar, gravel, cement
and ceramics. There are also remains of roads, water features, wells, sewage systems and pathways.
The site is affected by a number of climatic and environmental issues, some of which are typicalof archaeological sites and some of which are unique to this site. Some parts have been backfilled withsand to protect particularly vulnerable remains, while most of the site is protected from sunlight andrain by a plastic roof. Several reports on the measurement and monitoring of climatic andenvironmental threats have been completed, and inform the management of the site. Threats andstrategies for their management are covered in extensive detail in the Master plan, which will becompleted by the end of 2010. An interim conservation management plan will continue to provide
protection for the site until the introduction of the new management plan in 2010. The management
plan also sets out the direction for the long-term management of the site and the planning of
infrastructure.
Overall, the archaeological remains are preserved in the form of a covered archaeological park.

244

Movable artifacts have been secured and are being treated, and in the long term a site
museum/conservation centre will be established to facilitate their preservation and interpretation to the
public.
3.2 Hanoi Ancient Citadel
The elements of heritage significance within the Hanoi Ancient Citadel consist primarily of a small
number of structures remaining from the Le dynasty (the Dragon Steps being the most important),
several structures built during the Nguyen reconstruction of the citadel in the early nineteenth century(the gates, the Ky Dai, Hau Lau, etc.), a number of substantial buildings erected by the French in thelate nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and a small number of buildings associated with the postcolonial liberation struggle (chiefly Building D67 and its bunker).
So far, the Vestiges Conservation Centre, which is responsible for the management of the site,
has taken over the central part of the Citadel and some historic buildings elsewhere (such as the Northgate). The north and south parts of the Citadel remain in army use and will be transferred to theCentre’s management in successive phases until 2015.
Also within the Hanoi Ancient Citadel are archaeological relics dating back to the eleventh
century. A small amount of archaeological exploration has been done, revealing a number of artifacts.
Most excavations have been backfilled, although a small section of the old road leading from DoanMon to the Kinh Thien Palace (dating back to the Tran period, thirteenth-fourteenth centuries) has
been left uncovered and preserved under a roof, just behind Doan Mon.

4 Protection and Management of the Property
4. 1 Means of Implementing Protective Measures
When the Thang Long Centre proposes significant works, such as new construction or demolition, orthe adaptation of existing buildings to new roles, it consults its panel of experts on the proposals.
Depending on their views, it will then seek the necessary consent from the Ministry of Culture, Sports
and Tourism in accordance with relevant legislation and regulations. Outside the nominated site, there
are different procedures for regulating new building in different areas abutting the site.
4.2 Capacity Building for Management and Conservation of the Site
Further scientific investigation in order to expand understanding of the value of the site, and in theprocess, build up more domestic and international research cooperation, will be conducted as follows:x

Identifying artifacts and objects, plus measuring and photographing those objects, anddeveloping scientific profiles for them.

xCollecting information from domestic and international documents on the basis of which
comparative research and evaluation can be made to enhance understanding of the site’ssignificance and values.

245Research and surveys are essential to the long-term conservation of the materials. At the same time,these activities are expected to help enhance the technical ability of the staff.
4.3 Urgent Measures for the Immediate Conservation of the Site
The measures which need to be taken without delay for the conservation of the site are as follows:x

Analyses of environmental and climatic conditions in order to implement an immediate
conservation plan that protects the excavated sites against weather, water and humidity, etc.

x

Conservation of objects made of wood and metal, and the animal and human remains.

x

Backfilling with sand.

x

Improving the skills and standards of Vietnamese conservationists through implementing
preservation methods.

4.4 Promotion and Interpretation of the Property
It is recognized that a vital component of good heritage practice is the communication of significanceto the public. The following interpretation strategies are to be developed.
xOn-site interpretation, including signs, displays, visitor programmes, guide books etc.

x

Promotion of the site by means of leaflets and brochures as well as websites and otherpublications, such as pictorial books titled Thang Long Imperial Citadel, The Thang Long
Imperial Citadel of Hanoi: Guide Book, among others to be released soon.

x

Hold regular exhibition and display events and festivities. Examples include antiques andcalligraphy displays, and traditional festivals held annually on the site.

x

Coordinate with Hanoi Municipal Department of Tourism to provide sightseeing tours of
the site.

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Final Reports
by Participants

Final Reports by Participants

Bhutan
Tshering Namgyal

INTRODUCTION
The Department of Cultural and Heritage Sites, under the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs of
Bhutan, appreciates the invitation from ACCU, Nara, to allow a representative from Bhutan participate
in its unique program of training in the area of heritage protection. This training opportunity intechniques and approaches to enhancing and improving the management of archaeological sites andremains will be utilized and modified to fit the situation in our country.
To start in brief regarding Bhutan, its heritage sites form an integral part of a country with a rich andancient cultural heritage. Most of these sites date back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, anda few even go back as far as the seventh century. But with very little recorded history for Bhutan, thedevelopment of these sites is rarely researched or documented. Since these sites in Bhutan form theindisputable physical record of its history through the ages, archaeology provides one of the mostpromising ways of extending our knowledge about the medieval period of Bhutan. For much of its
history, Bhutan was largely isolated from the rest of the world and its people carried on a traditional
way of life, through farming and trading, which had remained intact for centuries. After China invaded
Tibet, however, Bhutan strengthened its ties and contacts with India in an effort to avoid Tibet’s fate.
New roads and other connections to India began to end its isolation. In the 1960s, Bhutan also
undertook social modernization, abolishing slavery and the caste system, emancipating women andenacting land reform. In 1985, Bhutan made its first diplomatic links with non-Asian countries.

CONTENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM
The training started on September 7 with the opening ceremony and addresses by the organisers,
greeting speeches from the guests, introductions of the guests and staff, self introductions by theparticipants and the taking of group photos. A courtesy visit was made to the Nara Prefectural
Government, with greetings from the Vice Governor, Mr. Kubota.
An afternoon orientation session was held on Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation, at the Asia
Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Nara, followed by a welcome dinner.
Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites
This presentation focused on issues in the preservation and restoration of cultural properties indifferent countries, and with different types of monuments, artefacts, and objects, looking at problems
in the implementation of conservation methods, problems encountered with higher authorities and the1249

community, the especially the users and beneficiaries. Topics included the relevant legislation, thewillingness of the owners, and cases of the lack of proper documents, and authentication, surveying
and proper maintaining of dates. These were discussed at length throughout the day with Mr. Gamini
Wijesuriya, Project Manager with the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property.
Presentations followed by the sixteen participants on different projects and the problems and needs forheritage protection in their respective countries, on September 9 and 10. Each presentation was
followed by a question and answer session.
The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan
Although I have not studied issues regarding cultural landscapes before, I found this very interesting
and was glad to learn the situation regarding Japanese cultural landscapes designated for protection,
including the following (names of cultural landscapes given in quotations).
x“Cultural Landscape along Sarugawa River,” including stock farms in the Memu area,
representing modern development, and traditional huts or chise, representing Ainu traditionx“Arakawa Highland Farm” in Tono, including the farm landscape seen from Senkaribata area,a natural environment preservation district, and a stone monument of the mountain spirits

x“Rural Landscape of Ichinoseki-Hondera”

x“Cultural Landscape of Kanazawa,” including the exciting Omicho market

x“Rice Terraces of Obasute,” which features hillside terraces climbing up to the ridgex“Lakeside District of Ohmi-Hachiman,” including Maruyama village, which stands at the footof the mountain to avoid the windx

“Waterfront Landscape of Kaizu, Nishihama, and Chinai” on the shores of Lake Biwax

“Terraced Fields of Yusu-Mizugaura,” featuring fields held by stone walls making terraces ona steep slopex“Cultural Landscapes in the Shimantogawa River Basin,” including rural communities such
as Makino village and Funado rural villagex“Onta Pottery Village,” featuring karausu, mortars for pounding the clay with water-driven
mallets

By learning through the lecture and seeing the examples, I will try to maintain the landscape in Bhutan
in similar fashion, if I get the opportunity to do this as part of an upcoming project.
Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice (Nara Heijo Palace Site)
In the morning session we learned about the basic policy of maintenance and management regarding
the Heijo Palace site, going over the fundamental plan of 1978 for preparation of the site, its basic

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principles, the basic plan of maintenance, zoning, subsequent revision of the Basic Concept, pluschanges to the reconstruction plan and changes accompanying the nationalization of sites such as
Heijo.
We also learned about the preservation of structural remains (for un-excavated and for excavated sites),
the principles of site maintenance as sustainable conservation, and also the various ways of expressing
past features at sites (including two-dimensional displays, partial three-dimensional displays, and fullscale reconstruction). Other issues covered included the maintenance of the site and its service
facilities as a public space, involving not only public facilities for display, but also restaurants, shops,
rest rooms, and parking areas. In reality, management of a site includes both the maintenance of“hardware” (by which is meant the vegetation, structures, and buildings at the site), and of “software”(including, for example, the content of the displays). Other aspects of the long-term planning andmaintenance of a site include the initial opening up to the public, its subsequent utilization, providing
adequate guides for the public, planning various events, and considering future issues.
In the afternoon session we visited the archaeological site of Heijo Palace, to see how these principles
have been put into practice.
Lecture and Workshop on the Documentation of Archaeological Artefacts
The morning session covered explanations of the tools that are required, and instruction in their
method of use. Then, exercises in drawing the front view, side view, plan and cross section of pottery
and other artefacts were done as practice. The primary objective of the stone tool measurement
diagram is to indicate the old and new relationship created by removal of the surface. The ring fissures
were also drawn, which are signs indicating the context of removed surfaces.
The tools used for drawing the pottery were pencils and erasers, triangles (used to measure the heightand horizontal distances from a vertical line), straight edge rulers (used to measure horizontal distancefrom the measurement point to the triangle), and dividers (for measuring the distance between two
points). Also, calipers are used to measure the thickness of pottery, and a contour gauge is used tocopy the exact shape and contour of pottery.
In the afternoon session we were taken to visit the laboratories, and inspected stone artefacts andpottery collected from excavations, and preparation of these materials for museum display.
Introduction to Environmental Archaeology
In this lecture on environmental archaeology, the following topics were explained.
xExtant specimens

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x

Importance of comparative specimens in environmental archaeologyxExtant animal bone specimens for zooarchaeologyxPreparation of extant specimensx

Significance of specimen preparationx

Precautions concerning specimen preparationx

Obtaining animals

x

Data obtained from specimensx

Storage and disposal of extant specimens

In addition to the explanations, we were given pieces of animal bone, with missing parts to be selectedfrom a mixed assortment of bones, and worked to assemble the full items and name the animals andparts identified.
Lecture and Workshop on Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains
The basic knowledge of cultural properties photographs was taught, beginning with an introduction,and discussion of the role and types of photographs of cultural properties. The types of cameras
explained and shown were 35 mm single-lens reflex cameras, medium sized and large format cameras,
and digital single lens reflex cameras. The focusing and effect of light direction were also
demonstrated. Finally we were asked to photograph 10 shots each to test our knowledge of taking
photographs, and the laboratory and work space were also inspected.
On-site Lecture on Utilization and Management of Sites in Practice
We were taken on a tour to Takatsuki city and its archaeological museum and sites, where we were
given an on-site orientation to the foundation of a stone chamber, opened in 2007, and surveyed a parkfeaturing a haniwa kiln site, opened in 2002. We also visited the museum showing the actual items
and replicas of haniwa found during the archaeological excavations.
Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice (Imperial Palace Sites at
Asuka and Fujiwara)
The museum in Asuka has displays devoted to different time periods of Japan, offering achronological overview plus a focus on the local materials. The institute deserves high credit for its
heritage presentation and management. The museum can boost interest in archaeology andconservation, improving site protection and preservation.
Introduction to Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology is based on the annual growth of tree rings and has the capability of being accurate
to a single year. It has been playing an important role in determining the age of wooden cultural
heritage in Japan. The object of analysis with dendrochronology includes not only archaeological4252

materials, but wooden art and craft items, and components of wooden buildings. Methods ofmeasuring tree rings were demonstrated, as we were taken to the laboratories and shown the different
techniques.
Site Visits to Yoshinogari, Dazaifu, Korokan and Fukuoka Castle in Fukuoka City
The conserved sites, and their museums focusing on ancient and archaeological materials, show
different chronological periods of the Japanese past, presenting actual materials and replicas of theartefacts found during the site excavations. The methods of placing objects and excavation results
were systematic and well arranged. It gives real meaning and interest of the places where thearchaeologist and conservationist have worked.
Conservation of Heritage Sites
A brief presentation was given explaining this topic, based directly on the international conventions
and standards that have been set. The sites on the World Heritage List number 704 for cultural heritage
sites, 180 as natural sites and 27 mixed. The total of 911 properties are found among the 151 statesthat are party to the heritage convention.
The list of World Heritage in Danger was also presented. The total number of sites in danger is 34. An
overview of the value-based management process covered heritage values, monitoring and evaluation,authenticity, integrity, an adequate protection and management system, deletion of properties from theWorld Heritage List, main risk factors, hazards, vulnerability factors, and so forth, which werediscussed at length.
The need to mitigate disaster to the World Heritage was stressed, through reducing risks at World
Heritage properties, international efforts in risk preparedness, identifying risks, and preventing
disasters. The need to prepare for response in emergencies, and strategies for risk reduction at World
Heritage properties were also discussed. Finally we were divided into four groups, choosing a projectand noting the problems, advantages and disadvantages in relation to the Heritage site, and withdiscussions held between the individuals regarding their ideas and suggestions.

CONCLUSION
The knowledge gained from the training will be utilized in the best way possible in my project, whichis called Lhuentse Dzong, a dzong and Buddhist monastery in the Lhuentse district in Eastern Bhutan.
It is perched on the eastern side of the Kurichu river. The dzong was built by the Trongsa Penlop,
Minjur Tenpa, in 1654 on the site of a temple built in the sixteenth century. It is the district
administrative center and residence of the regional body of monks, with over 100 monks.
Tashidelek(Thank you)5253

Cambodia
PHOEUNG Dara
I. Introduction
This is my first time in Japan, in Nara for the Training Course on Culture Heritage Protection in the
Asia/Pacific Region 2010, on “Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites andRemains,” from 7 September to 7 October 2010. This programme has participants from 16 countries,
including Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Laos P.D.R,
Marshall Islands, Myanmar, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. When I wasa student at the Faculty of Archaeology of the Royal University of Fine Arts from 1997 to 2003, I
studied ancient Japanese history, but now I have the opportunity to be trained for one month and see
with my own eyes the ancient cultural heritage sites, and especially to learn about management of theconservation, preservation and restoration of the ancient sites.

II. Importance and Content of the Training Course
This training is very important for conservation and preservation of the World Heritage sites andtangible and intangible cultural properties of my country. I gained a lot of knowledge from Dr. Gamini
Wijesuriya, a project manager of the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), who explained about ICCROM’s work in his
presentation on the research, analysis and preservation of archaeological sites and remains. I also
learned about the 1950 law for the protection and conservation of cultural properties in Japan, the1897 law for the preservation of ancient temples and shrines, the 2004 amendments to the culturalproperties law extending protection to cultural landscapes and other features, and the 1968 law on city
planning as presented by Prof. INADA Nobuko and SUZUKI Chihei. These laws are very useful for
protection, conservation and preservation of archaeological sites even in the midst of widespread city
planning and development. Japan has 14 World Heritage properties, with 11 being cultural heritage
plus 3 natural heritage sites. My country, Cambodia, has only 2 World Heritage properties, and bothare cultural heritage sites. The Angkor Archaeological site in Siem Reap province was inscribed on theWorld Heritage List in 1992, and the Temple of Preah Vihear was listed in 2008. From the training
course, Japan seems to be a pioneer in the Asia/Pacific region for the management of conservation andpreservation of archaeological sites, as led by the Nara National Research Institute for Culture
Properties. In this training course, I did not see any international research team conducting
archaeological research in Japan. In Cambodia, there are many international agencies working incooperation with APSARA Authority on conservation, restoration, and research in the Angkor region,
and Japan also is involved in several projects such as Japan-APSARA for the Safeguarding of Angkor(JASA), the Sophia University Angkor International Mission, and the work of the International Site
Research Section, Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties.

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During this one-month training course, I gained new knowledge from different Japanese experts who
have more than 30 years of work experience in the field of management of archaeological sites,
conservation, preservation and restoration. The Nara Heijo Palace site dates from the eighth century
AD, and has no surviving wooden structures, but does have their vestiges as archaeological remains
such as postholes of wooden pillars and other features. Part of the ancient palace has beenreconstructed in order to add to its value as a historic site and to help people know their own
traditional style of building. In my country, there is no reconstruction of ancient monuments yet, so weusually undertake conservation, preservation and restoration work. We have many temples that havecollapsed from human and natural causes, so we usually do conservation, preservation and restoration.
During this training I learned to take photographs using additional lighting arrangements in order toproduce clear pictures of ceramics, other artifacts, and excavated trenches. However, my department
doesn’t have the professional cameras and other equipment for taking such photographs. We use only
small digital cameras to take photographs of ceramics and other artifacts from archaeologicalexcavations. For training in photography, I performed well among the 16 participants when thelecturer, NAKAMURA Ichiro, gave us the results of our taking photographs. In drawing artifacts, I
learned to understand how to draw the inner patterns of ceramics. I did not know of this technique ofdrawing before at my workplace, as my colleagues in my department usually follow another way ofdrawing, as trained by the French experts.
I visited the Nara National Research Institute’s ceramics storage, and the wooden and boneconservation laboratories which use the modern technology of x-ray computer tomography, withwhich we can see the interior structure of objects in three dimensions. Those machines can analyze
artifacts that archaeologists find during the excavation of sites. My department does not have wooden
or bone experts. If we find some pieces of wood we need help from international experts who work in
the Angkor area. Recently, we found an ancient wooden boat south of the Angkor area, close to the
Tonle Sap lake. Now we keep it in the moat of Angkor Wat temple. We sent a piece of the wooden
boat to France for analysis through cooperation between APSARA Authority and the École Française
d’Extrême-Orient. We know that archaeologists must conduct joint research together with otherexperts, including natural scientists, because APSARA Authority doesn’t have enough experts and theequipment to analyze archaeological findings. So we need to cooperate with international teams
working in the Angkor area to help in such analysis, though the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts has
several experts in human bone, animal bone, metals, and in ceramic reconstruction and stone
conservation.
Environmental archaeology is a field that studies the mutual effects of man and the environment byreproducing the ancient environment around the site. For example, Mr. YAMAZAKI Takeshi showeddata from a shell midden of 7,000 BP in Japan. I am interested in this site because it is a large

2255archaeological site similar to a prehistoric Neolithic mound in Cambodia discovered in the latenineteenth century at Samrong Sen. Somrong Sen is situated around 22 km east of the provincial portof Kampong Chhnang. It lies on the east bank of the Stung Chinit, a tributary of the Tonle Sap. It has
yielded many polished stone tools, but no proper excavation has ever been conducted at the site. Thesestone tools are now scattered in different museums, especially in Europe. But at this site only polishedstone tools, beads and metals have been found. No discoveries have been made of human or animalbone at Samrong Sen, as at shell middens in Japan.
I visited the haniwa kiln site in Takatsuki city, and the tour was guided by Mr. KANEGAE Ichiro who
is director of the city’s cultural properties division. This kiln site is an open site museum showing
visitors ancient culture. In my country, the Angkor area has many kiln sites, such as the Toul Mrechkiln site at Koulean mountain, and the Bakoung, Sorsei, and Tani kiln sites. The Tani kiln site has justbeen opened to show people different kinds of ceramics and indications of a kiln site. We do not havean open site museum there yet but we will in the near future. This museum building is funded by Nara
National Research Institute for Culture Properties. These kiln sites have similar architectural structuresand shapes, and they were built on the slope of a mound. The shapes of kiln sites in Cambodia are big
and wider than Japan’s, which are oval and longer in shape. The opening of museums on thearchaeological sites as exhibition halls is very important as it helps people understand the ancient
culture, and the actual structural remains which are visible just as they were discovered througharchaeological excavations, as in examples such as the excavation site exhibition hall at the Nara
Palace site, showing the postholes of wooden structures and the drainage system, the northern burial
mound at Yoshinogari in Saga prefecture showing how the deceased were placed inside jars as coffinswith lids, the joints being sealed with clay before being buried in the earth. This type of burial usingjars is frequently discovered in northern Kyushu, especially in Saga and Fukuoka, and is a uniquemethod of burying in the past. It was my first time to see large burial jars like these.
When I visited the exhibition at the archaeological excavation site of Korokan in Fukuoka prefecture,from the later half of the seventh to the eleventh centuries (Asuka to Heian periods), it was interesting
to find Islamic ceramics unearthed there; these materials indicate there was international exchange
between Japan and certain Islamic states in ancient times. In Cambodia, we have also found Islamic
ceramics at Prey Monti temple of the reign of the King Jayavarman III (834–877), and the site was
excavated by the École Française d’Extrême-Orient.
The Kyushu National Museum in Fukuoka prefecture undertakes comprehensive treatment, including
the collecting, preserving, exhibiting, and researching of various cultural properties such asarchaeological, historical, artistic, folkloristic and ethnological materials. The museum has many
resources for the analysis, conservation, restoration and preservation of these materials, for example
by using X-ray CT, 3-dimensional scanning, painting scanning, plus storage facilities to preserve3

256paper, and so forth. Such equipment is useful in preserving and restoring artifacts. Another big
museum is the National Museum of Ethnology in Osaka. This museum carries out comprehensive
research with about 60 academic specialists in ethnology and other related fields. It hosts an extensive
collection of materials, about 250,000 objects total from all over the world. Of these about 12,000
items are on display in the regular exhibit. One of the main focuses of the museum is to provide
accurate and updated information about various societies around the world to the general public, inorder to facilitate understanding of peoples with different cultural backgrounds living together in theworld.
The seventh-century burial mound of Ishibutai in Asuka is larger than any tomb that I have seen
before. It may be related to the Soga clan, which became powerful after the beginning of the sixth
century, and such burial mounds were built by numerous powerful people at the time, including
emperors and other members of the imperial family. Ishibutai has an imposing crypt with a horizontal
entrance, built from massive boulders of great size, estimated to weigh up to 75 tons, forming a longchamber with a high ceiling. This tomb is also surrounded by a dry moat. There are no tombs of suchsize known in Cambodia yet. Besides the Ishibutai tomb, I visited the Imashirozuka burial mound in
Takatsuki city, a national Historic Site, which was built in the first half of the sixth century, and the
Ama Miyayama burial mound (mid-third century) at Takatsuki Park Cemetery. Located 125 meters
above sea level, halfway up Amayama mountain and above the Ama archaeological site, they foundfive bronze mirrors including two triangular-rimmed mirrors. Another site is Yoshinogari, a Special
Historical Site in Saga prefecture, which has excellent reconstructed wooden buildings, and preservesand conserves the Yoshinogari settlement of the Yayoi period, a symbol of Japan. The Yayoi period
spanned approximately 600 years between 1,700 and 2,300 years ago. During this period, it is said thatcountries emerged for the first time in Japan, and as such it is one of the most important periods inJapanese history. Bronze mirrors were also found at this site. These two bronze mirror sites in Japanare from the same period as some bronze sites in Cambodia. A site in Srah Srang, located near
Banteay Kdei temple in Angkor, was excavated by the French under Bernard Philippe Groslier in 1963,
and a burial containing bone was found with several bronze mirrors. The bronze mirrors look like theones from the Ama Miyayama burial site. There are many burial sites found in Cambodia, such as thePhum Snay site (in Banteay Meanchey Province), Prohear site (in Prey Veng), Krosang Thmei site (inBanteay Meanchey Province), Svay Chek site (in Banteay Meanchey Province), and Kok Tameas site
(in the Angkor area, Siem Reap Province). However, we have not found any big tomb fit for a kinglike Ishibutai yet. Some researchers have suggested that during the Angkor period, people may havecremated the bodies, rather than burying them in tombs. Regardless, the ancient wooden architectureof temples in Cambodia were roofs built to cover structures of sandstone, and the doors of temple
gates, also used in combination with sandstone. Since we do not build these big stone temples
anymore, we try to preserve, conserve, and restore them to a stable condition.

