A Comparison of Career Guidance
Information in the US and Japan
Lynn Shniper
Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training visiting researcher
September 29, 20081

Introduction
A goal of career information is to prepare the workforce for changes to employment
demand. Rather than look at career information in isolation, it is important tounderstand large-scale trends in the economy. This paper begins by comparing major
drivers of change in employment in Japan and the US. Next this paper will contrast
the reaction to changes in employment in both countries. To better understandcommon career paths in Japan, interviews were conducted with the help of Japan
Institute for Labor Policy and Training (JILPT) staff members. After completing thisanalysis, this paper focuses on the methods used to match job-seekers to job openings.
In particular, employment growth within the health care industry in Japan and the US
will be discussed, along with nurses. Increasing utilization of information technology
across many industries and growing environmental concerns will shape employment inboth countries.
The aging population will have a substantial impact on employment demand in bothcountries. Japan faces more severe changes than the US, experiencing a declining
population and labor force while the US deals with a slowdown in population and labor
force growth. Workers in both countries are expected to delay retirement, boostinglabor force participation among older persons. While the US is more likely to use
immigration to bolster its workforce, Japan is increasingly likely to turn to service
robots.
As the US continues to shift to an increasingly service-based economy, Japan intends tomaintain a strong emphasis on both service and manufacturing sectors.
As occupational demand changes, Japanese employers are more likely to shoulder the
responsibility of re-training employees, while the US is more likely to rely on
community colleges or workforce re-tooling programs.
To better understand the perspective of workers in Japan, a survey was conducted togather information on various career paths. The surveys were conducted in-person andby a questionnaire transmitted by e-mail. Job-changing occurred regularly, but it was
still low in comparison to workers in the US.

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Career information in Japan and the US is disseminated in various ways. Jobseekers inJapan are more likely to pay a visit to employment service centers or make use of free
job-searching magazines, while US jobseekers prefer resources on the internet or
newspapers. Job-searching magazines in Japan provide quality information that has
been verified with the employer by the publisher.
Japan offers a wealth of career information, especially in comparison to the US.
Places in Japan such as the Vocational Museum in Kyoto or Kidzania Tokyo offer
children pleasant environments to learn about a wide number of careers throughhand-on training. The US may consider opening similar institutions in the future.
As job-switching occurs more often in Japan, the career information community may
wish to find ways to build communication between jobseekers to make the transition
between jobs more smooth. The responses from the career story questionnaire
revealed an interest in hearing more about the work lives of others in a similar situation.
One possibility is to develop a well-structured, searchable database with career stories
that can be tapped at any time by jobseekers. This could help jobseekers have more
confidence in their own career decisions.

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Major drivers of change in US
Several wide-sweeping changes have been impacting US employment. Since the age
55 and over population have higher consumption rates of health care services than otherage groups, the demand for health care services is expected to grow as the proportion of
the population age 55 and over continues to increase. Also the increasing adoption ofcomputer systems drives growth of IT professionals across nearly all industries.
Increasing public awareness of environmental issues will lead to more conscientious
business practices and greater reliance on workers such as environmental scientists.
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects the health care and social assistanceindustry sector—including State- and local-government owned hospitals--will add 4
million new wage and salary jobs between 2006 and 2016, more than any other sector.
(BLS, 2008-09 Career Guide to Industries) Wage and salary employment in healthcare and social assistance is projected to increase 25 percent through 2016, comparedwith 11 percent for all industries combined. Within the health care subsectors,
projected rates of employment growth range from 13 percent for hospitals, the largest
and slowest growing industry segment, to 55 percent for the much smaller home healthcare services. The social assistance subsector is projected to grow at 47 percent,buoyed up by rapid growth in industries such as services for the elderly and persons
with disabilities.
The number of jobseekers is expected to be in rough balance with the number of job
openings in all employment settings, which means job opportunities should be good.
High turnover from a large number of expected retirements should boost job openings
while the number of jobseekers will be tempered by tougher immigration rules that willslow the number of foreign health care workers entering the United States.
There are several reasons employment in health care will continue to grow. One major
reason is that the number of people in older age groups, with much higher than average
consumption of health care services, will grow faster than the total population between
2006 and 2016; as a result, the demand for health care services will increase. Also,
advances in medical technology will continue to improve the survival rate of severely ill
and injured patients, who will then need extensive therapy and care. New technologies
will make it possible to identify and treat conditions that were previously not treatable.
A combination of (1) the growing number of people in older age groups with rising life4

expectancies and (2) aging children who are less able to care for the parents will boost
employment growth in home health care and long-term care facilities, such as nursing
and residential care. The increasing size and complexity of medical group practices
and integrated health systems will boost the demand for office and administrative
support workers.
The growth in the elderly population is expected to boost the number of stroke patientsand Alzheimer victims that must be treated.
Outpatient care at offices of physicians and home health care is expected to grow much
faster than inpatient care at hospitals because of a push to reduce costly overnight stays,
improvements in diagnostic tests and surgical procedures, and patients’ increasing
preference to be treated at home. Some hospitals have outpatient facilities, such as
those providing same-day surgery, rehabilitation, and chemotherapy, which are
expected to grow rapidly.
Several of the fastest growing occupations between 2006 and 2016 are health carerelated. For example: home health aides (49 percent increase), medical assistants (35percent increase), and physical therapist assistants (32 percent increase) will growrapidly as many health care facilities attempt to contain costs by substituting lower paid
providers where patient care demand and regulations allow. In addition to increasingly
utilizing auxiliary personnel, health care facilities will cross-train employees to assist
with duties outside their traditional scope.
Demand will continue for health care workers with all levels of education and training,
but having specialized clinical training can help jobseekers who are just starting to findwork or who are trying to advance in their career.
One occupation that is expected to have many job openings is registered nurses. (BLS,
2008-09 Occupational Outlook Handbook) Employment growth between 2006 and2016 for registered nurses is expected to be 23 percent, which is much faster than the 10
percent growth expected for all occupations. Employment for registered nurses in2006 was already about 2.5 million jobs, much larger than most occupations. Job
openings due to growth through 2016 are expected to be about 587,000. In addition,
many job openings are expected due to the need to replace workers who permanently
leave because of retirement or another reason. As the median age of registered nurses
increases, a large number of retirements is expected to occur. Enrollments in nursing

