REPRINTED FROM THE MARINER'S MIRROR, vol. XXIV, No. 1, JANUARY 1938
(The Quarterly Journal of the Society for Nautical Research)[All rights reserved]

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAINTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND'By James Hornell
Part III
COUNTY SLIGOFormerly curraghs were in use both on the mainland of this county and in
Inismurray, and we have an interesting account by Beranger in his Tour of Connaught1 ,published in 1779, of how the first thing that attracted his attention when visiting
Inismurray was a curragh made of basketwork, covered with the hide of a horse or a cow.
He says: "As the members were six or eight inches apart and the sun was shining bright,
and the skin transparent, it seemed to me to be a vessel of glass, as I could see the water
through it."
The truth of this curious statement of the transparency of the hide receives
collateral confirmation in two passages in Bishop Heber's Indian Journal2 In these hementions with interest that shields carried by certain Baroda cavalrymen were covered
with "rhinoceros-hide as transparent as horn". The presumption is that such hide was useduntanned.
COUNTY MAYO
Following the west coast southward from Donegal, the next distinctive curraghcentres to-day are found in county Mayo. Here, and more particularly in the little fishingharbours of the Mullet, Blacksod Bay, Achil Island and the small isles off coast, thecurragh continues to flourish as the craft most favoured in use by inshore fishermen.
These curraghs, together with those to be described from Connemara, differ fromall other Irish types; instead of narrow stringers forming the outer members of alatticework frame, the bottom and sides are completely covered with thin planking
I "Memoir of Gabriel Beranger", by Sir W. R. Wilde; Journ. of the Roy. Hist. and Arch. Ass, of
Ireland, 4th series, I, 135; III 459.
2 Narrative of a journey through the Upper Provinces of India. . . in 1824-25, 3rd ed., III, 2 and 5.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

6

due to the broadening of the stringers used and the consequent suppression ofintervals between them.
Two types of this plank-bottomed design are to be dis-tinguished incounty Mayo: (a) the Blacksod and Iniskea type, and (b) the Achil type. The
essential difference between them lies in the presence of a single gunwale inthose of the first type (PI. 1, fig. 1), whereas in those of the second there are two,an upper and a lower, the two forming a specialized gunwale frame (Pl. II, fig- 3).
Both types are characterized by the substitution of comparatively broad-bladedfeathering oars for " bull-oars" pivoting on a single pin as used in Donegal,
Connemara, Aran, Clare and Kerry.
A. The Blacksod and Iniskea type
The curraghs of this type admirably illustrate an important phase in thecourse of curragh development. In the simplicity of the gunwale construction it
serves, as we shall see, as a link between the primitive design of the Sheephaventype and that of the elaborate double gunwale characterizing all curraghs to thesouthward of Blacksod Bay, just as the Sheephaven and Mulroy designs elaboratethat of the Rosses and Tory Island. The same relationship is expressed in various
minor details; these include the use of ribs formed of halved ash branches, of ashoulder cross-bar, of massive blocks as thwart knees and of a loose thwart.
Description. The example measured belongs to a man who had brought itfrom Iniskea. It is a two-man rowing curragh, 17 ft. 7 in, in length with a beam,outside, of 46 in, amidships, decreasing to 44 1/4 in, at the stern. Height from theground at the fore-end, 45 in., while amidships and thence to the stern it is 22 in.
Depth, 21 in, to top of gunwale.
In general design it approaches closely to the Sheephaven and Mulroy
type but its bottom and sides differ by being fully planked in; other points also
show minor advances in the curragh-builder's art. The fore-end is sharp, for oneach side the two uppermost bow stringers are nailed to a thick vertical board, thestem block, 20 in. long by 1 1/2 in, wide and nearly the same in thickness. Eachof these stringers is from 2 toTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

7

2 1/2 in. wide at the fore-end, decreasing to a point where it ends under theshoulder splice.
The main gunwales are of squared deal, 3 by 3 in.; each is overlappedforward by the bevelled end of the shoulder or bow gunwale, at a distance of 6 ft.
from the stem. The weak shoulder splice is supplemented by a cross-bar, "thecentre stick", or maide droma, 2 3/4 by 2 1/4 in., notched below at each end to fit
upon the gunwale just behind the splice. The junction of these three parts is madesecure by the nailing over it of a shaped shoulder key-piece. The bow gunwales
meet in the median line above the stem block to which they are nailed.
The stern gunwale is a stout cross-bar curving outwards, 24 by 21/2 in.,partly countersunk into the ends of the lateral gunwales. Below it is a narrower
added piece, 2 by 2 in., to which the ends of the five median bottom planks arenailed on the under side. The aftermost rib-frame, 17 in. below the stern gunwale,
forms the lower boundary of what we may consider the equivalent of a transom
stern (see Plan 2).
The framing consists of 24 rib-frames, called "hoops", set about 9 in,apart, centre to centre. To these are nailed on the outside fifteen thin planks,
averaging 4 in, in width, set edge to edge; these replace the stringers of Donegal
curraghs. The hoops are halved ash branches, the rounded side outer. To these theskin planking is fastened by "cot" or boat nails. The ends of the hoops arewhittled down and driven into cylindrical holes bored in the gunwales. Wedging
from above keeps them from slipping. Calico sheeting, made waterproof by theapplication of boiled tar, covers the entire hull on the outside. This substitution ofcloth for hide is of long standing; in a work published in 18371 a curragh seen in
Achil Sound is described as "covered with canvas rendered waterproof by acoating of tar and tallow".
Two thwarts are present, 7 1/2 in, wide; these rest at each end upon a longfore-and-aft inner stringer, "the ribbon", 1 1/2 by 1/2 in., nailed over the ribs, 7 3/4
in, below the upper surface of the gunwale. The fore thwart-the slip seat-rests
loose on the
1 The Irish Tourist; or, The People and the Provinces of Ireland, p. 73London, 1837-

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

8lateral ribbons, immediately abaft the shoulder splice. The after thwart is fixed,
nailed to the ribbons. It is further secured and held in place by a massive
trapezoidal knee block nailed above against the inner side of the main gunwale
and below to the thwart. Abaft each thwart is a rowlock c1eat nailed upon eachgunwale. It measures 17 by 1 in. Through it and the upper gunwale below twoholes are bored, 5 in, apart; into these thole pins are thrust to form a rowlock.
Outside the second rowlock cleat on each side of the curragh is nailed a length ofstout batten to form a protective band against wear from the frequent hauling offishing lines.
When not at sea these curraghs are housed bottom up, in low stone-walledpens similar to those used on Achil Island.
The oars with which the men row these curraghs are of ordinary pattern.
No "bull" is present and as they work free in the rowlock formed by the twothole-pins they admit of feathering-a modern innovation.
The cost is about £7 each. They are used mostly for lobster fishing and forlining as evidenced by the grooving of the protective batten on the outside ofeach of the second rowlocks.
B. Achil Island
Curraghs are still numerous in Achil Island. At Keel, where typicalexamples were measured in July 1936, over a dozen lie bottom up each Sunday
when fishing is suspended. They rest protected and half hidden in the shelter oflow, stone-walled pens. Owing to the sharp sheer of the bows, each shoulder
splice has to be supported on a pile of three or four big boulders, while long, flatslabs are laid against each side of the stern with others resting against the foreend to anchor the light craft fast when tearing westerly gales sweep down uponthis bleak and wildly rugged treeless coast.
Two sizes of curragh are built having respectively two and three rowing
thwarts; in addition each has a seat at the stern for the steersman, and as a knee
rest when hauling up a lobster pot (Plan 1). A typical three-man curragh measures
20 ft. 4 in, in length, with an outside beam of 47 in, amidships, decreasing

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

9

to 44 in, at the stern. Depth, 22 in.; height from the ground at the head, 35 in.;amidships, 23 in.; at the stern, 24 1/2 in.
A notable advance on the designs so far described is the presence of adouble gunwale frame, formed of an upper and a lower gunwale separated andkeyed together on each side by seven broad and nearly vertical wooden
blocks-"standards". Four of these are placed opposite the four thwarts; each ispinned into the gunwale bars, above and below, whereas the remaining three, of
which two are forward in the bow region and the third abaft the third thwart, havevertical wing processes on the inner side which overlap the gunwale above andthat below. As the beam of the curragh at the level of the upper gunwale is about
3 in, wider than at the level of the lower, the outer edge of the upper gunwale
projects 11/2 in, beyond that of the lower, thus giving a distinct slant inward anddownward to this region. This feature we shall find to be characteristic ofconstruction whenever a double gunwale frame is present.
Each gunwale, upper and lower, is made up on each side of three partsbow section, main section and quarter section. The junction of the first two is
spliced and keyed together as in the Iniskea curraghs but no athwart cross-bar ispresent. The quarter splice is more roughly made; its purpose is to enable a slightsheer to be given to the after-end. At the stern the after-ends of the upper andlower gunwales on the two sides are connected by straight stern gunwale bars
countersunk at each extremity and nailed on. The space between them is filled inwith transverse boarding and this part is left uncovered when the canvas skin isput on.
At the fore-end the ends of the bow gunwales are bevelled and nailed to astout stem block, 6 by 2 in. This stem junction is further strengthened by being
capped by a horizontal keying piece of board, triangular in shape, 7 in, along eachside.
The ribs are generally doubled along the greater part of their length but inan irregular manner. On each side the ends of twenty-three ribs pass throughrectangular slots in the lower gunwale and are wedged where necessary. They are
either cloven or sawn laths, 1 1/2 in. wide and 1/4 in, thick. On the outer side ofthese, thin boards, 1/4 in, thick, are fastened by copperTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

12

nails, completely covering the bottom and sides as far up as the lower gunwale.
Seven of these boards are disposed on each side of an unpaired median one. To
give greater longitudinal strength a board, forming a primitive kelson, 3 in. wideby 2 in, thick, is nailed over the ribs along the line of the median skin plank.
The ends of the thwarts rest upon the lower gunwales and each is
supported below by a stout median vertical strut of which the lower end rests in asocket cut in a stout shoe nailed upon the kelson. In addition, each thwart is tied
to the upper gunwale by means of an L-shaped iron knee (Pl. II,fig. 3).
The calico cover, which is single, may be put on either in threelongitudinal lengths or in a number of transversely running widths. The raw
edges are concealed under a narrow marginal batten nailed along the upper outeredge of the upper gunwale after tarring. Boiled tar is used for waterproofing.
According to size the cost varies from £5 to £9.
Propulsion. Like the curragh men elsewhere the Achil men row doublehanded with two cars; a pair of rowlock cleats are fitted on the gunwales a little
abaft each thwart. A pair of thole pins are fitted in holes in each of these cleats.
The oars, 10 ft. in length, are notably more powerful than usual, withshouldered blades 40 in. long by 3 in, wide.
C. North Mayo Curraghs

On the north coast of Mayo the type of curragh in use differs notably fromthose on the west coast. Its distribution stretches from Ballycastle to Broadhaven,both included. East-ward of Ballycastle fishermen look askance at curraghs,
while to the westward, at Broadhaven, we find a commingling of this type withthat of Iniskea.
The North Mayo curragh runs from 21 to 231/2 ft. in length, with a beamof 4 ft. amid ships and a depth of 25 in. The frame-work is well developed,
having a double gunwale of the Achil type-each gunwale in three spliced
sections, but instead of the bottom being completely boarded, the stringers,
twenty-three in number amidships and averaging 2 in, in width, areTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

13

spaced apart from 1/2 to & in. The ribs are hazel half-hoops, fitted as in Iniskea
curraghs; another point of resemblance is the presence of a long, curved stem
block, 17 by 11/4 in. Crossing the hull, their ends resting on the lower gunwale,
are three fixed thwarts, one loose thwart, a steersman's thwart (abreast the quarter
splice) and a cross board at the stern, which is similar in form to the Achil one.
Propuhion. True oars are used, each 16 ft. long, working between paired
thole-pins. To protect the loom from wear, a board, 20 in. long and 43/4 in, wide,is nailed on each of two opposite sides, between points 34 and 54 in. from the
grip.
When the crew go net-fishing the fourth thwart is removed to make room
for the nets. Otherwise either three or four hands may row, single-handed andalternate, one on each thwart.
The centre of the North Mayo curragh region is Belderrig, where I
counted fifteen curraghs laid up on the beach. One Iniskea curragh had comefrom Broadhaven to fish lobsters. The crew of two rowed double-handed, withoars (called "paddles") having triangular " bulls" working on single thole-pins.
CONNEMARA AND THE INISBOFIN ISLANDS
The fishermen of the Connemara mainland and the offshore islands incommon with their fellows elsewhere on the west coast are noted for their daring.
Formerly, besides their curraghs, they possessed a number of open boats built ofwood, but in a terrible storm a few years ago, almost the whole fleet perished,with the loss of many lives. The only curragh out that night came safely to shore
and to-day the remaining men, still dispirited by the tragedy, have fallen backupon the cheaply built and easily handled curragh as the most useful and safe
craft for inshore fishing.
A notable event in local history was the capture in June 1875 of animmense squid by the crew, three in number, of an Inisbofin curragh. The men
had just shot their spillets (long lines) when they saw a large whitish object on
the surface; seagulls circled overhead in curious troops. The men rowed