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Presentations on the 16 participants’ countries covered various topics such as World Heritagearchaeological sites, national culture and historic heritage sites, landscapes and intangible culture.
Some presentations showed the problems and needs for cultural heritage protection and conservation.
It is very important to get more knowledge that I did not have before about such archaeological sites,
especially their management as related to conservation, preservation and restoration, for World
Heritage sites as well as national cultural heritage properties, plus intangible heritage of various ethnic
groups. For example, the Indonesian participant showed that his government has used tax incentives topromote preservation among owners of colonial buildings, which I think is very good strategy for thegovernment of Indonesia in trying to keep the original houses in Jogjakarta. Through studying andinteracting with other participants over the month, I also came to know better each country’s culture,religion, language and style of living.
From this one-month training course, I gained a lot of experience in conservation, preservation,
restoration and reconstruction, that will improve my work related to the cultural World Heritage sites,
and the national cultural heritage properties and landscapes in my country. It was useful for me tolearn additional skills applicable to archaeological work. I will share my experiences with mycolleagues and keep of the course documents in the APSARA Authority’s library.

III. Acknowledgments
I would like to take this opportunity to profoundly thank Mr. NISHIMURA Yasushi, Director of AsiaPacific Culture Centre for UNESO, Dr. Gamini Wijesuriya, Project Manager, Site Unit ofInternational Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM),
Ms. INABA Nobuko, and Mr. SUZUKI Chihei. I would also like to thank all the lecturers from the
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties: Mr. SHIMADA Toshio, Mr. ISHIMURA
Tomo, Mr. MORIKAWA Minoru, Mr. KUNITAKE Sadakatsu, Mr. SHIBA Kojiro, KANEDA
Akihiro, Mr. MATSUI Akira, Mr. YAMAZAKI Takeshi, Mr. NAKAMURA Ichiro, Mr. SUGIYAMA
Hiroshi, Mr. KOHDZUMA Yohsei, and Mr. OKOCHI Takayuki. I also like to thank Mr. SHICHIDA
Tadaaki at Yoshinogari site in Saga Prefecture, Mr. AKASHI Yoshihiko and IMAZU Setsuo at theDazaifu site, Mr. YOSHITAKE Manabu at the Korokan site and Fukuoka castle in Fukuoka prefecture.
I like to extend my profound thanks to Mr. TAKAHASHI Wataru, Deputy Director of ACCU and Mr.
KOBAYASHI Ken’ichi, Ms. KATO Naoko, Ms. HORIKAWA Kazuko, Ms. NISHIDA Michiko, Ms.
OTANI Yasuko, Ms. SHIDA Sayuri, and Ms. HATA Chiyako. Lastly, I would like to thank Ms.
KIMATA Akiko, Ms. LEE Jihee, Mr. TAGASHIRA Naoki and Mr. HANEDA Tomohiro who tookcare this training.

5258

ChinaMA Chaolong

I am very glad to have had the opportunity to participate in this 2010 training course in Nara on
cultural heritage protection in the Asia/Pacific region, on the theme of “Research, Analysis andPreservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains,” as one of 16 participants from the Asia/Pacificregion. The one-month study course was an unforgettable experience and left me deeply impressed.
During the training course, there were many diverse training methods for us to look at with experts
giving theoretical direction and practical on-site teaching, emphasizing the application of thetheoretical knowledge. Some experts introduced advanced equipment and materials to us, broadening
our outlook with lively teaching. I received much knowledge about methods for the preservation,
maintenance, management, and development of historical sites.

I. SUBSTANCE OF THE TRAINING
The objective of this training course was to provide participants with knowledge for analyzing andprotecting archaeological properties, with principles and methodologies for the conservation,
development, and utilization of archaeological sites. The course gave the participants the opportunity
to study from experienced experts and colleagues.
The final purpose of the training course was to lead the participants through a program of lectures,practice and on-site study which will inspire them to apply the knowledge and skills learned on thecourse to their own conservation work.
Lectures on Management and Conservation of Cultural Heritage
Through the lectures, I learned the system of cultural heritage management in Japan, including theconstant efforts to improve knowledge of principles, methodologies and techniques for theconservation and restoration of cultural properties. I realize that risk to cultural heritage is a global
problem, and encompasses environmental as well as human factors. All we can do is try our best to
apply effectively mitigating measures to reduce the risk to heritage. This study provided me an
excellent opportunity to learn and develop my understanding about the need for risk management of
cultural heritage.
The lecturers were experts in their fields, such as the scientists in conservation and restoration. The
training course provided new techniques involving specialized scientific equipment for different
purposes in the study and analysis of sites. For example the idea of applying geophysical prospecting

1259

methods to survey the site by using radar, electromagnetic equipment, along with GIS and GPS,
allows exploring the potential of the site before excavation, so the work can be done precisely. In thestage of excavating in the field, scientific methods are still involved in the case of environmentalarchaeology, which can interpret the evidence obtained from archaeological excavations.
Workshop Study
During the training course I had the chance to participate in practical workshops, in areas such asconservation science for archaeological sites and remains, documentation of archaeological artifacts,
and photographic documentation of sites and remains. These workshops gave us the chance to draw,
measure, investigate and view conservation practices in the field. These sessions added greatly to myknowledge about preservation and conservation in practice.
There are multiple modern science and technological techniques that can be applied to aid in thepreservation and restoration of cultural properties, such as 3-D, X-CT, XRD, XRF, IR technology, andthe analyses of environmental archaeology and dendrochronology. These technologies and practices
play an important role in the conservation of cultural properties. Environmental archaeology is a good
way to obtain knowledge about the habits of the inhabitants of a site, and it was the first time that I
have encountered the method of dendrochronology which can be used in many fields to research theperiod of architecture and historical remains. Many of these technologies are related to my field of
research and should be learned and utilized.
When I studied at the Nara National Institute for Cultural Properties, the cooperation based on divisionof labor among the staff, and the application of advanced equipment in the field of conservation ofcultural properties, made for an enjoyable experience which can also be utilized in my work.
The training course was a good chance to diversify my experience and broaden my views. While
improving my ability to understand the issues, I admired the researchers’ knowledgeable, richexperiences in excavation, conservation, and international exchange. At the same time, the devotion
and precision of the experts have set good examples for the participants.
Study Tours
Utilization of a historical site is a way to give information to the public about the site. Besides thepresentation of replica buildings, the government may build exhibits of artifacts that were found at thesite. How to develop and utilize historical sites while adhering to the principles of conservation andauthenticity is not so easy to achieve. I have visited many archaeological remains in Japan on study
tours after learning in lectures about the development and utilization of archaeological sites in Japan. I
have identified as an important value the necessity of balancing conservation with utilization of the2260site by the public. How to meet popular demands is one of goals for the work in Japan. I also studied
the various ways of conservation of site remains in the study tours.
This training course also gave me a chance to meet experts from different countries of the Asia/Pacificregion, which meant I could exchange ideas on conservation and management of cultural properties
with other participants.

II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS OF ARCHEOLOGICALSITES IN JAPANDuring visits to some important ancient archaeological sites and remains, such as the Nara Heijo
Palace site, the Yoshinogari and Korokan sites, the local site experts introduced the process of
excavation, the post-excavation conservation work and the concepts used in making the exhibits of thehistorical sites and remains. Through these site visits, I now understand the conservation andmanagement concepts regarding archaeological sites and remains in Japan to a certain degree.
The government applies such methods as replicating the remains of archaeological features on thesurface and introducing information through various media to convey the magnificence of the site andthe remains, and their place in history, so that the public can fully comprehend the value of the culturalproperties. The experience enriches the people’s experience and creates a demand for more culturalproperty preservation from the public. For example, in the process of showing the Heijo Palace site,
the government’s effort to coordinate the exhibit, the residents, and the surrounding environment, havemade the public satisfied with the exhibit and they enjoy visiting the site. Though the buildings may be
not exactly like original ones, the Heijo Palace site reconstruction project has obtained good results.
The Heijo Palace site is in a good condition of conservation, but there are also some problems at thesite, such as the railway in the protection zone.

Fig. 1

Harmony between people andFig. 2the Heijo Palace site

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Railways across the Heijo Palace site

III.

APPLYING THE TRAININGPRESERVATION IN MY WORKCOURSETO

CULTURALHERITAGE

The lectures from more than twenty experts and researchers enriched me in the theoretical foundationsof cultural heritage. I have benefited from the lectures as I have gained an understanding of theadvanced information and technology used in site preservation as well as international and Japanese
views. The course has helped me attempt to apply dialectical and rational thinking on preservation
techniques used for historic sites and remains. Comparing the concept of exhibitions and conservation
on cultural heritage sites between China and Japan can help me to think about these questions moredeeply. The serious and rigorous scholarship of the lecturers about archaeology left a deep impression
on me. Through the 2010 training course in Nara on cultural heritage protection in the Asia/Pacificregion, researchers from China, Bhutan, Cambodia, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz, Laos,
Marshall Islands, Myanmar, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam discussed
and exchanged their experiences and ideas, which sparked new ideas and debates while deepening thefriendships that formed during the course. The course showed me that it is possible for us tocommunicate and cooperate on cultural heritage in the future. I am sure that the training gave me not
only new ideas on how to preserve historical remains but also ideas on how to apply these perspectives
and techniques to my work.
The Longmen Grottoes is one of the three big art treasure houses of stone carving in China, which was
inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2000. The Longmen Grottoes has also been afflicted withmany types of damage for over 1,500 years. Issues such as weathering and deterioration threaten theheritage value of the site. The factors which adversely affect the heritage are as follows:
1. Physical factors. Wet and dry, freezing and thawing, solar radiation, wind and rain,
crystallization of salt, etc.
2䯺 Chemical factors. Acid rain, leaching, hydration, oxidation, etc.
3䯺 Biological factors. Moss, lichen, mold, root of plants, insects, animals, etc.
4䯺 Natural disasters. Earthquakes, floods, wind storms, etc.
5䯺 Artificial factors. Tourism, graffiti, etc.
These adverse factors have been threatening the preservation of cultural heritage for a long time, and itis hard for researchers to know how to deal with these problems and perform the requisite
conservation and restoration work at the Longmen Grottoes.
For a long period, we had placed our efforts on conservation for rescue. In recent years, we have been
undertaking daily maintenance and engineering conservation which takes up most of our time. As aresult of the daily maintenance and engineering conservation work, the grottoes have been in a good4262

and stable condition. However, there are many challenges to work on such as the weathering of statues,
leaking in the caves, and increasing tourist pressure, and further research is necessary to resolve suchproblems. Along with inscription on the World Heritage List by UNESCO, international and bi-lateralcollaborations have become more and more frequent and effective projects such as the UNESCO
Longmen Grottoes Conservation and Restoration Project, lasting for several years, have played asignificant role, as well as civil collaboration projects on the site. Benefiting from this, the staff of theLongmen Grottoes conservation center have all attended different training courses or other study
opportunities over the years. However, there are many difficulties for the development of conservation
practices at the Longmen Grottoes, such as a shortage of capital and the lack of advanced equipment.
A challenge for me is to learn how to make good use of new technological equipment (3-D, X-CT,
XRD, XRF, IR) in conservation work at the Longmen Grottoes.
Due to the acceleration of the deterioration and damaging factors, I feel that the work is very urgent
and serious and that it is my responsibility to make sure this work is undertaken as soon as possible.
We have to apply new methods and use collaboration to solve the problem, and encourage all kinds ofinternational societies to take part in the conservation at the Longmen Grottes, a heritage which
belongs to mankind all over the world and contributes to the history and memory of human beings.

IV. INSPIRATION AND THINKING
China and Japan are neighboring countries and have communicated with each other for more than2000 years. From the Qin and Han dynasties to the Tang and Song dynasties, China and Japan had
been friendly neighbors, and in that period there were close political, economic, cultural and personnel
exchanges between China and Japan. In the study tour, from the bronze dagger and mirrors at the
Yoshinogari site to the ancient Chinese porcelains at Korokan, I saw so many cultural properties
related to cultural exchange between the two countries which encouraged me greatly. The Chinese andJapanese should be engaging more and more in communications regarding the future, and I will do mybest to accelerate communication and cooperation in many fields, especially in the conservation ofcultural heritage. As for the Longmen Grottoes, we have had successful cooperation in past years withthe government and organizations of Japan. With this good beginning, I am sure that it will be a happy
job for me to carry on.
I was honored to have taken part in this 2010 training course in Nara on cultural heritage protection in
the Asia/Pacific region. Through listening to the lectures by experts and the face-to-face discussion
with researchers from different countries, the training course has broadened my views in many
important fields. When I go back to China, I will attempt to convey my impressions and experiences tomy colleagues and the Chinese public, as well as applying the ideas and technologies learned on thecourse to the Longmen Grottoes. As I use the advanced instruments, equipment, and materials for5
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protection in research and conservation works, the training will be have a beneficial effect at theLongmen Grottoes in the future.

V.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to ACCU Nara, ICCROM, Nara National Institute for Cultural
Properties, Agency for Cultural Affairs of Japan, for offering this useful training course, and to all theexperts who gave the lectures and workshops. Also I would like to give my grateful thanks to all the
ACCU staff members who organized this successful training course and took the responsibility of
taking good care of all the participants, making our stay in Japan comfortable. I thank all of theparticipants in unison.

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Fiji
Ulaiasi MOTONIKUMIIntroduction
Different countries have different cultural backgrounds, and use different practices and restoration
techniques to preserve their cultural heritage. As a developing country, we are very fortunate to be
invited to this one month training course in one of the richest and oldest countries in the world, Japan.
Fiji has learned a lot from this one month of training.
This report will mainly focus on the potential contribution of this training course, in terms of how it
can be applied to my actual work. There are also some suggestions and comments which I believe canbe useful to the organizers for future training courses.
Comments on the training program’s lectures and site visits
The opening ceremony and orientation were well organized, and I as a participant was really satisfied
and got a glimpse of how the actual training would be done. And the presence of the lecturers at the
opening ceremony was really vital, allowing us to get some information from them before the actual
training began.
Mr. Gamini Wijesuriya’s presentation on the “Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites”
was instrumental. He was an effective speaker and for me all the topics and discussions he elaborated
on were really useful and vital for my work. Even though we are still a developing country, we are
fortunate to be informed of these important global trends in conserving archaeological sites.
The two days of country report presentations by fellow participants were really interesting. I was able
to get a fair idea of their restoration and preservation works in their different countries and I believethat it will help me a lot when I get back to Fiji. I was also able to compare my work with theirs, and I
am happy that I have found solutions to some of our problems from their country reports. I have madethe most of the allocated time so that I could get their techniques and the restoration styles used bythem. I also shared Fiji’s position in the protection of intangible cultural heritage under the researchframework used in my country.
Professor Inaba’s presentation on legal protection for archaeological sites was very important. As welack adequate legal protection systems for the protection of archaeological sites, I found theprofessor’s lecture interesting and worthwhile for my country. As a participant I was really impressedthat she was able to deliver so much information within her allotted time.

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Mr. Suzuki Chihei, a specialist in the monuments and site division under the Agency for Cultural
Affairs, gave an interesting introduction to the cultural property protection system in Japan, andJapan’s conservation and utilization of cultural heritage resources. He elaborated on the protection
system, the procedures for world heritage selection, on cultural landscapes, and on the details when we
asked questions. I believe it will be vital for all of us especially, as this is the core part of this training
where we study the techniques and restoration methods used in Japan. It is very interesting to knowthat Japan is paying two million Yen per year to national human treasures for the revitalization of theirtraditional knowledge. This shows how much the government is concerned about heritage.
Mr. Shimada Toshio and Mr. Ishimura Tomo, both with the Nara National Research Institute forCultural Properties, gave a detailed lecture on the “Maintenance and Management of ArchaeologicalSites,” focusing on the Nara Heijo Palace site. We were able to witness restoration work at the Heijo
Palace still under progress. They discussed the basic policy of maintenance and management of the
Nara Heijo Palace site, the preservation of structural remains, the realities and challenges ofmaintenance, problems of management and future issues and plans in regards to restoration work at
the site. It was really interesting as I can apply this to my work and can also help decision makers inFiji regarding the restoration method which needs to be undertaken. The restored buildings bring a
sense of reality of how the palace looked like at that time. With the exhibition area I think Japan isusing the right technique and I will try and convince our decision-making bodies with what I havewitnessed at the Heijo Palace. Great work!!!
Three other experts from the Nara Research Institute, Mr. Morikawa Minoru, Mr. Kunitake Sadakatsu
and Mr. Shiba Kojiro, gave inspiring presentations on the documentation of archaeological artifacts.
They elaborated on the method and procedure for stone artifact drawings as well as pottery drawing.
For three days we were able to draw using the skills and technology available. We were also able tovisit the storage rooms and labs. The information from these three gentlemen was really useful and canhelp my country in various ways.
Mr. Kaneda Akihiro updated us on the archaeological prospection of sites and the modern technology
used in Japan for archaeological surveys. The new machines were useful for accuracy andunderstanding the context of the site. It might be difficult for us Fiji to get some of this equipment, but
the explanation was valuable.
Mr. Yamazaki Takeshi, a specialist in environmental archaeology, elaborated on the animal bone
specimen preparation method. We were given a chance to identify specimens after the lecture. His
work and presentation were interesting.

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Another interesting lecture was given by Mr. Nakamura Ichiro, an expert in formal documentation ofsites. I was really impressed with the new technologies used in the photographic documentation andtechniques. This will really help me as I am engaged in the photographic documentation of sites in Fiji.
We may not have all the technology used in Japan, but from the lecture I was able to grasp aspects
which will help me and my fellow colleagues back home.
In addition, Mr. Kanegae Ichiro of the Takatsuki City Board of Education gave us a brief on-sitesummary lecture on the utilization and management of archaeological sites in practice. We were able
to visit the Haniwa Factory Park at the Shin’ike kiln site. They maintain original excavated portions of
the site for exhibition, and have restored buildings on the site, which I found most interesting. I think it
is a good method of protection, and at the same time the public can witness the original excavated site.
On September 24, Mr. Sugiyama Hiroshi gave a presentation on the maintenance and management ofarchaeological sites in practice in the imperial palace sites in Asuka and Fujiwara.
The following week Mr. Kohdzuma Yohsei from the Conservation Science section gave us a very
good presentation on conservation science of archaeological sites and remains. He also elaborated on
the conservation technologies for archaeological sites and artifacts, including conservation treatment
for organic and inorganic artifacts. I believe this is very important for all of us.
There was a presentation on dendrochrology by Mr. Okochi Takayuki, the head of the dating section at
the Nara Research Institute. For me it was really complicated because I had never heard of the word
itself and I am not closely involved with the topic. So it was really interesting and I was impressed by
the modern technology used to determine the actual dates of remains. Unbelievable!!!
From September 29 to October 1, we went for a study tour around the country. We visited the
Yoshinogari, Dazaifu, and Korokan sites, and Fukuoka castle. There were many interesting things in
the sites such as restored settlements and village gates and walls. It brings back the originality of thepast to the local people. Everyone can get a good idea of how it may have looked like in those days.
The presentation of the sites was good, such as the burial mounds. The restoration work in those sites
was superb.
In the last two days of lectures Mrs. Montira Unakul from the UNESCO centre, Bangkok, summed up
the one month training program with the topic “Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites andRemains.” She focused in detail mainly on risk management and utilization for the public. For me thiswas the most interesting topic, when I asked the most questions, and I am very happy that all myqueries were answered as this will help me solve problems back in Fiji. There was plenty of time for3267

group discussions which I found to be good. I was able to identify our areas of weaknesses after group
discussions with the explanations given by Mrs. Montira.

Suggestions
Overall the whole training program was really good and well organized, but I suggest that people whoare in public exhibition areas, such as sites and parks, should be provided with English training, so that
visitors may get more of the information they need.
Everything else was OK during the one-month training program.
Acknowledgment
On behalf of the Fiji Government I would like to express our sincere gratitude to the organizers of thisone-month training course. We are so thankful to be part of this training and we really need more of it.
Special thanks are due to the organizers, especially the ACCU staff of Mr. Nishimura, Mr. Takahashi,
Mr. Kobayashi, Ms. Kato, Ms. Horikawa, Ms. Nishida, Ms. Otani, and Ms. Shida. Thanks go also to
the interpreter, Ms. Hata Chiyako, and the various tutors, Ms. Kimata Akiko, Ms Lee Jihee, Mr.
Tagashira Naoki, and Mr. Haneda Tomohiro.
To all the participants and lecturers, and other information sources: May God bless each and every oneof you.

Vinaka vakalevu(Thank you)4268

IndiaBhuvan VIKRAMAIn this final report I would like to talk about what was taught and in what order, and whether it was
new information to me or just a refresher for my existing skills and store of knowledge, whilesuggesting along the way some points which I think should have been part of the curriculum of thiscourse, but unfortunately were not. Secondly, I will give my personal evaluation of the programme.
Finally, I will draw a comparison with India.


Course Content
The training on ‘Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains’ came toan end a bit too suddenly leaving an insatiable feeling and a hunger for more on the core subject. I
came here with my own understanding of archaeological sites and remains but what I found did notconform to it. I take this partly as a result of different terminology being used in the respective
countries. It is very important that UNESCO, especially ACCU, attempts to formulate a set of unified
terminology that is widely circulated among the member countries.
The course began with ‘Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites’. Though it was very
informative and enlightening, yet it appeared as if the cart was put before the horse. Nevertheless, it
was good and educational to hear Gamini Wijesuria’s presentation.
The idea of presentations of country reports by the individual participants was interesting andinteractive as each individual was introduced to 15 other countries, their cultural heritage and themethods and efforts to preserve it.
The lecture by Prof. Inaba Nobuko, of Tsukuba University, giving the general introduction to
Japanese architecture and the development of the concept of heritage protection legislation, was very
interesting and engrossing.
The introduction to the legal provisions prevailing in Japan, and the development of the notions suchas cultural properties, scenic beauty, cultural landscape, etc., was interesting to hear. All these things
are being done in India too, but they are known or referred to by different terms.
Thereafter the course provided lecture/practice on ‘Documentation of Archaeological Artefacts,’ i.e.
pottery drawing and tool drawings, which again was very useful and came as a refresher course to me,
but in my opinion it was not complete, as it asked the participants to draw the complete pots.

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Participants should have been given potsherds to draw and then told about the methods and techniques
to calculate the diameter and position the potsherd in its proper location, etc., which are more
important as excavations yield more potsherds than complete or nearly complete pots. It would havebeen of greater use to most of the participants. Further, the documentation part should haveincorporated not only the drawing and measurement, but also the method of context recording at thetime of actual excavation.
The tour of the labs was really interesting. It was great to observe the available facilities and toappreciate the work ethic.
The photography class was thorough and done with a professional touch. The equipment and studioset were mesmerising and enviable. I know I can only admire such a set up and wish I could also havesuch facilities back in my country.
The archaeological prospection of sites was a useful study which told the importance of prospection
or searching around for signatures of ancient or archaeological traces. The Ground Penetrating Radar(GPR) and magnetic surveys are good tools but they are cost intensive and not easily utilised at most
excavations. While I have indeed been using GPR at my site, Ahichhatra in India, it is not always easy
to procure such equipment for most archaeological excavations. However, the information about theavailability of various technologies and their possible application in archaeological investigations isvery important and useful for future consideration.

The lecture on environmental archaeology was interesting but was only introductory in nature, which
I think is not sufficient for such a high level training programme. Identification of species of animals
or plants from the fragmentary bones or floral remains is fine, but at the same time it requires a certain
specialist and hence it is not in the purview of the archaeologist. It would have been interesting tolearn the ways of collecting such samples and preserving them until they are analysed by the experts.
There was also insufficient information as to what and how many types of inferences may be drawn
from such floral and faunal evidence, how they will help in reconstructing the paleo-environment ofany given region, and also how the palaeo-environment could affect the development of the specificculture or cultural equipment of that site or region.