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programs have recently been increasingly rapidly; however, employers in some parts ofthe country are reporting difficulties in attracting and retaining enough nurses. In
order to ensure a steady supply of qualified registered nurses, employers may
restructure workloads and job responsibilities, improve compensation and working
conditions, and subsidize training or continuing education.
Just as industry growth is slower at hospitals than in offices of physicians or homehealth care services, employment growth for registered nurses will also be slower within
hospitals than in outpatient care. Although the number of nurses per patient is likely toincrease, the number of patients remaining in the hospital for more than 24 hours is not
likely to grow substantially as patients are being discharged earlier and more proceduresare performed at an outpatient care facility.
In order to sustain growth in enrollments at nursing programs, qualified instructors must
be obtained.
Stress and burnout among registered nurses will lead to high turnover. Nurses
working in hospitals frequently work overtime or have night and weekend shifts.
Treating seriously ill and injured patients is physically and emotionally demanding.
Critical care units, emergency departments, and operating rooms have especially highjob turnover due to stressful working conditions. While offices of physicians andoutpatient care centers offer regular working hours and more comfortable work
environments, nurses may face greater competition for these positions. Even after
taking into consideration the rapid employment growth expected for physician offices, it
may be easier to obtain a position at a hospital. Hospitals may offer signing bonuses,
family-friendly work schedules, or subsidized training to attract and retain qualified
nurses. Also, a growing number of hospitals are experimenting with allowing nurses
volunteer for open shifts at premium wages by bidding on-line. This practice candecrease the amount of mandatory overtimes for nurses.
Despite the high rate of employment growth for employment services, there may becompetition for nursing jobs due to relatively high wages and flexibility in work
schedules.
In general, registered nurses who have earned a bachelor’s degree or a higher degree
will have better job prospects than nurses without a bachelor’s degree. Advanced
specialists, such as nurse-midwives or nurse practitioners, will be especially in high6demand as they are increasingly used as lower-cost primary care providers instead ofphysicians. Similar to physicians and surgeons, high demand can be found in
medically underserved areas such as inner cities and rural areas.
Educational services, including both public and private institutions, is expected to show
an 11 percent increase in wage and salary jobs between 2006 and 2016. This is about
as fast as the growth projected for all industries combined. Along with a growing
emphasis on offering better education to more people, the demand for educational
services will be driven by growth in the student population at each educational level.
Enrollments are projected to grow faster in postsecondary institutions than inelementary, middle, or secondary schools, due to more high school graduates enteringcollege and more working adults returning to school to enhance their knowledge andemployability. This will boost demand for postsecondary teachers, who are expected
to grow substantially faster than the average for all occupations. However, there willcontinue to be keen competition for tenured positions among postsecondary teacher,because many colleges and universities are increasingly relying on adjunct or part-time
faculty and graduate students.
While some people can enter a teaching career through an alternative licensing program
after working in a different field, job opportunities will continue to be strong for highly
qualified teachers. Subject areas that will have the most demand include math, science,and special education.
Due to a growing focus on complying with environmental regulations throughout manyindustries, environmental engineers are expected to show a 25 percent increase inemployment between 2006 and 2016. This is substantially more than the 10 percent
increase expected across all occupations. Environmental engineers must address thechallenges of controlling water and air pollution, disposing of waste materials, andrecycling.
Employment for environmental scientists will increase 25 percent as a growing
population takes a greater toll on the environment and water resources. Throughconservation, recycling, and replenishment efforts, these workers will help companies
comply with environmental laws and regulations for clean air and water. Often
environmental scientists will take on a consulting role to firms and businesses and offer
risk assessments or technical proposals.

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The increasing adoption of computer systems drives growth of IT professionals acrossnearly all industries.
While the changes discussed above will drive employment growth, increasing
automation or mechanization of duties for office and administrative or production
occupations will lead to employment declines in many, but by no means all, of theseoccupations.

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Major drivers of change in Japan
Japan is facing a declining population and labor force, not simply a slow-down in
population or labor force growth as in the US. A low fertility rate has prevented Japan
from maintaining its population size and contributed to a large increase in the
proportion of the population age 65 and over. The proportion for the age 65 and over
population will rise from 21 percent in 2008 to 27 percent by 2018. The proportion is
expected to rise through 2050, according to the National Institute of Population andSocial Security Research. Meanwhile, the US Census Bureau only expects the
proportion of the population age 65 and over to be 13 percent in 2010, barely reaching
20 percent by 2035. After 2035, the proportion is expected to remain level. (Census
Bureau, 2008) Japan has one of the fastest aging societies in the world.
The rising proportion of older persons in Japan will lead to mounting costs to support
retirees through pensions and social security. (Gross and Minot, February 2008) A
large amount of retirements are expected. Close to 10 percent of Japan’s current labor
force is expected to retire within the next five years. (Gross and Minot, January 2008)
In order to shift the risks involved with private pension from the employer to theemployee, companies are choosing to offer pension systems with a defined contribution
instead of a defined benefit. In other words, rather than guaranteeing a certain amountfor a pension, companies are guaranteeing a certain payment into a retirement accountfor employees.
Since the current law only allows employers to pay into
defined-contribution systems, instead of employees, the acceptance of this system has
been slow.
In both Japan and America, the dependent population is growing at a faster rate than theworking population. For example, between 2008 and 2018 the number of workers
supporting each retiree will fall from three to two in Japan. In the US, the number ofworkers supporting each retiree is not expected to fall from three to two until 2034.
(Social Security Administration, 2008)
Additionally, health care costs are expected to rise as persons age 65 and older demand
more health services than other population groups. By 2050, health care expenditures(as a percent of GDP) are expected to triple. Currently, national health insurance

9

premiums are 8.2 percent of workers’ salaries.
According to a report from the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare, the demand fornurses will fall short of supply by 16,000 workers in 2010. (Nagaike, 2008) Whilethe number of nurses is expected to grow and 46,000 nurses successfully completed thelicensing exam this year, it will not be enough to meet upcoming demand. Training tobecome a nurse typically requires 3 years of technical training after high school. Since
nurses often spend more time observing patients than doctors, they play a crucial role in
the health care team.
Besides demographic issues, Japan will face rising competition from overseas. Japan
became the second largest economy in the world toward the end of the 1960s. (METI,2006) While this moniker has stayed with the Japanese economy for the past 40 years,
China is expected to overtake Japan with respect to growth in GDP within the next 10
years. India will follow suit and Japan will no longer be considered the second largest
economy.
GDP growth in Japan will be limited by the decline in the population and labor force.
Rather than simply trying to maintain itself as a major economy, Japan should strive tohold a strong competitive position in a global context through being resilient in risky
environments. Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry recommends thatJapan try to keep its edge through developing products, processes, and services that arehigh value added. Assuming that Japan enacts certain new reforms and policies, METI
estimated that it will be possible to achieve 2.2% annual growth in GDP over the next
10 years. The IMF estimates GDP growth will still expected to be positive between
2008 and 2013 in Japan, but not as fast as the 2.1 percent increase seen in 2007 or the
2.4 percent increase from 2006. (IMF, 2008)
Japan will continue to be strong in Research and Development and building
collaboration among academic, industry, and government circles. One of Japan’s
strengths is its ability to integrate knowledge and ideas from different source throughteamwork. Japan can also help build creative innovation by fostering a businessenvironment that is conducive to the development of venture enterprises.
Since emerging economies are now able to undercut Japanese products on price, Japan
must focus on products or processes that are high value added in order to remain