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

14

toward it and found it to be a squid of gigantic size1. They succeeded in cutting
off one of its two tentacular arms-30 ft. in length. Startled by this attack, the hugecreature made off in a flurry on the surface. The curragh followed and the men
managed to cut off the second of the long arms. Eventually they so crippled it by
hewing off the remaining and shorter arms that in spite of the threshing andstruggling of the body part, they managed to sever the head from the trunk. Someof the fragments are now in the Dublin Museum. The powerful beak measured
about 4 in, across.
The curraghs used in Inisbofin, Inishark and Inisturk and in the small
fishing harbours on the mainland, such as Ross-a-dilisk and Renvyle, are usuallyof the three-thwart type; in length they range between 16 and 18 ft., with a beamamid-ships of 51 in. including the gunwale beading; depth, 20 in. The heightfrom the ground of the stem head is 44 in., dropping to 25 in, at the shoulders.
This is continued as far as the second or quarter gunwale splice whence it rises
from 3/4 to 1 in, to the stern. (See Pl. I, fig. 2, and Plan 3.)
As will be seen from the figures, the design bears a close resemblance tothat of Achil. Both have a double gunwale frame, spliced at two places on eachside; three thwarts are present and the bottom is fully planked as in wooden
boats.
The principal characteristics of this design distinguishing it from that of
Achil are the following:(a) The standards between the upper and lower gunwales are more
numerous. On each side are three in the bow section with seven abaft theshoulder splice, which is strengthened by the insertion of a massive blockstandard (PI. 1, fig. 2). The bow standards and the alternate ones on each side of
the waist are rectangular in section, and fit by means of end-pegs into holes in thetwo gunwales, upper and lower; the others are "halved" into the gunwales.
(b) The stem is formed of a subtriangular block, sloping gently towards
the curve of the bottom; it is intercalated between the fore-ends of the upper andlower bow-gunwales,
1 Zoologist, June 1875 and Tryon's Manualof Conchology, I, 77. 1879

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

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while beneath is a semicircular block to which the fore-ends of the principal
stringers are nailed. Cross boarding of triangular outline covers the stem angle toa distance aft of 14 in, and serves to key the bows together.
(c) The stern consists of two straight gunwale bars, held apart by twosquare-sided standards. The end of the upper gunwale on each side projects acouple of inches beyond the side gunwales and the outer of the angles thus
formed is occupied by a filling piece. On the after side the stern gunwale frame isplanked across vertically to form a vertical transom stern. The skin boards on thebottom, after passing the last of the rib-frames, turn obliquely upwards to be
nailed to the underside of the lower gunwale.
(d) In Inisbofin and the other islands the two main thwarts arestrengthened by the addition of wooden knees; on the mainland, these are
replaced by vertical cylindrical struts.
(e) The ribs consist of about forty closely set oak laths, 11/4 by 5/8 in.; theends pass through the lower gunwale and are then cut off flush. Wedges driven infrom below prevent displacement.
(f) The bottom or skin planking, called "boards", is without a kelson andthe fixed thwarts have no median supporting strut. The boards are thirteen in
number, six on either side of a broad median plank, 9 in, wide; the others average
4 1/2 in, wide.
(g) The fabric cover is in two layers; the inner, put on in transverse
widths, is of coarse material such as sacking. After the fitting on and the nailingof the edges to the outside of the upper gunwale, a coat of tar is applied. A few
days later the second or outer layer, made from fine calico ("baffity"= baffetas), isput on and painted over with boiled tar or else a mixture of pitch and tar. Finallya strong protective batten or rather band, called the "ribbon", is nailed over theedges of the double cover, both along the sides and around the stern. (PI. II, fig.
2.)(h) A pair of rowlock cleats, the "ledges", are fitted on the upper gunwale
a little way abaft each thwart as in Achil curraghs, but here a single thole-pin
passes through each instead of two and is provided with a stout socket, the"thimble", nailed upon the lower gunwale in which its foot rests.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

26(i) The oars are what may be termed bull-oars as each has a pivoting
block or "bull" attached to one side of the squared region of the loom. Here it isof a characteristic form found nowhere else, the outer angle being rounded, while
the two basal ones are prolonged into " lugs " by which they are lashed to theloom. Each oar is 10 ft.in length.
Amulet. A small bottle filled originally with holy water but often foundempty is invariably suspended by a string from some part right in the bows. It is asacred amulet against misfortune.
These curraghs are never used under sail.
The cost is from £9 to £10 each.
THE ARAN ISLANDSThe Aran islanders employ the curragh to a greater extent than any othercoast folk in Ireland with the possible exception of the Dingle and Blasket men.
To the people of Aran the harvest of the sea is infinitely more precious than thatof their inhospitable land, the curragh has always been the only type of vessel
obtainable within their terribly restricted means. Their wind-swept isles are bareof trees and there are people there who have never set eyes on anything bigger
than a stunted bush. But withies and hide formerly, and to-day imported laths,
calico and tar, suffice for the building of serviceable craft, which in the hands ofexperienced men are the equal and in certain respects the superior of any type ofopen boat so far as the modest needs of these simple people are concerned.
In the chaotic centuries that followed the Age of the Saints, when the
flickering light of the old learning came nigh to extinction, curragh navigation
suffered eclipse. In size if not in constructional features these craft appear to havedegenerated. Probably there was no true renaissance till last century, indeed, so
recently as 1853 we find C. H. Hartshornet1 stating that "the curach of Aran. . .is
about eight feet long, with one square and one pointed end, capable of carrying
three people".
1 Early Reminiscences of the Great Isle of Aran, pp. 292-3.

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He adds:"Such is the dexterity with which it is usually managed, that it will land
from ships in distress through the roughest breakers, and cross over to the main,when vessels of every other class are unserviceable." Incidentally we learn thatthe covering continued to be of cow-hide, for he mentions that the curraghs werecovered with the same material, cow-hide, as the peculiar skin-sandals used by
the islanders.
Back in the early twelfth century, Giraldus Cambrensis had alreadydescribed the use in this locality of quite small skin-covered curraghs. In a
passage in his Topographia Hiberniae, III, 26, he relates the adventures of a
ship's crew in the words of the men themselves.
Some sailors told me [says Giraldus] that having once been driven by a violent
storm during Lent to the northern islands and the unexplored expanse of the Sea ofConnaught, they lay for shelter off a small island. Soon after the storm abated they noticed asmall skiffrowing towards them. It was narrow and oblong and made of wattled boughs,
covered with the hides of beasts. In it were two men without any clothing except broad belts
round their waists. They had long yellow hair, like the Irish, falling below their shoulders.
Finding that the men were from some part of Connaught and could speak the Irish language,
the sailors took them on board. They said that they had never before seen a ship built oftimber.

Another old reference to the curraghs of Aran is quoted by Hartshorne(op. cit. p. 293) from the Vita apud Colgan, p. 711, where he says: "And one of
the martyrologies of Endeus describes the currach of the Isle of Aran thus:
Erat enim in istis partibus, eo aevo, quoddam navigii genus usitatum, ex viminibus
contextum, et bovinis coriis contectum; quad Scotica lingua Curach
appellatur."

And then Hartshorne adds: "This reputed saint was accustomed to orderhis monks to go into the naked framework of the vessel, and if the water came inupon them, it was a sign that they had contracted some earthly stain."Synge, the dramatist, has given an account of a trip in an Aran curraght sovividly written and so enlightening on the way a curragh is managed in heavy
weather that I cannot refrain from quoting it at length. Many years ago I had asomewhat similar adventure in a Sheephaven curragh and I can
1 Synge, J. M., The Aran Island's, pp. 97-8. Dublin and London, 1907.
MM 2

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

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vouch for the absolute accuracy of Synge's description and in particular of theclever manoeuvre which is executed to avoid pooping.
Synge writes:
We set off. It was a four-oared curagh, and I was given the last seat so as to leave
the stern for the man who was steering with an oar, worked at right angles to the others by an
extra thole-pin in the stern gunnel.
When we had gone about a hundred yards they ran up a bit of a sail in the bow andthe pace became extraordinarily rapid.
The shower had passed over and the wind had fallen, but large, magnificently
brilliant waves were rolling down on us at right angles to our course.
Every instant the steersman whirled us round with a sudden stroke of his oar, theprow reared up and then fell into the next furrow with a crash, throwing up masses of spray.
As it did so, the stern in its turn was thrown up, and both the steersman, who let go his oar
and clung with both hands to the gunnel, and myelf, were lifted high up above the sea.
The wave passed, we regained our course and rowed violently for a few yards, when
the same manoeuvre had to be repeated. As we worked out into the sound we began to meet
another class of waves, that could be seen for some distance towering above the rest. Whenone of these came in sight, the first effort was to get beyond its reach. The steersman began
crying out in Gaelic "Siubhal, siubhal" ("Run, run"), and sometimes, when the mass was
gliding towards us with horrible speed, his voice rose to a shriek. Then the rowers
themselves took up the cry, and the curagh seemed to leap and quiver with the frantic terrorof a beast till the wave passed behind or fell with a crash besides the stern.
It was in this racing with the waves that our chief danger lay. If the wave could be
avoided, it was better to do so, but if it overtook us while we were trying to escape andcaught us on the broadside, our destruction was certain. I could see the steersman quiveringwith the excitement of his task, for any error in his judgement would have swamped us.
We had one narrow escape. A wave appeared high above the rest and there was theusual moment of intense exertion. It was of no use, and in an instant the wave seemed to be
hurling itself upon us. With a yell of rage the steersman struggled with his oar to bring our
prow to meet it. He had almost succeeded, when there was a crash and rush of water roundus. I felt as if I had been struck upon the back with knotted ropes. White foam gurgled roundmy knees and eyes. The curagh reared up, swaying and trembling for a moment, and then fellsafely into the furrow.
This was our worst moment, though more than once, when several waves came soclosely together that we had no time to regain control ofthe canoe between them, we hadsome dangerous work. Our lives depended upon the skill and courage of the men, as the lifeof the rider or swimmer is often in his own hands, and the excitement of the struggle was
too great to allow time for fear.
I enjoyed the passage. Down in this shallow trough of canvas that bent and trembled
with the motion of the men, I had a far more intimate feeling of the glory and the power ofthe waves than I have ever known in a steamer.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

21

Aran curraghs run in sizes denominated by the number of rowers
accommodated-two, three or four as may be, each man rowing two oars. All areconstructed upon the same plan of low narrow hull, sharply sheered bows, andlow transom stern.
The gunwale frame on each side is here in two sections only -a long after
section, horizontal, and a fore section forming the bow region which is spliced on
at an obtuse angle of about 160-165 degrees, thereby giving a straight sheer of
15-20 degrees from the horizontal main gunwale.
The after-ends of the gunwale frame are closed in by a vertical transom,
consisting of two fairly broad boards, upper and lower, separated by a space ofabout 3 in. The upper board is bowed weakly on its upper edge, with the lower
one bowed similarly along its lower edge. The upper and lower gunwales are
pinned respectively to the upper and lower stern boards by having theirextremities thinned down to stout, square pegs which are thrust through holes
made in the ends of the two boards.
Stringing the gunwale frame together are the thwarts and mast partner
which are nailed upon the lower gunwale and steadied by L-shaped knees nailed
above to the inner side of the upper gunwale and below to the thwarts.
The bottom is formed of a latticework of laths which cross one anotherr atright angles.The inner laths are transversely disposed and form the rib-frames;
they are spaced about 8 in, apart and their ends fit into holes bored through thelower gun-wales. The outer layer of laths, wider but thinner, run longitudinallyand form the stringers. At the stern the ends of the principal stringers are nailed
to the under edge of the lower stern board while at the fore-end they are nailed tothe sides of a vertical board set on edge to function as a stem board.
The intersections of the latticework are nailed together; in former times
they were tied together with thongs or with cord.
Covering all is the canvas skin, of one or two layers of tarred cotton-cloth.
The bottom and bilges are gently curved transversely; longitudinally the bottom
is also curved throughout its length, but the curve along the middle third is soslight as to be hardlyTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