The introduction to dendrochronoloy, though not new to me as concept, was interesting as it also told
the history of dendrochronology as well as the process of calculating the date. But unfortunately the
Indian climate and the nature of the soil do not preserve wood in archaeological contexts, hence
dendrochronology has little use in the Indian scenario. However, I could not get the answer to myquery as to ‘what is the difference or relation between the growth rings of a stem and branches of the

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same tree? Do they show the same pattern of annual growth?’ I would still like to have some more
information to satisfy my understanding.
Lectures on the conservation of archaeological sites and remains were good and familiar, so far as the
purpose and the end result was concerned. The difference in factors or agents of deterioration and thematerial of which artefacts are made in various countries makes the approach to conservation andpreservation different. As a philosophy and concept, conservation in both countries progresses along
the same lines. Natural phenomena such as ground water table fluctuation remains more or lessbeyond human control in both countries. However, raising the ground level by land-filling forreconstruction is a concept which did not appeal, because after some time, say one hundred years later,these reconstructed buildings will also become historically important and need conservation.
Reconstruction appears good for the present but when viewed from the perspective of posterity it may
pose a problem, and further, the original materials which are reburied below are not tested for stability
and preservation under the reburied condition, because the environment has already changed.
The study tour to various cultural properties like the Haniwa Factory Park and pottery kiln site,
Imperial Palace sites at Asuka and Fujiwara, the Yoshinagori, Dazaifu and Korokan sites, andFukuoka castle etc. was a treat to the academic appetite but with a lingering aftertaste from thereplicas. It may be good strategy to bury the original archaeological surface under a layer of 80 cm to
100 cm of soil cover, but to erect full-scale replicas is a different case. These exude a modern feelingand fail to generate the sense of history within the onlooker.
The research facilities that these different institutions have are really unparalleled. I was literally
mesmerised by the display of technical and scientific equipment and gadgets. The worst part of the
training was that I could only see these tools but could not get the feel of working with them. I would
have appreciated if at least some practical demonstrations were given to us with X-Ray radiology,
computer tomography, rapid prototyping (3D scanning), etc.

Visits to the Asuka Historical Museum, the National Museum of Ethnology and the Kyushu National
Museum clarified my concepts about real museums capable of carrying out all their roles, including
research, display and dissemination of knowledge to students and visitors alike. All of the museums
are unique in their categories. I liked the concept of having all the research facilities under one roof
with specified areas for each section.
Dr. Montira Horayangura Unakul from the UNESCO office, Bangkok, introduced the concepts of risk
management at the heritage sites and the public utilization of these sites in a very simple but effective
manner, drawing in all the participants into group activities and making them think and decide upon
the given problem. The two days with Ms. Montira were very interactive and educative as well

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interesting, also because after a long gap since Gamini Wijesuria and Inaba Nobuko, it was anopportunity for direct dialogue with the lecturer and that perhaps made it ever more enjoyable.
My Opinions/Views
1. The training was more on theory than practice (except for the pottery and tool drawing), andwas more or less just an exhibition of facilities available at the different institutions. I would
have liked it the other way around.
2. The training could have been more precise and effective had it been given directly in English
rather than through translation. In effect, it took twice the time for theory, as the translation
consumed half the time. This time could have been utilised for either practical sessions oreven for teaching beyond just the basics.

3. The training did not include the main field techniques, namely archaeological excavation
procedure, trenching, section drawing, plan drawing, the type of excavation methodology
adopted, in situ documentation of archaeological finds, collection of samples for scientificstudies. It mainly concentrated on the archaeological artefacts recovered from excavation andon lab work, which basically is the secondary activity, while the primary recording is to bedone at or during the excavation.

4. Reconstruction, the way it has been done, is good but for the present time, there seems to be
no strategy as to its status after some fifty or one hundred years. Raising the level of the siteor mound by almost one metre amounts to changing the land feature and affecting theinterventions in the ancient environment. My queries on this point remain unanswered.
5. Further, there seems to be no fixed criteria as to what should be declared a cultural orarchaeological property. Even the terms such as ‘cultural landscapes’, ‘monuments’ (as living
animals are also designated as monuments), and ‘cultural property’ (as primeval forests arealso designated as cultural property) lack proper definition.

6. The conservation of archaeological sites, it appears, is still under experimentation. Thereappears to be no national policy on conservation. Making an excavated site into an in situ
museum exhibit appears to be very popular in Japan, which I think is appreciable. It is goodfor such sites where only the traces of structures are found, but at sites where huge structures
are unearthed, making a shed or even reburying may also not be the right approach. It is cost
intensive and so cannot be applied in many countries including India.

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Current Archaeological Practices and Status of Research in India
India has a long tradition of archaeological investigations and research, which has its beginnings,
however modest they may have been, in 1784 when the Asiatic Society was established with a view tostudy the relics from India’s past and make the public aware of the antiquarian wealth of India. Soon,in 1814, a museum was organised to house the findings of the Society. In 1800 Francis Buchanan was
appointed by Marquis of Wellesley to survey the Mysore area, and later he surveyed the present statesof Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in 1807. Conservation and repairs, though not thought of as important
activities, were begun by 1807 when monuments like Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri and Akbar’s Tomb
were repaired in minor fashion. In 1810 came the first legislation as Bengal Regulation XIX, which
was perhaps the first attempt to make the government intervene in the case of risks to a monument.
Thus, by 1810 India had almost all the faculties of archaeology well in place, and the first excavation
was not far to come, in 1830, when the Manikyala stupa (now in Bangladesh) was excavated.
Gradually the methodology and techniques were improved, and explorations, excavations, surveys,
conservation works, documentation and research were carried out in larger measures. However, themethodology was by no means scientific by modern standards, yet they did their best to arrest thefurther decay of the monuments. In 1915 Sir John Marshall framed the conservation manual defining
standards and principles for the conservation of monuments. Several cultures and ancient sites werebrought to light through excavations. During the 1940s India experienced scientific input in the fieldof archaeology when Sir R.E.M. Wheeler introduced new methodology.
In the field of conservation, India has an established policy. Since the country has a variety ofmonuments made of different materials, treatment also accordingly varies. The Archaeological Surveyof India is the nodal agency and the custodian of all archaeological heritage in the country, and thus
has the onus of conserving the monuments under its jurisdiction, for which the department has a
trained work force and defined skill set. Over the long history of development of conservation, India
now has settled for minimal intervention in the monuments, just enough for arresting the decay andstrengthen the structure with the same or similar types of material and technology. For excavated sites
where low structures are exposed backfilling is preferred, however, at sites where tall structures are
exposed some part of it is allowed to remain exposed to the sight after the necessary strengthening andconservation.

In India, we achieve the similar results as our Japanese counterparts, but the difference lies in the levelof mechanisation. Being a developing economy burdened with huge population pressure, India does
not yet possess enough machines and scientific equipment to take care of all the projects, but we dohave all the latest equipment available, though not necessarily at one centre. At the excavation site of
Ahichhatra all the latest devises such as ground penetrating radar (GPR), terrestrial LiDAR, total
station, etc., for archaeological prospection and survey were utilised. I have also worked on reverse

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engineering (3D scanning of art objects) and rapid prototyping (3D printing), and we have also
developed our own custom-made GIS package and archaeological database software. Progress inIndia is slow but steady, and I am sure we are not lacking in skill sets or spirit.
It is my desire that there should also be some projects where people like me may be given opportunity
to work with archaeologists/scientists in Japan. Venues for collaboration with various Japanese
research institutions should also be explored for scientific research on our materials. 

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Indonesia
Fahmi Prihantoro

Introduction
First, I would like to thank ACCU Nara for giving me this good chance to join their training programin cultural heritage protection. It was the second chance for me, and I got much more knowledge andexperience in this very different program designed by ACCU Nara. From September 7 to October 7,
we participants from sixteen countries had the opportunity to learn about cultural heritage protection in
Japan. We also shared and discussed the differences in cultural heritage protection in each of ourcountries.
The overall training program was designed by ACCU Nara very well. We had the opportunity
to get much information based on archaeological data and research. We also obtained knowledge
about presenting archaeological data to the public. It was great when I visited and participated inworkshops at the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (Nabunken).
It was also great because this training program opened my eyes to the recent importance of
cultural heritage protection and its role in benefiting all. Cultural heritage is not simply the deadobjects produced by people in the past, but a source of information to people in the present and future.
There is the opinion that money is very important for cultural heritage protection activities.
But actually it is not at all true. The ability to manage and create is more necessery in this case. Japangive us an example of a good system with a limited budget. From this training program I got much
exposure to how Japan can manage cultural properties, while being creative and efficient.
It was very interesting to learn about managing cultural heritage in the global era. There aremany problems in the management of cultural heritage. In this training program I got some examples
which may or may not be relevant for my country. I also got some ideas from others countries which
are applicable for my country.
Finally, future issues in cultural heritage protection are not only national but also international.
We must have global thinking on cultural heritage protection. It is not our separate responsibilities but
we all have a common responsibility regarding heritage protection in the world. We must have a senseof belonging to world heritage culture and all of its problems.

Comparison of Japan and Indonesia
The legal system. Japan has a legal system giving coverage to all cultural property. It protects not only
tangible but also intangible heritage, and the natural landscape. This has become a very importantfocus for cultural heritage protection policy, so the national government exercises responsibility in thisregard. It is supported by prefectural as well as local governments. Prefectural governments also have275

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specific legal systems for their areas. The management and utilization of cultural properties is also partof this system of coverage.
My country also has a legal system for cultural heritage protection, but it only gives coverage
to tangible cultural heritage. This legal system is more specific regarding archaeological objects.
Actually, we have problems in our system of management and utilization. There is a lack of good
cooperation between government and the communities. Sometimes people as heritage owners do notknow how to utilize and maintain their heritage.
Conservation science for archaeological remains and sites
Japan has a good system of conservation science for archaeological sites and remains. It is supportedwith high technological equipment, which makes it easier to conduct maintenance and research incultural heritage protection. Nabunken is one of the important institutions undertaking analysis andresearch in conservation science, as seen in its laboratories for pottery, wood, animal and human bones,etc.
In my country, there is also a system for cultural heritage protection, in regard to conservation
science. We too have a conservation institution, but it is not provided with high technologicalequipment. We only focus on chemical conservation, especially for stone monuments. We do not havemuch in the way of human resources, such as experts who specialize in pottery, wood, and bone, inregard to conservation science activities.

Maintenance and utilization. Japan provides many examples in the maintenance and utilization ofcultural heritage. It is very interesting because many sites and remains revealed through excavation
can be presented to the public in many ways. Visitors can understand and imagine the site and remains
because they are presented through reconstructed buildings. It also interesting because of the many site
museums which display information from archaeological research. This makes it easy for the public tounderstand people’s life in the past. The infrastructure facilities are also up to acceptable standards.

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In my country, the maintenance and utilization of sites and remains are not conducted as wellas in Japan. There are many sites and remains that are not presented to the public effectively. Visitors
do not get much information, but only know it as an archaeological site. My country also has on-sitemuseums, but the information is not organized under a good system. Facilities and services notmeeting acceptable standards is also still a problem in my country.

Relevance of the Training Program for My Country
Concept of cultural heritage protection (legal system)
In this training program I gained some knowledge about the legal system for cultural heritage
protection. Basically, the system of law is very important. It is the starting point for cultural heritage
protection activities. If we want to protect our cultural heritage we must start with the legal system.
Regulation is an important tool for guiding protection activities. Some local governments also takecare of their cultural heritage and protect them through local regulations. We also must always connect
with international conventions and organizations for cultural heritage protection. International
conventions are very important as a source of standards for cultural heritage protection.
Indonesia has much cultural heritage, including six World Heritage sites recognized by
UNESCO. Since 1992, Indonesia has had a legal system for cultural heritage. Now it has come to berevised under new regulations. It will cover many aspects, especially regarding the maintenance andutilization of heritage, and the role of local communities. I believed that our new regulations can bring
improvements over the old system. It will be the starting point of better protection for our heritage.
Currently, some local governments also have local regulations to cover cultural heritage protection in
their areas. This will help support the national regulations.
Practice of cultural heritage protection
In this training program I gained knowledge about conservation science for archaeological sites andremains. In practice, Japan has the high technology to support many activities in conservation science.
It is very different for conservation science in my country. We do not have the high tech tools to
support similar conservation of sites and remains. But actually we have similar methods inconservation science. In this regard, Nabunken and the National Museum of Kyushu impressed mewith the importance of technology for supporting conservation in the modern era.

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It was very interesting when I saw some activities in practice on the maintenance andutilization of archaeological sites and remains in Japan. We visited many places that will serve as
examples, such as Heijo Palace, Asuka, the Haniwa Factory Park and sites in Fukuoka city. One of theimportant aspects is the management of cultural heritage. It was seen that archaeological sites can bepresented in a variety of perspectives. Many visitors will share the experience of people who lived in
the past. Archaeological data can presented to the public in 3-dimentional perspective. Another aspectof management is providing visitors with acceptable standards of facilities in transport, utility andother services. Many of these sites will be good examples for developing cultural heritage
management in my country.

The management of museums was also very interesting. I very much admired all of themuseums seen in Japan. There was a museum at each of the archaeological sites and remains visited.
The museum presented much archaeological data and artifacts from the site recovered by excavation,and other results of research. In my opinion this can be good for developing the memory of ancient
culture for many, especially for the Japanese people. Museums give many benefits for the country interms of ideology, identity, education, science and technology, and tourism.
Museums presented many artifacts recovered from the distant past, bringing those objects
back to life. Visitors enjoy and have good experiences in these museums. All of the data provides
much information about the past which is easily understood. The displays used technology and many
illustrations to help visitors understand the data.
Some of methods in the museums for giving information to visitors I found to be very creative.
I was interested in the information for children at the Haniwa Factory Park. It was great and enables
children to enjoy the museum. If this approach can be applied at museums in my country, they will
become favorite places for children. If we can apply this method, I believed that museums will bevisited by many more students and children. They will enjoy the museum, and it can become one of
the alternatives for spending time on a holiday.
We also found many museums have service facilities, especially libraries and museum shops.
This can be useful for visitors because they can get much information by reading the books, and buy
some souvenirs as symbols of the knowledge they obtained as visitors.

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4Conclusion
In my opinion, this training program provided me with much new knowledge and many experiences incultural heritage protection. We are becoming one of the “preservation communities” in the world. We
are responsible together for cultural heritage protection, and have sense of belonging through common
involvement in cultural heritage protection.
Sharing experiences with such people from other countries and joining training programs likethis helps enrich our knowledge about the activities of cultural heritage protection. But we must selectthe knowledge, based on whether or not it will be appropriate in our home country. This depends onthe context and culture in each country.
Heritage is something we have to protect and preserve. It is like a diamond that is no longer
visible if not kept and maintained in its current condition. I believe that a country without heritage islike a human being without memory.
Finally, as a participant training program I have the following suggestions for ACCU Nara.
1. I suggest that ACCU Nara could explore further the role of the local community. I did notlearn much about the role of local communities or NGOs in cultural heritage protection in
Japan. As I understand it, the government has a big role in these activities and does not
involve the local community.
2. More information is needed on the involvement of young people in cultural heritage
protection activities in Japan. I know ACCU Nara has a lecture heritage program in theschools, but I do not know much about the activities in heritage protection of young people.

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5Kazakhstan
Janna PROSKURINA

I. INTRODUCTION
Both the course lectures on aspects of cultural heritage and its protection in Japan, as well as thepossibility of making close acquaintances with professionals from different countries of the AsiaPacific region, were of great importance to me and my research on various problems. Many of the
problems which initially seemed to be local and unique to my country are in fact global, and it wasvery informative to learn how they are handled in different countries. Also, it was pleasant to learn
that some of the problems other researchers experience in their countries, including Japan, do not exist
at all, or exist to a very insignificant degree, back in my country, such as the following examples.
x

Strict private property legislation prohibiting government and research institutions to interferewith cultural heritage monuments in case their owners do not allow (Japan, Philippines, India)x

Lack of stone and brick-made constructions, making difficult both the preservation andpresentation of heritage properties to the public (Japan, partially China)x

Insufficient financial support (Sri Lanka, Laos, Kyrgyzstan)x

Lack of long-term investigation and data consolidation (Marshall Islands)x

Lack of the effective governmental legislation on cultural heritage protectionx

Insufficient public awareness (this was highlighted by almost all of the participants).

II. PROGRAM EVALUATION
The following sections examine in turn aspects of the training program, in terms of the potential for
implementation of the received information in heritage protection work in Kazakhstan.
a. Protection system and legislation on conservation of cultural properties
Besides the analyses of cultural property protection systems of different countries provided by theparticipants in their country reports, very informative from this point of view was the lecture about
global trends in the conservation of archeological sites and the history of development of protection,
for both tangible and intangible cultural heritage, in different countries and at the international level(charters, conventions, international organizations, and other mechanisms) provided by Mr. Gamini
Wijesuriya from ICCROM, along with the situation in Japan summarized by Mrs. Inaba Nobuko, andMr. Suzuki Chihei in the reports on the “Cultural Property Protection System” and “Conservation andUtilization of Cultural Property.” Regarding these laws and provisions for heritage protection, I
conclude that all of these measures (some common, some unique, especially in Japan) were worked
out and adapted as a response to the problems each country experienced while trying to protect their

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heritage from disappearing and to preserve it for future generations. The accumulated experience of
this legislation and organizational structure should be taken into account by all specialists involved incultural heritage protection. Closer acquaintance with the activities of ICCROM, which wasestablished to promote conservation of cultural properties worldwide, was also very informative andimportant. Conservation is an important issue requiring a high level of professionalism; poorly
planned conservation or protection measures for monuments could cause even more damage thannatural disasters and aging. Such examples were provided by Mr. Wijesuriya, and unfortunately we
had this experience in Kazakhstan, especially during 1995-2001 when Soviet era legislation could not
be implemented due to the newly gained independence and related changes in the political andeconomic systems, before new legislation could be adopted. This is when partial restoration was
conducted by non-specialists or in a spontaneous manner, without inspection and scrupulous
investigation beforehand. I have described this issue broadly in my country report as one of the mostimportant problems in Kazakhstan. Training, information, research, cooperation and advocacy werelisted among the activities of ICCROM. The assistance of such an organization could bring manysolutions in terms of monitoring, investigation, conservation, legislation improvement and training forour specialists. However, Kazakhstan is not among the 129 member countries of ICCROM. During
private conversations, Mr. Wijesuriya explained how to begin consolidation with ICCROM and verykindly offered his assistance. Upon my return I plan to contact him again and start correspondencewith both ICCROM and Kazakhstani authorities to undertake necessary procedures for Kazakhstan to
become a member of ICCROM in the close future, in order to get badly needed advice and assistancein many aspects of protection of cultural properties from this esteemed organization.
Cultural property protection, investigations, documentation, conservation and restoration in
Kazakhstan has also a comparatively long history, starting in the nineteenth century under protectorate
status of the Russian Empire, and further developed during the Soviet period using central
mechanisms from 1969, on a national level, and after 1991, independent legislation and mechanismsof protection and maintenance have been worked out. Notwithstanding with such a long history ofprotection, Kazakhstan like all other countries experiences many problems in this sphere and muchwork still needs to be done. The situation of cultural heritage preservation in Kazakhstan was
examined in my country report. Here I would like to quote some of the notes in regards to legislation
improvements that have been undertaken due to specific features of Kazakhstan’s monuments.
The problem of preservation of archaeological heritage in Kazakhstan has its unique features, in its
technological and methodological aspects, and also in the legal maintenance of these actions.
Nowadays more than 30,000 immovable monuments of history and culture have been taken underprotection, and more than 20,000 of them are archaeological remains in a ruined condition. The
methods of preservation of archaeological monuments practiced today in Kazakhstan, according to the
Venetian charter of 1964, do not seem to be very effective. The reason is that the overwhelming

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majority of these monuments are made from adobe (sun-dried, rather than kiln-fired bricks) and theexisting conservation means today cannot provide guarantees for strengthening them. Consequently,
with the purpose of protecting these remains from the natural elements and to prolong their lives, theprovision of stationary cover is strongly recommended. But besides destroying the appearance of themonuments themselves and their historical landscape, these measures have other weak points such as
the necessity of organizing security services to protect them from vandalism, which is not possible forsuch a great number of monuments spread over a big territory, and many in the uninhabited steppe.
These problems of protection were taken into consideration and comprehensive methods ofpreservation for the historical and cultural heritage were worked out, including both conservation
aspects and the integration of this heritage into the vital activities of society, by including it in socialand economic plans for development of the regions where it is located. This method of protection has
been presented and comprehensively described in the catalog of norms and standards (SNIP RK B1-701), “Instructions on coordination of expertise and approval of project documentation on regenerationof historical monuments of architecture and town-planning, including those in a ruined state.” Using
these instructions, provided by the consolidated work of specialists in different spheres, renovation
projects of historical centers have been conducted, with the development of a tourism infrastructure, in
Almaty, Zhambyl, South Kazakhstan, Mangystau, Atyrau and the West Kazakhstan regions, but someare yet waiting their turn to be realized.
The deficiencies of some of the points of the Venetian charter of 1964 were also experienced in many
countries (mentioned in lectures provided by Mr. Gamini Wijesuriya, Mrs. Inaba Nobuko, Mr. Suzuki
Chihei and Mrs. Montira Horayangura Unakul), and Japan was one of the first countries which forced
the international community to change some of the conservation approaches to allow alternative
methods of restoration, especially regarding sites with continuing utilization in the original function,or those with outstanding national or international value.
b. Preservation of the living monuments and sites and their cultural landscapes
The importance of cultural value, the necessity of preserving living monuments or “monuments which
continue to serve the purposes for which they were originally intended” together with culturallandscapes, the problems and threats they experience today, and the ways of handling these problems,
were examined in many lectures during this course. Good examples of living monuments and culturallandscapes from different parts of the world were given by Mr. Wijesuriya and by Mrs. Montira
Horayangura Unakul, including important sites such as: the rock art site at Peterborough, Ontario,
Canada; rock art sites in active use (Australia); Petra, Jordan (until the Beduin were removed); Angkor,
Cambodia; Great Zimbabwe and the slogan of the local pilgrims, “your monument, our shrine”;
Ayodhya, India; Jerusalem; Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; Teotihuacan, Mexico; Taj Mahal in India; Hoi
An village in Vietnam; the buffer zone in Vilnius, Lithuania; and others. Mr. Suzuki Chihei from the
Agency for Cultural Affairs demonstrated other examples of 21 cultural landscape sites in Japan (rice3282

paddies, stock farms, forest or water uses, fisheries, mining or industrial manufacture, ancient
residences or settlements) which represent typical or unique elements of the basic modes of life or
livelihoods of the Japanese people.
Back in my country, there are also many previously inhabited historical landscapes which for different
reasons lost their continuity. For instance, the historical settlement of ancient Turkistan was inhabited
until 1980, but instead of repairing and preserving the site, these historical dwellings, with their inner
yards and quarter mosques, squares and streets, were destroyed due to modern urbanization.

The situation today

Front view, photo from the 1950s

Rare examples of surviving dwellings of an ancient settlement in Turkistan, and the situation today

For more than 15 years our center has worked out numerous projects revitalizing the functions ofimportant historical sites in Kazakhstan, which can prevent further distortion of the historicalsettlements. But because some of these sites are not being treated as cultural landscapes, or cultural or
historic heritage, they continue to be demolished due to lack of support and modern urbanization.