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globally competitive. While the scale of R&D in Japan is among the largest in theworld, R&D is not necessarily linked to increased corporate profits of national wealth.
In order to improve the results of R&D, it is important for several industries, academic
institutions, and public research organizations to collaborate. To foster an environmentthat is conducive to innovation, it is important to reduce the waiting period for patents.
In order to offset a decrease in consumption that is associated with a declining
population, Japan could continue to focus on product innovations that drive up demand.
For example, mobile phones, convenience store, online shopping, and hybrid cars are all
products or services that have created their own demand. The diversification ofbroadcasting and communication distribution will also be a driver for economic growth.
Japan will continue to interact with other Asian countries in developing innovative
products to offer in newly open markets. Japan will collaborate with other Asian
countries and develop regional specialization, which can add value for the Asian
continent as a whole.
Japan aims to brand Japanese goods such as agricultural products, food, commodities,
fashion, railway, and tourism industries. This can help boost international marketing
power.
One of the strengths of Japanese companies is their ability to develop a line of new
products by learning from others and by collaborating with upstream and downstream
companies. Japan has a broad range of industries that can meet the demand forsophisticated, high-quality parts and processes. In order to accelerate innovation in
Japan, it is important to support the cooperation of industry, government, and academic
institutions.
Products such as fuel cells, robots, and digital consumer electronics are currently highpriority areas for Japanese companies. Research and development is on-going forbatteries of next-generation automobiles, advanced medical equipment to combat cancer,
and environmental aircraft. International technical cooperation in these areas would be
beneficial for all participating countries.
Advanced parts and materials manufacturing will continue to be a core industry forJapan. This industry is known for high-quality and high-performance. Japan aims to11

improve the technological abilities of small and medium-sized manufacturing
enterprises. Within Japan, there are many opportunities to improve productivity andcohesive business models at the local level. Privatization of government enterprises,
such as the post office, can help improve overall productivity.
Japan has a goal to double the direct investment balance to about 5% of GDP by 2010.
By promoting direct investment, Japan can further utilize technologies and know-how
from overseas. Revising the corporate tax system to favor direct investment or
improving access to information within Japan and in foreign countries can foster growthof direct investment.
The contribution to productivity growth by information technology investment is muchgreater in the US than in Japan. Japan has a sub-optimum utilization of information
technology due to problems with visualization and integration of IT among manyindustries. Japan aims to boost its IT utilization by reforming businesses andorganization to take a more IT-friendly managerial approach.
Part of the reason Japan was able to achieve such high growth during the post-WWII
period was due to a high ratio of working population to dependent population and themigration of people from rural to urban areas. Japan has the chance to show whether adeveloped country can continue to remain competitive and add value with a declining
population, a growing proportion of the dependent population, and saturated urban areas.
So far, Japan has shown rising GDP while keeping unemployment and consumer prices
in check. The average annual unemployment rate has been drifting downward over the
past five years, from 5.4 percent in 2002 to 3.9 percent in 2007. (MICA Statistics
Bureau, 2007 Labour Force Survey) According to a 2007 annual consumer index
report from MICA Statistics Bureau, prices in Japan have remained stable for the past
several years.
Japan aims to become a creative base of new values. For example, Japan can serve as
inspiration for coexistence with the environment, a safe society, a culture that allows
people to express their originality and personal identity. Japan aims to make the mostof its human resources, promoting creative jobs that allow people to findself-fulfillment.

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Reaction to change in Japan and the US
Japan and the US may differ on their reaction to changes affecting the size andcomposition of the workforce. In order to ensure a steady supply of workers to meetdemand and keep social security programs financially sound, Japan and the US may
consider a variety of options.
The US is more likely than Japan to turn to immigration to fill any gaps in its workforce.
In 2005, the percent of the labor force attributed to foreigners was 15 percent in the US
while it was only 1.1 percent in Japan. For comparison, the percent of the labor force
attributed to foreigners was 9.3 percent in Germany and 0.7 percent in Korea. (JILPT,
2008 Databook of International Labour Statistics) However, immigration has becomea more contentious issue in the US, so this trend may start to decline.
Despite the anticipated decline in Japan’s labor force, it is unlikely Japan will turn toimmigration to boost its workforce. Because Japan hopes to maintain its ethnic andlinguistic homogeneity, it has historically allowed very little immigration.
Currently, only foreigners with special skills are allowed to work in Japan, but a
December 2007 poll by the Mainichi Daily News showed that about two-thirds of
respondents were in favor of allowing unskilled foreigners to work in Japan.
In order to counteract the population decline, about three to four hundred thousand
foreigners would need to enter Japan each year for the next several decades. This isdrastically higher than the 20,000 foreigners who entered for work Japan in 2006,
according the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare statistics. Such a drastic change
could have a number of undesirable ramifications, such a higher crime and social
tension. However, bringing in foreigners who work well with their Japanesecolleagues could have mutually beneficial results.
In 2007, new tax rules broadened the definition of permanent resident in Japan.
Previously, foreigners would pay taxes on foreign-sourced income if they lived in Japan
five years continuously. Presently, foreigners pay taxes on this income if they live inJapan for five out of ten years non-continuously. Since November 20, 2007, thescreening process for foreign visitors entering Japan has become much more strict. All