22

discernible. The forward third sweeps up in a long deep curve to meet the sharp
stem, whereas the after third is much more lightly curved as the stern is much
lower than the head and with barely half the depth found amidships.
Construction. The lower gunwales are laid down first, right side up, withthe bow region supported at the right height upon a trestle (PI. III, Eg. 1). The
thwarts are then nailed on and the lower stern board mortised in position. Theseact as horizontal girders. The upper gunwale is put together in the same way andsuperposed upon the lower at a distance apart of about 6 in, by the interpositionof short stanchions, the standards, along the sides, and by the fitting on of theupper stern board and the broad vertical stem board.
When complete this gunwale frame is turned upside down, supported at
mid-length and at the head on blocks. It is now ready for the bottom to be put in.
First, the rib-frames are placed in position, curved to the desired angle; the endsof each inserted into holes in opposite lower gunwales. Last of all the stringers
are nailed on (PI. III, fig. 2 and Pl. VII, fig. 1); as already mentioned, only a few
are attached to the stem board; at the stern about half the number of stringers arenailed to the lower stern board; the ends of alternate laths are left free. The calicocover is put on as in Donegal.
All that remains is to turn the curragh right side up and fit a thole-pin in ahole bored through the centre of each of the short rowlock cleats which have been
already affixed to the upper gunwale. In large curraghs a perforated mast thwart(mast partner) and a mast shoe are fitted in the bow region.
Equipment is of the simplest-a pair of oars for each man and an extra one
for the steersman, are present in all curraghs. In large ones a short mast hoisting a
low and relatively long lug sail is set right in the bows (PI. II, fig. 1).
The form of the 10 ft. oars is similar to that of Connemara except that thebull is triangular in shape.
The sail is without shrouds or stays. Apart from the halliard, the only
ropes controlling it are the tack which is led to a point near the stem, and the
sheet, carried aft to be passed around the last thwart.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

23

Besides being used in fishing and the collection of kelp, the larger
curraghs are employed in lighterage work (Pl. IV, fig. 1), carrying cargo andpassengers to and from the small cargo steamers that ply to Galway andcoastwise to other mainland ports. A medium-sized curragh (three-man) is
reputed to carry about 30 cwt., while a four-man size should carry 2 tons.
These curraghs are easily transported on land by their crew who carrythem inverted and stern foremost, supported upon their shoulders, one man undereach thwart, their heads and shoulders hidden beneath the downturned boat andtheir hands resting on the inner side of the gunwales or grasping the thole-pins.
When not in use they are placed bottom up, the sides carefully supported and also
held down by boulders.
Dimensions. A two-man curragh ranges between 15 and 16 ft. in length; athree-man one from 19 to 20 ft., and a four-man one from 22 to 25 ft. The beamvaries between 3 and 31/2 ft.amidships where it is about 1-11/2 in, wider than thestern. Depth, from 26 to 27 in.
The gunwales are scantlings from 2 1/2 to 3 in, wide by 2 in. deep. The
ribs number 22 in two-man curraghs, and 30 or 31 in three-man ones. In the older
ones they are half-hoops of oak; in newer ones sawn laths, 1 1/2 by 1/2 in., spaced
apart 51/2 in.
The stringers, spaced variably from 3/4 to 1 1/4 in, apart, are wider in thethree lying in the median line (2-21/4 in.) than the outer ones which are mostly
about 1 1/2 in. wide.
The gunwale standards or stanchions always number three in the bow
region where they are of spindle form; along the main gunwale frame they varyfrom six to seven in the larger size and in the small ones usually five-these arerectangular in section.
Other dimensions are indicated on Plan 4.
The ends of the thole-pins rest free on the lower gunwale, as no thimbles
are provided. Two holes for steer-car thole-pins are provided in the uppertransom board at the stern.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

24

THE COAST OF CLARE
Curraghs continue a vigorous existence in every sheltered fishing coveguarded by the frowning sea-cliffs that tower to dizzy heights along thisdangerous but lovely coast of county Clare, now becoming a favourite
playground of the Irish people.
Quilty and Kilkee are the chief centres; some curraghs are also found in
use at Kilrush and Scattery Island. As is to be expected from the fact that the
curragh men fish in the same great bay and by the same methods as the Aran
islanders, the Clare curragh differs only in details from that of the Aran Islands.
Possibly the Clare craft are more carefully finished, for the Clare men to-day are
more in contact with the outside world; as they often let their curraghs in summer
to visitors for fishing excursions, they find it profitable to pay attention to a trim
and well-finished appearance.
The men's preference in the past for curraghs as against all wood-built
boats was due in large degree to the same factor as in Aran-lack of timber in the
coast region which is similar in geo-logical character to that of the Aran Islands.
A story told to Dr A. C. Haddon some 40 years ago illustrates this. A Clarefisher- man reputed to be a sceptic in regard to miraculous happenings was
tackled one day by the Parish Priest. "Do you disbelieve in the miracles acceptedby the Church ? " said the Father. " No, Father," was the reply; " I believe them
all right, barring one; you tell us that when our Lord was passing by, Zaccaeus
climbed into the branches of a tree to get a sight of him. But Father, how could aman do this? There never was a tree big enough to hold a man!"
Here and in Kerry the Gaelic term curach for a curragh is replaced bynaomhóg, pronounced naevog; in Anglo-Irish, it is termed a canoe.
The principal differences of construction as compared with the Aran
design consist of the following points, shown in Plan 5(a) A straight, nearly vertical stem; the curved Aran stem board is
replaced by a thick wooden stem strut, joining the fore- ends of the upper andlower bow-gunwales; this strut does notTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

25

extend below the lower gunwale, so that the curve into the bottom begins
abruptly below the lower gunwale.
(b) The stern frame curves outwards; instead of two deep verticalboards as in Aran, it consists of two outwardly curved bars, countersunk into
the upper side of the ends of the side gunwalesinsteadofthelatterbeingmortisedintothestern boards.
(c) A loose seat across the stern is present for use when hauling
lobster pots aboard.
(d) Instead of the after-ends of the stringers being nailed against thelower unit of the stern frame, they are here mortised obliquely into the lower
cross-bar. Only the ends of the three median stringers, which, as at Aran, arebroader than the others, pass through this bar and show upon its uppersurface.
(e) A strong batten, I in, wide, called the "bulwark", is nailed along
the outer horizontal surface of the upper gunwale between the thole-pin
cleats and also around the stern. This is a refinement present in order to savethe nets from catching on the ends of the thole-pin cleats (the "rowingboards").
The general dimensions of these curraghs and the number andarrangement of the ribs and stringers are approximately as in Aran curraghs.
In the examples measured at Kilkee there were twenty-nine oak lath ribframes 11/8 by 1/4 in. and twenty-three stringers of thin deal, 11/4 in, wide,
except the three median ones which were from 27/8 to 3 in, in breadth.
Three cross-bars resting on short side-cleats (PI. V, fig. 2) serve as
foot-rests, one abaft each thwart.
Regarding oars and gunwale fittings, slight divergences are seen
when compared with Aran. The oars are of the same dimensions, but the"bull", here called the "oar-block", has its angles rounded, and instead of thethole-pin resting free on the lower gunwale it is provided with a socket as in
the Connemara curraghs.
These curraghs are not normally used under sail, but a short mastand lugsail have recently been added in one or two instances at Kilkee.
They are kept bottom up when ashore, supported under eachshoulder on a pile of three or four stones. Others rest against the stem andstern; this boulder support is termed “the stage”

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

26

Kilkee curraghs are made by Mr Marrinan, the village wheelwrightof Cuisheen, a hamlet outside the town. One was under construction at thetime of my visit. The way the frame is put together is shown clearly on Pl.
V, fig. 1. A series of stout timbers resembling railway sleepers is partiallysunk into the ground at definite distances apart. Into these "stops" aredriven, marking the width desired for the lower gunwale frame. This part isconstructed first, about a couple of inches narrower, across the hull, than theupper, here called the "top frame", the lower being the "under frame". Afterthe thwarts are nailed in place, the upper gunwale is fitted, the distanceseparating it from the lower being regulated by the length of the shortstanchions fitted between. In the bow region these are cylindrical rods, fouron each side; along the sides they are rectangular and as wide as the
gunwales, with two others at the stern. All have a peg at each end to fit intoholes bored in each gunwale. The overall width of the upper gunwale frame
is regulated by a series of four notched bars, the "models". After thisframing is completed by the fitting together of the two gunwales, it is turned
over and the ribs and stringers fitted in position.
When the whole framing is finished, if it be insufficiently curved ateither end to suit the owner's fancy, further curve is obtained by turning thecurragh bottom up, supported on wooden blocks at appropriate intervals, but
without any for the end region (or regions) which it is desired should befurther curved. Weights (stones) are attached to the outer extremity of theunsupported section until enough curve is obtained. To prevent the framefrom springing back to its original curvature, the heights of the stone pilesof the "stage" are so regulated as to keep the curves correct. If by any chancethey do spring back the weighting procedure is repeated.
Deal is used for the gunwales, stringers and oars; oak for the ribs,
elm for the bow-frames, and sally wood for the knee
Dimensions of a typical Clare curragh. Length overall, 17 ft 8 in.; beam,
amidships (outside), 46 in., at stern 341/2 ( 2 in. less on lower stern bar);depth amid ships, 221/4 in. Heigh from ground: at stem, 34 in.; amidships,
23 in.; at stern 25 in.;THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

28

distance between upper and lower gunwale, 7 in. Number of rib-frames,from twenty-nine; of stringers, twenty-three; of gunwale-frame stanchions,four in bow section, seven in main section, two in stern frame; oars, 10 ft.
long.
The River Shannon
Except at the seaward end of the Shannon estuary-principally at
Scattery Island-no curraghs are now to be found on the River Shannon.
Their disappearance must, however, be of comparatively recent date, for W.
S. Wakemanx mentions in a book published in 1842 that curraghs "formedof wattles covered with cowhides are common above Lough Ree", a locality
very far inland and approximately at the centre of Ireland.
Another record takes us back to the troublous days of Queen
Elizabeth. In 1602 the Irish leader O'Sullivan Beare, when in flight before
the troops of the Earl of Thomond, was held up on coming to the Shannon,
just north of Lough Derg. No means were available for crossing the river;
retreat seemed effectually cut off. In this emergency the leader had resort tothe expedient employed by Caesar in Spain in somewhat similar
circumstances. The chronicler of this historic retreat, P.O'Sullevan Beare,
has told the story in Latin." Apart from the vivid picture which it draws of
the courage and endurance of the little band of fugitives, the details of
curragh construct are so valuable that it cannot be omitted. The translationpassage is as follows:
O'Sullivan was in the gravest danger since he could not cross the river, here
wide and deep; the enemy had removed all skiffs and boats and threatened to visit theseverest penalties upon any boatman who should ferry.him across. The strength of thesoldiers was also failing for lack of food. Deep despair filled he hearts of all. At thiscritical juncture my father, Dermot O'Sullivan, declared that he would soon build aboat and also satisfy the soldiers' hunger
1 Three Days on the Shannon, p. 35 Dublin 1852
2 Historia Catholicae Iberniae Compendium, Ulyssipone (Lisbon), 1621 tom.
3, lib- 7, c. IX., fol. 190, 191

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

29

Next day, which was the seventh of January, on the instructions of Dermot,
they betook themselves to Brosnach wood, very dense and therefore a safe refuge, andsurrounded themselves with a rampart constructed of tree trunks with a small ditch on
the outer side. In two days they built two boats of osiers and timber; twelve horses
were killed and their hides used to cover the boats, while their flesh was eaten by all
except O'Sullivan, Dermot, and Dermot O'Huallachan. The boat which Dermot
designed was built in the following way: Osiers fixed in the earth by their thicker ends
and bent back to the centre towards one another, were bound in place with cords andthese formed the hull of the vesscL To this stout wooden gunwales [solida tabula
statumina] and thwarts inside were added. The exterior was covered with the hides of
eleven horses; oars and thole-pins were also fitted. The bottom, because of the natureof the material and for the purpose of avoiding rocks and jagged points, was flat. The
length was 26 feet, the width six and the height five except at the prow which wasraised a little higher to throw off the waves.
The construction of the second boat was in the hands of O'Mallev's horsemen.
It was made of osiers without crosspieces [thwarts]; the bottom was shaped like acircular shield and the sides were much deeper than the bottom required. A single
horse-hide was sufficient to cover the bottom.
These boats were carried by night on the soldiers' backs to the Shannon at
Port-a-tulchain [now Portland] and in them O'Sullivan began secretly to transport his
men across. Ten of O'Mallev's soldiers boarded their boat. But the vessel being both
small and overweighted by its useless superstructure, foundered with the men in
midstream. Dermat's boat, which would hold 30 men at a time, carried the others
across in safety, the horses swimming behind at the ends of halters tied to the stern.

COUNTY KERRY
In the Dingle peninsula and in the Blasket Islands the curraghs thatgo fishing from the many little harbours in this district are the largest, themost elegant, the most beautifully proportioned and the most carefully madeof all surviving types. Every part harmonizes; they ride the water more
lightly than the sea-fowl yet are strong enough to battle successfully with thewild Atlantic gales that torment this coast in winter.
Although they are used almost exclusively for fishing andcommunication with the mainland, it is comparatively recently that theBlasket islanders began to use them as generally as do the mainland folk, for
the Blasket fisherman, Tomás O Crohan, in his autobiography The
Islandman1 repeatedly refers to the large wooden seining boats in use in his
early manhood both in the Blaskets and at Dunquin. He describes (op. cit.
pp. 203-5)
1 Translated by Robin Flower, London, 1934-

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

30

the coming of the first "canoe" as the curragh is termed in Anglo-Irish:
Somebody said one day that two of the islanders had gone to a fair in Dingle, andthat they had bought a canoe from a man when they were drunk. Before long we saw her
coming, and we marvelled at her. The women whose husbands were in her began a long, softmusical lament when they saw the quill of a boat that they were in.. . . A day or two after
this. . . what should I see but this very canoe, I thought, . . . full of some objects which they
were throwing into the sea.. . . But it wasn't the canoe the two men had bought at all, for that
one was in the Island creek.