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c. Challenges and advantages of reconstruction of cultural monuments and sites
Another important factor which is tightly connected with the necessity to revitalize vulnerable culturalproperties was underlined during the course, and should be taken into consideration if reconstruction isgoing to be implemented, is the high level of authenticity in terms of shape, architectural structure, theuse of original or similar materials, and of traditional techniques of construction. “In relation toauthenticity, the reconstruction of archaeological remains or historic buildings or districts is justifiable
only in exceptional circumstances. Reconstruction is acceptable only on the basis of complete anddetailed documentation and to no extent on conjecture” (World Heritage Committee Operational
Guidelines (2005) § 86). The main challenges of reconstruction are the necessity to obtain authenticityof the monuments which also “may differ from culture to culture and even within the same culture. It
is thus not possible to base judgments of values of authenticity within fixed criteria” (The Nara
Document, 1994). So even the determination of authenticity itself is subject to debate, not to mention
the methods and degree of reconstruction. There are no certain answers to questions such as: Should
the whole site or only a part of it be reconstructed? Which part of the site/monument should bereconstructed? Are the sources of information trustworthy enough to justify the project? Whichmaterials and construction techniques should be used (traditional or modern)? Should the monument/site preserve its original function or can it be utilized in a different way? The important matters thathave to be secured are the preservation of original features, documentation of any excavation andreconstruction work, and the possibility of reversing work undertaken, due to updated information
subsequently obtained. There are many advantages to restoration and reconstruction, such as themaintenance of the initial architectural and artistic values, of the functional purpose, the possibility offurther utilization of the restored building or site, introducing it into the system of local andinternational tourism, religious and educational importance, revival of the ethnic and cultural
atmosphere, and etc. Many of these advantages we had a chance to experience during our visits todifferent historical sites in Japan: Heijo Palace site in Nara, water-oriented ritual area near the Imperial
Palace sites at Asuka and Fujiwara, Shin’ike Haniwa Production site, Imashirozuka burial mound in
Takatsuki city, Yoshinogari site, Korokan archeological site, and Fukuoka castle.

Examples of reconstruction of historical monuments in Japan

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Examples of reconstruction of historical monuments in Japan

Examples of reconstruction of historical monuments in Kazakhstan (fortification walls of thecitadel, Mausoleums of Rabiya Sultan Begum, Aristan Bab, and Aysha-Bibi)

Other projects of reconstruction that could be very favorable in terms of revitalizing “dead” or “dying”
historical monuments and sites were detailed in my country report. Here I would like to give someexamples to show how partial restoration (suggested for almost all of the sites) and reconstruction may
have positive impact in terms of interpretations of these sites, improvement of the living standards ofthe local communities, raising consciousness of national identity, the religious and cognitive values ofthe monument, and the development of handicrafts, tourism and economy of the areas in general.
Regeneration project of a fragment of the Turkistan city historical center. The project assumes theregeneration of the housing area of the northern part of the city with a territory of 12 hectares, the6285cultural layer of which was already destroyed by 1980 (due to modern city planning). Relying onarchitectural and archeological evidence, graphic materials, written sources from the fifteenth tonineteenth centuries, and photographs preserving views from 1910–1952 when the medieval dwellings
still existed, it was possible to reconstruct the obliterated part of this ancient city with a high level ofauthenticity. The project envisages the revival of the architectural and ethnic/cultural atmosphere of
the medieval center of the ancient city, and utilization of the restored historical buildings forpilgrimage, tourist and ethnographic facilities.

View of the back side at present

Regeneration project

Other positive examples of ongoing historical sites are the Russian fortress and settlements ofBolshaya and Malaya Almatinskiye Stanicy of the eighteenth century in Almaty city. The fortress,
mosque and churches are being preserved separately as historical monuments, but the dwellings, parks,
and gardens with original vegetation are disappearing, again due to modern urbanization. Today wehave all the data to restore or reconstruct authentically almost all of the original buildings of the area,and stop the development of new facilities. Financial and technical support from the government could
encourage people to preserve their houses. In some of them, boutique hotels, restaurants andworkshops can be organized. The location of these areas in the very core of the modern city could be
another advantage for utilization as ethnographic villages.

Plan with preserved street names and inhabited houses of Bolshaya and Malaya Stanicy

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Restoration of the palace mosque in the ancient settlement of Otrar. This project envisages a complex
of works including the complete restoration of the mosque, with preservation and conservation of theremaining portions, and regeneration of its original function.

Regeneration project for the medieval city of Talgar. This is being done with the goals of converting
the medieval city site into a museum, reconstructing one of its living quarters, and continuing thearchitectural and archaeological study of the monument. A part of this project includes thereconstruction of farmsteads with their full interior and exterior decorations, and their subsequentutilization as a museum of the ethnographic culture of the Djikili and Tuhsi tribes.

Partial conservation seems not to be effective due to the weakness of the original material (adobe), andsufficient conservation means have not yet been found. Even if well preserved, ruins attract only theattention of scientists. Other important features of this monument, such as its architectural and artistic
appearance, its touristic, religious and educational values, are thus being neglected. Restoration andfurther integration of the historical objects into the vital activity of today's society also can help topreserve them from further destruction and disintegration. Personally I was pleased to learn how
widely reconstruction is practiced in Japan. Doubtless, these reconstruction projects were worked out
with the best knowledge of specialists and to the highest degree of authenticity. However, some of themethods seem to be difficult or impossible to implement on our monuments. In my opinion, in order to8287

preserve originality to its highest possible level, the reconstruction should use materials similar to theoriginal, with traditional techniques of construction, and the original flora is also very important.
Modern materials and engineering, and vegetation foreign to the area, used for example at the Heijo
palace, give an impression of it being “artificial,” unlike a “real” historical monument/site but rather
like a museum, and reduce the level of appreciation. This weakened appreciation is visible even atsites where original materials and techniques were implemented (water-oriented ritual area near the
Imperial Palace Sites at Asuka and Fujiwara, Shin’ike Haniwa Production site, Yoshinogari, andFukuoka castle). Restoration of the original, or at least a traditional, function is another importantfactor which helps to provide integrity to the building in the social and cultural life of thecity/community. The method of backfilling of the archeological site with later reconstruction ofbuildings, vegetation and settlement including streets and pavements, an irrigation system and evenlakes on top of the modern layer is not practical and cannot be implemented at the majority of
Kazakhstani monuments, due to the depth of the cultural layer being up to 10 meters, making it
partially higher than the ground level (some of the fortress walls or preserved basements and lower
parts of the buildings rise up to 7-8 meters high). Again, in my opinion, this method separates thereconstructed building from its historic setting and environment; thus almost none of the preserved
original portions could be displayed. Only a small number of scientists can enjoy viewing andexamining original structures or materials, over a short period and through the costly process of reexcavation. Without being monitored, better protection of the remains under the ground is notguaranteed either. Instead, the combination of professionally conducted conservation, restoration andonly partial reconstruction provide for maintenance and regeneration of historical, aesthetic, scientificand other values of the site, allowing systematic monitoring and thus better protection of the remains.
d. Other methods of preservation and maintenance of archeological sites
During this program we had a chance to receive information about, and see in practice, other methodsof preservation, maintenance and utilization of archeological sites followed in Japan. Very informative
lectures and tours were provided by specialists of the Nabunken research institute, Mr. Shimada
Toshio, Mr. Ishimura Tomo, Mr. Sugiyama Hiroshi and Mr. Kohdzuma Yohsei (on the topics of“Maintenance and Management of Archeological Sites,” “Utilization and Management of Sites” and“Conservation Science of Archeological Sites and Remains”), by Mr. Kanegae Ichiro from the
Takatsuki Shiroato Historical Museum, and by Mr. Shichida Tadaaki, Mr. Akashi Yoshihiko, Mr.
Imazu Setsuo and Mr. Yoshitake Manabu during our three-day visit to the archeological sites of
Fukuoka and Saga prefectures (Yoshinogari, Dazaifu, Korokan and Fukuoka castle). Here I will look
more closely at some of these topics in turn.
Conservation science. The science of conservation in Japan is highly developed and there is much tobe taken as example for our country in terms of methods, technology, and its utilization. Prior to andduring the conservation treatment, comprehensive measurement and investigation of the environment

9288

has to be undertaken in order to identify subsequent methods that should be used. As a result of suchanalysis and decisions about strategy, conservation may be applied on site for some of the most fragile
artifacts, and others are removed from the site for further material analysis and conservation in
specially equipped laboratories. We were introduced to such important and integral parts of theconservation process as the systems of precise documentation, photographing, marking and storage ofthe archeological artifacts, in demonstrations kindly provided by Mr. Morikawa Minoru, Mr. Kunitake
Sadakatsu, Mr. Shiba Kojiro, Mr. Yamazaki Takeshi, Mr. Matsui Akira, and Mr. Nakamura Ichirofrom the Nabunken institute. For some of the artifacts traditional methods and techniques are
sufficient, but for others, which had undergone severe physical and chemical changes anddegeneration, treatment is necessary under a program of conservation with the full use of modern
science. As many of the artifacts in Kazakhstan are made of materials similar to Japanese artifacts(wood, stone, clay, ceramics, etc.) we can use and the latest innovations in conservation treatment
science, and particularly the methods of their measurements and laboratorial analysis.
Methods of restoration. We were introduced to four main ways of restoration practiced in Japan.
Some of these are practiced in Kazakhstan, and others are worth considering.
a. Restoration with a full-scale replica in three-dimensional display (reconstruction):b. Restoration with a partial three-dimensional display:

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c. Restoration with surface marking (two-dimensional display):d. In situ exhibition of excavated features:

Other examples of volumetric and virtual reconstruction in the world (USA, Canada and Belgium),provided by Mr. Gamini Wijesura, are shown below.

e. Technology for measurement, dating, analysis and display of archeological artifacts
During this course I was most impressed by the technological aspects of the entire process ofmanaging archeological sites and artifacts in Japan. There is much to be learned and there are certain
methods that I would like to start investigating when I get back to Kazakhstan. Here I would like to goover the most important of these, which are not developed in my country.
Archeological prospection. The demonstration was provided by Mr. Kaneda Akihiro from Nabunken.
This approach allows obtaining information about archeological sites for research without excavation.

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It can be considered one of the most effective ways of protecting buried cultural properties.
Archeological prospection includes several methods such as topographic analysis, ground penetratingradar (GPR), electric resistivity survey, and magnetic prospection.
Dendrochronology. The demonstration was provided by Mr. Okochi Takayuki from Nabunken. Thisapproach permits scientific dating of preserved wooden artifacts with the potential accuracy of one
year. This approach was applied first in the US, and then in many other countries all over the world.
However, this methodology is not yet implemented in Kazakhstan, though there are plenty of wooden
artifacts accumulated which can provide a sufficient dendrochronological database for some species ofwood. Personally I would like to start some investigations into possible ways to implement this very
useful approach for Kazakhstan, by providing information to Mr. Okochi and being in touch with him
and other specialists from his department for consulting and sharing of opinions.
Photographic documentation, 3-D photographing and printing. Demonstrations were provided by Mr.
Nakamuro Ichiro, Mr. Yamazaki Takeshi and Mr. Matsui Akira from Nabunken, and also by Mr.
Akashi Yoshihinko and Imazu Setsuo from the Kyushu National Museum. I took note of what kind of
equipment is used in Japan in terms of photographing, 3-D photographing and 3-D printing, andinformation for making particular requests in Kazakhstan, such as pointing out the strong necessity forequipment for converting conventional data into digital format, which has not yet been conducted. Mr.
Nakamura Ichiro kindly offered his assistance to inform me, in case proper means is found for thistype of documentation.
Display of archeological, cultural and ethnographic artifacts in closed and open-air museums andparks. We had a chance to visit all kinds of displays of historical and archeological artifacts and sites,such as national and local museums, historic and natural parks, and temples and shrines in many cities
in Japan, and experienced a high level of attractive and informative functions as well as a highly
developed infrastructure (transportation facilities, service utilities, health and public safety facilities)
and management provided. Also informative in this respect were the lectures on key principles ofvisitor management at historical places, and the group sessions led afterwards by Mrs. Montira
Horyangura Unakul from the Bangkok UNESCO office. Unfortunately, the level of display, touristic
infrastructure, management and security at historical places and museums in Kazakhstan is not
sufficient and there is a lot of work to be done, which will require the participation of various
authorities, institutions and specialists involved in the sector of protection of cultural properties atdifferent levels, the training of specialists and management personnel, and the implementing ofstructural and inter-organizational regulations.

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III. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all the persons and institutions involved inorganizing this course and taking part in it, with special thanks to the ACCU Nara and Nabunken staff
for their care and concern.

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Kyrgyz Republic
Aidai SULAIMANOVAI.

INTRODUCTION

My final report is part of my participation in the training course “Research, Analysis and Preservationof Archeological Sites and Remains” in the Asia-Pacific Region 2010, in the historical city of Nara,
Japan, which has provided me with a wealth of knowledge. The entire curriculum offered during thiscourse was extremely relevant to the current needs of work for the conservation and preservation ofcultural properties in Kyrgyzstan. Participants in this training course, organized by the Cultural
Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia-Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU), from 7
September to 7 October 2010, had a chance to listen to lectures on the study, protection, use andmanagement of archaeological sites and cultural landscapes. We also had practical workshops, and got
acquainted with archeological parks, open-air museums, examples of medieval constructions (temples,
gates and walls), plus national and local historical museums featuring archeological and ethnographic
materials, as well as in situ exhibitions of excavated archeological sites of ancient settlements.

II. PROGRAM EVALUATION
1. The Cultural Property Protection System
In the lecture on “The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan,” we learned how the Japanese
government and professionals have developed their activities in the sector of protection of theircountry’s cultural properties. Their accumulated activities show how much they respect their naturaland cultural values and traditions. I am certain that if a government over time continues developing
and promoting various legislation for their citizens’ cultural properties protection, and cares about its
preservation for future generations, then such a country has all the necessary foundation forprosperous development in the future. Taking into account the example of such a governmental
approach to matters and problems of protection and preservation of its country’s monuments, I
sincerely wish that my country, the Kyrgyz Republic, which gained its independence at the end of thetwentieth century, also starts to deal actively with matters of protection of its people’s tangible andintangible cultural heritage. In this respect we have a very meaningful proverb in Kyrgyzstan: “Ifthere’s nothing in the head of a fish, don’t expect its tail to do anything.”
One of the approaches or projects in the preservation and utilization of objects of a cultural landscape
was rather interesting. It involved the granting or renting of lands having value as part of a natural andcultural landscape to local residents. This method has several advantages:
12931) The allocated property will be well kept while being under protection against certain risk
factors.
2) Traditional skills in the use of the lands (such as agriculture) will be maintained, the problem of
local unemployment partially solved, while the culture of cultivating the earth is also
maintained and developed.
3) The problem of the migration of young people from villages and suburb areas to the cities,
because of poorly developed rural infrastructure and causing abandonment of cultivated lands,
will be reduced. This matter includes an economic aspect. Announcement of such lands as
objects of a cultural landscape brings the advantages of their being treated in the same way asprotected objects of special value, and consequently the landowners can gain financial support
and other assistance from the government and receive better benefits from their work.
Such approaches impressed me most of all. In Kyrgyzstan, many natural and historical sanctuaries
remain without care and supervision. Therefore, such methods of natural and cultural heritage
preservation should be applied and developed. However this approach should be modified andimplemented by taking into consideration the specifics of the Kyrgyz cultural landscape and the
traditional life of its inhabitants. For example, Kyrgyzstan is a country of high mountainous pastures(jayloo) with archa (a kind a tree) woods and huge territories with natural and historical sites andmonuments such as ancient burial mounds, stone sculptures and rock paintings, etc. For instance, bysettling families on such pastures, granting them the power as inspectors against unsanctioned cuttingof the forests and hunting, and rendering some financial support, there will certainly be positive results.
Besides, a shepherd’s family would also be continuing the traditional life of their ancestors, as nomads.
In our country, such a way of life is maintained in many local areas. In recent years it is seen mostly inseasonal pastures. A main objective of this seasonal movement is the usage of high mountainous
pastures. It is limited to a short period, often between spring and early autumn. During this period
people herd and care for large and small cattle, manufacture dairy products basically for sale, andmake all the necessary preparations for the autumn-winter period. Another important fact to mention isthat besides taking care of their own cattle, pastoralists also herd cattle on behalf of their fellow
villagers for some extra charge. Thus, pastoralists use the pastures for their seasonal earnings. It may
be said that these people have no experience of high civilization in their traditional life. Nevertheless,much of this traditional way of life, such as the methods of housekeeping and the skills of cattle
breeding, of processing trees and the skins of animals, wool manufacturing, preparation of traditional
food, and the affinity with and understanding of nature, is very close to the lives of our ancestors,
involving the harmonious coexistence of humans and the environment.

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Another approach which should be noted is the financial support provided by the Japanese state tothose with skills in developing or processing national products, to manufacturers of national food, andbearers of oral creativity.
In the governmental programs of my country, the last point is absent. Regardless, private persons or
non-governmental public organizations sometimes provide such persons with temporary support. Theinternational organizations also sometimes give financial assistance (a fund for the development ofvillages, the Alliance of Mountain Communities of the Central Asia, Association for Support ofNational Crafts in Central Asia, International Fund Christensen, Global Ecological Fund, etc.).
If the state starts to implement such an approach to support bearers of traditional skills and knowledge,
we could solve some of the problems concerning tangible and intangible heritage preservation in themanner practiced in other countries, such as Japan in particular.
2. Introduction to Archaeological Prospection
Some of the methods of archeological prospection are very similar to those practiced in Kyrgyzstan,
except for the electric and magnetic devices used by Japanese colleagues.
In our country we use aerial photographs, shadow marks, soil marks, analysis of topography, andexcavation of a prospecting nature, as in the case of a test trench. On rare occasions we also use metal
detectors. This is a tool especially popular among the so-called “black archeologists “(a type of thief
who plunders archeological sites).
Our archeologists have sufficient experience with visual detection of a cultural layer from the natural
ground lay. We had that pleasure even before the advent of the powerful devices for archaeologicalprospection shown in this program. But I am very much impressed by the achievements in newtechnologies made in Japan in the field of archaeological prospection, especially radar (GPR).
3. Dendrochronology
The lecture about dendrochronology was sufficiently detailed and was interesting for me. Therefore, it
seems to me after hearing such a lecture, that it may be possible to try to determine the age of ourwooden artifacts. Usually we find fragments of wooden objects in archaeological excavation, such astableware, small kitchen tables, parts of saddles and stirrups, funerary items such as coffins, boards,
and others. When found buried in the ground these items are usually in bad condition. In such cases atleast we should be able to make good documentation (measurements of the radial and transverse
sections) and a good quality photo recording the position before the wooden object is moved. Thus, it
is possible in part to collect and create our own database for tree ring dating. However, in our region
monuments of wooden materials are very rarely found. Wood usually was used in the construction of3295

various medieval buildings, while dwelling houses and mausoleums were made with adobe and kilnfired bricks.
I think that by means of the knowledge received in Nara, it may be possible to put some of these skills
into practice in my work. In my country the science of dendrochronology is not well developed. There
were some experts in dendrochronological measurement in Kyrgyzstan who received education on thismethod from the Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow). However, due to the absence of support forthe development of this kind of science, and probably because of the low need for it, there has been atermination of scientific research in this field. This is definitely a sad loss for science in my country.
The scientific development in dendrochronology and the laboratories with their equipment in Nara
were very impressive, enabling the exact determination of the age of wooden artifacts and of the dateof a monument. This can be considered as one of the most important achievements in the study ofcultural monuments.
4. Heritage at Risk
The lecture on this theme, I felt, was very useful not only for me, but for all the participants of thiscourse. In this lecture, among diverse issues, risks factors for cultural heritage and its value worldwide
were explained, with an emphasis on how we must be ready to prevent unexpected dangers, and what
measures or actions we have to undertake, etc.
Actually, in my country, my colleagues and I have given some thought to this question. We realized its
importance when in June 11-13 of this year, violence flared up in southern Kyrgyzstan between two
ethnic groups, the Kyrgyz and the Uzbeks. While this has not been the only menacing risk tomonuments of natural and cultural heritage there, a high level of threat during this incident extended
as well to the lives of the staff of the museum and open-air complex of the sacred mountain SulaimanToo. At the time, no effective measures to reduce the risk were undertaken by either the government
or non-governmental organizations. Therefore, it is desirable to take note of such risk factors,
including the menace to the lives of employees working at World Cultural Heritage sites in
Kyrgyzstan.
Also, regarding the case of inter-ethnic conflict, we consulted the convention of 1972 (Conventions
and Recommendations of UNESCO concerning the protection of the cultural heritage) and thesubsequent edition. But we did not find the issue, the case of risk due to inter-ethnic conflict, to beaddressed, nor were there any recommendations of what to do in such situations. Fortunately, at themonument of Sulajman-Too, there has been no damage or injury to the heritage or the staff, because
the monument is of great importance as material and spiritual heritage for both of the ethnic groups
involved in this conflict.

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5. Maintenance and Management of Archeological Sites
Regarding the management of monuments of antiquity, we found sites such as the Heijo Palace,historic sites in Takatsuki city such as the Haniwa Factory Museum, the Asuka Historical Museum,burial mounds and palace sites in Asuka, and Kawaradera temple, were all very nicely managed andmaintained, and it is clear that in Japan many such sites are similarly maintained.
During discussion among the participants in the training, however, about the reconstructions at theabove monuments (in particular the Nara Heijo Palace), there were some criticizing views. It is
possible to agree in part with some of their opinions, but I believe that morally I have no right tocriticize, as in my country such extensive work has not been carried out on monuments of cultural
heritage yet. I can only envy my Japanese colleagues and support their views. In addition, it was
important for me to see monuments and their management in Nara, and I will certainly convey thisknowledge to my colleagues in Kyrgyzstan.
Among works of reconstruction that have been implemented in Kyrgyzstan, there could be mentioned
the regeneration of the so-called “Osh settlement” (a site on the southern slope of one of the peaks of
Sulaiman-Too). It is a monument of the archaeological culture named Chust of the Bronze Age (dated
to the fifteenth to the seventh centuries BC based on the finds, and supported by radiocarbon results).
Restorers and archeologists reconstructed it under the governmental program “OSH 3000” (theanniversary of the ancient city of Osh) in 1999-2000.
This monument was a uniquely “restored” ancient object, the authenticity of which was supported byevidences of soil analysis for traces of wooden pillars of a dwelling, with some remains found of wood.
This wooden reconstructed structure was primitive and did not correspond with the surrounding
landscape. Also, it differs from the usual subsidiary sheds or canopies of rural and mountaininhabitants of the mid-twentieth century. Unfortunately, the original construction is not available atpresent; local residents burned it during the violence in the city of Osh. Nevertheless, it has had somepositive effect, such as the fact that protection of settlement sites from further destruction is now
generally visible after archeological excavations.
In addition, the ruins of a medieval public bath built from kiln-fired brick have been excavated in Osh(southern Kyrgyzstan), and at the medieval complex of Burana (Chui valley). After archeologicalexcavation, already more than thirty years ago, these remained without protection. However, thesemonuments have great importance as their number is very small in all of Central Asia.
In the future, we would like to preserve these objects, or at least to construct a canopy over the ruins.
In recent years, we were able to manage the protection of a medieval mausoleum of kiln-fired brick(the archeological and architectural complex of Burana) under the UNESCO project, and to establish a5297

canopy over the remains of features from a Buddhist temple of the sixth to seventh centuries (in the
Chui valley, and at sites of ancient settlement on the Red Small river, monuments mentioned in mycountry report).
6. Introduction to Environmental Archeology
The lecture and practical sessions were rather interesting and very useful, especially to archeologistsof ancient settlements and burials. For help in our work we sometimes rely on zoologists, as ourinstitute at present does not have such a laboratory. Usually, though, I collect a few bones of animals
as extant specimens (after a meal). In excavation there are cases when none of the participants could
define individually found fragments of bone. Nevertheless, in the future, I hope for more help throughcooperation with laboratories.
7. Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains
The lecturer Mr. Nakamura Ichiro gave us a detailed lesson on photo documentation of archaeologicalobjects, and the subject was very informative. This is because the qualitative recording of materials
through photos is an important and effective part of documentation. I liked the practical session andthe laboratory very much, as well as what was taught about the equipment and quality of photo taking,and the processing of materials, in photo documentation.

III. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to say thank you to Mr. Nishimura, Director of ACCU, for providing me the chance toparticipate in this training course. Also I would like to express my gratitude to all the members of theorganizational committee. Thanks again.