13foreign citizens must have their fingerprints and photograph taken at immigration eachtime they enter Japan. This leads to longer waiting periods at airports and, comparedto Hong Kong or Singapore, it diminishes Japan’s appeal as a site for international
business. (Gross and Minot January 2008)
As the population in both Japan and America has been aging, workers in both countries
are expected to retire at an older age. While employers in Japan often have a statutory
retirement age within their company, this is not the case in America. However, some
occupations in the US, such as pilots of air traffic controllers do have mandatory
retirement ages.
As part of the push to boost labor force participation of persons over age 60, the age
when workers can start receiving pensions in Japan—or retirement age—is gradually
increasing. (Gross and Minot, February 2008) Also, the government offers financial
incentives to companies that are employing older workers. A large company canreceive about 500,000 yen, or $4,700, for each full-time employee age 60 to 64, while asmall or medium-sized company can receive 600,000 yen, or $5,600. Incentives forpart-time workers are smaller.
Although age discrimination is prohibited by law in Japan, this law is seldom enforced.
Older persons can have trouble obtaining employment, even if they are highly capableand experienced. It may be necessary for employers to actively seek out older persons
with relevant expertise.
While most Japanese companies have a mandatory retirement age of 60, since 2004 the
Act Concerning the Stabilization of Employment of Older Persons has requiredcompanies either raise their mandatory retirement age, keep it but give retirees theoption to enter new positions, or eliminate their mandatory retirement age altogether.
In 2006, the retirement age for men was raised to 62 and in 2007 it was raised again to
63. By 2010, it will again rise to 64 and it will reach 65 in 2013.
Many Japanese companies prefer to exercise their option of keeping a mandatory
retirement age of 60 and offer new positions to older persons who do not wish to retire.
The percent of companies with an official retirement age of 60 only fell from 91 percent
in 2004 to 86 percent in 2006, according to Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare
surveys. A survey by the Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training showed that 60

14percent of workers prefer to remain in the same job after reaching age 60. Large
companies find over half of their senior employees choose to postpone retirement andremain with the company.
When senior employees accept new positions within Japanese companies, they often
receive less favorable terms of employment. Their pay can be drastically cut, so thatthey may only earn half as much as their previous position. Their contract is changed
to a fixed-term, renewable contract. They may be transferred to different offices.
As part of the push to raise labor force participation of women in Japan, employers are
increasingly offering childcare leave and other family-friendly accommodations.
While nearly all women enter the labor force after completing their education, about 70
percent quit when they marry or have children.
The Japanese government introduced a child-rearing support program in 2005 that
required companies with over 300 employees to develop a child-rearing support action
plan with numbered goals. Companies are gradually offering employees theopportunity to work from home. In an effort to be more family-friendly, the large
communications group SoftBank Corporation announced recently that it will give
employees 5 million yen, about $42,700, to have children.
Also, career tracks for women seldom have prospects for promotion in Japan. In orderto persuade more women to remain in the workforce, it is important provide
opportunities for career advancement. In 2005, women occupied only 10 percent ofmanagement positions in Japan, according to the Gender Equality Bureau. This seems
low compared to 32 percent in Germany or 42 percent in the United States; however, forJapan this is an increase from the 1 percent of management positions occupied by
women just 10 years before in 1995.
Women have also had concerns with discrimination in Japan; however, the Equal
Employment Opportunity Law was revised in April 2007 to establish concrete penalties
to HR managers who discriminate directly or indirectly. Indirect discrimination occurs
when a prospective employee must agree to a condition such as nationwide transfers,
which many women with families cannot accept.
In 2000, 65 years old was when a person ought to retire from work for 40.3 of15

respondents in Japan and 45.3 percent of respondents in America. Surprisingly,
another 31.3 percent of respondents in Japan elected 70 years old as the appropriate
retirement age, compared to 15.5 percent of respondents in America. (JILPT, 2008
Databook of Labour Statistics)
In order to achieve the full potential of Japan’s human resources, businesses can tap
talented and motivated women and elderly persons for additional manpower. However,since the decline in the number of children born is based more on a change in social
values than due to economic reasons, it would be ineffective to address this issue by
taking economic measures such as offering tax benefits for families with children.
Even if there was a way to immediately raise the fertility rate, it would still take decades
to have a positive impact on the size of the labor force.
It could be possible to increase labor force participation rates of youth who have justcompleted their education, women within prime working-age groups, and people overage 60. Through the cooperation of educational institutions, industries, and local
government, Japan can develop its workforce.
In response to the growing burden of providing pensions for retirees, a recently
proposed bill would call for part-time workers and “freeters” to contribute to the
Employee Pension Insurance system, in addition to employers and regular employees.
Freeters are non-regular employees who frequently hold temporary positions with manydifferent employers. Over 2.5 million university graduates in Japan currently holdtemporary or part-time jobs. There is a drive to recruit these workers into full-time
positions.
Another labor issue that will impact employment is the push to reduce health issues anddeath from overwork, or “karoshi”. Average overtime in Japan is around 2,000 hours
per year. If overtime can successfully be reduced or eliminated, it may increase theneed for a larger workforce to maintain output levels.
Japan intends to tackle the challenges of an aging society with a low fertility rate byencouraging the labor force participation of youth, women, and elderly persons.
Before turning to immigration, Japan is more likely to explore the possibility ofutilizing robots to perform routine tasks in daily life. Recently there has been a push tohandle Japan’s aging population issues through the widespread use of service robots.

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(Harden, 2008) Service robots can help older people with daily tasks, such as carrying
groceries or taking medicine.
Since the population is expected to decline and there will be few young people able totake care of aging population, robots could serve as an attractive alternative toimmigration.
Japanese companies have made great strides in developing a wide range of robots,
including humanoid robots. For example, ASIMO, developed by Honda, is able todance, climb stairs, and kick a soccer ball. Toyota has developed humanoid robots thatcan play the violin or the trumpet.
Robots are being designed for such practical tasks as spoon-feeding the elderly, hoistinga person onto a toilet, or phoning a nurse when the person in their care refuses to taketheir medication. This can bring a great deal of relief to a country with an aging
population and shrinking workforce. A large number of elderly persons will requirecare while only a few young people are available to provide such care.
The Japanese government is readily subsidizing the development of care-giving
machines. Toyota is presently making service robots one of its core businesses.
Over the next decade or so, Toyota expects wheelchair-like robots to be among the mostuseful. These devices would be smart, highly mobile, and able to help carry people or
shopping bags.
Robots are not expected to resolve all social issues in Japan. There is still a shortageof affordable day care and no reversal in sight for the decline in population.
The director of the Japan Immigration Policy Institute, Hidenori Sakanaka, thinks thatinvesting in the recruitment and education of immigrants would be a better solution toissues related to Japan’s aging population. The 127 million strong population is
expected to fall by one-third within 50 years. Japanese women are increasing deciding
not to have children or even get married. Since 1980 the percentage of women age 25
to 29 who remain single has doubled from 24 percent to 54 percent. Due to a lack ofaffordable day care, many Japanese women must choose between their jobs or raisingchildren.