The second canoe was from Dingle.
The things I had seen thern throwing into the sea were pots to catch lobsters, theBlasket people were as strange to that sort of fishing tackle as any bank clerk at that time.
Not much of the year had gone before there were four Dingle canoes fishing lobsters roundthe Blasket after this fashion.
...When the people found out how it was done, the two who had bought the canoe
put pots into her. They fished for a year-the only boat from the Island- and made money.
Next year off went the crews, racing one another to get canoes, and they were difficult tocome by, for very few were being built. Every new one cost from eight to ten
pounds....Merchants from Dingle used to buy the lobsters.... They made an excellent fishery,for the seine fishing had failed by this.

Eventually the two seine boats were seized at Dingle for arrears of rent
and since then curraghs are the only fishing craft owned by the islanders.
Even at Dingle the employment of curraghs appears to be ofcomparatively recent introduction, for Holdsworth1 writing in 1874, says curraghs
have been in use at Dingle only for about 25 years; he adds "but are of longer
standing on the coast between Dingle and the Clare side of Galway Bay". Hegives the cost at £5, and the size as about 20 by nearly 4 ft., with a crew of fourmen.
To-day the usual size is greater. It averages 25 ft. in length by a beam(outside) of 4 ft. 6 in.; depth amid ships, 23 to 24 in.; three men are now
considered a suficient crew. The type is a refinement of that of the Aran Islands.
It owes the remarkable elegance of the form which is its outstanding
characteristic to two principal features: (a) The gunwale sheer curves sweetly
fore and aft. No ungainly angular break occurs at the after-end of the bow region,
as in other types. Similarly
I Holdsworth, E. W. H. H., in Deep-sea Fishing and Fishing Boats, PP- 3 80-1,
1874-

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

31

in the after region, the quarter gunwales are given a similar but less emphatic
sheer, in place of the straight run seen in most other types. The bottom curves up
correspondingly, so that when the curragh floats light,both ends, gracefully
sheered, rise clear of the water, there is practically no straight run along thebottom, in profile it has the form of a long and gently curved arc. (b) Unlike othercurraghs where the stern is little less beamy than amidships, the Dingle curraghs
narrow in rapidly abaft the last thwart. This reduces the stern transom to less thanhalf the midships beam. (c) The entrance is un-usually fine, for the rib frames inthe bow region between the head and the shoulder splice, instead of being
roundly curved as usual, are bent at mid-length so sharply as to form an acuteangle, and give the appearance outwardly of a sharp "cutwater".
A 25 ft. curragh is fitted with four rowing thwarts, 3 ft. 10 in, apart. Twofeet forward of the first is another thwart, per-forated at the centre to serve as amast partner, for these curraghs carry sail (Pl. VI, fig. 1).
The gunwale frame is in three parts: (a) the main or side frame, (b) the
curved bow gunwale frame, and (c) the stern frame. Each is formed of an upper
and a lower gunwale, as in Aran curraghs, held apart by nineteen struts, 61/2 in.
long, ten broad rectangular ones are fitted at equal intervals along the waist, withfive cylindrical ones in the bow region and four at the stern. As the beam acrossthe upper gunwales is greater than that across the lower ones, the dividing struts
slant ob-liquely downwards and inwards, and when the canvas cover is put on
this part of each side slopes gently inwards. The beam outside, amidships, is 4 ft.
6 in., decreasing gently to 4 ft. 2 in, at the last thwart. Abaft this it draws inrapidly till at the stern it is only 2 ft. wide. At the bow shoulder the usual type of
splice is used, but more carefully and strongly made than usual.
The number of rib frames is unusually great—thirty-three in the waist
region, with ten more in the bows. The average distance apart is 51/4 in, but in theplaces where the rowers' feet may reach the bottom, a number of short accessory
frames are added to strengthen these parts.
The ends of the full-length ribs pass through oblique slots

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

32

in the lower gunwales and may or may not be keyed by means of a cotter pin, on
the surface of the gunwale. If not keyed they are cut off flush.
The stringers consist of nine planed white deal laths, 1 3/8 in.wide, on
either side of a broad median board or keel-plate, 4 1/2, in, wide. For a distance ofabout 4 ft. from either end this kee1-plate is sawn down the centre and the two
halves reduced slightly in width, in order that they may be more easily bent at theend curves. At the stern, the ends of the principal stringers are mortised into thelower unit of the stern frame. These stringers are placed apart from 1 to 11/4 in.
The ends of each thwart are nailed upon the lower gunwale, and each is
supported by an L-shaped knee cut from a naturally grown bend of sally wood,elm or oak. A horizontal L-shaped angle piece is also used to key together thejoint where each of the side gunwale bars is countersunk in the end of one of thecross-bars forming the stern gunwale frame. At the fore-end the bow-gunwales,
upper and lower, are each united by a countersunk joint and keyed together by abreasthook on the after side. A stout strut is fitted nearly vertical between thefore-ends of the two gunwales (Pl. VII, fig. 2).
The rowing equipment consists of a pair of rowlock cleats, 1 in, thick,fitted upon the upper gunwale abaft each thwart; a thole-pin thrust through a holein each of these cleats is pro-vided with a socket, the "thimble", nailed below
upon the lower gunwale and 15 in, abaft the thwart to which it is related.
Between the rowlock cleats on each side a stout batten is nailed on the gunwale,to prevent the nets and lines from fouling the ends of the cleats. For the same
reason a narrow batten is nailed obliquely across each thwart inward to the knee.
A "footstick" rests athwart the bottom, 25 in, abaft each thwart. Each end
rests on a short cleat nailed across two of the ribs.
Oars. These are of the Aran Islands' pattern having a tri-angular "bull", 12in, along the base, which is nailed to the square proximal section (2 by 2 in.) of
the loom.
The height of each "bull" is 3 in. The triangular shape is adopted forreasons of economy, as several of this shape and size may be cut without wastefrom a 2 in. plank, 31/2 in, wide.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

33

The length of the three pairs of oars usually carried is the same for all, 11ft., but not so the position of the bulls. As each man rows double-handed,
overlapping the grips and sits amid-ships, so the length inboard from the bullmust vary with the beam at each thwart. The formula in use is to divide the beam
between opposite thole-pins by two to obtain the suitable working length fromthe centre of the bull to the top of the square part of the loom.
The blade is 21/4 in, wide by 1/2 in, thick.
The crew of three occupy the first, second and fourth thwarts when net
ishing, as the nets are stowed below the third thwart. Livestock is also carried in
the same place, as seen in Pl. IV, fig. 2, where a hobbled cow has been stowed ona pile of seaweed in a Blasket Islands curragh for transport to the mainland.
One of these curraghs is said to be able to carry a catch of 4000 mackerel.
A steer oar is sometimes carried if a fourth man be aboard. Only at
regattas in Dingle Bay are curraghs nowadays rowed four-handed.
As in Wales, the old form of bailer is a turned wooden bowl, an old tin
has replaced it.
Mast and sail. All Kerry curraghs are fitted for sailing. A short mast, 1011 ft. long, about 3 in. diameter, without shrouds, passed through the hole in theforward thwart, is stepped in a socket in a short mast shoe nailed across theeighth and ninth ribs. Through an iron ring near the masthead the halliard is rovewith an iron traveller at the end. This hoists a small lug sail, lashed to a yard 9 ft.
long. A sheet and a tack control its set.
When under sail one or even two comparatively large lee-boards are
sometimes employed-probably a fairly recent in-novation. Length 5 ft., width
51/2-6 in. Each is provided with a half loop at the upper end by which it may behung from a thole-pin. If two are used one is slung from the second thole-pin andthe other from the fourth on the lee side.
The cover takes 28 yd. of No- 7 cotton duck. When cut out and sewn
together, it is put on the framework inside out, andTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

34

coated with boiled gas-tar. When this is dry it is turned and nailed on over theframe and tarred again with hot boiled tar. Before use a coat of cold tar may be
applied in addition. No pitch is mixed with the tar.
The fishermen's wives machine sew the body of the cover in transverse
sections, the edges overlapped from 1 in. upwards, according to the longitudinalcurvature of the hull, but in the nose section, which is bipartite, the seam runningalong the sharp bow edge is hand sewn by the men, for this requires very careful
adjustment, and has to be done in situ.
Method of construction. No builder to-day can make better curraghs thanMichael FitzGerald of Baile-na-nGal (Baly-david). In June I936 I was so
fortunate as to find him at work on one, and the following account is that of his
procedure. This may differ and probably does, in certain details, from that ofothers. For example, FitzGerald steams and bends his rib frames individually;another builder uses a bending frame in which a number are curved and set inadvance.
The builder, who usually works to standardized dimensions, keeps a set offive guide blocks, called collectively the " stocks ", partially embedded in thefloor of his workshop, spaced several feet apart. Near the outer end of each a stop
is nailed. Six feet from the foremost one is a heavy wooden block, 16 in. high;stretching from the inner side of the stops on the foremost stock to the block islaid the bow mould-the two bow pieces from an old curragh. The main section of
the lower gunwale frame, steamed to allow of bending, is now placed on thestocks and adjusted against the stops and fixed in position by trans- verse
wedging bars. Work then proceeds in the following order:(a) The stern bar is 6tted and a strengthening L-piece nailed on, at eachangle.
(b) Thwarts 2, 3, and 4 are nailed in place.
(c) The lower bow-gunwale frame is adjusted, with the apical angle
secured by a breast hook.
(d) The first thwart and the mast partner are nailed on.
(e) Holes for the "standards" are bored.
Attention is next given to forming the upper gunwale frame. Although thesectional size of its scantling is the same as thatTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

35

of the lower gunwale, it has to be made from 2 to 4. in, wider in the beam; only
two guide bars (see the Kilkee fig. I, P1. V) are employed; one is set 2 in, in frontof the stern of the lower gunwale and the other over the shoulder splice.
When the frames are finished, the angle of curvature at the shoulder spliceis adjusted and this fixed by means of the "splint", a locking shoulder piece.
After boring oblique holes for the standards, a temporary strut is nailed
lightly some 6 ft. from the stern and another across near the shoulders.
After lifting the upper gunwale frame to one side the lower ends of thestandards are driven into their holes in the lower gunwale; while doing this theafter section is bent upwards a little by means of blocks placed below.
The upper gunwale frame may now be placed in position, and connectedwith the lower one by 6tting the upper ends of the standards into their holes in theupper gunwales.
When the thwart knees, rowlock cleats, marginal battens between thecleats, and thole-pin thimbles have been fitted, the double gunwale frame isturned over, and the ribs inserted in the slots which have previously been cut inthe lower gun-wales. With the fitting of the stringers and the kelson plank thegeneral framework is complete and may be turned right side up to permit of thefitting of the mast shoe, the foot rests and the accessory short ribs required toreinforce the bottom against the feet of the rowers (PI. VI, figs. 1 and 2).
Finally the cover is fitted on and tarred as already described.
KEELED WICKER VESSELS
The only records of hide-covered wicker vessels provided with keels arethat of Caesar to which reference has already been made1 and the representationof "A portable vessel of wicker ordinarily used by the Wild Irish", made by
Captain Thomas Phillips,2 preserved in the Pepysian Library, Cam-bridge.
1 "British Coracles", Part 1, in The Mariner's Mirror, January 1936.
2 Nance, R. Morton, "Wicker Vessels", The Mariner's Mirror, July 1922.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

36

Regarding Caesar's account, it is unlikely that he had any personal
knowledge of the system followed by the Britons in the construction of theirwicker curraghs. The probability is that he saw some of these vessels in use,
recognized their utility for certain purposes and under certain conditions, andthen, when the need arose, made his own deductions as to how they might havebeen built and issued his instructions accord- ingly. Any makeshift method of
construction would serve his need, provided that the resultant craft would float
and be capable of transporting soldiers across a river quite a short journey.
Naturally he would base his building procedure upon that followed by Romanboat-builders working in wood. Once the frame, consisting of a light keel andribs, was put together, the working or weaving in of osiers to form wicker sides
in a rough and ready fashion would be comparatively simple work for men
skilled in basketry. Such men, we may be sure, were available to Caesar, for
Roman armies, recruited from every nation and tribe under Roman rule, included
craftsmen of almost every imaginable trade. Hence I am not inclined to attach
undue importance to Caesar's mention of the employ-ment of wooden keels andribs. It seems reasonable to infer that the wicker craft which he ordered to be built
were of hybrid character, combining a light wicker-and-hide cover with the boat
framing familiar to his army craftsmen.
Phillips's seventeenth-century pictured representation of an Irish woodenframed wicker vessel is also of a hybrid craft; something between a deep-sided
curragh and a small plank- built sailing ship of the period. Nowhere is there any
corro-borative evidence that any such design ever existed; the only description oflarge curragh construction in the seventeenth century, that by P. O'Sullevan, of
the curragh 26 ft. long by 6 ft. beam and 5 ft. in depth, made by Dermot
O'Sullivan in 1602 on the Shannon, contradicts Phillips's sketches in their
entirety (see p. 29 above).
O'Sullivan's curragh was constructed bottom up, exactly as all curraghs
are built at the present day; Phillips's boat is shown in his lower figure shared up
on the stocks right side up. The presence of a definite rudder is anothersuspicious