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Lao P.D.R.
Soukphachanh KHAMPHASOUKIntroduction
First of all, I am very happy to have participated in the training course on preservation and restorationof cultural heritage in the Asia/Pacific region. During the month-long program in Nara we visited anumber of ancient temples and other important building sites, which show some of the very interesting
history of Japan. Japan has done an excellent job in protecting, conserving and maintaining its cultural
heritage.
I think that Japan is a country with a rich collection of cultural properties. There are eight culturalproperties on the World Heritage List in Nara city alone. This training course has given me theopportunity to learn a lot about the system of archaeological site management for individual culturalproperties. One such property is the Heijo Palace site, which is designated as a Special Historic Site
and is an important historic monument of ancient Nara.

Lectures given by specialists
The lectures given by the specialists were very interesting because they have much experience inworking on cultural properties, and are considered experts in their fields. The classes listed below are
the ones I found extremely useful and relevant to my own work, as they dealt with site management
and conservation techniques for heritage sites which can be applied in my work as an engineer. The
photography class was interesting as it showed the different types of technology and skills needed forusing a camera well.
“The Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties in Japan,” by Professor INABA Nobuko,
World Heritage Studies, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Science, University ofTsukuba“The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan” and “Conservation and Utilisation ofCultural Heritage Resources (Cases in Japan),” by Mr. SUZUKI Chihei, Monuments andSites Division, Cultural Properties Department, Agency for Cultural Affairs“Maintenance and Management of Archaeological Sites in Practice I: Nara Heijo Palace Site,” by
Mr. SHIMADA Toshio, Architectural History Section, Department of Cultural Heritage, and
Mr. ISHIMURA Tomo, International Cooperation Section, Department of Planning and
Coordination, Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties“Introduction to Archaeological Prospection of Sites,” by Mr. KANEDA Akihiro, Center for
Archaeological Operations, Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
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“Photographic Documentation of Sites and Remains,” by Mr. NAKAMURA Ichiro, Photography
Section, Department of Planning and Coordination, Nara National Research Institute forCultural Properties

Museum visits
During the month-long course we visited a number of museums, including the Kyushu National
Museum, the National Museum of Ethnology, and the Asuka Historical Museum.
The museums that we visited displayed objects relating to world history and different cultures, as wellas the history of Japan and its culture. In particular, museums are often facilities which show evidence
and knowledge obtained through research undertaken at the cultural properties we visited. Items from
cultural properties were usefully displayed in the museums, but in my opinion, the perfect museum is
one that is easy to maintain, easy to understand, and it must be alive. The Asuka Historical Museum isa very good example with its exhibitions and simplicity in design. The museum is a living building
because people can join in activities that teach them about peasant life styles and other elements of theperiod in a public setting.

Site visits
Various historical sites were visited during the course. We visited the Heijo Palace site, the Fujiwara
Palace site, sites in Asuka village, Dazaifu, Yoshinogari, Korokan, and finally Fukuoka castle in
Kyushu. These site visits were interesting as they showed the various ways that sites are reconstructed,
and the different types of public displays, explaining the history and importance of the sites.
From the site visits and lectures regarding these places I obtained a lot of knowledge about culturalproperties, and the many methods and the technology used in conserving and protecting these sites.
However, while the information was interesting and a worthwhile experience, the technology andconservation methods used in Japan are difficult to apply in Lao P.D.R, due to a lack of money, skilled
personnel, and resources.

Preservation of culture
Although Japan has lost many treasures in the past due to development, it is obvious that thanks to thework of the government, various agencies such as ACCU Nara, and heritage specialists, many culturalproperties have been saved for future generations. During our course many of these cultural properties
were introduced to us, some of them now being World Heritage Sites. It is clear there are many
important cultural properties in Japan, and it is the job of specialists, government, and agencies such as
ACCU Nara, to continue protecting these sites from possible future development, so that future
generations can enjoy visiting them and learning from them about their history.

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While most of the one-month program focused on the buildings, and the archaeological work being
carried out at cultural properties and sites, it is clear that religion, the beliefs of the people, and respect
and pride in Japanese culture and history on the part of the general public as well as the government
are also important. These factors have played a major role in the preservation and protection of many
cultural properties. This is demonstrated though the protection and conservation of many Buddhist
temples and Shinto shrines in Nara. It is this strong respect for religion, culture and history in Japan,
and how they have shaped Japanese identity, that has kept many temples and shrines preserved andprotected, since to destroy them would mean losing a part of Japanese culture and heritage, which isimportant for Japanese identity. It is known that the architecture of the different temples and shrines
indicate their origins, with some aspects tracing back to China and Korea.

World Heritage Sites in Japan
In Japan the central and local governments offer financial support for the protection of World Heritage
Sites. World Heritage Sites in Japan are mostly wooden monuments, which represent the identity andspirituality of the Japanese people and the continuation of a lifestyle from the past to the present. In
Lao P.D.R, we do not have big wooden structures as in Japan, but we have our own special culturalproperties which show our culture and identity. Our cultural properties need specialists who can aid in
the protection and conservation of the properties for the future. Further training in heritage protection
and conservation techniques needs to be undertaken if our cultural properties are to survive for future
generations. Presently sites in Lao P.D.R are under threat from development, and damage brought byvisitors as well as by disasters and aging.
Lastly, I believe this program has been very important and relevant to my work as it has given me
more understanding about the archaeology, conservation and preservation of cultural properties, aswell as valuable ideas to take back to Lao P.D.R. The ideas learned here will be used to help toimprove our heritage protection and management system. Each participant gained some knowledge
from the experts and had the opportunity to discuss various topics with others. I have come tounderstand just how precious cultural heritage is and how vital it is to preserve it for the future.
I would like to thank ACCU Nara for giving us such an interesting, intensive, and unforgettable
experience.

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Marshall Islands
Kazutoyo WASE

Introduction
It was truly an honor to be a part of this year’s training course offered by the Asia-Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) on cultural heritage protection. An opportunity like this doesn’t comearound very often, so I planned on making the most of it. This training has provided me with extensive
hands-on experience and knowledge about preserving and protecting cultural heritage sites. Based on
the lectures and what I’ve seen in Japan, it is accurate to say that Japan is among the countries thatexcel at conserving cultural properties because of its long history. This training course has given me
the opportunity to engage with other participants and learn their methods of managing and preserving
cultural properties in their own countries. “Research, Analysis, and Preservation of ArchaeologicalSites and Remains,” from my own perspective, was the goal of the training. It might not be a simple
issue to tackle, but deserves a lot of time, attention, and proper analysis for applying it differently ineach country.
Before proceeding to the technical or methodological topics covered throughout the course, I would
like to extend my sincere gratitude to the course organizers.

Acknowledgements
I would like to take this time to recognize the Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan, the Asia-Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties(Tokyo and Nara), and the Nara Perfectural and Nara Municipal Governments for giving me thechance to broaden my skills in the field of archaeology. I would like to give thanks to the lecturers andinstructors for sharing their knowledge and expertise that will benefit and improve the treatment ofMarshall Islands cultural heritage sites. My warmest appreciation goes to the ACCU staff, tutors, and
Ms. Hata Chiyako for all the hard work they committed to making this training course a success.
Thank you for making my stay here in Japan a memorable and unforgettable experience.

Course Curriculum
The training course provided applicants with new methodologies and principles for the protection,conservation, preservation, and utilization of cultural heritage sites. It also gave us a glimpse of how torecord and analyze sites and artifacts the Japanese way. Below are the topics covered by the organizers
throughout the one month training course.

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x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Global Trends in Conservation of Archaeological Sites
The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan
Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources in Japan
Introduction to Archaeological Prospection
Introduction to Environmental Archaeology
Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods
Introduction to Dendrochronology
Introduction to Conservation Science
Recording of Archaeological Features and Artifacts
Conservation Treatment of Artifacts
Preservation, Development, and Utilization of Archaeological Sites
Future Issues on the Conservation of Cultural Heritage

In addition to the above, I personally found extremely interesting an item provided by the course
participants, the sessions consisting of country reports. This is because the participants were fromdifferent parts of the world, and we all shared different problems/solutions regarding cultural heritage
protection. Some are facing similar problems, others somewhat different, while others are very remote.
Because of this I was able to gain knowledge of what are the biggest concerns and needs of others incarrying out their duties as conservationists or preservationists. This made me aware of what issues
might arise in the future that are still yet to be discovered and addressed in the Marshall Islands. It also
provided feedback on how applicants from different countries respond to different problems that
others were facing.

Brief Course Overview
The training course began with Global Trends in the Conservation of Archaeological Sites. It showed
how our actions as conservationists/preservations can both harm as well as benefit a site by excavatingit, then leaving it exposed and vulnerable. “Your Monument, our Shrine,” a quote from Dr. Gamini
Wijesuryia’s PowerPoint presentation grabbed my attention. So in order to counteract these negative
effects, new technologies and new methods are introduced to enhance research, analysis, conservation,and the protection of cultural sites or properties. I myself have witnessed the efficiencies of these new
methods and recognize that Japan has reached a new plateau regarding cultural protection systems.
As of right now, the Marshall Islands can only apply several of the perspectives discussed during thecourse of the training. What we do in our office is mainly to record, document, and preserve culturalsites or artifacts. Our main focus is leaving something discovered the way it is, not allowing the loss ofauthenticity while still on-site. Of course documentation and recording are done before backfilling a
specific feature, but this is mainly due to our office not having the resources to preserve these features.
As a result of this training course, I was able to gain more knowledge of the techniques of
documenting such as drawing and photography, to record the original state before something becomes
lost or damaged.

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As I’ve learned during the training, when documenting or drawing artifacts, one must include the fulldetails of the object, which means describing every little detail that is present on the object you have
before you. According to the instructors, one must be patient and fully determined in order to sketch
the artifact successfully. This method is an instrumental way to keep the original’s integrity intact tobe stored for future usage. After being introduced to this technique of drawing artifacts, I strongly
believe it will be an important tool that can be applied to our work in the office.
This is because what we in our office
is mainly to encounter in our daily
activities such artifacts that needproper restoration and documentation. We may not have theresources available, but now that
I’ve acquired this new skill I can goahead and document on behalf of ouroffice.
Another method of keeping an
artifact’s authenticity which I also
found very useful is the photographing of artifacts. We know that aphotograph tells a thousand words, and what is more useful is a way of backing that up by a detailed
presentation showing an artifact’s dimensional attributes. A range of light sources differeing from
regular light can be used, and depending on where you position the light, you can capture photos fromdifferent angles and your outcomes will be different. Thus taking photographs is necessary forrecording sites and remains. I think this too will be one of our assets because most of our artifacts are
small enough to be photographed and drawn.

With improved documentation possible thanks to the help of this training, our office can better utilize
the artifacts that are in store for us. From my point of view this section of the training course was oneof the best that ACCU had to offer.

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Site Visits
Many of the sites that we visited here in Japan, which included the Heijo Palace site and the Imperial
Palace sites at Asuka and Fujiwara, the Yoshinogari site, etc., provided an in-depth way to see how theJapanese safeguard their cultural sites. After touring and observing these sites I realized that most of
the cultural heritage sites here are reconstructed. This practice of reconstruction, as I understand it, is aprocess in which the original remains are excavated and surveyed, and later they are backfilled and a
new structure is built on top of it. Almost all of the sites are preserved underground with a depth on 18
cm or more. By contrast, in the Marshalls Islands reburying is the only solution for preservation,
because we don’t have the facilities, resources, and most importantly, the necessary funding. What is
also very different in the Marshall Islands is our belief that reconstructing over the original material
may cause it to lose its authenticity, thus resulting in different usage and functions, forms and designs,
and spirit and feeling to a site. But we do have cases where if a site is very significant, and is the only
resource of its kind, we then proceed with the conservation with the help of outside sources. An
example would be the Joachim deBrum Plantation, which is located in the outer islands of Majuro.
Established in 1904, it was the only house in Micronesia that was placed under the National Registerof Historic Places. Although some participants did not agree with this idea, I found it effective
especially because Japan has a lot of resources. Reconstruction also helps interpretation, and gives
people a glimpse of what the site was once originally. Although the spiritual feeling is altered, butthere is still a sense of pride looming in the atmosphere.

Heijo Palace Site

Yoshinogari Site
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During these on-site tours, the participants were exposed to the advanced technologies andmethodologies keeping these structures standing. These advanced technological devices can help
further elevate our performance in preserving and protecting cultural properties. But due to the lack offunding and expertise, to employ these means we can only use tools that are within our reach,
therefore they must be placed into future plans for preservation and protection. I personally think that
our office needs such devices, although it will take some time for funding and purchasing of theequipment. After being amazed by what these devices can do, it made me realize that with thesemeans at hand, our office will surely benefit greatly. But I am confident that without this equipment
our office can still do its work, although it might take some time, and because of that I will try toconvince my superiors to purchase such equipment. Not all the devices introduced can be utilized in
our future preservation work, but I believe that I might be seeing some of them later on.

Understandings Taken from the Course
All of the topics discussed during the course were interesting and worthwhile. I find the Japanese wayof preservation and protection very effective. Using all kinds of knowledge and resources to various
degrees, and applying these to their archaeological work, not just for sites and remains but the wholesituation of heritage, results in the proper protection and utilization of cultural properties. Although
this practice may not be readily applied in other parts of the world, it can certainly be declared as
instructive. Development and utilization of cultural properties is a key focus here in Japan, and its
main emphasis is on reconstructing structures and archaeological remains. In addition this practicetakes a lot of creativity and wise choices. Although the authenticity of the site may be altered, theinterpretation remains and reminds the Japanese people of what past life was like.

Comments
The entire training course was a success, although it lacked some basics that could use much moreemphasis. Some of the materials covered were quite complicated and would have been better if
presented in English. It would be helpful if they were all English because different people havedifferent perceptions and ideas of the material. PowerPoint presentations are always excellent sourcesof information; the instructors did an excellent job in preparing them. Finally, the duration of thecourse was not long enough to cover all the material. It would have been nice to have it a bit longer inorder to extract all the information available to each applicant, but the bottom line is everything else
was great!

Conclusion
All in all, the entire training program was successful and unforgettable, and has broadened my views
on many archaeological issues. It has been very useful for many participants, not just myself, and it
also provided me such great insights into the study of archaeology with regards to conservation andrestoration methods for cultural heritage in other countries. I know I am very proud to be selected,
5306because I had a chance to learn from the finest instructors Japan has to offer. From this training I’m
confident that I can go back and help my country in preservation work of cultural properties. Comingfrom a small and developing country, this was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for me, to experiencesuch a high level of methodologies and techniques that Japan has used to elevate itself above the restof the world. The knowledge I’ve gained will not only benefit me, but also my country.
Once again, the topic of cultural heritage protection is vital for knowing about one’s history.
Preserving, restoring, and utilizing archaeological sites is of great value; these are the very foundations
that make each country individual, and uniquely different from all the others.
Arigato Gozaimasu.
Kom Kanuj in Emol (Thank you very much).

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Myanmar
Aung Aung Kyaw

Introduction
I would like to thank Director Nishimura Yasushi and the ACCU officers, the Japanese professors andlecturers from ACCU, ICCROM and NNRICP, for this opportunity to participate in the training course
on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2010, “Research, Analysis and Preservationof Archaeological Sites and Remains,” which was held from 7 September to 7 October 2010. The
sixteen participants from sixteen countries learned both from the Japanese heritage professionals’
lectures, and by sharing their own experiences and knowledge. This program has given me a good
opportunity to expand my knowledge of theoretical and technical work in the analysis andpreservation of archaeological materials and sites. Throughout this training course, I have learned how
the Japanese protect and preserve their cultural heritage and observed their modern techniques andmethods of research and analysis.

The Training Course
All sixteen participants submitted their country reports, focusing mainly on the problems and needs ofcultural heritage protection in their respective countries. The training course provided a good
opportunity for all participants from the Asia/Pacific region to exchange views and ideas withcolleagues from different countries. The training course began with an introduction to “Global Trends
in Conservation of Archaeological Sites” by Mr. Gamini WIJESURIYA of ICCROM. He talked about
the challenges confronting heritage management in different parts of the world. Each heritage site has
its own problems and needs. Management entails understanding the internal nature of the site, its
historical development, significance, and function in the lives of the people who live at or use the site.
Then, we also learned about the values of archaeological sites and remains, about the preservation of
the heritage being influenced by a variety of factors both positive and negative, about archaeologicalcontext and environmental control, and different views of diversity and managing archaeological
heritage sites and remains. I also became acquainted with the different international charters,
recommendations and convention guidelines for heritage conservation in various parts of the world.
The lecture delivered by Mr. SUZUKI Chihei on “The Cultural Property Protection System in Japan,”and the following lecture on “Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage in Japan,” were very
useful for understanding the legal framework for the protection of cultural heritage in Japan. We
studied the cultural landscape areas which have developed in association with the modes of life or
livelihoods of the people and natural features of the region. The law for the protection of culturalproperties has been continuously revised by the government and concerned parties. It has become a1308

foundation for the conservation and utilization of cultural heritage resources. This lecture provided an
outline of guidelines that govern the funding, management, conservation and protection of culturalproperties from both international and national perspectives. We observed examples of culturallandscapes associated with agriculture, grassland or livestock ranching and forest uses, mining andindustrial manufacture, transportation and communication, and residences and settlements. Culturallandscapes can have a combination of two or more of the characteristics, listed above, which represent
typical or unique elements of the basic modes of life or livelihood of the people.
The Nara Heijo Palace site is one of the most interesting places in Japan for research, preservation,
restoration, maintenance and management of heritage. Preservation of the actual remains is achievedby leaving them untouched, or when excavated, by reburying them under soil. There are many
maintenance principles such as sustainable conservation, preservation and providing facilities for thesite. A significant aspect of this site is not only preservation but also the use of modern techniques.
The Heijo Palace site and the Imperial Palace sites at Asuka and Fujiwara really provided us much
valuable knowledge about the preservation, restoration and management of these cultural heritage sites.
The concept of site museums in such areas is very interesting and should be studied further.
There are many kinds of archaeological artifacts, such as ceramics, roof tiles, wooden items, stone
implements, etc. Archaeological artifacts provide a wealth of information on archaeological sites andremains. Drawing is an especially important means of documenting artifacts and recording the data
they provide. When we find an artifact, first we observe the condition of the material, its
characteristics and other information. Then we treat the artifact for conservation over a long time. All
the participants in the training course carried out practical work of drawing items such as pottery andstone tools. A photographic record is also necessary as an important method for recordingarchaeological artifacts and site remains. We learned basic knowledge of the many kinds of cameras,
the storage of photograph records, how to take photos to get high quality, and general knowledge ofphotographs. Our country needs training courses for non-professional photographers, such as culturalproperties workers at archaeological sites, and conservators at laboratories for cultural properties.
In hearing the lecture on the “Introduction to Environmental Archaeology,” we observed interrelations
between the eating habits of people and the environment in ancient Japan. Studies have been made tounderstand the flora and fauna, the environment and food habits of the animals eaten, and to make age
and sex determinations of human skeletons found during the excavations. Environmental archaeology
asks “what do plant and organic remains tell us?” Pollen analysis is a widely utilized method for
identifying plant remains in archaeology. Other methods include the identification of seeds, fruit, andtree species. The methods are used to study the vegetation of the environment, and ancient eating
habits, at archaeological sites and remains. Recently, dendrochronological analysis of ancient wooden

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cultural properties is being applied to a wide range of materials, including archaeological artifacts,building components, wooden sculptures and handicrafts.
We learned from so many lectures in this training course, in different fields of research. All of thelectures and workshops will be very useful for our country. I am interested in archaeological survey
equipment such as Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), magnetometry and electric resistivity surveys,
etc. We know that archaeological prospection is very important before excavation. We could
determine where we can get more information from a site in our research. And also, we can prepare
and plan for excavation better using the modern equipment and techniques. We observed that there aremany scientific dating methods such as tree ring dating, radiocarbon dating, thermoluminescence,fission track dating, electron paramagnetic resonance, paleogeomagnetism, etc. In Myanmar, we
usually date by 14C measurement, and by typological and stratigraphic methods.
As a study tour, we went to Kyushu and observed the Yayoi settlement site of Yoshinogari, theKyushu National Museum, the Korokan site and Fukuoka castle. The Yayoi settlement site (300 BC300 AD) was very interesting for me. The reconstruction at the site was truly impressive. The
reconstructed wooden houses at the site show the characteristics of those days. At this site, double jar
burials were found at many places in the area. Similarly in Myanmar, we find big burial jars used insets. But they are only for burials of babies. Sometimes we find burial jar sets with two or more piecesof pottery. We never find adult skeletons in the burial jar sets.

Double burial jar set, Yoshinogari site in Japan

Double baby burial jar set in Myanmar

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Baby burial jar set in Myanmar

The Kyushu National Museum showed a high level of presentation and display with modern
techniques adopted by the Japanese professionals. In this museum, we studied many ancient artifactsof Japan and other countries. I admired their systems for analysis, preservation, storage and security
using high levels of technology.
At the end of the training course, we enjoyed a lecture on “Heritage at Risk” by Ms. Montira
Horayangura Unakul, UNESCO Bangkok. We learned about “What we are protecting from risk” and a“value-based approach to heritage management.” Risk management is very important for cultural
heritage. When cultural heritage is exposed it may face dangerous situations or damage, and it isnecessary to plan for such situations. However, viewed from a different standpoint, such risk is sharedwith other peoples who are blessed with cultural heritage. Of course there are many internationalorganizations such as UNESCO, ICCROM, and ICOMOS. But it is very difficult to devise special
techniques of risk management.

Conclusion
The training course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2010 has provided allparticipants with opportunities to gain knowledge and study new methods of conservation andrestoration of cultural heritages. This training course has also provided me with various ways in which

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heritage management can be practiced based on the experience of Japan. This training course also
introduced me to many modern technologies, conservation, preservation, and research analysis
techniques. This course has been of great value to me, as it has provided me with a special opportunity
to learn from other countries and become aware of potential issues that could be encountered in thepresent and future. I will also share the experience and knowledge I gained from this training course inJapan with my colleagues and the younger generation.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the government of Japan for giving me the chance to attend the ACCU Training
Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2010, and the International Centre
for the Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of Japan, Nara National Institute for Cultural Properties (NNRICP), the Cultural Heritage
Protection Cooperation Office of the Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara), andthe Nara prefectural and municipal governments. I am really grateful to Mr. NISHIMURA Yasushi,
Director of ACCU Nara, Mr. TAKAHASHI Wataru, Mr. KOBAYASHI Ken’ichi, Ms. KATO Naoko,
Ms. HORIKAWA Kazuko, Ms. NISHIDA Michiko, Ms. OTANI Yasuko, Ms. HATA Chiyako, Ms.
KIMATA Akiko, Ms. LEE Jihee, Mr. TAGASHIRA Naoki and Mr. HANEDA Tomohiro. I am also
grateful to all the lecturers and all the ACCU staff for the excellent and wonderful organization during
the entire period of this training course.

5312New ZealandKathryn HURREN

Introduction
The training course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia-Pacific Region 2010, “Research,
Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains,” was extremely interesting andinformative. The course ran from 7 September to 7 October 2010 and incorporated various seminars,
workshops as well as on-site lectures to show the 16 participants from countries around the AsiaPacific Region the techniques that are used by Japan to help reconstruct and preserve archaeologicalsites in the country. This final report supplements the country report that was submitted to ACCU
Nara as part of being accepted for the training course and details the problems faced in New Zealandby comparing aspects of archaeological site preservation in New Zealand and Japan, and showing how
the topics covered in the course are applicable to New Zealand. The final report will detail the
relevance of the training course to my position as Regional Archaeologist for the New Zealand
Historic Places Trust (NZHPT) and how I shall implement the relevant teachings of the course to aid
in the preservation of the archaeological record of New Zealand for future generations.