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Japan strategist for Goldman Sachs Katy Matsui recommends that Japan relaxes
immigration rules to allow working mothers to employ foreign-born nannies. This
could make it easier for women to have more children.
In the US, since immigrants generally come to America in order to find work, they havemuch high labor force participation rates than the native-born population. So
increasing immigration could help moderate the decline in Japan’s workforce. The
investment firm Goldman Sachs estimates Japan’s workforce will fall by 10 percent
within 20 years. Boosting the size of the workforce would mean there would be agreater number of workers contributing to pension and health care systems. The aging
population is already putting a strain on these systems as it is.
While robots may be able to take over routine duties and allow health care providers tosave money on personnel, it may be some time before robots are cost effective andreliable alternatives to immigration. Also, service robots must be able to bring a profit
for their manufacturers. Industrial robots already overcame these obstacles during the
1980s, and the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry expects as much success forservice robots in homes.
However, Japan has highly restrictive immigration laws that are enforced aggressively.
Immigrants are often frowned upon in Japan because they are often connected withcrime, impolite behavior, and untidiness. Immigration is politically unpopular;
however, robots possess widespread support. Forty percent of all robots in the world
are in use in Japan, primarily in industrial settings such as automobile factories.
Besides differences in approaches to changes in the size of the workforce, the US andJapan will take different approaches to changes to employment by industry. While the
US continues to shift to a service-based economy, rather than a manufacturing economy,
Japan intends to maintain a strong emphasis on both service and manufacturing sectors.
Temporary workers can be a useful mechanism to adapt to change. Industries can add
and drop workers as demand rises and falls. In 2006, Japan had 1,280,000 temporary
workers. These workers were primarily in finance, insurance, communications, realestate, and manufacturing. Outside of software development, which has no limitationon the length of employment for temporary workers, 3 years is the maximum.
In 2005, US had 1,220,000 temporary workers, slightly fewer than Japan.

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These

workers were primarily in service, manufacturing, and retail stores.
The US and Japan will also take different approaches to training workers. US
employers are more likely to expect job applicants to have already completed certain
training at community colleges or universities, while Japanese employers are more
likely to conduct in-house training. As economic conditions worsen, US employers
offer less and less in-house training.
Human resource development in Japan is facing numerous limitations, such ascompanies holding back from investing in their own human capital, or the incongruity
between what the education system provides and the needs of society, or the decline ofeducation in the home. Japan aims to switch away from its traditional model ofsingle-track education and corporate career path and move towards a more flexible
framework that can include multiple education and career paths. In order toaccomplish this goal, the cooperation of businesses, schools, and local communities isessential. An example of this change is allowing students to transfer from technicaljunior college to special courses in university or allowing students to advance fromtechnical high schools to universities.
One way for businesses and technical high schools or junior colleges in Japan tocollaborate is for the company to dispatch its own technicians to serve as instructors at
schools. Also, businesses could offer students the opportunity for onsite practice.
Company technicians and post-doctoral fellows could collaborate on providing scienceclasses in elementary and junior high schools to make science more appealing tostudents.
Japan will continue to promote cultural interaction among Asian youth, encouraging
overseas study and research in Japan while supporting the dispatch of Japanese youth toother countries. Japan aims to increase opportunities for foreign students to work inJapanese companies after completing their studies. Japan aims to remain competitive
with the quality of its human resources and plans to foster an environment that is
appealing to the world’s most gifted students and researchers.

19Surveys on common career paths
Career information plays a role in preparing the workforce to face the on-coming
challenges. Job-seekers require quality information in order to make informed
decisions.
The typical career path can have an affect on the kind of career information that could
be useful for job seekers. For example, if most people only work for one company
their entire lives, it is less important to provide information on mid-career job-changing
opportunities. In the US, lifetime employment is relatively rare, and many careermaterials are often designed for new entrants and job-changers alike.
In order to better understand what job-searching is like for Japanese individuals, careerinterview surveys were conducted during the end of August and the beginning of
September 2008. One survey was conducted in person, while the other 5 participants
responded to a questionnaire, which can be found in the Appendices. The in-person
survey helped determine the format for the questionnaire. Also, the questionnaire wasbased the one used for 2005 JILPT research report that tracked the worklife ofindividuals for 35 years (JILPT, Survey Research Report 2005).
Participants were acquaintances of JILPT staff. Participants were Japanese nationals
in either their 30s or 50s. They were men and women working in the private sector.
These individuals cooperated on a voluntary basis and did not always accept the 2000
yen gift certificate that was offered as a token of appreciation.
In-person interview
The subject of the in-person interview could be considered to have an atypical career
history. This male in his early 50s has been running his own software development
company for 10 years. He has only two employees, and they mainly contract out tothe local government in Chiba to assist with construction projects.
He grew up in a small town where everyone believed good grades were the way tosuccess. He thinks the decline in the community mindset once held by Japanese firms
is a serious problem. He aims to move towards open source software, with the goal of20

helping small companies who can’t afford expensive computer software.
His formal education background includes a law-related college degree from a public
college in Chiba prefecture. He also studied office administration and economics.
His first job out of college was with a large, well-established textile factory. It was anold company with over a thousand employees. He worked in the accounting
department. He found the job by visiting Hello-Work once towards the end of his
studies; he did no other job-searching whatsoever. The job itself was not very
demanding, and he was never expected to do overtime work. However, after 3 years
he was frustrated with the limited potential for promotion and changed jobs to work as atemporary employee in a computer programming job. At the textile factory, it would
take at least 10 years to become section chief, and he did not want to wait that long.
He learned more about computers on his own, when computers were still at a very
developmental stage. As a temporary employee he worked on a team of 10
programmers that developed banking systems.
He spent 4 years as a temporary employee before joining a venture capital company.
He was with the venture capital company for 15 years, rising to management level.
This company was in the information technology sector, producing dongles. Dongles
are small pieces of hardware that can connect to a computer to authenticate software.
They can be used to protect the software from unlicensed users. Generally only very
high-end software packages, such as CAD, use dongles. His company opened abranch in Shanghai and he spent 3 years going back and forth between the Shanghai
branch and Japan. The burst of the Japanese bubble economy and competition from
Korea and Israel ruined his executive position. Finally, in 1999 he decided to start his
own software company.
Questionnaire interviews
The next five interviews were complete via questionnaire over e-mail. This allowed
the participants to complete the survey at their convenience and gave them a way toorganize their thoughts.
Summary of questionnaire respondents:

21

<<Highest Level of Education>>
Junior College – 1
College – 2
Graduate school - 2<<Gender>>Men – 3
Women – 2<<Age group>>
Age 30-39 – 4
Age 50-59 – 1<<Job changing>>
Changed employers once – 3
Assigned to a different department – 2<<Company size>>
Experience at a company with over 1000 employees – 4
Experience at a company with between 100 and 1000 employees – 1
Experience at a company with less than 100 employees – 1<<Method used to first job>>
Company recommended by professor/staff member at school – 3Pamphlet at school – 1
Company website – 1
OB/OG (met with college alumni who currently work at the company) - 1<<Method used to second job>>
Head-hunter – 1
Career-switching website – 1
Working as a temporary employee first – 1<<Desirable job-searching information>>
Two respondents expressed a desire to listen to career stories from other people in theirown situation. One of these respondents said places like KidZania in Tokyo are an22

excellent way for children to learn about their career choices and hoped that there could
be more places like it.
Another respondent said they would learn about companies by working there part-time.
Another respondent wished they could have more information about companies to makea decision.
The last respondent wished for a place where they could discuss their long-term careergoals and be introduced to the right people at companies that matched their career goals.
—End survey results—
The results of this survey demonstrate that job-changing occurs; however, it is low incomparison to the US. Data from the US National Longitudinal Survey published in a2008 news release showed that respondents between ages 18-42 held an average ofalmost 11 jobs. For the purposes of the press release, a job is defined as anuninterrupted period of work with one particular employer. This amount of
job-changing occurred for groups at each level of educational attainment.
Job-changing was nearly the same for men and women. On average, morejob-changing occurred during the respondents’ late teens and early twenties than in their
mid thirties. Some respondents held more jobs than average while others held fewer.
For example, 23 percent or respondents held 15 jobs or more between ages 18-42, while
14 percent held zero to four jobs.
According to the 2008 Databook of International Labour Statistics, most 18-24 year
olds in Japan considered job change to be unavoidable in 2004 (53 percent).
Another 17.9 percent considered it better to change jobs if unsatisfied. However,
18-24 year olds in the US were nearly the reverse, with 56 percent considering it betterto change jobs if unsatisfied and 21.9 percent considering job change to be unavoidable.
This suggests young people in the US are more open to the idea of changing jobs if
unsatisfied. However, Japanese youth have become much more open to this concept
than they were in the past.
In higher-ranked colleges, a growing number of graduates are reporting they turned
down job offers from traditionally prestigious banks, manufacturers, securities

23

brokerages, and other companies. During the economic downturn of the late 1990s,
the competition for these jobs was very high, but now students are more concerned withwork/life balance, prospects for future advancement, and their impression of the work
environment from the job interview.
Younger Japanese are increasingly
individual-minded and more concerned with their quality of life. They are more
willing to accept unconventional practices such as pay for performance and non-lifetime
employment.

24Comparison of career information between Japan and the US
Job-searching in Japan was once very straight-forward, where students would receive
job offers before graduation and then work for the same company until retirement.
Gradually, Japan is moving to a more flexible system that will require job seekers todevelop more career planning skills.
The methods used to recruit new hires can vary on whether the employer is seeking a
recent college graduate or a mid-career professional. According to a 2004 survey by
the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare, HelloWork is the number one method for
employers to recruit mid-career hires (64.9%). Other notable methods include
classified ads in newspapers (33%) or job search magazines (30%). The main methods
to recruit college graduates include job search magazines or websites (38%);
introductions by teachers or staff at schools; a job fair; or HelloWork. (JILPT,
2006/2007)
For younger job-seekers, the willingness to learn was often more important toemployers than technical skills. The most important quality sought by employers inyounger job seekers for either administrative or technical occupations was theirmotivation to work. At least three-quarters of employers stressed this point. (JILPTSurvey Research Report No. 151, 2003)
This section compares career information between Japan and the US based on its
method of dissemination. Career information is found in places or buildings like
employment service centers. Also, it can be found in publications such as weekly
magazines. Lastly, it can be found in on-line databases such as O*NET from the US
Department of Labor.
PlacesIn Japan, the public employment service office is operated by the central government
under the name “HelloWork.” In addition to regular HelloWork offices that cater to alltypes of jobseekers, there are also offices that cater to women with children or young
people under age 30 who have not yet found a full-time regular position with acompany.

25

In the US, public employment service offices are primarily run by each State
government. Career One Stop offices are an example of a collaborative effort between
the Federal Government and State Governments in assisting with job placement.
Both HelloWork and State employment agencies in the US allow jobseekers to locate
jobs over their website and offer counseling services within their office locations. It
may be more common for jobseekers to visit a HelloWork office than to visit a public
employment office in the US.
Annual average Current Population Survey data for 2007 showed that visiting a US
State public employment agency was less than 10 percent of all methods used by the
unemployed to find work. However, it is possible that many of these unemployed used
the website for their State employment agency to search for jobs. A November 2006
report by the Conference Board showed that job-search websites as well as newspaper
ads were used by over 70 percent of US job-seekers to locate job openings. This was far
and above other searching methods such as visiting either a public or private
employment agency.
As mentioned earlier, HelloWork is the number one method to recruit mid-career hires,
according to a 2004 survey by the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare.
Also aJILPT researcher also noticed that Japanese employers and jobseekers in the same area
will often visit the same HelloWork office. A staff member assists the employer withfilling out a job announcement form and has a chance to become familiar with theemployer’s situation. This means the staff at HelloWork may be able to provide
jobseekers with information about the employer not posted on the job announcement
form. Since employers in America can submit their documents by mail orelectronically to a public employment service agency, the staff members who assist
jobseekers have not had direct contact with the employer. They cannot provide any
more information than what is written on the job announcement. This supports theidea that a greater proportion of jobseekers choose to visit HelloWork than a State
employment agency in the US.
Another difference in employment service centers noticed by a JILPT researcher was
the US center offered GED preparatory classes to adults who did not have a high school
diploma. If these adults can pass the GED, they will have a qualification that is26

equivalent to a high school diploma. This can be an asset during a job search.
Japan’s employment service centers generally do not offer this type of training, possibly
because this service seems to already be provided adequately by special support
schools.
At public employment service offices, employers submit job announcement forms,
which will be compared across countries for the purposes of this report. Japan’s
HelloWork job announcement form for a full-time job is compared to the job order form
for the New York State Department of Labor (NY DOL). Please see Appendices forimages of these forms. These forms include a number of similar items, such as
unemployment insurance number, employer name, title of job openings, and number of
job openings. The HelloWork form has some more detail and asks about the numberof employees with the company, number of female employees, set retirement age,whether or not to make opening available to the public or just registered users, numberof holidays per year, and a hand-drawn map to a company location including nearest
public transportation. However, the NY DOL form has a couple of details not foundon the HelloWork form, such as an e-mail address for the contact person, and thenumber of resumes they wish to review as well as the number of people they wish tointerview.
A JILPT researcher highlighted the fact that the job description itself is actually very
brief in HelloWork job announcements, while the job description is relatively lengthy inState employment agency job announcements, such as those from NY DOL.
Employers are encouraged to make the job description fit inside a fairly small box on
HelloWork job announcement forms, while they are allowed to attach additional pages
as necessary to the NY DOL form. Examples of posted job announcements on
HelloWork and NY DOL websites were selected for network engineers during thesecond week of August 2008. The job description for a network engineer position on
the NY DOL website reads as follows:“You will be responsible for planning and evaluating complex existing network systems
and making recommendations for resources required for maintaining and/or expanding
service levels. You will be in charge of installation, configuration, and maintenance of
network systems and solutions and technical support as required in a predominately
Cisco environment. Essential functions include developing training plans for network
resource administration; coordinating
installation of hardware/software;27

implementation of plans for process improvements; testing network performance andproviding network performance reports; managing effectiveness of servers and theiroperating systems; manage effectiveness of security solutions; and mange negotiations
with vendors, outsourcers, and contractors to secure network products and services.”
In contrast, the job description for a network engineer on the HelloWork website
translates to the following:“Video transmission using IP [Internet Protocol]
Network or server construction”
The full, original text of these examples can be found in the Appendices. While the
NY DOL example includes a great deal more detail, the HelloWork description may beadequate for the employer’s purposes. Employers in Japan are willing to train
employees as the need arises and employees work as a team. So specific duties may
not be decided until after the employee is hired and these duties are subject to change.
While employment service offices primarily help jobseekers locate employment, Japan
also has places where children can learn about potential careers through hands-on
training.
The Vocational Museum (私の仕事館) in Kyoto is a useful way for children to learn
about careers by simulating the work environment. This institution was developed bya quasi-governmental agency called the Employment and Human Resources
Organization of Japan. The Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare also contributed tothe development of the institute. The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training
contributed to the vocational assessment tools available in the museum. It has been
operating since 2003. (Kyoto Prefecture, 2003)
In a visit on August 14th, 2008, this paper’s author was able to see first-hand the wealthof interactive displays available at the Vocational Museum. They offer a wide series ofhands-on training for a wealth of occupations such as news broadcaster, fashion
designer, crane operator, aerospace engineer, and more. The museum’s target audienceis middle-school or high-school students. They also feature pottery and weaving
techniques that are specific to the Kyoto area.

28

KidZania (キッザニァ) is also a place to introduce children to the world of workthrough hands-on experience. Its target audience is primary school students who areinterested in having a world to themselves. KidZania is designed to look like a small
town, with everything built at 2/3 to scale. Children can get hands-on experience in 50
different work settings, such as a hospital, a fitness gym, a fire department, and more.
They learn first-hand about occupations such as doctors, chefs, cabin attendants, andmore. When they participate in a work activity, they earn a special type of currency
called a KidZo and they can spend the money on real food, cellphones, the beauty salon,
among other places.
KidZania differs from the Vocational Museum in Kyoto by attracting children who wantto role-play as adults. Also, KidZania is a for-profit institution with corporate
sponsors, while the Vocational Museum is a non-profit institution supported by industry
groups. While there is a great opportunity to learn about a large number of careers,
KidZania is more focused on entertainment, developing social skills, and learning to
make independent decisions than the Vocational Museum. The Vocational Museum
focuses more on practical career development. KidZania provides children with more
opportunities to prepare food than the Vocational Museum. While the Vocational
Museum has a low entrance fee and then charges separately for each workshop,
KidZania only charges an entrance fee and then lets children sign up for workshops on afirst-come first-serve basis. Depending on how many workshops a child participates in,
the price could be similar between the two institutions.
The Tokyo location of KidZania opened in October 2006. At that time it was the first
KidZania to open outside of Mexico. The annual attendance in Tokyo between April
2007 and March 2008 was 930,000. This is higher than the 820,000 annual visitors at
the Mexico City location. Another KidZania is expected to open in the Osaka area ofJapan in March 2009.
In a visit on September 16th, 2008, this paper’s author was able to tour the KidZania
Tokyo facility to learn how career information was presented. The facility is
well-coordinated and the children appeared to be engaged and enthusiastic. Children
were allowed to see first-hand many machines and tools that they would not ordinarily
be able to see in real life, such as an endoscope, a binding press, a Coca-Cola bottlingmachine, and more. The electrical lines repair participants were taught about theimportance of safety gear. Each of the workspaces appealed to children on some level.

29

The tasks were usually simple enough for children of all ages to perform successfully,
such as spraying a water hose, pushing a button, turning a knob, waving a flag, putting
toppings on a hamburger, reading a script, etc.
The Tokyo facility is very similar to the original facility in Mexico City, although somechanges were made to make it look more like a city in Japan. Most of the work
environments are the same, although the content can change depending on the sponsor.
In both the Mexico City and the Tokyo KidZania, children receive a 50 KidZo traveler’scheque when they first enter the park; however, the children at Mexico City are more
likely to spend their cheque immediately before choosing a place to work while childrenin Tokyo are more likely to save their cheque to spend after working a while. This
reflects a cultural difference in people’s attitude towards working and saving. The
facility opening in Osaka next spring will be the first facility in the world to have a train
depot.
Neither the Vocational Museum nor KidZania provide a chance for children toexperience agricultural, fishing, or forestry occupations. This is probably due toconstraints on space and resources. Also, neither institution provides much insight
into a managerial position, which may not be considered to be as practical as otherprofessions, given the target audience.
Since KidZania is primarily focused on developing a world for kids, it is inadequate to
be used as a micro-model for real world issues. Since it is constantly full of children,
there are no issues with a declining population, a growing proportion of older persons
with a shrinking proportion of children, immigration pressures, or social security
solvency. Needless to say, there is no focus on which future skills or occupation will
be in high demand.
The US does not have an equivalent institution to either the Vocational Museum or
KidZania. Given the current budget situation for the Federal or State Governments, it
is unlikely that an appeal for a Vocational Museum will be well-received. It isremarkable that Mexico-based KidZania is a global institution that does not yet have a
US presence. Our guide at KidZania assured us that there were definitely plans at one
point in time to open a branch in the US, but it was not able to gain support fromenough sponsors to be realized. In the US, education is separated from entertainment,
so it is doubtful that potential customers would be willing to continually return to an

30

institution that is a cross between Disneyland and school. Many potential customers
would simply choose to either go to a school or go to Disneyland. Nevertheless, it isconceivable that this issue can be overcome—as theme parks continue to try new
gimmicks, as corporate sponsors continue to try new ways to build recognition, andpossibly as career education tries new methods to appeal to the public. An American
couple from California who were touring KidZania on September 16th also saw
potential for this enterprise in the US.
Publications
Japan has free weekly magazines featuring job openings in a certain local area. These
magazines are readily found throughout the neighborhood at train stations and various
businesses. In America, job openings are more commonly featured in newspapers orbulletin boards. Depending on the city, job classifieds magazines may be readily
available or not available at all.
One example of this magazine in Japan is “TownWork,” offered by Recruit, a private
publication company. For the purposes of this paper, the Ikebukuro/Tobu Tojo Lineedition from the week of September 8th, 2008 was selected. This magazine offers jobs
exclusively in this region, and the magazine allows readers to select an even more
specific area inside the region. It includes almost 90 pages of classifieds--a sample
page can be found in the Appendices. Each job posting indicates where the nearest
train station is and how long it takes to walk from the station to the worksite. It
includes numerous details on each job, such as the salary, shift hours, benefits, etc.
The magazine publisher actually pays a visit to the employer to verify the information,
ensuring its accuracy. Many colorful pictures highlight the friendly atmosphere atvarious employers.
One example of this magazine in the US is “CareerSource,” privately published for the
San Francisco Bay area. This magazine is published once every 5 weeks and can bepicked up for free at libraries, shopping centers, or career centers, among other places.
It is not organized in any particular way. It includes 20 pages of general advertising
space and articles on job-searching--a sample page from the August 12-Septebmer 16th,
2008 edition can be in the Appendices. Vocational training at community colleges isalso advertised. Job announcements are non-specific; they do not indicate any salary,details on work shifts, or nearest public transportation. The magazine publisher does31not pay a visit to the company to verify any information.
pictures to show the friendly atmosphere.

It does include colorful

Job classifieds in newspapers in the US are more likely to include specific details suchas salary and working hours; however, not even the newspaper staff will visit theemployer to verify the accuracy of the information. Job classifieds from Japanesenewspapers vary from being just as detailed as job-search magazines in the Sunday
edition, to being very succinct to fit 3 columns in weekday editions. Examples ofnewspaper ads can be found in the Appendices.
Websites and online databases
The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training Career Matrix is based on the US
Department of Labor Employment and Training Administration Occupation Information
Network (O*NET) database. As a result, the two on-line databases have any numberof similarities. Both provide ranking scales for various skills and knowledge areas
within detailed occupations.
O*NET is primarily a database for raw information. Developers are welcome to takethis information and create any interface they desire with it. The Career Matrix ismore of an end-user tool, and offers more functions than O*NET. For example, theCareer Matrix links directly to specific occupational information that is found in the
Occupational Handbook for Youth (OHBY). This is information on numerous specifictraining paths, earnings statistics, etc. While the suggestion has been made to have the
US DOL Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) statement web pages link directly tothe corresponding O*NET web pages for the same occupation, presently neither themain O*NET Online occupation web pages link directly to the OOH or vice versa. It
is helpful that the Career Matrix links to information found in OHBY.
A key part of developing an OOH statement is checking the corresponding information
on O*NET and ensuring it matches the statement. The O*NET database was usefulfor describing duties of occupations that were unfamiliar and rarely seen or discussed ineveryday life. Also, the list of alternative titles often proved useful when trying to help
someone from the public decide where a job title of interest to them would be classified.
However, the training categories used in O*NET, or “job zones,” were too broad to be32

useful. For example, there is often no distinction between occupations that generally
need a postsecondary training certificate, an associate degree, a bachelor’s degree, or a
graduate degree. There is also no mention of a specific field of study.
Also, the skills and knowledge areas were too vague to have specific implications. For
example, knowing that the occupation Medical and Clinical Laboratory Technicians has
an importance ranking of 36 out of 100 for biology does not translate into a particularaction plan for employers, schools, or jobseekers. Perhaps if the skills were broken
down by which were acquired on the job, which are learned in the classroom, and which
are simply natural talent, then it would be possible to ensure that the skills learned in aclassroom are adequately covered in schools. However, it may not always be possible
to make such clear divisions in where skills are acquired. Also, the importanceranking may vary by setting or even from person to person. The same concerns also
apply to the Career Matrix.
Both Japan and the US have employment projections presented with occupational
information websites; however, employment projections play a larger role indetermining the appropriate number of college programs in America than in Japan.
While web sites designed specifically for mobile phones are increasingly available inboth Japan and the US, the Japanese government has been far more active in utilizing
this medium to provide career guidance materials to young people. The Career Matrix
and other vocational assessment tools have web sites specifically designed for mobile
phones. This is an excellent way to reach Japanese teenagers who are deciding on acareer path. In the US, however, materials such as the OOH are more focused on the
traditional printed publication format than the Internet version, despite the growing
preference of students and jobseekers to utilize Internet resources.

33

Conclusion
After reviewing economic changes in Japan, the changing career path, and various
methods for supplying career information, it appears as though Japan offers anextensive amount of quality career information, especially in comparison to America.
There would be advantages to having State employment agencies in the US be morecommunity-based, where the job-seeker could speak with an unbiased staff member
who could tell them information about a company that they might not learn from acompany representative. HelloWork can serve as a model for this. Also, there would
be advantages to having the quality of job announcements checked and having job
information readily comparable between employers, following a model similar to what
is found in Japanese job-searching magazines.
Additionally, there would be advantages to having companies in the US that are more
willing to re-train employees, rather than lay them off in order to hire different
employees. Many unemployed persons try to figure out on their own what training
they need to become employable, only to find employers are looking for different skills.
In an attempt to bring more attention to career education in the US, an institution like
Kidzania could prove to be a novel approach with interesting ramifications.
However, there is one possible implication for the career guidance community in Japanthat can be taken from this research. As more job-switching occurs and there is a
growing need to make the transition between jobs more smooth, there will be increasing
demand for better communication so that jobseekers can have more confidence in theircareer decisions. The responses to a career story questionnaire revealed an interest inhearing more about the work lives of other people. While America certainly has nomodel for this, a possible policy implication for Japan is to serve as a role model forother countries by taking a lead role in encouraging open dialogues about people’s own
careers.
While it is possible to find career stories collected at random, there is not awell-structured database of career stories that can be tapped at any time. Reading the
career story for someone in their 50s may not provide much useful information to a34

recent college graduate, especially as the work environment changes and people nolonger expect to work for one employer over the course of their career.
It is not yet clear how this could be accomplished, but career counselors and career
education institutions could work with the public and establish a system.

35

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