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

37

feature; curraghs are, on the contrary, always steered by paddle or oar.
Mr R. Morton Nance, who describes and figures Phillips's vessel in The
Mariner's Mirror of July I922, and is inclined to accept the sketches astrustworthy, admits that "without doubting the good faith of Captain Phillips", thedrawing of a killick in the picture is apparently unlike any known variety and heinfers that it must have been carelessly observed. Similarly he characterizes thesetting of the sail abaft the mast on the two vessels in the background as "anextraordinary expedient ".
Another fact that suggests doubt is the presence of a plank-built, puntshaped tender towed astern of the wicker ship. We may well ask, Why is it notconstructed of wicker, like the parent ship ?
The problem presented by the sketches is probably one that we shall neversolve to our entire satisfaction and further space cannot be given to it here. The
reader must form his own opinion after studying the sketches and comparing withthe known facts concerning curragh construction, past and present.
GAELIC CURRAGH TERMS
The following terms were collected mainly in the counties of Kerry, Clareand Donegal; the particular provenance of each is indicated by a letter withinbrackets as follows:
General, (G); Dingle peninsula, Kerry, (K); Blasket Islands, (B); County
Clare, (C); Donegal, (D); Aran Islands (A); Anglo-Irish terms, used by Englishspeaking fishermen, (A-I); pl. indicates the plural form of the term.
English term

Gaelic equivalent

The curragh itself

Curach in Donegal, Aran and Connaught; naomh6g 1
in Kerry and Clare; canoe in A-I

Stem or head

Caibin (B); tosach (K); cloigean and gob an churaigh
(A)

Stern

Ball deiridh (K); deire (A and D); stiúir (B)

1 Naomhóg is pronounced naevōg. It comes from noe and nai, synonyms in Old Irish forcurach, qualified by the diminutive termination óg, small. These O.L words noe and nai are
cognate with the Latin navis, and from navis longa we get the Irish long, a ship.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND
English term

38

Gaelic equivalent

Bows

Bútaí (B)

Gunwale frame

Fráma, pl. frámaí (G)Upper gunwale frame

Fráma uachtair (A); gunail (K)Lower gunwale frame

Fráma íochtair (A); raoiseach (K)Vertical strut between upper andlower gunwales

Taca, pl. tacaí (K); pluganna (A); standard (A-I)

Shoulder splint or fishbar

Clár guaileáin (C); cnámh píosa an guaileáin(B); splice tosach, A-I in Kerry

Bracing or shoulder bar(used in Iniskea)

Maide droma (Mayo); centre-stick (A-1)

ThwartTochta; pL tochtaí (G); seas (A)Loose or removable thwart

Cl6rd (N. Mayo)First thwart

Seas tosaigh (A)Second thwart

Seas láir (A)Third thwart

Seas deiridh (A); literally "end thwart"

Fourth thwart

Tarna seas deiridh (A); literally "second end thwart"

Kneeling board at stern

Seas beag (C); literally "little stand"Ribs (transverse frames)

Fúnsa, pl. fúnsaí (K); easna, pl. easnaí (C);ribíní (B) couplí(D); A-I, hoops (D); couples (D). Funsa hoop; easna - rib.

Stringers

Lata, pl. lataí (K) and (D); liúrach, pl. liúracha (A and C);
laths (A-I)

Median or keel stringer

Clár droma (K); bata mdr (K); i.e. "great batten". Clár board; droma is genitive case of drom, base or backKnees (angular supports)

Cnaoidhe, pl. cnaoidhthe (K); glún, pl glúna (K)Footrest or bar

Maide cos (A and K); footstick (A-I)

Footrest cleat

Buaic (K)Fabric cover, usually calico or
canvas

Croiceann naomhóige (K); Croiceann (D); clúdach anairte(B); hide, A-I in Kerry and Donegal

Canvas (really calico)

Canabhás (G)Rowing cleat on gunwale

Adhbhar (K); relic (A)="rowlock"Thole-pin

Dola, pl. dolaí (K) and (B); cruga (A and C)

Thole-pin socket

Claibín (K); bloicín (C); timbelar (B); A-I, timbel (=thimble) in Kerry

PaddleCeásla (D); sluasat (G)Oar

Maide rámha, pl. maidí rámha (G)1

Blade of an oar

Bas (G); lann (A)Loom (shaft of an oar)Cos (G)

Hand grip ofan oar
Dorn (G); the word means "fist"
1 Maide is a stick (of wood); rámh is a noun signifying the act of rowing; rámha is thegenitive case so maide rámha - "a rowing stick".

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND
English term

39

Gaelic equivalent

Thole-pin block (bull) on oar
loom

Cluas (G); A-I, oar-block (K); bull (D); glaimbín (A)Wooden bailer

Cupán ádhmaid (C) and (K) = a wooden cup

Bailer of any sort

Taoscán (G)MastCrann seóil (K); crann (A)Mast thwart

Tochta seóil (K); tochta crainn (B); seas crainn (A)Mast-shoe

Ceap treo (A)Sail

Seó1 (G)Yard of a sailSlat, also cleith (K) and (A)Sheet of a sailSgód or siota (K) and (A)Halliard

Lainnéar (A); hailéar (K), a loan word from English

I cannot conclude this all-too-incomplete survey of Irish curraghs without
expressing my gratitude to that widening circle of friends in Ireland who havedone so much to further the research. Beside those helpers of whom I havealready made mention, and the many fishermen, nameless here, who have given
so liberally of their knowledge, I wish to thank in particular Mr S. O Duilearga,
Honorary Director of the Irish Folklore Commission, and Mr Donal O Carroll
and Mr Oscar Mac Uilis, of Dublin, for much valuable assistance. It is, indeed,gratifying to find that my efforts have received a warm-hearted welcome in
Ireland and are highly appreciated there.
Finally, my hearty acknowledgement is due to the Society's draughtsman,
Mr P. J. Oke, who has so admirably translated my pencilled curragh plans into
professional shape.

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II
By James Hornell
The Curragh in GeneralIn the following pages the word curragh (Gaelic curach) will be employed
as the regional term for every variety of craft found in Ireland which has
had as ancestor some form of wickerwork boat covered with hide. The
contrasted term “coracle” (Welsh cong and corwgl) will be restricted tothose of parallel origin, found in England and Wales. Curragh is also a
correct classificatory and discriminatory term suitable to apply to all the
Irish forms because there is a fundamental difference in the method of
constructing the framework of the vessel in the British and the Irish areas
respectively.
In British coracles the framework is put together mouth up, the bottom
being the part first laid down. In Irish curraghs this procedure is reversed;
the gunwale is formed first, the bottom and sides being put in position
later, a procedure which results in the building of the curragh bottom
upwards. This method is the invariable practice in Ireland. Even the oval,
coracle-shaped curragh used on the river Boyne (Pl. III, fig. 2) is built inthis inverted position – most unusual in boat con-struction.
This radical difference in procedure suggests a difference in origin, but
it is more probable that it has been due to modifi-cation of method entailed
by the need to build vessels of length greater than that of the river coracle
and more suitable for use at sea, for fishing and for coastal transport.
As a direct consequence of this need, considerable increase inlongitudinal rigidity was required; this was achieved by borrowing thestout wooden gunwale frame characteristic of plank-built boats and by theinsertion of thwarts. This radical change in design would lead in turn to an
inversion of the procedure normally followed in the building of coracles.
Once the flat, wooden gunwale frame was introduced or adopted,
experiment would soon show that it is much easier to arch theTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

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withy ribs over it than to pin them and the stringers to the ground and thento bend their ends upward for insertion one by one into holes in theunderside of the gunwale frame. The former method enables the builder toexercise greater control over the curvature of the ribs and thereby permits
the work to be carried on more expeditiously.
Apart from the Boyne river curragh, all others at the present time are
made up of a stout wooden gunwale frame, single or double, of a series oftransverse, U-shaped rib-frames, and of a much more closely set series offore-and-aft stringers on the outer side of the rib-frames, to which they are
secured either by tying with thongs, withies or twine (old style) or byclenched nails (new style). The ends of all or nearly all the ribs and of theprincipal stringers are tapered and inserted into holes bored at intervals
through the gunwale frame. Over all is stretched one, or, more rarely, twolayers of cloth, usually calico, which is eventually saturated with tar boiled
down to the consistency of pitch.
In curraghs with double gunwale frames, the lower gunwale is put
together first, with what will eventually be the upper side in its proper
relative position. The thwarts are then nailed on to stiffen and hold theparts in place. This done, work begins on the upper gunwale; whenfinished, short subvertical struts or “standards” are inserted between thetwo gunwale elements, holding them apart at a distance of about 5 or 6 in.
This completes the double frame which is now ready to be turned upside
down to permit the ribs and stringers to be built up to form the bottom andsides.The limits of variation are wide. In some curraghs, notably those ofConnemara and Co. Mayo, the stringers widen into thin planks, touching
one another at the edges. Here the curragh has actually evolved into thesemblance of a plank-built boat, the sole difference being that a tarred
cloth cover is used in order to obviate the need to caulk the seams of theplanking. In others, on the contrary, the stringers are narrow laths, fairly
widely separated (Dingle), thereby retaining the memory of the latticework basketry characteristic of the coracle ancestor.
The rib-frames are also formed of laths, sawn or cloven, inTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

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the majority of sea-going curraghs, but a few in Donegal continue to use
paired withies as ribs as do also the Boyne river curraghs, which have bothribs and stringers of this description.
Some curraghs have loose seats; others have them fixed as ordinary
thwarts. The great majority are propelled by oars pivoting on a thole-pin
passing through a heavy block nailed to the afterside of the loom; theblades are narrow and cannot be feathered because of the method of
pivoting. A similar type of oar is used by the sardine fishers of Portugal(Setubal and Oporto) to propel their light, canoe-shaped boats which are
not unlike the light curraghs of Kerry in shape and size; this type of oar
also recurs in Madeira. I offer no explanation of this similarity in design.
True oars working between pairs of thole-pins are employed in a few
localities (Achill Island, Iniskea and Blacksod Bay).
A serviceable lug-sail is carried by the larger Dingle curraghs and asmall one by large Aran Islands’ boats, but all others depend solely uponoars or paddles; paddles are used only in localities where curraghs retain
very primitive characteristics (the west coast of Donegal and its dependentislands).
One or even two lee-boards are employed by some of the larger Dingle
curraghs; this enables them to carry a larger sail than would otherwise be
possible with safety, apart from the advantage of reducing leeway.
Nearly all the variations in shape and the treatment of con-structionalfeatures in Irish curraghs may be aligned into a nearly complete seriescorresponding closely to the principal stages in development throughwhich it is probable that the highest types have passed; existing variations
may be said to recapitulate the past history of the curragh. Most primitivein construction is the small paddling curragh of the Boyne, oval in plan,with an open framework of doubled hazel wands and an undeveloped
gunwale – the whole cased in the hide of a single ox.
Next comes the little sea-going paddling curragh of the Rosses and the
Donegal islands, 8-9 ft. long (Pl. III, fig. 3). Here, while the length has
grown considerably, no corre-sponding increase has taken place in thebeam. Apart from thisTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

151

change in plan, noteworthy differences are the substitution of a wooden
gunwale for a bundle of twisted withies, the employment of laths as ribs
and stringers and the substitution of tarred cloth for tanned hide as thecovering on the bottom.Changes are slowly being made, however, and inmany a removable rowing thwart and thole-pins have been added,
permitting the curragh to be rowed as well as paddled (PI. IV, fig. 2). Bothforms continue to be blufBy rounded in front as in the Boyne type but theafter-end is truncate.
Donegal also provides the next advance in development.In the curraghsof Sheephaven, the length is increased and ranges from 15 to 20 ft.; thefore-end is pointed and sheered and one at least of the thwarts is fixed (Pl.
V, fig. 1). Oars are always used, each pivoted on a thole-pin which passes
through a hole in a block affixed to the loom (Text-fig. 1 d and e).
In these curraghs as in all others except those of the Boyne, each lateral
gunwale is in two sections, (a) a fairly horizontal main or body section and(b) a curved bow section, sheered up except in those of the Rosses. To
secure the joint which is in the form of a rough overlapping scarf-splice, ashaped shoulder-piece overlaps and keys together the ends of both sections
to which it is attached by through bolting. Curiously enough, double
withies continue to be used for ribs in the Sheephaven curraghs, exactly asin the Boyne type.
Coming south to Blacksod Bay in Co. Mayo, the curraghs there
approach closely in plan and gunwale'form to those of Sheephaven, buthere the ribs are of laths, not withies, and the stringers are broad thinplanks completely covering the bottom. The thwarts are two or three in
number and are all permanently fitted in place.
Southward of Blacksod Bay a new feature is introduced and is common
to all curraghs from Achill Island in the north to the Dingle peninsula in
the south; this is the double gunwale frame, consisting of an upper wooden
gunwale held apart from a twin lower gunwale by a series of widely
spaced short struts or "standards", 5-6 in. long.
The supreme achievement of the curragh builder is seen in the craft thatfish out of the many creeks and bays of the Dingle