Comparisons with New Zealand and how the training programme can be applied
As a Regional Archaeologist for the NZHPT Central Region Office my position has two functions.
The first function is to ensure adherence with the archaeological provisions of the Historic Places Act
1993 (HPA 1993), to undertake compliance monitoring, and to investigate site damage. The otherfunction of my position is to advocate for the retention and protection of archaeological sites and toeducate people on the history of New Zealand and the significance of our archaeological record.
Below I shall detail the different seminars of the course, and how they are applicable to my position at
the NZHPT in relation to my two functions.
The first session of the training programme introduced us to global trends regarding protecting
heritage as well as the education programmes and work undertaken by ICCROM. This session waspresented by Gamini Wijesuriya who discussed with us the history of UNESCO, ICCROM andICOMOS, as well as putting forward valuable discussion topics on the conservation and managementof archaeological sites. Suggestions for better site preservation in our own countries included goingover our principle legislation for heritage protection as well as other legislation that aids in managing
and conserving archaeological sites. Our countries need to look at the main institutes and regulations
in relation to heritage as well as looking at our national along with international resources. It was
highlighted that heritage protection needs to be proactive and not reactive. This session was very
valuable in that ideas about heritage protection were discussed and suggestions for better site
preservation and conservation were identified which are extremely applicable to the situation in New
Zealand.

1

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The second session of the training course had individual participants report on heritage protection in
their countries. This session demonstrated that many countries had similar issues, and that by
discussing these issues with each other possible solutions could be found and applied to our own
countries.
The third session was very valuable to me as Regional Archaeologist for the NZHPT, as it was on
cultural property protection and discussed the legislation of Japan. New Zealand and Japan have
similar legislation, but New Zealand’s legislation in the HPA 1993 does not encompass all the heritage
items that the Japanese legislation does. The legislation that protects archaeological sites in Japan is
the Law for the Protection of Cultural Heritage 1950 (amended 2004) which protects archaeologicalsites as well as cultural landscapes. The HPA 1993 only protects archaeological sites, which aredefined as any place in New Zealand that was associated with human activity that occurred before
1900, or is the site of the wreck of any vessel where that wreck occurred before 1900, and which may
be able through investigation by archaeological methods to provide evidence relating to the history of
New Zealand. No work on an archaeological site can be undertaken without an archaeologicalauthority from the NZHPT. While it is clear that archaeological sites are protected by law, the HPA
1993 does not cover post-1900 archaeological sites or cultural landscapes, and because of this even if
an archaeological site is protected and preserved the landscape in which the site is located may beruined by development. This can be clearly seen in large-scale developments such as subdivisions,dams or wind farms.
Another factor about the Japanese legislation is that all artefacts are protected regardless of their origin,while in New Zealand only Maori artefacts are protected under the Protected Objects Act 1975 (POA
1975), meaning that items of European or other non-Maori cultures are the property of landowners
who can do whatever they like with the items. The POA 1975 should be changed along the lines of theJapanese law where everything is protected regardless of origin, as little consideration and respect are
given to items of non-Maori origin due to the current legislation. Items and sites of European origin
are often only protected by the good will of the developer or landowner, but nothing else.
After the first four sessions the training course became more practical, beginning with maintenanceand management of archaeological sites in practice. This session introduced us to the preservation andreconstruction methods used in Japan and a site visit to the Heijo Palace site was undertaken. Thissession ties in with a another site visit to the Imperial Palace sites at Asuka and Fujiwara as well as athree-day study tour to Fukuoka where we visited Yoshinogari, Kyushu National Museum, Dazaifu
and finally Korokan and Fukuoka Castle in Fukuoka City. These lectures and site visits wereinteresting as they showed the various techniques used for archaeological site management in Japan,
and it was interesting to see what information was used to preserve and reconstruct sites. The types ofpreservation and maintenance include covering over the archaeological remains and then making areconstruction over the buried remains, or leaving excavated areas exposed so that visitors can viewthe true archaeological surface, and lastly, showing how the site was excavated via reconstruction of
the excavated site. Reconstruction/preservation of archaeological sites is rarely undertaken in New

2314

Zealand, unlike Japan, and I know of only three examples where archaeological sites have beenpreserved in situ for public display. Of these sites two are in Wellington and the other is in Dunedin.
New Zealand’s archaeology is mostly subsurface and the most acceptable form of preservation andconservation of archaeological sites are leaving the sites protected underground.
Continuing on from maintenance and management of archaeological sites, lectures and workshops on
documentation of archaeological artefacts were held. These three sessions were very practical andwere good for updating skills, but were not core to my position at the NZHP.
After the sessions on documenting archaeological artefacts, sessions on prospecting of archaeologicalsites using non-invasive techniques were given. While non-invasive survey methods such as GPR are
employed in New Zealand they are not in the mainstream and only a handful of people are skilled
enough in using these techniques. In New Zealand archaeological sites are often only identified via
excavation which is destructive to the archaeological remains and does not leave many options topreserve the site from destruction. People not properly identifying the potential for archaeologicalremains, and beginning work not knowing what to expect, are two fundamental problems of my job at
the NZHPT as issues which arise when important finds are made. Utilising non-invasive methods prior
to development and construction work would give people a better understanding of what may be
encountered, as well as help put procedures in place to deal with important discoveries. Once back in
New Zealand I shall highlight the need for more use of non-invasive analysis such as GPR and otherprospecting techniques.
The following sessions, after prospecting of archaeological sites, included treatments of environmentalarchaeology and photography. Both sessions were very interesting in different ways. Environmentalarchaeology was good for refreshing my knowledge but was not essentially relevant to my position at
the NZHPT as I deal mostly with legislation and advocacy. The photography session was relevant anduseful, as I am often out in the field taking photographs of archaeological sites or buildings. The
session added to my knowledge and understanding of techniques used in photography, as well as
explaining technical elements and terminology of cameras. The session updated my skills and gave me
new understandings of how to take photographs, which I shall utilise in New Zealand when in the field.
The sessions on conservation science and dendrochronology were interesting and contained very
valuable ideas, as well as highlighting issues for New Zealand archaeology which shall be mentioned
directly below. The conservation techniques in relation to wooden artefacts, and use ofdendrochronology are relevant to New Zealand as the most common items discovered during
excavations in New Zealand are wooden artefacts. Soil analysis is also relevant, as often it is thechange in the soil that indicates the presence of an archaeological site in New Zealand, especially in
relation to Maori gardening and pre-European disasters. This session highlighted a very large issue
that New Zealand has, which is the lack of resources and skilled people to undertake particular tasks
such as GPR or wooden artefact conservation. Presently there are only two archaeological consultancy
companies skilled in undertaking GPR and magnetometer surveys. Both companies are based in3315

Auckland which can cause issues if work needs to be undertaken in the southern part of New Zealand.
There is only one person who works in wooden artefact conservation in New Zealand, and if thisperson happens to be away on holiday when a wooden artefact is found then there is no one else who
can be contacted to look at the item. There needs to be more people skilled in undertaking GPR andmagnetometer surveys and being able to interpret the results. Other techniques such as
dendrochronology and soil analysis are not well utilised. Dendrochronology has been utilised inhistoric sites for dating possible historic house construction, but little else. This dating technique has
further potential for aiding in archaeological work in New Zealand.
In the final two sessions, risk management and utilising heritage sites for the public were discussed.
Both these sessions were relevant to my work, as New Zealand is a disaster prone country and the
NZHPT owns and manages heritage buildings which are also archaeological sites as defined by the
HPA 1993. Issues relating to disasters such as earthquakes and flooding are constantly raised, as areissues from visitors to not only NZHPT sites but sites all over New Zealand.

Relevance of the training programme to conservation work in New Zealand
A number of issues covered during the six-week course were extremely relevant to New Zealand, inparticular the session on risk management. New Zealand is a disaster prone country with many floods,
earthquakes as well as other threats like fires. In my position of Regional Archaeologist as the NZHPTI commonly encounter situations where urgent stabilisation or repair work is required on anarchaeological site due to flooding, landslides, storm activity and earthquakes. The most important
aspect that was taken from this session, and which will be highlighted to my colleagues, is the conceptof identifying risk and how to manage the various types of risks that may eventuate in relation toarchaeological sites during disasters.
The sessions on legislation were extremely relevant to conservation work in New Zealand. While theJapanese and New Zealand legislations are similar, the Japanese legislation extends further that the
HPA 1993 by protecting all sites and artefacts as well as cultural landscapes. The HPA 1993 only
protects sites defined as archaeological while the POA 1975 only protects artefacts of Maori origin. I
would like to see the HPA 1993 extended to include cultural landscapes as well as protect all sites
considered archaeological. The POA 1975 should also be extended to protect artefacts of European
and other non-Maori cultures. These are ideas I shall take back to New Zealand in order to be
discussed.
Listening to other participants talk about their countries and the types of issues that they encounter was
extremely relevant. Many countries share the same issues such as development, legislation issues,
population growth, natural disasters and climate change issues. This created a forum in which
participants could further discuss their countries and how to manage the variety of issues that arecommonly encountered. The discussion led to the identification of the need for people to collaborate
and work together in order to achieve the goal of archaeological and historic site preservation. The
idea of collaboration and working together can applied to the situation in New Zealand. While the4316

NZHPT administrates the HPA 1993, there are other stakeholders involved in heritage management
and the protection of archaeological sites. Regional and local councils are obligated under the
Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA 1991) to look into the effects of any development on historicaland archaeological values. Local iwi groups have a vested interest in the management of their cultural
history that relates often to their very identity. Historical societies, consultant archaeologists as well as
research archaeologists based at Auckland or Otago University also have vested interests in thearchaeological record of New Zealand. However, while all of the above mentioned groups have vested
interests, there is presently not enough cohesion or discussion among the different groups. A betterworking relationship and understanding of each others’ positions and functions is needed in order that
better collaboration may happen which will result in the protection and preservation of archaeologicalsites in New Zealand. One of my goals once I return to New Zealand is to foster better working
relationships and understanding between the different stakeholders.
On a larger scale, collaboration between groups in New Zealand with organisations in other countries
needs to occur. New Zealand does not have the resources or training to undertake reconstruction orpreservation of archaeological sites in many of the ways undertaken in Japan. This is clearly seen in
the treatment and conservation of wooden artefacts in New Zealand, in which there is only one
specialist in the whole country.
After learning about the Japanese system, it feels as if Japan is better organised, has strong
government support and funding, as well as strong legislation protecting archaeological sites. Japan is
also very proactive in preserving and managing its cultural heritage, with large-scale excavation,
reconstruction and preservation work led by the government. These are attributes that I would like tohave in New Zealand. The NZHPT is the lead heritage agency in New Zealand but in saying this, the
NZHPT is underfunded and understaffed for such a large task. Work at the NZHPT tends to bereactive instead of proactive. Not only that, but the NZHPT is not funded to undertake preservation
work like that seen in Japan. Archaeology in New Zealand is presently led more by development thanfor research or reconstruction/preservation purposes. The focus of archaeology in New Zealand needs
to change from mitigating the effects of development by excavation to advocating for preserving
archaeological sites. While it is acknowledged that the world changes and that development cannot be
stopped, it is important to try and preserve and protect archaeological sites and to identify what is thelimit of acceptable change that a site can withstand. More incentives need to be given to landowners toprotect and preserve archaeological sites on their properties, and more support is needed from thegovernment as well as regional and local councils.

Conclusion
In conclusion the training course has been most beneficial and many ideas and concepts identified
during the course can be applied to New Zealand. The Japanese government and the Japanese people
have a real appreciation of their cultural heritage and it shows in their attitudes and the way sites arecared for and preserved. There is a sense of pride in the history of Japan and the in archaeological sitesthat show this history, which is also part of the Japanese identity. This is not so in New Zealand as5317

people do not seem to appreciate their heritage, claiming our country is too young for our heritage tobe important. New Zealanders miss the point that because we are a young country which wascolonised last in world history, we are extremely unique. The archaeology in New Zealand is foundnowhere else in the world and for this reason alone it needs to be protected and preserved. The
disregard for our cultural heritage is not helped by a pro-development government and local andregional councils that will not fulfil their duty in terms of the RMA 1991.
The ideas and practices that I will take back to New Zealand include advocating for more use of noninvasive prospecting techniques, further collaboration and education with groups who have a vested
interest in archaeological site protection as well as international collaboration, identification of risk
and how to manage risk in relation to disasters, and finally, identifying areas where there are skill
shortages and looking at how these shortages can be rectified. It is clear that the issues faced in New
Zealand are also faced by other countries. We share common problems and wish to obtain the same
goal of archaeological site preservation in order that future generations may enjoy learning about theirpast and the interesting histories of their country as well as the world. By working together andapplying the ideas, techniques and concepts learnt on this course to our own countries we can move
forward, change ideas and perceptions and preserve more archaeological and historical sites for future
generations.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank ACCU Nara’s Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, ICCROM, Nara
National Institute for Cultural Properties, and the Agency for Cultural Affairs of Japan for organisingand accepting me on this training course. I would like to thank ACCU Nara for looking after us
participants and making sure our needs were met and our stay in Japan comfortable.

6318

Pakistan
Asadullah KHAN

It was very beneficial for me to have the chance of participating in the Training Course on Cultural
Heritage Protection in the Asia-Pacific Region 2010. Through this training programme I learned
various conservation techniques, and it enabled me to enhance my knowledge and broaden my vision.
Moreover, I also got the chance for interaction with training participants from fifteen other countries.
It also provided me an opportunity to closely observe the traditions and cultural traits of Japan. This
training will be helpful and beneficial to me in various ways in my profession as an archaeologist. An
overview of various conservation problems and techniques for resolving them will be highlighted here,
noting to what extent these conservation techniques are applicable in my country.
From the very first day of the training programme, I found that many things of which I was not aware
regarding heritage, its protection, conservation and utilisation, were thoroughly introduced by Gamini
Wijesuriya. He also delivered a detailed lecture about the types of heritage, its value, risk conservation,and utilisation, and addressed how to protect cultural properties for future generations.
Presentations by all the participants from different countries enlightened me with new trends and terms
used for the preservation of tangible and intangible cultural properties. For example, Ulaiasi
Motonikumi, the participant from Fiji, used the term “cultural mapping” in connection with thepreservation of their intangible cultural properties. And I found quite interesting the ways andprocedures for recording, documenting and preserving their customs, to keep these customs alive for
future generations. In a country like Pakistan a large degree of cultural diversity exists. Different
peoples have different customs, traditions and cultural traits while living within the country. Verysmall-scale initiatives have been taken by the Ministry of Culture to protect intangible properties, butthese are not yet well established.
At the end of the presentations from all sixteen participants, a detailed lecture was delivered by Inaba
Nobuko, Professor with the University of Tsukuba, regarding the history of legislation for protection
and conservation of cultural properties, scenic beauty and cultural landscapes. Suzuki Chihei alsopresented the legislation and regulations for protection. In his presentation some terms which wereused for cultural properties were very confusing, such as the term “monument” when used for scenic
beauty and some unique species of dogs and deer. But a monument to me should be a structure, built
by humans, having the age of one hundred years or more. Regardless, while focusing on the legislation
for the protection of cultural properties, it seems to me that there is no provision to protect culturalproperties from encroachments. For example, Pakistan has the Antiquity Act 1975 for legal protection319

and preservation of the tangible cultural heritage. One clause of the Antiquity Act 1975, which is very
important for preserving cultural property, I would like to quote here: “No development plan and workon or within two hundred feet of the archaeological site is allowed. Whosoever found guilty must be
punishable for at least three years imprisonment and fine.”
I asked many times this question to various lecturers as to whether any provision exists in thelegislation of Japan for preserving the tangible cultural properties, which prohibits development on orwithin some distance of an archaeological site. And the answer to my question was always no.
According to the lecturers the land is usually under private ownership, and once the research work iscompleted then the owner of the land is allowed to construct or carry out any sort of development. In
my view the tangible cultural properties need strong legislation and its implementation. Otherwisearchaeological sites are subjected to being completely ruined and their physical appearance will nolonger exist, and all sorts of values are lost, such as historical, architectural and spiritual. Physicalexistence is very important and necessary for visitors, to provide them with some sort of idea about theessence of ancient history.
Throughout the training course, it came to my attention that in Japan very small sections ofarchaeological sites are excavated, with the help of a researcher and latest and advanced
archaeological tools and equipment, while keeping research objectives in view. Though this sort of
excavation can be appreciated for the minimal disturbance to the remains, the practice is not seen of
dividing the site into equal trenches, usually 5x5 m each, and the excavation is not carried out to thevirgin soil, which is very important for the recovery of full periodic data. Lacking this technique cancause missing some of the archaeological data. The practice of excavation in Pakistan is that anarchaeological site is divided into 5x5 m grids, and then excavation is carried out down to the virgin
soil, and each and every artefact is documented on the spot by using finds tags and cards, with themeasurement of depth from the bottom and by indicating the layer number and orientation. It would bemuch better if the same pattern of excavation is practiced in Japan.
Regarding the Nara Heijo Palace site, which is of course a large and important cultural property ofJapan, it is well maintained and provided with all the basic facilities for the public. But still thismassive complex is not presenting the essence of conservation. According to Shimada Toshio theoriginal surface and remains lie some 80 cm below the present surface level of the ground. And theexisting palace is a reconstruction based on the old features of the Heijo palace. When the word“conservation” is used for a cultural property, then it means that the cultural property andarchaeological sites must be treated in a way that shows its authenticity, and must be similar to theoriginal in all aspects, whether it is a question of material or appearance. But in the case of the Heijo
palace, nothing looks like conservation work but each and every structure gives the impression of
being a new construction. During our visit to the site I did not feel anything related to any sort of value,320such as the architectural, historical, spiritual and cultural values. While listening to the lecture of
Shimada Toshio, he stated that it is very difficult to reconstruct the building 100 percent with ancienttechnology and traditional materials, but here is a matter of conservation and reconstruction creating
very conflicting perspectives to be applied as conservation. The term “reconstruction” can change
everything about the site by defining one’s own imaginative approach to the ancient structures.
Excavations are carried out at various places at the Heijo palace, and they have been refilled after the
research work. Features of the ancient structures are thus not visible, and concrete has been applied
and there are only the pillars indicated either by applying round concrete shapes or by planting trees.
In my view this is not the right procedure of conservation, and there must be some original structures,clearly visible for the public to get an idea of the ancient architectural features. Another drawback at
the Heijo palace is the presence of the railway track, which separates the main Suzaku gate from therest of the palace complex, and in my view it is a severe encroachment on the site, and a main hurdle
for the visitors in approaching the palace complex.
Continuing on the topic of preservation, conservation, maintenance and utilisation of culturalproperties and heritage, I found the Yoshinogari archaeological site, which is known as Yoshinogari
Historical Park in Saga prefecture, quite interesting and very attractive as compared to other ancientsites of Japan. Though all the structures are reconstructed, maximum effort has been made to give thesite an ancient architectural touch, and especially the moat all around the site has been given excellent
conservation work. The northern burial mound at the Yoshinagari site is impressively conserved andpreserved by providing a roof shelter to protect it from weathering. The ventilation system used tocontrol the humidity is also very interesting. For this purpose devices are installed on either side of themound, and air enters from one side and is exhausted on the other side. The Yoshinogari site also has
the characteristic of having all personnel of the basic facilities and the guards wearing ancient
traditional costumes, which provide the spirit of the Yayoi era.
The Haniwa Factory Park is an ancient kiln site we visited during our training course. This site had thefunction of producing haniwa burial pottery for the Imashirozuka burial mound. This site is certainly
well preserved and maintained. The main kiln is well sheltered and protected from damage which isusually caused by rainwater. The two workshop places are also covered, erecting shelters on an
imagined base, while the original features of the workshops have been refilled after research andanalysis. Although the site is well preserved and maintained, it has no sign boards in English forforeign visitors, and the site is exposed to threat due to the massive buildings which have been erectedvery near the site, and these buildings have a severe adverse effect on the view of this historical site.
But in a country like Pakistan such development works are strictly prohibited under the Antiquity Act
1975 and its Section 23. Another place of our visit was Imashirozuka burial mound. Though we did
not have ample time to observe the site thoroughly, an overview of the site showed it was inpresentable condition. This site is well protected by providing a boundary wall.

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Next, an excursion was made to Asuka village. We received leaflets about Asuka village, on which itis written that “history you must see” and “scenery you must feel.” This is very much true about thevillage of Asuka, and it was the combination of historical and natural beauty that impressed me. This
village has left strong images in my mind due to its high and lush green mountains with dense bamboo
forests. As far as the historical remains of Asuka village are concerned, almost all of the sites are wellpreserved and have been refilled after excavation and research work. Ishibutai kofun was the first site
we visited. Though such sites are well preserved, the defacement of some mural paintings at anothersite is a great loss of cultural property. However, it can be appreciated that the paintings are being
restored to some extent and will be preserved by the authority of Asuka Historical Museum.
Asukadera temple was another historical site on our visit. The original surface of the temple is 70 cm
under the present ground surface. Reconstruction of the temple is based on the old plan. Though thetemple is reconstructed, up to some extent it presents historical and spiritual value. The original
features of the temple were refilled after excavation and research work. And the old plan of the temple
is marked either with round stones or concrete, and the Kawaradera temple site has been treated withthe same technique of conservation. Another beautiful site in Asuka village is the Sakafunneishi site.
This site is of course very well maintained and preserved and shows real conservation work. Thisarchaeological site has immense importance due to its aesthetic value, and because in the ancient time
this spring was used for religious rituals. A unique characteristic of this cultural property is that
tortoise-shaped and oval stones were recovered, joined with each other for the flow of water, and they
can be observed and preserved in the same condition. Next to this we visited Sakafuneishi, which is alarge and massive stone and was used perhaps for making liquor or wine. This stone is partiallydamaged, but still it has its original shape. For better preservation it is necessary that this stone be
shifted to the Asuka Historical Museum.
Our visit to Fukuoka city in Kyushu was also interesting, and enlightened me with ancient culturalproperties like the site of the Dazaifu Government Office, which is a National Historical Site, and theruins of the Mizuki and Ono fortresses. The site of Dazaifu covers quite a large area, and after the
excavation and research work this site has been conserved by refilling.
The plan of this archaeological site is indicated by putting large round stones at places where thepillars stood. To the north of Dazaifu, ruins of Ono fortress are situated on a mountain top. Partial
excavation and research work has been conducted on a small scale. The original ruins are visible insome places, specially the fortification walls of the fortress. The construction material is stone. If thissite is fully excavated and massive structures exposed and preserved, then this place will be a centre of
attraction for visitors and researchers.
Korokan was the last archaeological site we visited. This site is yet not fully excavated, and excavation
and research work are still in progress. Part of the excavated section is well sheltered and well322

preserved from weathering. This was quite interesting, and a display of a small number of artefacts
with an audiovisual system is also installed.
Besides the visits to various archaeological sites and cultural properties, many lectures and workshops
were held concerning the documentation of sites and artefacts. It was a good experience for me, as I
got exposure to methods for documenting artefacts, especially the drawing of pottery and stone tools.
We also observed the research and conservation laboratories for pottery and wooden artefacts as well.
Here one cannot deny that these laboratories are fully equipped with modern devices for
documentation and restoration of these artefacts. But here the question arises: how to utilize thistraining programme? Because in a country like Pakistan there are no such archaeological researchlaboratories for restoration and documentation of such artefacts. We usually rely on manual methods
and techniques of documentation and restoration. Here I would like to add that during the course of
training we have not been provided the chance for ample time to learn in practice all of these things,
and of course we have not been involved in learning to use the latest technology for documenting
artefacts.
The topic and lecture of archaeological prospection/survey was interesting and broadened my vision
about collecting preliminary data on an archaeological site using various scientific devices. In thearchaeological prospection the subterranean data of a site is collected without doing any harm anddamage to the remains. This practice in Japan is very interesting and very helpful before conducting
excavation and research work. Various devices are used for this purpose, such as GPR, electric
resistivity equipment, electric probe placement array, fluxgate magnetometer and magnetic andelectromagnetic devices. Pakistan and almost all the countries where survey and excavation are done
should have this system of archaeological prospection, and all the relevant devices and skilled staff.
Environmental archaeology, which includes the study of artefacts of wood, nuts, seeds, and human andanimal bone, is another interesting subject. Documentation and conservation is done with the help ofvarious scientific devices in well-equipped and well-maintained laboratories by skilled professionals.
Radiocarbon dating, for determining the age of bones, and DNA tests are applied. In Pakistan,environmental archaeology is not developed in the Department of Archaeology, but there arezoological and botanical laboratories in various educational institutions which can help forestablishing the systematic study of environmental archaeology.
A workshop on photographic documentation of sites, remains and artefacts was conducted. Thissession on photographic documentation was very informative and useful for all of the participants.
Due to this workshop I learned various techniques and the right use of cameras and lighting for
professional photography. Various cameras from a small to large were introduced to us by defining theresolution and mega pixels of the different formats. It was shown to us in practice how light plays an323

important role in photography, especially for the photographing of small artefacts from various angles.
In my country photographic documentation is always done by a skilled professional, and the officer incharge of excavation is always least concerned with the photography. But it is very necessary to haveadequate knowledge of photography, for all professionals who conduct fieldwork and research.
Next was a lecture and workshop on the conservation of sites of archaeological remains. The lecture
was very informative, and various aspects of conservation science of archaeological sites and remains
were discussed. A few devices and chemicals for use in conservation were shown in practice, but still
there was not ample time for learning the use of devices and chemicals for the purpose of preservation.
Furthermore, a good presentation was delivered on the subject of dendrochronology by Okochi
Takayuki, which is an important branch of archaeology for the study, analysis, and determination of
the age of wooden artefacts. Though this system is not established in the archaeological department ofPakistan, there are certain botanical laboratories which can help us in establishing independent
research centres for dendrochronology.
During this training course we visited four museums, the Nara Palace Site Museum, Asuka HistoricalMuseum, National Museum of Ethnology, and Kyushu National Museum. All these museums are very
impressive with outstanding displays of objects, audiovisual guides, and obviously all sorts of public
facilities. These can be considered as a model for establishing new museums in my country.
In the last days of the training course, we were given detailed presentations on the topics of public
heritage and heritage at risk by Monitra Horayangura Unakul. I found this session very interesting andconducted in a very friendly manner. During this session, the world cultural and natural heritage was
highlighted. Group discussion and group tasks were conducted for the purpose of considering how the
public heritage should be managed. And the issue of heritage at risk was also discussed, including how
cultural heritage in different parts of the world is at risk, and what strategies are adopted forsafeguarding this heritage. The presentation by Monitra Horayangura Unakul was very comprehensive
and broadened my vision about heritage and heritage-related values.
It was an interesting and precious time for me in Japan for these thirty days. I got exposure to manythings. It is quite obvious that this training programme has enhanced my knowledge about so manythings involving cultural heritage, natural scenic beauty, conservation and the relevant laws andregulations.
What I have learned about the conservation of cultural property is that various means for thepreservation of heritage and artefacts might not be applicable directly to some of the movable andimmovable cultural properties in my country, but at the same time, they maybe applicable to some324extent, because it depends upon the nature of the cultural properties and artefacts. For example in acountry like Pakistan, most of the cultural properties and archaeological remains are solid structures,and we are always carrying out conservation in traditional ways. But in Japan, the cultural properties
were wooden architecture, and these are either burned in part or were fully demolished. In Japan, thepractice of reconstruction of cultural properties exists, but there is no such practice in Pakistan. The
conservation/documentation work can be indirectly applied to movable cultural artefacts like pottery,and objects made of stone or metal.
The relevance of this training programme is that I can utilize what I have learned in Japan about theconservation of movable artefacts like pottery and stone objects. One thing that has broadened myvision and is very relevant to me is the museum management and display. As an Assistant Curator it is
my duty to manage the museum and its display.

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Philippines
Mary Grace Lualhati Dolatre BARRETTO-TESOROThis Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia-Pacific Region 2010, focusing on‘Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains,’ has been very helpful inproviding me with ideas that I can apply in my work as an archaeologist in the Philippines. I shalldiscuss below what I learned from the programme, the problems and comparisons with the current
practices in my country, and evaluate the relevance of this training programme to conservation. I shallalso be offering suggestions that can be considered in future training seminars.
I have learned that it is important to recognise the community’s needs and its own goals. I think it isalso important that that we should address issues and concerns of the community to see that relevant
conservation management policy is made. In this manner, policy making is not just coming from theheritage workers. In order to make this successful, the training of locals is ideal. Workshops should be
provided so that the locals would be able to recognise and write basic descriptions of heritage areas.
They should also be trained in basic conservation concerns. In addition, they should have access to thesites and materials recovered. I think the matter of public access contributes to the success of heritage
management. In this manner, the site and materials will create meaning for the people, which might
assist in reinforcing site protection.
For some people, archaeological sites are different from heritage sites. Although not all archaeologicalsites have structures, they should still be considered heritage sites. In archaeology, you need special
training to excavate, which provides data for conservation management. In the case of the site I am
working on, the ruins of a stone settlement are exposed, and thus vulnerable. People collect stones
thereby destroying the site. The foundations, however, are intact. The site was a quarry, a source ofstones used for gardens, fishponds, and other functional purposes. Locals knew its history but see it as
having a practical function. The site gained value as an archaeological resource when excavations
started in 2008. The locals now see it as a historic, scientific, and educational site that is part of amuch greater area of significance. Two field seasons have been conducted at this site, but it still badly
needs a conservation programme. The last field season illustrated that despite of our efforts to promote
the protection of the site, the landowner still sees it as a source of materials for domestic use. He
forcibly stripped in situ terracotta tiles that were in perfectly good condition. The archaeological,
historical, and heritage value of the site was not truly comprehended by some of the people in thecommunity. The destruction led some to openly criticise the landowner. It takes some time for somelocals to fully grasp the excavation’s purpose, precisely because our perspectives of the site differ.
There should be meetings to discuss this, which I think will fully benefit both the researchers and the
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community. I discovered that our presence at the site was both an imposition and appreciated. For
conservation management to be successful, we have to engage with the locals to learn what they think
about the excavation.
I think we should feel a moral obligation to ensure the protection of archaeological sites. We have longagreed in my institution, the University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program, that itshould be the duty of the excavator/archaeologist to protect sites. If archaeologists are notknowledgeable, they should learn the basics of heritage protection. Disseminating information is thebest solution, making people know what the site is, making them understand that the excavation has
multiple benefits that may not necessarily translate into monetary returns. For some, heritage andarchaeology are two different things, but I believe they should go hand in hand. It becomes difficult
when meanings are not relevant to the community. It is the duty of the archaeologist to convey themeaning to the locals while learning simultaneously from the latter what the site means to them. The
challenge is to not force or impose the archaeologist’s meaning but for the members of the community
to realise that meaning.
One issue that came up was ‘How does intervention change the meaning of the object or site?’ DrBhuvan Vikrama, the participant from India, said that there should be minimal intervention. I agreewith Vikrama, as maximum intervention affects the authenticity of the site. This clashes with what I
observed here in Japan, where reconstructed and recreated structures are considered authentic under
the Nara Document. Most of the archaeological features at sites we visited here in Japan were hiddenfrom view. In one way, the sites are really protected but the public does not get to see the actualfeatures. I appreciate more the covered areas showing excavated portions of the sites. I do not however
fully appreciate the magnificence of the site when viewing the recreated structures on top of the actual
remains. The problem lies in the presentation of the site. I think it would have been better if scalemodels, rather than full-scale reconstructions, are presented, and the actual excavated features shown
to the public. The full-scale recreations deprive the viewers of making out for themselves what the site
could have looked like in the past. The interpretation is thus imposed by a scholarly elite, making theinterpretation one-way. Relevance is accordingly one-sided. I believe that interpretation should not be
restricted and the public should be able to make a story with the data provided them. This method
engages the public, making people think and draw their own conclusions, creating relevance forthemselves. In the Philippines, we make it a point to include the locals in discussions about the site sothey do not feel that their ideas are disregarded. This type of inclusion offers plural and dynamic
interpretations of a site.
I found the country reports interesting. I was introduced to Asian archaeology in two days. It made meaware that the 16 countries represented share similar problems and needs for cultural heritage
protection and restoration. I also was able to learn some methods documentation, restoration, and

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conservation techniques practised in other countries that can be applied to the Philippines. Other
methods we have been performing already. Traditional methods combined with modern materials ormodern technology for reinforcement was the common process used in most of the countries. The
reports likewise demonstrate the status of archaeological research, conservation and restoration
activities in each country.
I found it interesting that the Longmen Grottoes Academy in China specialises in the Longmen
heritage site. One institute dedicated to the protection of one site. I have learned that in China there iscommonly one institute for a single site. These institutes are then governed by an overall organisation.
There are 38 World Heritage Sites in China which means that there are 38 institutes also! The
government and tourism are the source of the funds on which these institutes operate. In thePhilippines, there are local branch museums which are responsible for storing and displaying artefacts.
They do not take any part in active research or restoration activities. These are all centred in the
National Museum or university-based units. This is unlike China, as already mentioned, and Japan,
where the Kyushu National Museum and the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
are both research institutions and museums. It is difficult to change the system but as Wijesuriya said
we must be ‘proactive and productive in the existing system to succeed’.
A key solution to the 16 countries’ concerns is collaboration among ourselves. One of the objectivesof this training is to build a research network where foreign colleagues who have access to informationand technology can provide assistance. It should be made clear what the interests are of the local andforeign archaeologists and conservators. Partners should work using similar terms and reconcile theirobjectives to prevent unnecessary inconsistencies and misunderstandings later. My institution in thePhilippines has long-term research collaborations with foreign universities. These activities aremutually beneficial. Funding is generated, students get training, and scholars from both parties are
updated with new data, excavation techniques, and methods of analysis. New findings are published ininternational and high-profile journals that generate more interest, promoting the growth ofarchaeology as a discipline among the local, regional, and global archaeological communities.
Lack of legislation pertaining to heritage management and protection is one of the major problems
mentioned by most of the participants. In the Philippines, we have adequate laws but theirimplementation is wanting. I found Professor Nobuko Inaba’s lecture on Japanese legislation very
interesting. It surprised me that the Japanese had such early legislation on cultural properties andtreasures. Legislation has multiple levels from the national to the city government agencies whichguarantee the conservation of sites. To ensure the continuation of intangible culture, Japanese experts
practising specific crafts or arts receive two million yen annually. The purpose is to train people intheir craft. Such monetary incentives may be applied in the Philippines.

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It gets confusing for me when certain terms used in Japanese legislation have definitions that I do notagree with, such as monuments, cultural landscape, and scenic beauty. I appreciate the new
information I learned from this training, but it feels that there is an imposition of criteria for heritageon the participants. The call for its application to other countries may be futile as there are different
social and cultural conditions that determine how heritage legislation is formulated, regulated, andimplemented. I do not agree with the definitions used during the lecture on the ‘Cultural Property
Protection System in Japan’ by Suzuki Chihei. The lecture focused on features, monuments, statues,
and structures. I felt that ‘monument’ was not clearly defined, as it includes animals that areconsidered cultural properties. I still cannot fully comprehend why certain animals are defined asmonuments. Perhaps if they are protected because they are endangered, then it would beunderstandable. I define ‘monument’ as a structure that serves to commemorate an event or ritual, and‘cultural properties’ as those objects that were manufactured by humans. Most sites discussed had
structural features. How about sites that do not have such and where only small artefacts were found,but provide a wealth of material information about the past? In the Philippines, we do not havemonuments and temples similar to those of India, Japan, Pakistan, China, Cambodia, and Indonesia.
How do you convey the heritage value of such sites? It becomes a challenge for us to advertise andconvince the public of its value. Perhaps ICCROM and UNESCO through ACCU can address such
issues in future workshops or training.
Site visits such as the one to the Heijo Palace Site illustrated that conservation and restoration are
ongoing processes that should be carried on even after the initial conservation procedures.
Maintenance of site museums and heritage sites and the impact of disaster management and tourism
should also be considered. I have realised that heritage management is an ongoing process. Even after
the initial stages of conservation, sites and artefacts should be monitored continuously to ensure that
their original form and design are safeguarded. It means additional work but the results will be
invaluable.
The lecture/workshop on pottery and stone tool drawing was challenging for most, as they did nothave the sufficient background. I suppose that was the reason for including them in the training
programme. I later learned that there were only two or three archaeologists (including myself) among
the participants. I expected that all had background in archaeology or were practising archaeologists as
the training was on archaeological sites and remains. It would have been better if separate training
workshops were conducted for archaeologists, conservators/restorers, and architects. There are also
engineers who are engaged in restoration, but who have no formal training in heritage or archaeology.
I think some activities became challenging for some and uninteresting for others as the backgrounds ofthe participants were too diverse. Those whose work is not related to archaeological activities such as
survey and excavation had basic questions that others found unexciting. Some lecture topics were

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already known and applied in some of the participants’ countries, so the topics were no longer fresh. If
all participants shared similar work backgrounds and formal training I think that discussions would
have been more engaging. The level of each participant should be the same. I found it tedious thatsome of us who have been drawing pottery and stone tools for years should learn how to draw them.
Such training can be aimed at those who do not have adequate background. My suggestion is thatparticipants should have similar work and educational experiences. I would also like to suggest that all
participants have a high level of proficiency in oral and written English. This would allow betterinteraction among the participants. The lectures in Japanese were very interesting, however, I think it
would have been better if the Japanese lecturers also delivered their presentations in English. The timespent in translating them would have been better used in doing practical work related to the lectures. I
believe that many concepts and ideas were lost during the translation from Japanese to English andvice-versa. The programme can also be shortened and participants should be those early in theircareers, perhaps up to 30 years of age. The big gap in the current ages of the participants limits
interaction as they have different interests and backgrounds.
The lectures on archaeological prospection of sites, environmental archaeology, photography of sites
and remains, conservation science, soil moisture characteristics, dendrochronology, and sitemanagement were very informative. These lectures demonstrated that heritage management is multidisciplinary in nature. However, I think the lectures should be transformed into separate training
programmes instead of lumping them as one. Practical work should also be included.
The various equipment and laboratories we viewed are very impressive. It would have been more
helpful for us if we had practical training in using this equipment, but the absence of such equipmentin our home countries would make the training futile. If there are future research collaborations
between Japan and the participants’ countries where such equipment would made available, then thistraining programme will truly be successful.
The last two lectures on ‘Future Issues on the Preservation of Sites and Remains (Risk Management
and Utilisation for the Public)’ were very informative. I enjoyed the group activities since we wereforced to interact with the other participants, and it was very helpful exchanging ideas with them. This
type of workshop or similar activities should have been conducted throughout the programme.
Interactive activities would have made the training more engaging and interesting rather than us being
passive participants where learning was one-way.
Lastly, I would like to suggest that there should be a follow-up meeting or seminar after a year or two
with the same group of participants to assess what changes they have introduced in their homecountries based on what they have learned from Japan and other delegates. This will be a goodmeasure of the training programme’s success.
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Sri Lanka
K.K.D. Kamal BOWATTA

This is the final report after completing the Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the
Asia-Pacific Region 2010, “Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites andRemains,” held in Nara, Japan. The course was held from 7 September to 7 October 2010, with theparticipation of 16 members from different countries of Asia and Oceania.
The programme has mainly concentrated on global and Japanese trends in conservation, cultural
heritage management, maintenance and management of archaeological sites, documentation,conservation, photography and photo documentation, environmental archaeology, etc.
In addition to the presentations, lectures and workshops, hands-on training was provided inphotography and the drawing of artefacts. Study tours and site visits to several museums andarchaeological sites were also made.
The training course helped me immensely by providing me a broad awakening to various aspects ofconservation, and it always reminded me of the present situation of conservation-related matters andcultural heritage management issues in my country, Sri Lanka. During the programme, I understoodthat the knowledge accumulated can be applied greatly in my country, where thousands ofarchaeological sites are still awaiting proper management and conservation. Accordingly, I
concentrate here on four thematic areas out of the numerous ones taught in the course, which could be
immensely useful after returning to Sri Lanka. Upgrading our conservation, management, andmaintenance in these four areas to meet international standards has become a dire necessity.
 Museums
 Conservation of archaeological sites/artefacts
 Maintenance and management of archaeological sites
 Methods of scientific dating
The visits and study tours made to different museums, such as the Asuka Historic Museum,
Yoshinagari Historic Museum, Kyushu National Museum, and the Heijo Palace Site Museum haveenlightened me on how to arrange a modern museum. I paid particular attention to the following areas
while visiting these museums.
 Museum collections

331 Museum publications
 Guided tours
 Availability of qualified and trained staff
 Security systems
 Information centres
 Facilities provided to visitors and school children
 Museum shops
The museum at the UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Heijo Palace in Nara, displays objects obtained
from more than forty years of excavations at the site. There were displays of earthenware, demon tiles,
coins, wooden tablets used in the Nara period in place of paper, daily utensils, and so forth, in a wellorganized manner. Opened in 1970, the Heijo Palace Site Museum shows pictures of the excavations,and the actual structural remains are on display at the Excavation Site Exhibition Hall of Heijo Palace,along with models of the original buildings as reconstructed. Each and every object contained a
descriptive tag telling its story. It clearly shows us that the museum is well equipped with properly
conserved and protected cultural resources, as well as qualified and trained personnel. All themuseums have been well planned and organized, and the facilities provided for the visitors, especiallyfor researchers and school children, were attractive, and writing tables were arranged in front of thedisplays for jotting down the important facts.
Among a number of archaeological museums situated in Eastern Province of Sri Lanka, theDighavapiya site museum can be developed as a model following methods and techniques used by theJapanese museums we visited. The existing museum will be rearranged to reflect the architecturalprocess or schedule adopted, the conceptual plan through schematic design, design development, etc.
In addition to displaying conserved artefacts that have been unearthed, models of the original
buildings, and reconstructions of the superstructures of the buildings could be exhibited in the museum.
In the proposed museum, a detailed description of the artefacts displayed will be provided as seen in
the Heijo site museum. The display design process will build on the interpretive plan for exhibits,
determining the most effective, engaging and appropriate methods of communicating a message.
Suitable lighting should be provided for the displays. Several types of display cases, such as glassfronted enclosures kept on the floor to show the objects clearly, will be utilized. A security systemwith alarms, closed-circuit cameras, fire extinguishers and emergency exits will be established in the
proposed museum. Information centres where all the visitors can obtain detailed descriptions about thesite and the artefacts will be established. There will be informative videos, audiovisual rooms, lecturerooms, etc. A museum shop with souvenirs and replicas of the displayed objects will also be opened.
The study tours made to those museums clearly showed the contributions made by the staff inenhancing the quality of each museum. All the members of the museum staffs were very well trained,332

polite and friendly towards visitors. Since this aspect is lacking at Sri Lankan museums, we need todevelop our human resources and expertise. The help, support, and advice needed for training our staff
we hope to acquire under the supervision of ACCU, Nara, Japan. Facilities provided for visitors suchas park areas for leisure, parking facilities, restaurants, and waiting rooms, are special features of themuseums visited in Japan.
The visit to the National Museum of Ethnology, which displays the cultures of different communitiesof the world, provided the idea for introducing an ethnological museum in Sri Lanka. Although theColombo National Museum displays some of the features of the ancient communities, the new
ethnological museum would be completely reserved for the ancient aboriginal communities of Sri
Lanka. The new museum can be established in the Eastern Province, where different indigenous
communities, including the Sri Lankan aboriginal Veddahs, are living. In addition to the Veddahs, theThelingu, Ahikuntaka, and Muhudu Vedda communities are presently living in the area. The
subsistence and behavioural patterns, hunting and gathering methods, rituals, etc., of thesecommunities can be displayed. One of the main focuses of the museum will be to provide the generalpublic with accurate and updated information about various societies in Sri Lanka, in order to facilitate
understanding of peoples with different cultural backgrounds living together in the modern world.
I was able to obtain good knowledge regarding the global trends in conservation after participating inthe series of lectures in conservation and the hands-on training.
Sri Lanka is facing problems in conservation of moveable and immovable artefacts due to a lack oftraining, expertise and funds, etc. Therefore, knowledge received from the training can be utilized
especially to conserve and protect the artefacts in Eastern Province. Because the Eastern Province wasunder war for more than thirty years, and has recently received damage from the tsunami,archaeological sites and artefacts there have not received proper attention. Some of these are situatedalong the beaches. Stone images at the beaches face the threat of deterioration from salt water. Also,
the stone objects lying in archaeological sites such as Rajagala, Magul Maha Vihara-Lahugala, andDeeghavapiya badly need proper conservation and protection, since they have been exposed to all
conditions of weather throughout the ages. The knowledge acquired during this programme could be
used in recognizing the different stone types, including limestone, sandstone, and marble, anddetermining different treatments needed to keep them safe and in good maintenance. In addition, byunderstanding the causes of decay, measuring the extent of decay, remedial and preventive treatments,
cleaning, consolidation, and surface coating methods could be followed step by step.

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Broken Buddha image at Magul Maha Vihara-Lahugala

The conservation of stone buildings and monuments requires not only a good understanding of theessential repair techniques, but an ability to diagnose problems and identify the appropriate remedialaction, and ability in decision making. Most of the Eastern Province Buddha images and figurines are
made of stone. While there are numerous stone masonry images present in Sri Lanka, opportunities forstonework conservation training are limited, and many conservators must learn on the job. Therefore,a good training programme will help them to develop practical craft skills.

Moonstone at the entrance to Magul Maha Vihara

Heijo, Asuka, Fujiwara, Yoshinogari Historic Park, and Haniwa Factory Park at the Shin’ike kiln,
were visited to study the maintenance, management, and utilization of archaeological sites in practice.

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Basic features of all these sites are their appropriate planning, good organization, proper management,
and legal protection provided by the Japanese government. Sites and archaeological features were
protected in situ and kept for public display. Reconstructions and the models of the buildings, etc.,
have been built without harming the natural setting of the site. This aspect could be clearly seen in the
Korokan site exhibition hall.
In the case of Sri Lanka, with several World Heritage Sites, it is still struggling to manage
archaeological sites and remains. In addition to the seven World Heritage Sites already listed, anotherthree sites belonging to the natural heritage have recently been added. With the addition of these three,
Sri Pada, Knuckles, and Hortan Plains as natural heritage, the question arises as to whether Sri Lanka
has sufficient legal coverage to protect these sites. The Cultural Property Act (1988) and Antiquities
Ordinance (1940), revised in 1956 and 1998, provide legal protection to some extent for better
preservation of the antiquities of Sri Lanka. With the advancement of cultural heritage management
there is a need for developing strategies and policies which cover the entire range of heritage all overthe country.
This programme highlighted the need for and significance of documentation, and the making of
inventories, which are essential for evaluating and managing all archaeological sites and theirassociated collections. To understand the role of excavated remains, scale drawings and proper
photographing are necessary. Also, new technology, such as scanners, etc., has been used on all
possible occasions for the recording and documentation of artefacts. However, despite the presence ofa large number of archaeological sites and remains, Sri Lanka makes every effort to maintaininventories to some extent. It is hoped to introduce and maintain new inventories with new features,and document all the archaeological sites and objects at least in the Eastern Province, as a first step tobridge the gap.
The common feature of all the archaeological sites visited is proper management. This feature should
also be applied to Sri Lankan archaeological sites. A proposal for a management plan for thearchaeological site, Magul Maha Vihara which belonged to the sixth century BC, could be developed
to attract foreign and local tourists. The reconstruction techniques of the Heijo Palace site and its
attractive methods of presentation to the public could be used in the Magul Maha Vihara site, whichneeds a major conservation and protection plan. When archaeological remains are buried for reasonsof preservation, full-scale replicas of the remains can be displayed. Sometimes, the actual size of theburied buildings and their postholes are shown on the overlying layer of earth. The ancient garden of
the Heijo palace has been reconstructed in its original form. It is obvious from the existing ruins in
Magul Maha Vihara that there was a beautiful garden, which can also be reconstructed in the original
form.