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peninsula and the Blasket Islands. A few years ago (1921) it wasestimated that there was a population in this locality of not far short of
7000, wholly or in great part dependent on fishing. Of these 7000 theoverwhelming majority of the breadwinners were dependent upon the
curragh for the prosecution of their calling, carried on often underconditions of extraordinary hardship. To-day their numbers are reduced
but the curragh stil dominates the lives of thousands.
In the north the workmanship of curraghs is rough and the design in
general crudely worked out. In the middle section, Mayo and Connemara,both improve greatly, but it is in Kerry that curragh craftmanship attains its
highest level of excellence. As Michael FitzGerald of Ballydavid proudly
boasts, almost every piece of wood in one of these craft if not curved isaslant; except the thwarts, not one is truly vertical. Everything, too, has tobe balanced with extreme exactitude.
The boat-shape of these curraghs suggests that its design is an imitationin lath and canvas of the semblance of a plank-built boat. This was myoriginal hypothesis, but to-day I consider that in its boat-like forms,
curragh design presents us with an instance of convergent evolution, wherean old type, such as is represented in the Rosses' curragh, has tended
gradually to approach a plank-boat type, rather than being oriKinally adirect copy in wood, withy and hide of such a craft.
It is, however, doubtful if the series thus reviewed is, in its entirety,atrue evolutionary series. As will be seen later,certain considerations makeit likely that the Boyne curragh is not the survival of a primitive first stage
but represents a degradation of type, resulting from the modification of asea-going type such as that seen in the Rosses, to one suitable to thesimpler needs of a salmon-fishing craft used on a gently flowing river. If
this be so, we have to ignore the Boyne curragh in the series which would
then start with the Rosses' type and evolve gradually toward a convergencewith plank-built boat forms of the two types distinctive of (a) the Dingle
and (b) Achill and Blacksod.
I Report on Sea Fisheries by de Commisrion of Enquiry into the
Resources and Industries of Ireland, Dublin, 1921.

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When brought ashore curraghs are kept bottom up. The usual plan is tosupport the sheered bows from straining by supporting the shoulder spliceupon a low pile of stones and then to lay

Text-fig. 1. Types of paddles and oars, a, paddle used on the Boyne; 6, modern type of
paddle, Donegal paddling curragh; c, old type of paddle, sarne locality; d, Sheephaventype of curragh oar; e, Mulroy Bay oar-local form of thole-pin block or "bull". (Original.)

heavy boulders against the head and the stern. In exposed, gale-swept
localities, stone-walled land-docks are built round each curragh for further
protection. In the Dingle, where theTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

154

curraghs are too delicately built to stand rough treatment, they aresupported at some 3 ft. from the ground upon stout posts, placed in themost sheltered place available. At Kilkee in Clare, posts are replaced bypiles of three or four big stones.
The cost of a curragh varies with the size and complexity of its
construction. The small paddling curraghs of Donegal and Tory Island cost
not more than 30s. Or, at the outside, £2, whereas a two-man rowing
curragh costs not less than £4. At Achill Island £5 is an average price forthe same size; at Inis-bofin and on the Connemara mainland it rises toabout £9;in the Aran Islands it is about £8, while the price of a four-thwart
or three-man curragh, about 25 ft. in length, of the elaborately finishedDingle pattern is about £15.
THE BOYNE CURRAGH
The curragh used for netting salmon on the river Boyne in thevicinity of the village of Oldbridge is the only example of the coracle typeof basket-boat in existence in Ireland. In its construction it has strongsuperficial resemblance to the coracles of South Wales employed likewisesolely for river tishing, but the method of putting the framing together
follows a system altogether different.
The body consists of an open framework of paired hazel wands
arranged to form a steep-sided bowl, oval or slightly ovate in plan; itmeasures about 6 ft. in length by 4.5 ft. in beam. A closely wickered
gunwale skirting of slender withies holds the upturned ends of the frame
rods in position, and the whole is finished off by a marginal twist of stout
withies forming a gunwale without sheer. A thick hazel-rod mouth rim,tied on, is usually added to help in keeping the parts from springing out of
shape and to form a protection to the net against damage. Over all is drawn
a tanned ox-hide, reddish brown in colour, laced to the wickered gunwale
at short intervals, and at longer distances by an independent lacing whichmakes turns around both gunwale twist and gunwale rod.
A wooden seat is slung precisely at mid-length by paired cords ateach end. Further support and tension is given

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

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incidentally to the framework by a system of braces made of twisted hazel
withies arranged as shown in PI. III, fig. 2. Its true purpose is, however, toprovide a light platform whereon to pile and transport the net used forfishing. The curragh is completed by lapping the gunwale in its medianand stern sections with a strip of hide or cloth to prevent fraying of the net
during paying out and hauling operations.
Two men form the usual fishing complement. One kneels at thefore-end, paddling over the bow with a short, broad-bladed paddle; theother sits on the thwart, facing the stern and it is his duty to tend the net,
alternately paying out and hauling in. Alternatively one man may tend the
net as well as directing the curragh's course by paddling, but this is ticklish
work; the man may easily let the net slip through his hands and spoil thecast.
The paddle used is short, less than 4 ft. in length. The blade isparallel-sided, flat on one surface, slightly curved transversely on theother, making it plano-convex in transverse section. A short transverse barat the top of the loom affords a good grip for one hand (see Text-fig. I a).
At the present day the only place where this form of curragh isfound is on the river Boyne at Oldbridge, about 4 miles above Drogheda.
Curraghs are used there exclusively for salmon fishing; but for this theywould have become extinct long ago.
The reason for their survival as stated by Mr Tiernan, who atpresent leases the fishery from Captain Coddington of Old bridge, is thatin the reach fished, which is in the upper tidal region of the river, where
the level rises and falls with the tide, the banks in many places are highand vertical or even over-hanging, places where a curragh alone can get
close in, under them; this would be impossible for a boat propelled byoars.
Tiernan's "fleet" of curraghs numbers two only-the sole surviving
representatives of the Irish river curragh.
In spite of the interest generally taken in this primitive species ofcraft, very little definite information is on record. The only important
notice is that by W.F. Wakeman who made a drawing in I848 of two ofthese curraghs at Stackallen, near Slane in Co. Meath. The mention of thisplace shows that the use of

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curraghs extended at that time considerably higher up the Boyne than at
the present time.
Wakeman's description is as follows -1-:
A regular frame of willow ribs, generally laid in pairs, and extending along the sides andfloor, formed the skeleton of the future boat, which was in the form of the bowl of aspoon, a little broader towards one end than the other, about 8 ft. in length, but very
nearly circular. The extremities of the ribs for a depth of about 18 in. From what would
now be called the gunwale, were set in a very thick, strong and closely woven band of
wickerwork, above which the ends of the rods slightly projected. Midships was a thwart
ofash, through which were rove thongs composed of twisted osiers, connecting the seat or
thwart, with various portions of the above-mentioned band, so as to bind the work
together. The frame was then covered over on the outside with skin, untanned, of thehorse or cow; and the result was the completion ofa boat well adapted to the requirementsof fishermen, and very useful, as I have experienced, as a means of crossing the Boyne at
a place distant from any bridge or practicable ford.

Modern construction
An excellent description of the way a Boyne curragh is made,illustrated by a fine series of photographs showing the progressive stages
in the work, was given by Mr F. E. Stephens in 1932 -2- to this I am
indebted for the major part of thefollowing account.
The builder first marks out the plan of the gunwale on a level pieceof ground. This he does by means of a primitive compass made of a
stick attached to each end of a length of string such as is used by gardeners
when marking out curved or circular flower-beds. With this he describes
two semicircles of about 2 ft. radius, with their centres 15-20 in, apart. The
opposed ends are then joined or "humoured together" as the builder
phrased it. This gives an elliptical outline which is then marked out withpegs.
Around this ellipse thirty-two hazel rods, 9-10 ft. in length andabout 2.5 in, in circumference, are arranged, upright, at measured distances
apart with their thick ends driven several inches into the ground. Eight areplaced vis-a-vis on either side, with seven at the end intended as the sternand an equal
I "On the curach...formerly in use on the rivers and lakes of Ireland", J. Roy. Hist. Arck.
Ass. Ireland, Fourth Series, vol. n, year 1872-3, Dublin,
1874..
2 Illustrated London Neros, 3 December 1932-

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number at the opposite end, the future fore-end. An extra rod is planted oneither bow to strengthen this end where the paddler will kneel whenpropelling the craft during fishing operations.
When all the rods are in position, a stout gunwale is formed byweaving strong withies around the upright rods, close to the ground.
Above this a skirting band is next formed by weaving in several rows of
slender withies. This marginal basketry serves to weld the rods together attheir bases and to give a foundation on which to erect the basal portion of
the frame. This is done by bending down the eight rods on either side, andforcing their free ends into the ground on the opposite side (Pl. I, fig. 1).
The seven rods at each of the two ends are similarly dealt with. Care has tobe taken at this stage to get the curves adjusted properly in broad U-form,
and to ensure their appropriate symmetry. When all are in proper positionand shape, a board weighted with heavy stones is placed upon the framing
which is now left to set for two or three days (PI. I, fig. 2).
After the frame is sufficiently set, the weighted board is removed,
and the fore-and-aft rods, which form rudimentary stringers, are tied with
twine to the transverse rods or rib-frames at each point of intersection.
Four or five turns are made obliquely over the crossed rods and 6nished
off by a fore-and-aft half-hitch embracing only the paired rib. From here
the twine is carried along on the outer side to the next crossing point in thetransverse direction and the operation repeated.
Here it must be explained that the rods on opposite sides and ends
are arranged in such way that when curved down opposite numbers lie side
by side to form doubled ribs and stringers, which we may call "couples". It
is to be noted, however, that neither member in any couple reaches as far
as the opposite gunwale by several inches; one unit in each pair alone
passes through the skirting and gunwale on either side.
After all the intersection points have been tied, the weighted board
is replaced and work is discontinued for about a week to ensure the final
set of all the curves (Pl. I, fig. 2).
On recommencing operations the thin ends of the various

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rods are broken off below the gunwale in such a way that a portion of thebark is left to protect the rough ends which might otherwise cut the hide
cover. The ground around the embedded rod butts is loosened with a spadeand the framework lifted clear and turned right side up. To prevent theframes from spreading a few tension cords are stretched taut between theprincipal projecting rod ends on opposite sides (PI. II, fig. 1 )The frame is now ready for covering with a tanned hide made soft
and pliable through immersion in the river. It is fitted as closely as
possible over the framework and laced to the gunwale with strong twine.
After the cover is adjusted, a seat is put in, supported under each end andtied to each gunwale with twine or thin withies. Braces made of doubled
withics, twisted together, are next fitted at gunwale level to form a net
support. A short, obliquely running brace runs from the gunwale on eachside from about to in. forward of the seat to the adjacent end of the seat,
where it is rove through a hole near the fore-edge a few inches in from the
gunwale. A corresponding short brace passes from near each end of theseat on the after-side, but instead of connecting with the gunwale its afterend is looped round a transverse brace passing from side to side, about 9
in, abaft the seat (Pl. III, fig. 2). Lastly, an un-paired brace, 18 in. long,
passes in the median line from the centre of the stern gunwale toconnexion with the transverse brace.
Sitting on the seat the builder proceeds to hammer on the
projecting ribs and stringers until the skin cover is fully stretched. When
this is accomplished to his satisfaction, the ends that still project are cut
off and covered by a protective mouth ring made up of several stout hazel
withies placed end to end, with their ends slightly overlapped. This stout
ring is bound upon the gunwale to give an even edge and to help inpreventing any part of the frame from springing out of position.
As will be seen from the above Boyne curraghs as they exist to-day
differ considerably from Wakeman's description and from his drawing
made in I848. He states specifically that the woven skirting extends to adepth of about I8 in. below the lip of the curragh. He makes no mention of
any specially strong wicker gunwale rim nor does he mention theencircling gunwaleTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

159

rod. On the contrary he mentions and depicts the ends of the frame rods asprojecting free and without protection, beyond the wicker skirting. He also showsthese projecting frame ends as double and in some cases treble. Although loth tocome to such a conclusion, I am of opinion that his figure is inaccurate as also his
description to some extent. In every example that has come under my notice of
the Boyne curragh and of other Irish types, a de6nite gunwale is invariably
present. It is ob-vious, also, that to cut off and protect the ends of the frame rods
is an elementary precaution to avoid damage to the nets in use. As for the
pictured prolongation of both units in each frame through the gunwale
wickerwork, this is contradicted not only by all existing examples of this type ofcurragh, but also by what is seen in the sea curraghs of the Rossesand
Sheephaven, where, as in the Boyne curragh, each transverse frame or rib is madeup of two coupled units; in all of these the thin end of each unit is invariably cut
off a little way below the adjacent gunwale. Another of Wakeman's statementsthat is contradicted by present-day practice is that where he says that the hideused is untanned. He also states that the framework is of willow withies, but so
far as I can learn the withies now used are of hazel; these are cut in autumn assoon as the leaves fall and are then dried and stored to season until the following
January when the curragh-making season begins.
Some of these discrepancies may be due to changes in method since l848
or to different methods favoured by different builders, but some are de6nitely
mistakes.
A belief is widely held that the Boyne type of curragh was at one time inuse on many other rivers in Ireland. This hypothesis may be true, but the evidence
for it at present available is extremely scanty and applies almost wholly to
streams within the confines of Ulster. One lady, 82 years of age, has informed
Major H. F. M'Clintock, of Ardee, Co. Louth, that she clearly remembers a roundcurragh in use for net fishing on the Foyle at the junction of the Mourne river, at
Strabane, Co. Tyrone; it was black in colour (? canvas covered) and carried twomen.
Other evidence kindly communicated by Colonel R. G.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

160

Berry, of Newcastle, Co. Down, points to the survival of river curraghs on certain
inland waters in the east of Ulster, down to the end of last century. In 1896-8 they
appear to have been in use for ferry purposes between Omeath and Warren Point,
at the head of Carlingford Lough. They also appear to have survived on several
streams in the Lough Neagh neighbourhood, for Colonel Berry saw some at themouth of the Blackwater River, Co. Armagh, about the same time, while atToome Bridge it is said that they were employed for fishing. There is also a dim
recollection of their presence last century on the River Bann. Whether these areindigenous local occurrences or are modern borrowings (curragh purchases) fromthe Boyne is uncertain; it is hoped that the present notice may elicit further andmore definite information on the former distribution of the river curragh.
The most notable instances of the use of the curragh on rivers outside theBoyne and the Ulster area are (a) that where O'Sullivan Beare crossed the
Shannon in skin-covered curraghs during his retreat in 1602, and (b) a note by
Wakeman of their presence above Lough Ree about 1850.
Dimensions
Ft

In

6

0

4

5
(outside)

Depth amidships ... ... ...

1

5Heightat fore-end (outside)1

7¼

Amidships( outside )1

5¾

at stern (outside)1

5¼

Distance from fore-end to fore-side of seat2

7

Distance from after-end to after-side of seat

2

7

Length, overall ... ... ... ...
Beam amidships ... ... ... ...

Seat, 49 in. long by 10 3/4 in, wide and 7/8 in, thick, fitted 1 1/8 in, below the topof gunwale.
Woven skirting below gunwale, 4-5 in, in depth.
Meshes of the latticework bottom approximately square, 5-6 in, across.
Distance at each end from the outermost rib frame to the head and the stern
respectively, 13 in.
Paddle: Jength 3 ft. 10 in. Overall; blade 25 in, by 5 1/2 in., 1/2 in, thick at centre;
loom 19 1/2 in. long, diameter 1 1/2 in.; crutch grip 4 in. long, diameter 1 1/2 in.

The above measurements of a typical present-day Boyne curragh were taken
during a recent visit to Ireland from a fineTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

161

example in the National Museum, Dublin (see PI. III, fig. 2). This was made by
the late Michael O'Brien, the last of the fully skilled curragh builders of
Oldbridge. Curraghs are still being made, but it is doubtful if any will ever again
be made so skilfully as those made by O'Brien. It is to be noted, however, that in
the curragh figured the protective strip of cloth usually placed over the gunwalein the median and after regions is wanting.
When newly made the two ends in plan have nearly the same curvature;with use, the fore-end tends to broaden as its sides are not held rigid as are thoseof the after-end by the cross-bracing of the net platform; this causes the curraghto assume gradually a slightly ovate form, more or less marked according to thetreatment it receives.
THE CURRAGHS OF DONEGAL
In the wild Rosses district of the west coast of Donegal and in the
outlying islands of which Tory Island is the most notable, is still to be seen the
crudest and most primitive type of the sea-going curragh in spite of the adoptionof several modern refinements.
Eighty years ago this type was still in its rudest stage, the frame built up
of withy ribs and stringers and covered with untanned hide. To-day the withy
framework is replaced by a lattice frame of sawn and planed laths, while thecover, still retaining its original name of "hide", is now made of two layers oftarred cloth. In Tory Island, side by side with the survival of modified craft of thiskind, are to be seen many wherein a close approximation has been made to theform and construction of a wood-built dinghy.
Taking the designs as they were at the middle of last century, together
with those in use at present, we have a perfect evolutionary gradation from ashort and squat one-man paddling type, without keel and without thwarts, to an
elongated boat-shaped design provided with permanent thwarts and rowed withoars pivoting on thole-pins. Some of medium size are fitted with a definite andmarkedly salient false keel; in many

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

162

instances a "runner" under each bilge is added to facilitate beaching without
damage to the canvas bottom.
The series may be conveniently divided into two groups:(a) the short curragh types from 8 to I: ft. long, and(b) the elongated boat types, usually between is and 20 ft.in length.
Group A. Short curraghs under I 2 ft. long(a) Paddling curraghs.
These, as they exist to-day, continue to be small in size as of old, for their
propulsion depends primarily upon the exertions of a paddler kneeling at the foreend. Usually, however, a second man sits on the bottom at the stern, steering andhelping the craft along with his paddle as necessary. The smallness of the crew
restricts the size, which varies between 8 and 9 ft. (the beam is about 3) ft., andthe depth less than 2 ft.
The shape in plan of these curraghs is that of a blunted ogive arch, withthe sides nearly or quite parallel, apart from the bow region; the stern is truncate.
The fore-end is extremely bluff, rounding below very abruptly into the bottom
which is transversely curved.
The gunwales are made of stout scantling almost horizontal throughout as
there is but faint sheer in the bow region. This bow or shoulder region, as it ispreferable to call this very characteristic feature in all sea curraghs, is formed oneach side by a curved shoulder piece whereof the hinder-end overlaps the foreend of the adjoining side gunwale; in front, the present fashion is to key together
the two shoulder pieces by an over- lapping breast hook (Text-fig. 2). All theseoverlap joints are usually pinned together with trenails. In the old type of lastcentury, instead of a breasthook, the fore-end of one shoulder piece sometimes
overlapped the other obliquely, the joint secured by cord lashing.
At the stern the after-ends of the gunwales are connected and held inplace by a transom bar; to-day this is countersunk flush; in the old type the ends
were generally nailed over the gunwale ends and only partially countersunk.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

163

Originally the body framework was made of hazel or willow wands, useddouble. After the gunwale frame was assembled and pinned together, it was
turned over, underside uppermost; with the aid of a red-hot iron rod or even bymeans of a glowing ember as one old man informed me, holes of about 1/2
in.diameter were bored at intervals of about 8 in. Into these holes along each side
the butt ends of the wands were inserted, just as in the making of a Boyne curragh
we saw them driven into the ground around the circumference of a traced ellipse.
When the complement was complete the builder, according to Lord

George Hill,i wove a skirting band about 6 in. deep some 6 or 7 in. distant fromthe gunwale (cf. the skirting wickerwork in the Boyne curragh). Then, beginningat the stern, he bent the two last withies inward, one from each side, overlappingthem for more than two-thirds of their length, and bound them together after
adjusting the bilge bends to the required angles. In this manner he worked on
until all were made fast to form a series of rude transverse rib-frames. These werecalled "couplings" from being formed of double withies; it is noteI Facts from Gweedore, 2nd ed., Dublin, 1846. (A rare pamphlet.)THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

164

worthy that the name persists to-day although the frames are now formed ofsingle laths.
Longitudinal stringers were next added on the outer aspect of the ribs, insimilar manner; these were tied to the ribs at each point of intersection with twine
or with horsebair cord1. In later days a few cloven laths were substituted for the
principal stringers-those of which the ends were inserted into the stem and sternregions of the gunwale frames. Still later all the stringers were formed of laths,
although the ribs continued to be of doubled laths until the beginning of thiscentury. To-day both ribs and stringers are of planed laths, sawn from 9 by 4 in.
planks; out of one plank five slats are obtained. An interesting feature of current
practice is for five alternate rib-frames to be doubled on the bottom by the nailingon of a 3 ft. length of lath on the inner aspect, thus partially conserving theoriginal idea of doubled rib-framing-the "couplings".
The finish off of the stringer curves at head and stern called for special
skill. In the old pattern a certain amount of extra wattling had to be done at thestern, interlacing several rows of flexible withies with the fore-and-aft units to tie
them together, as only about a third of their number had their ends inserted in thestern transom bar.
According to Getty2 who visited Tory Island in 1845, the original fashion
was to draw "a fresh hide with the hair inside over the skeleton, and, being lacedwith thongs to the gunwale, became rigid as it contracted in drying. At present, acheaper material is found in tarred canvas, manufactured from flax or hemp spunby the women, and which is considered of superior strength to what is purchased
at a warehouse.... To render the canvas secure it is made double, and tarred; alayer of brown paper being generally inserted between the two portions.... Cattle
are transported across the sound in these boats; they are so light that a man easily
carries one on his back."
The nature and amount of cargo sometimes carried by these small
curraghs is extraordinary. Hill (loc. cit.) states that cattle
1 Hill, Lord George, loc. cit.
2 Getty, Edmund, "The Island of Tory: its history and antiquities", Ulter J. Archaeoll. I,
27-33, Belfast, 1853.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

165

are sometimes transported: "The animal is thrown down on the land, its legs tied,lifted into the corragh, and laid on its back, making it fast by ropes, then thecorragh is carried into the water." An instance of the reckless daring of theislanders in the way they load their curraghs is instanced. "A man and his wife
coming out of the Island of Arranmore, in a little boat filled with turf, had his
horse standing on top of it, with the roll of a sea, the animal was thrown out, andas they were a long way from land, must have been drowned, had not the man
cleverly succeeded in getting him into the boat again."In curraghs of this design made at the present day there are few noticeable
improvements apart from the substitution of sawn ribs and stringers for aframework of withies, and the nailing together of these at all crossing points
instead of being lashed with cord or thin withies. The cover continues to be madeof two cloth layers, but it is usual for the inner one to be of coarse sacking withthe outer of any available thin cotton cloth; sugar bags often serve for the one,
discarded flour bags for the other. Both layers are tarred separately, and anintermediate layer of brown paper is still occasionally employed.
Usually the gunwales project a few inches beyond the stern transom as
two short horns useful on which to rest the curragh in order to save the coverfrom damage when up-ended to dry or to load up for carrying. The fishermantransports it on land upon his back, resting his hand against the inner edges of the
gunwales about mid-length. Seen from behind a curragh in transit over the rocky
foreshore suggests a monstrous black beetle or the testudo of a Roman storming
party.
The paddle has two forms, an older and a later. The older, still in generaluse, is usually made out of an old spade handle lashed to a blade made from afragment of a packing case (Text-fig. Ic). This blade is parallel-sided, with longtapered shoulders. It is fastened to the overlapping end of the loom by an ironband or by a staple clenched on the fore-side a few inches from the tapered
proximal end which is lashed tightly to the 1oom with twine. The blade is slightly
curved backwards longitudinally. Dimensions: overall length 55 in.; loom 25 in.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

166

long by 1 1/2 in. diameter; blade 23 in. long by 4 1/2 in, wide; shoulders 5-6 in.
long; crutch 4 by 1 1/2 in.
The newer type is slightly shorter, with blade and loom in one piece-a
refinement of the old design. Length 52 in. overall; blade 26 by 4 1/2 in.;shoulders 3 in. long; crutch 4 by 1 1/2 in. (Text-fig. I b).
(b) Paddle and oar curraghs.
Not infrequently the paddling curragh is adapted to the use of both
paddles and oars. For this purpose it is usually made slightly larger. The one
measured at Bunbeg was 8 ft. 6 in, in overall length by 44 1/2 in, beam. This I am
told is the usual size (see Pl. IV, fig. 2).
These curraghs are made with rather more care than those intended solely
for paddling. The stringers in particular are notably finished off with precisionand regularity at the ends, in contrast to the rough slipshod way seen in many
paddling curraghs.
The additional features found in these better-class craft consist of:(a) A seat stringer made of a batten, 22 by 2 by ½ in., nailed amidships to
five of the ribs on each side, 5 in, below the upper edge of the gunwale.
(b) A thole-pin block, 14 in. long, by 2 in. high and 1 1/2 in. thick, oneach gunwale just abaft of mid-length. Two holes are bored in each to take a pairof slightly tapered thole-pins.
(c) Usually the margin of the tarred cover, nailed to the outer edge of the
gunwale frame, is covered and protected by a narrow beading.
When rowed, a loose seat is fitted across the hull with its ends upon thenailed-on seat stringers.
The oars used are of ordinary boat pattern and length.
(c) Rowing curragks, dinghy type.
In Tory Island during recent years, many of the fishermen have substituted
canvas-covered copies of a yacht's dinghy for the old type of paddling curragh(see Pl. IV, fig. 1).
The transverse sectional curves of the new type follow theTHE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

167

usual flattened U-curve of their predecessor. The fore-end is sharp with a nearlyvertical cutwater, abruptly curving below into the flattened bottom. The bows arestrongly sheered so that the height at the head is considerably greater than at thestern. The curves of the after-end adhere closely to those of the paddling curragh,
and the two horizontal stern horns there seen are also present. A common size is
II ft. in length by 3 ft.8 in, beam amidships, with a depth there of 18 in. Towards
the stern these curraghs run lean, the beam diminishing there to less than 3 ft.
The framework follows the design of the older padd-ling curraghs. The
frames are sawn and planed hardwood laths, 1 1/4 by 1/4 in, section, spaced apartabout 9 in., and number twelve. The stringers consist of forty-one deal laths,
about the same sectional size, so closely set that some touch their neigh-bours
laterally while the rest are separated by a maximum distance apart of 3/4 in.
Over the stringers is stretched the usual double cover of tarred cloth,
nailed along the upper edges of gunwales and transom bar with the margin
concealed by a narrow batten or beading.
The ends of the frames are mortised into the gunwales in ordinary curraghfashion, whereas the ends of the main stringers are nailed at the fore-end to aninternal stem bar or apron, and at the stern only the three main ones are mortised
into the upper or main transom bar which is characterized by being curved
outwards; the other stringers are nailed to the fore-side of a lower transom bar
placed about II in, below gunwale level.
The gunwales are of scantling of 2 1/2 by 1 1/2 in., increased slightly inthe bow region. 9 in, abaft each thwart, of which there are two, a rowlock cleat isfitted on the gunwale at each side, pierced by a single hole to take an ironrowlock.
The thwarts, steadied by wooden knees in usual boat fashion, are fitted torest on a special stringer nailed to the inner face of the ribs for this purpose. In
addition a loose seat is fitted right at the stern, 7 1/2 in, below the gunwale.
A false keel, a false stem and a false sternpost are always present, nailed
or bolted as may be suitable to the framework

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

168

upon the outer side of the tarred cover, which has to be put on prior to the fixingof these accessory parts. In many, probably the majority, a runner, 1 by 7/8 in., isfitted under each bilge. The two extend from near the stern to a short distanceforward of midships.
The false keel usually increases in depth toward the after-end, ranging
from about 11/4 in, at the fore-end to 2 in, aft; thickness 7/8 in. The false stemand stern posts run about 1 by 7/8 in.
No rudder is present.
Principal Dimensions of Donegal Curraghs
Short Type

Length overall ... ..
Beam: at shoulder spliceamidships --at stern ... ...
Height: at fore-end .
amidships ...
at stern ...
Length of bow region ...
Depth amidships ...
Gunwale, section
Thwarts, number ..
Complete transverse frames(ribs), number
Spaced apart ...
Stringers, number ...
Spaced apart ...
Section ... ...

Paddling
curragh,Bunbeg(Rosses)
Ft.
In
8
4
3
7
3
6 1/2
3
6 1/2
1
9
1
81/2
1
8
3
3
1
81/4

Paddling andRowingrowingcurragh, Tory
curragh,island (modern
Bunbeg
type)
Ft.
In
Ft.
In
8
6
11
6
3
9
3
8
1
3
8 /2
3
8
3
6
2
11
2
10
2
10 1/23/4
1
9
1
10 1/23/4
1
9
1
10 1/2
3
2
3
11
1
91/2
1
7

3 by 11/2 in
Nil

3 by 11/2 in
1 (loose)

21/2 by 11/2 in
2 + 1 loose

10c71/2 in22
1-1 1/8 in
1
1 /2 by 1/4 in

10
7-7 1/2 in21
1-1 1/4 in
1
1 /2 by 1/4 in

12
8 /2 -9 3/4 in
41
0- 1/2 in
3
1 /16 by 1/4 in
1Group B. Long, rowing curraghs
Formerly these were to be found in all the sheltered bays of the district. At
present they are restricted almost entirely to Sheephaven, where a number are in
use at Dunfanaghy and the Downings.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

169(a) Ancient type.
The present type differs only in details and in more careful construction from thatin use last century; lath stringers for withy ones is the one major improvement.
The only example that exists is one in the Liverpool Museum. This comes from
Mulroy Bay to the east of Sheephaven; it may be taken as the archetype of thedesigns now in use (see Pl. III, fig. 1).
The length is 16 ft. 9 in. Overall, with a beam at the shoulder splice of 33/4
ft.; abaft this it narrows gradually to 31/4 ft. at the stern; depth 19 in. In profile andgeneral appearance the design suggests relationship to the Scandinavian praam.
Both have the same rounded, keelless bottom, with long, gently curved up foreend,somewhat spoon-shaped,ending in a pointed stem. As usual in curraghdesign, the after-end curves up roundly from the bottom to end in a truncate stern.
The gunwales, bow or shoulder pieces and stern transom bar are similar
to, but more roughly made than in the current design which is described below indetail. To increase the thwartship strength, a stout cross-beam is nailed upon andconnects the two bow-gunwales at two-thirds their length from the fore-end. Thiscross-beam persists in the present-day Downings type but is absent in that of
Dunfanaghy, where its bracing purpose is adequately served by making the forethwart a fixture. In this old type both of the two thwarts present are loose; theirends rest upon short sticks tied to the ribs about 6 in, below the gunwales. Two
men rowed with oars of precisely the same kind as continue to be used; tholepins and blocks were also similar.
The framing in its broad constructional principles is identical with that of
the Boyne curraghs. Broadly U-shaped frames spaced apart about 8 in, are held inplace by an outer and more closely set series of longitudinal stringers, the twoseries tied together with string at all points of intersection. Both ribs and stringers
are of double withies; the butt end of one withy in each pair is passed through ahole bored or burned in one gunwale, that of the other through a parallel hole in
the opposite one.

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

170(b) The Dunfanaghy curragh.
The Sheephaven fishermen living at Dunfanaghy employ a type ofcurragh which serves excellently as an example of the transitional stage between
the older types of curragh distinguished by the complete wattling of theframework and those modern ones where sawn laths wholly replace withies.
These craft run from I5 to 20 ft. in length; a typical example is 16 1/2 ft.
Overall, with an outside beam of 48 in, at the 6rst thwart, decreasing gradually to
46 in, at the stern. Average depth 22 in. Height at fore-end 28 in.; at stern andamidships 22 in. The plan and profile are similar to the old type alreadydescribed, and as all the bow-frames are deeply rounded in U-fashion, the bow
region remains rounded right to the pointed nose (Pl. V,fig . 1) .
Each gunwale is in two sections, a straight main section, 10 ft. 3 in. long,
and a curved and strongly sheered bow or shoulder section, 6ft.3in.long. Both areof 3 by l 5/8 in.scantling. These have the joining end (additional length) thinned
down and overlapped to form a simple scarf splice-the shoulder splice (Text-fig3). The overlying connecting key-piece used for "fishing" the joint, universal incurragh design in Connaught and Munster, is never used here; the fishermenconsider that it diminishes flexibility and so makes the frame too rigid!
The fore-ends of the bow gunwales are bevelled to meet in the medianline to form the "nose". Instead of a breasthook, a stout bar is nailed connecting
them, a few inches behind the nose, on the under side; it serves also as a fitting to
make fast an anchoring rope in the bay and a holding down rope against the wind,when the curragh is turned bottom up on land (PI. V, figs. 1 and 2).
At the after-end the gunwales are connected by an over-lying transom bar,nailed on at each end; it may or may not be notched at the ends to fit lower on the
gunwales.
The inner framing of the bottom and sides consists of trans-versely
disposed double withies, called "couples", similar to those of the old type alreadydescribed; they are cut from hazel wands of 1/2-3/4 in. diameter and the bark is left
on. In two

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

171

curraghs examined the numbers were 19 and 20 respectively, spaced apart 8 1/2
in. In addition a single straight withy is tied across the stringer ends on theoutside just below the stern transom bar.
The stringers, outside of the frames, 17 in number and from 2 to 21/2
in.apart, are of 1 in, wide sawn laths except toward each end where they are
replaced by single stout hazel rods, the junction or overlap of lath stringers andwithy continuations being made under the third withy from each end. Each lengthof stringer is tied to the frames by a continuous cord which makes several turns
and a half-hitch at each crossing and then passes in a fore-and-aft direction to thenext one.
The usual size is a two-man curragh having one thwart permanently fixed
immediately abaft the shoulder splices, with the second a loose board resting at
each end on a short bar (a "hinging") tied to three of the ribs about 71/2 in, below
the top of the gunwale.
Each end of the fore-thwart is attached to the gunwale by a slanting block,the "bowstring", the three parts bolted together by an iron bolt passed obliquely
through them and secured below by a nut. To reinforce this tie further, a strap ofgalvanized iron passes obliquely from the top of the gunwale to a point on thethwart some inches inward from the bowstring and there nailed on (Pl. V, fig. 1).
Across the floor, three spaces and a half abaft each thwart, a stout
cylindrical footstick is tied at each end to an inner stringer bar. This may run
either continuous from below the first thwart, or be in two separate short lengths,
each lashed across three or four of the frames (Text-fig- 3)In a two-man curragh two thole-pin blocks, called "cleats", are fitted oneach gunwale and each is furnished with a single thole-pin.
Two layers of calico, put on separately, cover the bottom. Each is coatedwith tar thickened by boiling. No pitch is mixed with it. Formerly sheets ofbrown paper were placed between the two layers, but this practice has been given
up. The outer layer is put on in two longitudinal sections which may be madeeither of cloth running longitudinally or of short transverse

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

174

pieces. In both cases the main seam runs down the middle of the bottom. The
local term for it is generaly " cover ", but the Horn Head people and some of the
Dunfanaghy men continue to call it "the hide". Thwarts are called "tafts" and the
sharp fore-end is the "nose".
The oars used are of ash if obtainable, about 101/2 ft. long (Text-fig. 1d).
The blade is long and narrow, varying from 36 to 40 in, in length and nearly 3 in,in width when new; thickness 7/8 in, at the tip. Near the grip a heavy
subrectangular pivot block, the "bull", 19 in. long by 61/2 in, wide and 2 in, thick,is nailed by three long spikes to the after-side of the loom which here has arectangular section of 21/2 by 17/8 in. Through the bull, near the outer end, a holeis made, 13/4 in, in diameter. This may either be bored with an auger or made byburning through with a live coal; burning through is considered preferable,
probably because this hardens the walls of the perforation.
In use the oar pivots on a thole-pin which passes through the hole in thebull. When the hole becomes much enlarged by wear, the frugal fisherman
reverses the block, end for end, and makes a new hole at what now becomes theouter or distal end; this accounts for the mystery of two holes often seen in someof these blocks. To prevent chafing of the loom on the thole-pin cleat, a strip ofhoop iron, 1 in, wide, is nailed along its under side for the length of the bull.
Formerly curraghs of larger size were sometimes built and three-men
curraghs were not uncommon. I remember seeing a specially large one, rowed byfour men, at Dunfanaghy about 1890; it belonged to the coastguards and wasregarded as the local lifeboat; it must have been quite 20 ft. in length, perhaps
more.
As lobster fishing is an important branch of local industry, some curraghs
have a roller, 20 in. long by 11/2 in, in diameter, fitted outside the stern transom tofacilitate the hauling up of the pots.
When not in use the curraghs are turned bottom up on the ground with thebow region supported on each side by a few large stones. The stern is held down
by one or two heavy boulders laid upon each of the two horns that project abaft

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

175

the stern transom (Pl. V, fig. 2). The fore-end is anchored down by a large stonetied to the end of a rope which at the other is made fast around the transverse bar
immediately behind the pointed nose.
The price of one of these curraghs ranges from £4 to £5(c) The Downings curragh.
A fine example of a two-man curragh from this place is possessed by the
National Museum, Dublin. As its locale is within a few miles of Dunfanaghy thegeneral design, as may be expected, is closely related, with, however, somenotable divergences. Its length is just 14 1/2 ft. Overall with a beam ranging from44 1/2 in, at the shoulder splice to 40 in.at the stern. The chief diFerences consistof:(1) The use of a tie-beam across the shoulder region, 31/2 ft. abaft the foreend. In this it agrees with the design of the old curragh from Mulroy Bay.
(2) The stringers, nineteen in number, are wholly of cleaved laths in rather
short lengths; in most instances three, with their ends overlapped and tied, arenecessary for each complete stringer; no terminal lengths of withy are present.
Eight only of the stringers mortise into the stern transom bar.
(3) The stern framing is strengthened by a horizontally placed U-frame,
placed 81/2 in, below the transom.
(4) The thwarts are both loose, resting upon shaped bars slung by stout
cord from the upper ends of the ribs just above the uppermost stringer. The firstpair of these thwart rests are slung from the seventh and eighth ribs, the second
pair from the twelfth and thirteenth ribs.
As in the Dunfanaghy design, the rib-frames are of double withies. Theoars and rowing fittings are also similar.