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Part of a ruined garden and pond at Magul Maha Vihara

When applying the techniques and methods learned here to Magul Maha Vihara, a sustainable andeffective management plan is a must in order to realize properly on-site preservation, documentation,
research, exhibition and interpretation, and visitor management strategies as well as to raise publicawareness and to provide economic income for the locals. Hazards of armed conflict, damage fromdisasters like tsunami, deterioration of the architecture, building remains and landscape elements due
to natural and man-made factors, and loss of historical authenticity, will be studied. To mitigate thesituation, measures will be taken to install sand barriers, plant trees and grass, and improve emergency
preparedness. In particular, moats around and ponds nearby archaeological sites could be renovated tohelp mitigate the risk of fire. It is hoped we may get some expertise from ACCU, Nara, for enhancing
the features of the site.
The knowledge received regarding scientific dating methods such as dendrochronology can be applied
to date the timber constructions and wooden parts of archaeological sites in Sri Lanka. Several timber
constructions have been recorded at archaeological sites of Sri Lanka, especially, in the Gampola(fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) and Kandy (sixteenth-nineteenth centuries) periods. Magul Maduwa,
situated in the Kandy World Heritage Site, is a rectangular building, where the king met his ministers
and carried out daily administrative tasks. It has two rows of elegantly carved pillars, each having 32
columns. A Kandyan style roof rests upon these columns. Dendrochronology can be applied to thetimber pillars of Magul Maduwa to understand and place it in its proper historical context. It will
support better understanding of current environmental processes and conditions, and help improveunderstanding of possible future environmental issues.
During the course, I realized that architectural stone conservation is not just a science. It is an art, andthe decision-making process is vital in the conservation of these objects. The knowledge acquired336

through the course will be very useful for me as an archaeologist in bridging the gap between theory
and practice. Also this course will help me immensely in training the staff in Eastern Province inparticular, and the staff of the Department of Archaeology in general. It is true that it is not possible orfeasible to apply all the new technology seen in Japan to Sri Lanka. However, it will be possible toapply some of the ideas, and changes can be done in the Sri Lankan way. Finally, it should beemphasized that support and assistance are very much hoped for from ACCU Nara for developing andshaping Sri Lankan archaeological sites. Also, it is hoped to keep in contact with ACCU and sisterorganizations in future endeavours.
As my first experience of this kind of training, I particularly thank ACCU, Nara, Nara National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties (NNRICP) in Japan, for accepting me after a competitive
selection. Also I am very thankful to ICCROM and the other institutions that jointly provided funds tofacilitate this course. Further, I am very grateful to the officials of Sri Lanka for granting me leave andall the other assistance to make this endeavour a success.

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Viet NamNGUYEN Chi Cong

I. INTRODUCTION
Beginning more than 2,000 years ago, a major Asian civilization was constructed and consolidated in
the Red River delta, at the intersection of the cultures of North and Southeast Asia. The long history ofthis region is characterized by the continuous interaction of local polities with their neighbours to thenorth and to the south, particularly with China, through which the major Asian intellectual traditions
associated with Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism were received, adapted and refined to suit local
political and social circumstances.
In addition to the peaceful flows of culture and ideas, the region of the Red River delta was also
marked by repeated struggles for independence and national unity, out of which the unique politicalculture of Vietnam as a nation-state has been forged and refined. The record and result of thishistorical process is exemplified in the archaeological record, architecture and urban morphology of
the Thang Long-Hanoi Citadel, which has been at the centre of this process from its inception and theactual seat of national political power for most of the past thousand years.
This process of political consolidation coupled with the conscious building of a distinct culturaland national identity is a process that has been repeated often in many parts of the world over the past
two millennia or more, and has resulted in the diverse political-cultural mosaic which characterizes not
only Southeast Asia, but much of the world today.
As an example of this historical process, the two thousand year story of the emergence ofVietnamese civilization from a localized political centre to a major international power can be read at
the Thang Long-Hanoi Citadel through the excavated archaeological record, standing architecture, andremains of urban design that constitute the site and cover nearly the entire time span of this process.
I greatly appreciate the chance to join the Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the
Asia/Pacific Region 2010, on “Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites andRemains,” from 7 September to 7 October 2010. For me it was not only an honor but also a
responsibility. After the training course, I will take the knowledge from this class to serve our cultural
World Heritage, at the centre of Thang Long Royal Citadel (listed by UNESCO as World Heritage in2010). This type of process will help improve the quality of preservation activities all over the world.

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II. ACCU TRAINING PROGRAM
This program included lectures, workshops, and study tours. The subjects of the lectures covered
introductions to scientific dating in archaeology, environmental archaeology, archaeologicalprospection, and explanations about the many other sciences that can give data or information relevantto the preservation of culture properties. Workshops included instruction on how to draw ceramics
accurately, and how to perform conservation treatment of artifacts.
This training course also introduced me to many new technologies in conservation science that I
learned of and saw for the very first time. I admire the Japanese government for giving so muchpriority to heritage conservation by providing research institutions enough funding to develop or
acquire these new technologies to address the conservation needs of archaeological sites. I do notknow if Viet Nam can ever afford such technologies. But I agree with what one of the Japanese
lecturers said to us at the Kyushu National Museum, that one does not need to be rich and have thecapacity to purchase all these hi-tech facilities to conduct high levels of archaeological research andconservation, one only needs to cooperate and develop partnerships with other countries, such as Japan,
which have the technologies.
III. LEGAL SYTEMS AND OTHER MECHANISMS OF PROTECTION
1. Property management system
The central sector of the imperial citadel of Thang Long-Hanoi has been recognized by the Ministry of
Culture, Sports and Tourism of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam as a historical site of special
national importance. This site is currently subject to two levels of management: first the Department ofCultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism; and second the Hanoi Ancient Wall-Co
Loa Vestiges Conservation Centre, under the People’s Committee of Hanoi. It is protected by
Vietnam’s legal system as defined in the Law on Cultural Heritage approved by the National
Assembly in its 9th Session on June 29, 2001.
All the concerned authorities recognize the importance of having a proper management plan inplace at the earliest opportunity. Several initiatives are under way. A management plan has beendeveloped by the Hanoi Ancient Wall-Co Loa Vestiges Conservation Centre and the Ile de France
Region for the Hanoi People’s Committee. This management plan is supported by a conservation planfor the Ancient Citadel being developed by the RC Heritage Firm on behalf of the IMV (Hanoi) andthe Ile de France in collaboration with the Hanoi People’s Committee and the Hanoi Ancient Wall-Co
Loa Vestiges Conservation Centre. The focus of the plan is the management of the nominated site
until 2010, with some comments on the longer term possibilities. The development of this plan willplace the management and planning of the site on a firm footing up to and including the expectedmassive influx of visitors in 2010.

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For the longer term, a plan is under way for the conservation, restoration and management of thewhole area of the Thang Long–Hanoi Imperial Citadel Central remains. Hanoi People’s Committee
has issued Decision 3806/QD-UBND, dated September 25, 2007, which gives approval for thedevelopment of this plan. This plan will look forward for 20 to 50 years and will be completed by
2010. The Vietnamese government has committed US $2 million to this project. The plan will havethe following three main purposes.
xPlanning future projects for the nominated sitex

Developing proposals for promotion of the site in parallel with investment in itx

Establishing regulations on investment management

The plan is being developed by experts from the Thang Long Imperial Citadel Conservation
Project. The plan provides for improved conservation via legally enforced regulations, landscapeprotection in the core zone and the buffer zone, monitoring and control of the condition of the site, as
well as increased popular recognition of the site.
2. Legal measures of protection
The nominated site has been protected under the Law on Cultural Heritage by the following
designations.
x

Decision 100/VH-QD, dated January 21, 1989 by the Ministry of Culture andInformation, on the recognition of Hanoi Flag Tower as a relic of national importancex

Decision 22/1999, dated April 6, 1999 by the Ministry of Culture and Information, on
the recognition of Hanoi Ancient Citadel as a historical and architectural relicx

Decision 16/2007/QD-BVH-TT-DL, dated December 28, 2007 on the recognition of
The Thang Long-Hanoi Imperial City (including Hanoi Ancient Citadel andArchaeological site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street) as a national architectural and historicalrelic site

The Law on Cultural Heritage Management was issued in 2001. It has been elaborated by thefollowing measures.
x

Decree 92/2002/ND-CP, dated November 11, 2002 issued by the Government ofVietnam, which elaborates on several points made in the Law on Cultural Heritage
Management and other guiding documentsx

Decision 1706/2001/QD-BVHTT, dated July 24, 2001 by the Minister of Culture andInformation, on the promulgation of the Regulation on the Conservation, Repairs andRestoration of scenic spots

3
340

x

Decision 05/2003/QĈ-BVHTT, dated February 6, 2003 by the Minister of Culture andInformation, approving the overall planning and value development of the historicalcultural scenic spots to 2020

Article 8 of the Law on Cultural Heritage Management reads: “Protection and value
development is to be provided to every single relic located on the territory of Vietnam, regardless of
their origin or ownership.”
Article 13 of the Law on Cultural Heritage Management further states that each and every of thefollowing acts are strictly prohibited.
x

Illegal possession or distortion of cultural relicsx

Destruction of or threats to cultural relicsx

Unauthorized excavation of archaeological sitesx

Illegal building on or encroachment of land area that belongs to historical, cultural
relics and other places of interest

Article 33, Item 3 of the Law on Cultural Heritage Management further states: “The Ministry of
Culture and Information at the notice of a relic being exposed to threats of destruction, is to provide
immediate instruction to the local authority which owns the relic whose responsibility is to stop thoseacts and protect the relic. The case must be reported to the Prime Minister if the relic is one of special
national value.”
Article 34 of the Law on Cultural Heritage Management stipulates: “Any conservation, repair
and restoration work done to the relic must…be planned into the project which then will be proposed
to a relevant government organization for approval and maintain to the utmost its original features . . . ”
Article 55 of the Law on Cultural Heritage Management stipulates that the levels ofmanagement of cultural relics as defined by the Government are as follows:x

The Ministry of Culture and Information is responsible to the government for the
management of cultural relics.

x

Other ministries or organizations of ministerial status, or affiliate organizations to thegovernment are to hold accountability for state-level management of the relics as
assigned by the government.

x

The provincial People’s Committees, with defined rights and obligations, are to conduct
state-level management of local cultural relics as entrusted by the government.

4341

3. System for protecting culture properties in Japan
During this training in the ACCU program, I was surprised to learn about the system for protecting
culture properties in Japan, especially for the management of each site. The legal framework in Japan
is very good.
Viet Nam could use a similar framework to provide protection for its cultural heritage, as there
are currently a number of problems in this area. I was intrigued by the site museums, and the national
system in Japan. A museum is an educational place for all people to visit in ways similar to a library.
After our visits we understood the value of cultural heritage through exhibitions at the museums.
Previously, I had little understanding of the history of Japan, but this was well explained at the site
museums. I think that in Japanese museums the exhibitions are easy to understand, which means the
management systems for education in Japanese museums and the exhibit functions are very good.
IV. APPLICATION OF THIS KNOWLEDGE IN MY COUNTRY
I come from Viet Nam, a country with a long history covering many periods. I am working at theCentre for Preservation of the Co Loa Historical Site and Hanoi Ancient Citadel.
All of this knowledge from the course will be applied in my daily work to conserve ourcollections, as well as to artifacts during archaeological excavations. I will also see that this new
knowledge and skills will be shared in Viet Nam. Such new ideas and knowledge will be very usefulfor me in helping to improve the methods of archaeological conservation and surveys for Viet Nam.
We shared the problems of our country in presentations and discussions, which was helpful for
us in comparing the situation of each country and selecting the optimum solutions for our country’s
problems.
V. CONCLUSION
This training has broadened my view on many important issues. I am very grateful for the opportunity
to be a part of this training and to have met such wonderful people during this month. I would like tosay that this training course was the first one that I attended abroad, and it was my first experience totravel outside my country. It was also first time that I got the chance to participate in a training course inwhich experts in the cultural heritage field of different countries participated. This was a uniqueexperience for me. At the end of this training course I felt that I obtained much knowledge aboutarchaeology, conservation, and international trends in cultural heritage, but I need to learn more. When I
go back to my country, this knowledge will help me to perform my duties better. I was very inspired by
the way in which the ACCU people organized this course; the people worked very hard for the successof this course and the hospitality and kindness they extended to us was a valuable experience that I am
taking with me.

5342

VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank all the lecturers and the experts, from Japan and other countries and from thevarious agencies involved in the training, for sharing their time, their knowledge and experiences withus, and for enhancing my understanding on many topics and issues.
Finally, I would like to say thank you to Mr. Nishimura, Director of ACCU, for providing me
the chance to participate in this training course, and in closing I would like to say thank you to all thestaff members of the ACCU office for your cooperation and help whenever I requested it.

6343

Appendix
A. List of Participants
B. List of Lecturers
C. List of Interpreters and Tutors

Appendix

D. Staff Members, ACCU Nara

A. List of Participants
BhutanTshering Namgyal
Deputy Executive Engineer/Project Manager
Division for Conservation of Heritage Sites
Department of Culture
Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs
Lhuentse Dzong Conservation Project, Lhuentse
Tel: (+975) 4 545118 Fax: (+975) 4 512100
tnamgyaltsa54@yahoo.com

Cambodia
PHOEUNG Dara
Technical OfÀcer/Archaeologist
Department of Conservation of Monuments
in Angkor Park and Preventive Archaeology
APSARA Authority
Angkor Conservation Compound
Siem Reap Province
Tel: (+855) 63 76 06 62 Fax: (+855) 63 96 48 19
dara_archaeology@yahoo.com

China
MA Chaolong
Deputy Director/Associate Professor
Grottoes Conservation Center
Longman Grottoes Academy
Tel: (+86) 379 65981339 Fax: (+86) 379 65980216
mcl323@126.com

Fiji
Ulaiasi MOTONIKUMIField Research OfÀcer
Institute of iTaukei Language and Culture
Ministry of Indigenous Affairs
87 Queen Elizabeth Drive, Suva
Tel: (+679) 3100909 Fax: (+679) 3308761
umotonikumi@govnet.gov.fj

347

IndiaBhuvan VIKRAMA
Assistant Archaeologist
Agra Circle, Archaeological Survey of India
22 The Mall, Agra 282001-Uttar Pradesh
Tel: (+91) 562 2227261 Fax: (+91) 562 2227262
bhushri007@gmail.com

Indonesia
Fahmi Prihantoro
Lecturer
Department of Archaeology
Faculty of Cultural Sciences
Gadjah Mada University
Facultas Ilmu Budaya Ugm Jl Sosiohumaniora
Bulaksumur Yogyakarta 55281
Tel: (+62) 274 513096 Fax: (+62) 274 550451
Àb@ugm.ac.id

Kazakhstan
Janna PROSKURINA
Chief of Department
Ethnographic and ArchaeologicalRemains Renovation Department
Research and Production Center ofHistorical and Cultural Heritage
Naymanbayeva Str. 111, Almaty, 050020
Tel: (+7) 727 2279448 Fax: (+7) 727 2279448
npcikn@mail.ru

Kyrgyz Republic
Aidai SULAIMANOVA
Research Scientist/Archaeologist
Institute of History and Cultural Heritage
265-A, Chuy Av., Bishkek, 720071
National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic,
Tel: (+996) 312 64 26 64 Fax: (+996) 312 65 56 81
kg_muras@mail.ru

348

Lao P.D.R.
Soukphachanh KHAMPHASOUKEngineer
Department of Heritage
Division of Monuments
Ministry of Information and Culture
Settha Thirath Road, Chantabouly District
Vientiane Capital City, P.O.Box 122
Tel: (+856) 21 212415 Fax: (+856) 21 212408
soukphachanh@yahoo.com

Marshall Islands
Kazutoyo WASE
Assistant Archaeologist
Historic Preservation OfÀce
Ministory of Internal Affairs
P.O. Box 1454
Tel: (+692) 625 8240 Fax: (+692) 625 4476
rmihpo@ntamar.net

MyanmarAung Aung Kyaw
Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology,
National Museum and Library(Mandalay)
Ministry of Culture
Corner of 28th and 70th, Mandalay
Tel: (+95) 67 408038 Fax: (+95) 67 408033
aungaungkyaw.mdy@gmail.com

New ZealandKathryn HURREN
Regional Archaeologist
Central Region OfÀce
New Zealand Historic Places Trust
Level 1, 1 Blair Street, P.O. Box 19173, Wellington 6149
Tel: (+64) 4 802 0003 Fax: (+64) 4 802 5180
khurren@historic.org.nz

349

Pakistan
Asadullah KHAN
Assistant Curator
Department of Archaeology and Museums
Government of Pakistan
Taxila Museum, Taxila District, Rawalpindi
Tel: (+92) 51 9314270 Fax: (+92) 51 9314270
aukdawar@yahoo.com

Philippines
Mary Grace Lualhati Dolatre BARRETTO-TESORO
Associate Professor
Archaeological Studies Program (ASP)
University of the Philippines
ASP, Palma Hall, University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City 1101
Tel: (+63) 2 924 1836 Fax: (+63) 2 924 1836
mdbarretto@up.edu.ph

Sri Lanka
K.K.D. Kamal BOWATTA
Assistant Director-Eastern Province
Department of Archaeology
Ampara City, Eastern Province
Tel: (+94) 632222017 Fax: (+94) 632222017
kbowatta@yahoo.com

Viet NamNGUYEN Chi Cong
Staff
Department of Project Management
Center for Preservation of the Co Loa Historical Site andHanoi Ancient Citadel
09 Hoang Dieu Street, Ba Dinh District, Hanoi
Tel: (+84) 4 37345927 Fax: (+84) 4 37345927
congkts6886@gmail.com

350

B. List of Lecturers
Lecturers from Abroad:
Gamini WIJESURIYA

Monitra Horayangura UNAKUL

Project Manager
International Centre for the Study of
the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Property (ICCROM)
Via di San Michele 13, I-00153 Rome, Italy
Tel: (+39) 06585 53388 Fax: (+39) 06585 53349

Programme Officer
Culture Unit, UNESCO Bangkok
Asia-Pacific Regional Bureau for Education
Mom Luang Pin Malakul Centenary Building
920 Sukhumvit Road, Prakanong, Klongtoey
Bangkok 10110,Thailand

gw@iccrom.org

Tel: (+66) 2 391 0577 Fax: (+66) 2 391 0866

mh.unakul@unesco.org

Lecturers from Japan:
INABA Nobuko

SUZUKI Chihei

Professor
World Heritage Studies, Graduate School ofComprehensive Human Science
University of Tsukuba
1-1-1 Ten-noh-dai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8574
Tel & Fax: (+81) 29 853 2810
inaba@heritage.tsukuba.ac.jp

Associate Specialist
Monuments and Sites Division
Cultural Properties Department
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan (Bunkacho)
3-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku
Tokyo 100-8959
Tel: (+81) 3 5253 4111 Fax: (+81) 3 6734 3822
chihei@bunka.go.jp

SHIMADA Toshio

ISHIMURA Tomo

Section Head
Architectural Feature Section
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6836 Fax: (+81) 742 306830
shimada@nabunken.go.jp

Researcher
International Cooperation Section
Dep. of Planning and Coordination
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6850 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6841
tomoishi@nabunken.go.jp

MORIKAWA Minoru

KUNITAKE Sadakatsu

Researcher
Archaeology Section 2
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6834 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6830
minorum@nabunken.go.jp

Researcher
Archaeology Section 1
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6833 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6830
kunitake@nabunken.go.jp351

SHIBA Kojiro

KANEDA Akihiro

Researcher
Archaeology Section 1
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6833 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6830
shibak@nabunken.go.jp

Senior Researcher
Archaeological Research Methodology Section
Center for Archaeological Operations
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6844 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6841
akaneda@nabunken.go.jp

YAMAZAKI Takeshi

NAKAMURA Ichiro

Researcher
Environmental Archaeology Section
Center for Archaeological Operations
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6851 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6841
ytakeshi@nabunken.go.jp

Senior Researcher
Photography Section,
Department of Planning & Coordination
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6838 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6841
ichiro@nabunken.go.jp

SUGIYAMA Hiroshi

KOHDZUMA Yohsei

HeadInternational Cooperation Section
Department of Planning & Coordination
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6839 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6841
sugiyama@nabunken.go.jp

Head
Conservation Sciences Section
Center for Archaeological Operations,
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6855 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6846
kouzumay@nabunken.go.jp

WAKIYA Soichiro

OKOCHI Takayuki

Researcher
Conservation Sciences Section
Center for Archaeological Operations
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6847 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6846
wackies@nabunken.go.jp

Head
Dating Section
Center for Archaeological Operations,
Nara National Research Institutefor Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 6835 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6856
okochi@nabunken.go.jp

NAMBA Yozo
Section Head
Dep. of Imperial Palace Site Investigations
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Tel: (+81)742 30 68362 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6830
nanba@nabunken.go.jp352

On-site Lecturers:
SHICHIDA Tada-aki
KANEGAE Ichiro

Deputy Section Head
Dep. of Social Education and Cultural Property
Saga Prefectural Board of Education
1-1-59 Jonai, Saga City, Saga 840-8570
Tel: (+81) 952 25 7223 Fax: (+81) 952 25 7281
shichida-tadaaki@pref.saga.1g.jp

Head / Director
Cultural Properties Division,
Takatsuki City Board of Education
Takatsuki City Shiroato History Museum
2-1 Toen-cho, Takatsuki-city, Osaka 569-0067
Tel: (+81) 72 674 7652 Fax: (+81) 72 674 7032
kanegae-i@city.takatsuki.osaka.jp

AKASHI Yoshihiko
KOGA Masayuki

Head of Display Section
Preservation Section
Kyushu National Museum
4-7-2 Ishizaka, Dazaifu City
Fukuoka 818-0118
Tel: (+81) 92 918 2807 Fax: (+81) 92 918 2810
akashi@kyuhaku.jp

Specialist
Office of Yoshinogari National Historical Park
1869 Tade Yoshinogari-cho Kanzaki-gun
Saga 842-0035
Tel: (+81) 952 53 3902 Fax: (+81) 952 53 3910

YOSHITAKE Manabu
IMAZU Setsuo

Assistant Section Manager
Fukuoka Municipal Board of Education
1-8-1 Tenjin, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka City
Fukuoka 810-8621
Tel: (+81) 92 711 4783

Head/Curator (Conservation)
Environmental Preservation Section
Kyushu National Museum
4-7-2 Ishizaka, Dazaifu City
Fukuoka 818-0118
Tel: (+81) 92 918 2807 Fax: (+81) 92 918 2810
imazu@kyuhaku.jp

YOSHITAKE Manabu
Assistant Section Manager
Fukuoka Municipal Board of Education
1-8-1 Tenjin, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka City
Fukuoka 810-8621
Tel: (+81) 92 711 4783
Acknowledgements for cooperation:

Walter EDWARDS
a visiting fellow, Department of Cultural
Heritage, NNRICP

353

C. List of Interpreter and Tutors
Interpreter:
HATA Chiyako
Training Coordinator

Tutor:KIMATA Akiko
Graduate Student
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University

Ji-Hee LEE
Graduate Student
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University

TAGASHIRA Naoki
Graduate Student
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University

HANEDA Tomohiro
Graduate Student
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University

D. Staff Members, ACCU NaraNISHIMURA Yasushi, Director
nishimura@accu.or.jp

TAKAHASHI Wataru, Deputy Director
takahashi@accu.or.jp

KOBAYASHI Ken-ichi, Director, Programme Operation Department
kobayashi@accu.or.jp
KATO Naoko, Director, International Cooperation Divisionn-kato@accu.pr.jp
HORIKAWA Kazuko, Chief, Planning & Coordination Divisionhorikawa@accu.or.jp
NISHIDA Michiko, Staff, Planning & Coordination Divisionnishida@accu.or.jp
OTANI Yasuko, Staff, International Cooperation Divisionotani@accu.or.jp
SHIDA Sayuri, Staff, International Cooperation Divisionshida@accu.or.jp

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113
Tel: (+81) 742 20 5001 Fax: (+81) 742 20 5701
e-mail: nara@accu.or.jp URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp354