March 2022

ILLUMINATINGAMPHIBIANS
THE AMPHIBIAN TRADE IN JAPANTomomi Kitade
Kay Wakao

TRAFFIC REPORTABOUT USTRAFFIC is a leading non-governmentalorganisation working globally on trade in wild
animals and plants in the context of bothbiodiversity conservation and sustainable
development.
Reprod­uction of material appearing in this reportrequires written­permission from the publisher.
The designations of geographical entities in thispublication, and the presentation of the material,
do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of TRAFFIC or its supportingorganisations concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, or area, or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries.
DONORSWWF Japan
Pro Natura Foundation JapanPROJECT SupervisorS
Tomomi Kitade
Published by:
TRAFFIC, Japan Office, Tokyo, Japan.
SUGGESTED CITATION
T. Kitade and K. Wakao. TRAFFIC (2022).
Illuminating Amphibians: the amphibian trade inJapan.
© TRAFFIC 2022. Copyright of material published inthis report is vested in TRAFFIC.
UK Registered Charity No. 1076722
DesignMarcus Cornthwaite

Yellow-banded poison dart frog Dendrobates leucomelas

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Jordi Janssen from the Monitor Conservation
Research Society for his contributions to the data collection andvaluable guidance on the manuscript. Thanks are also due to Tom
Osborn, Eleanor Drinkwater, Robin Sawyer, Yoko Asakawa, Tomoko
Oda, Yumiko Okamoto, Ryoko Nishino, and Shinichi Kawae for theircritical input into the manuscript.
The authors also thank Dr Tsubasa Iwabuchi, Yohsuke Amano,
Michiko Kajikawa and Ryoji Fukui for generously offering theirsupport at various stages during the research. Finally, the research
was made possible by the funding contributions from Pro Natura
Foundation Japan’s 31st Pro Natura Fund and WWF Japan.

contents
page 4EXECUTIVE SUMMARYRECOMMENDATIONS
page 8INTRODUCTION

Japan as a consumer and source country
Aims of the study
Legislation
Methodology
page 16

KEY FINDINGSJapan's import of live amphibians
Amphibians offered for sale in Japan
Endemic Japanese species in overseas markets
E-commerce sale of amphibians in Japan

page 32

CONCLUSIONS
page 35
References
Image credits
Annex 1: Japanese endemic species selected for online surveys in Europe and USA based websites

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYR E D U C I N G T H E I M PA C T O F T H E U N R E G U L AT E D P E T T R A D E I S
A N U R G E N T P R I O R I T Y F O R T H E G L O B A L C O N S E R VAT I O N O FAMPHIBIANS.
This study focused on Japan as a prime
consumer and source country of amphibians
to identify some of the high-risk taxa likely
impacted by the pet trade. Characterisationof the Japanese market using importrecords suggested that the sourcing of live
amphibians directly from range countries wasincreasing. Imports to Japan from Europe,
Latin America, Africa, and Asia were all
growing, with Nicaragua the top exporter inrecent years.

at least
230
speciesand 25subspecies ofamphibians
were offered forsale in Japan

4 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

Rapid surveys of both physical and online
markets covering the period January 2020
to April 2021 identified at least 230 species
and 25 subspecies of amphibians offered
for sale in Japan. Of these, 81% were notlisted in the Appendices of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), while one
in four species was of conservation concern(listed in the IUCN Red List in one of thefollowing categories: Critically Endangered(CR)/Endangered (EN)/Vulnerable (VU)/Near
Threatened (NT)).

There were indications—either from theirlabelling or in the accompanying online
postings—that wild-caught (WC) specimens
were traded in at least 27% of the species/
subspecies observed. Some 39 species/
subspecies observed in domestic markets
were native to Japan, with at least 22 of themdescribed as being WC, suggesting widespreadsourcing of native species from the wild.
Furthermore, an online search of selectedsites in Europe and the USA identified at least
three newt species endemic to Japan ofconservation concern in trade.
The findings of this study highlight the need forurgent actions at multiple levels to address the
footprint of the global pet trade on amphibians.
Regulation of international trade through CITES
measures should be mobilised effectively,
while national and local level measures andprivate sector responses are also encouraged.
Recommendations from this study highlightsome of the high-risk taxa that merit
immediate attention.

Black-spotted Rock frog Staurois natator

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 5

RECOMMENDATIONSCONSERVATION ACTIONS TO TARGET TAXA MOST AT RISK FROM INTERNATIONAL PET TRADE

The findings of this study complement those from earlier assessments in other consumer countries,
including the USA and Germany1,2, to help inform governments and other relevant parties to target
conservation actions on those amphibian taxa considered most at risk from the international pet
trade and in Japan, both as a consumer and source country.

CONSIDER
FURTHERCONSERVATIONMEASURESINCLUDING
INTERNATIONAL
TRADE

6 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

For trade concerning high-risk taxa found in theJapanese market:
Range states and other concerned countries should review thelists of high-risk taxa identified both in this study and previous
assessments and consider the need for further conservation
measures, particularly for those species that lack adequate
international trade regulation under CITES.
This study identified the following genera or higher-level taxa as
popular in the pet trade and therefore likely impacted by it:
South American horned frogs (Ceratophrys spp. and Chacophrys
pierottii), fire salamanders (Salamandra spp.), mole salamanders(Ambystoma spp.), fire-bellied newts (Cynops spp.), glass frogs(Centrolenidae), and bug-eyed frogs (Theloderma spp.).
Table 4 (page 21) includes a list of all the species considered by IUCN as threatenedwith extinction and found for sale in Japan during this study, while Table 7 (page 28)
lists all the species non-native to Japan found for sale whose populations are believed
to be in decline. Those species native to Japan in this category are listed in Table 8(page 29).

For trade concerning Japanese native/endemic species

INTRODUCE LEGALPROTECTIONS FOR
NATIVE SPECIESThe Ministry of the Environment of Japan (MOE) should consider
submitting a proposal to list the Sword-tailed Newt Cynops
ensicauda in Appendix II of CITES.
The MOE and relevant local government departments should
consider introducing legal protection for the Sword-tailed Newt
and other native/endemic species likely at risk from wild sourcing,including various Japanese salamanders (Hynobius spp. andOnychodactylus spp.).
The MOE should monitor the international trade in Japanesenative/endemic amphibians to assess which taxa may merit
regulation of their international trade through CITES (together with
the need for any national-level protection measures).

IMPROVE THE
ACCOUNTABILITY
OF businessES
TRADING IN LIVEAMPHIBIANS

For reducing the negative impact of the Japanese market
The MOE should consider the merits of extending the coverage of
the Act on Welfare and Management of Animals, which imposesvarious requirements on registered businesses trading in mammals,
birds and reptiles, to amphibians.
Businesses trading in live amphibians, including e-commercecompanies offering sales platforms, should carefully review their
supply chains and discontinue the sourcing/sales of any species or
specimens for which legality, sustainability and traceability cannot
be verified and proven to consumers.

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 7

I M PA C T O F T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L P E T
TRADE ON AMPHIBIANS
Infectious diseases have had a devastating impact on amphibian
species. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has
caused declines in at least 501 amphibian species and 90 presumed
extinctions over the past half-century4.

White-lined leaf frog Phyllomedusa vaillantii

INTRODUCTION
recent outbreak of another chytrid fungus, makes it challenging to assess the extent
newly- Theof the global trade in amphibian species, letBatrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal),discovered has led to the decimation of Fire Salamander alone monitor the trade at a species-level .
species Salamandra salamandra populations in Europe, Direct market observations are therefore
1

can appear in
the pet market
within monthsof scientificdescription

In 2021
TRAFFIC
produceda list of highrisk amphibian
species currently
not listed in CITES

including a 99.9% decline within seven years
in the Netherlands5. These fungi, both believed
to have originated in Asia, spread rapidly,
largely through the commercial international
amphibian pet trade4,6. In response to
the Bsal outbreak, the USA prohibited theimport and interstate transport of about 201
salamander species in 20167, while the EU
introduced health certificate requirements forsalamanders in 2018 (E.U. 2018/320)8.

Direct exploitation, especially for theinternational pet trade, is another serious
threat to amphibians9. The international petmarkets for amphibians are North America,
Europe and other developed countries such as
Japan, where there is a strong appetite for rare
species from across the world9,10. Evidence
suggests newly discovered species canappear in the pet market within one to three
years or sometimes, even within a few months
following their formal scientific description11.
Despite the crisis facing amphibians fromvarious threats, their international commercial
trade is regulated under the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES) for only about
201 species—roughly 2.4% of all known
amphibian species.
Global trade data for amphibian species
not listed in CITES is unavailable due to theabsence of standard customs codes. Thisa critical source of information on species
in trade2,3. The first Global Amphibian
Assessment found at least 278 amphibian
species in the pet trade with a high likelihoodof many more species regularly entering thetrade9. An extensive survey of the German petmarket in 2018–2019 recorded 352 amphibian
species2. A systematic review of literatureand species-level import data collected by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
Law Enforcement Management Information
System (LEMIS) identified 443 amphibian
species in the pet trade from 1971 to 201814.
An earlier analysis of LEMIS data by TRAFFIC
found at least 267 non-CITES listed amphibian
species were imported live to the USA forcommercial purposes between 2008–2018
and that the unregulated international tradein live amphibians amounted to millions ofindividuals each year1. The majority of suchtrade is believed to comprise wild-caught
individuals, posing a significant concern
for wild populations1,9. Following the LEMIS
data analysis and in conjunction with market
observations from other countries and the
IUCN Red List, TRAFFIC earlier produced a listof high-risk amphibian species currently notlisted in CITES1.

JAPAN: CONSUMER AND SOURCECOUNTRYJ A PA N H A S O N E O F T H E L A R G E S T E X O T I C P E T M A R K E T S I N
T H E W O R L D 15
Although no dedicated market survey had
been conducted for amphibians prior to thisstudy, Japan was the second-largest importerof CITES-listed live amphibians in 2014–2018,
after the USA16.
Previous studies on reptiles and otters in theJapanese market have raised concerns about
the country’s lax domestic trade regulations,allowing illegally sourced animals to be soldlegally without consequence15,17. Furthermore,a review of seizures and crime cases
uncovered a wide range of wildlife species
being smuggled into Japan’s domestic petmarket, with the frequent involvement of pet
traders and businesses18. The regulations
covering non-native amphibians in thedomestic market are known to be especiallylimited (see Legislation).
Japan is also a source country for many
amphibian species. The first Global Amphibian

Assessment found up to 80% of amphibian
species in Japan were endemic to thecountry9. Although the taxonomy is evolving,according to the Herpetological Society ofJapan,19 there are currently some 95 native
amphibian species in Japan with some
66 species listed in Japan’s National Red
List 2020i. Japan is a particular centre ofdiversity for small Asian salamanders (family
Hynobiidae)9,21. Furthermore, the Nansei
Islands in southwestern Japan are famous
for their high levels of endemism, including
their herpetofauna22. An earlier study found
55% of the 67 reptile and amphibian species/
subspecies endemic to the Nansei Islands
were traded in domestic and/or international
markets23. International trade of Japaneseamphibians also has important implications forthe conservation of amphibians globally as the
Bsal strain of chytrid fungus has been found inseveral wild host species in Japan24.

map of japan and regions

HOKKAIDOJapan
was thesecondlargest
importerof CITES-listed
live amphibians in
2014–2018

HONSHUSHIKOKU
KYUSHUTHE NANSEI ISLANDS
i
Japan’s National Red List species are listed in categories equivalent to Critically Endangered (CR)/Endangered (EN)/
Vulnerable (VU)/Near Threatened (NT) in the IUCN Red List

10 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

AIM OF THE STUDYThis Japan-focused study aimed to identify
the high-risk amphibian taxa likely impacted by
the pet trade. The role of Japan as a consumer
country was assessed through domestic
market surveys while the country’s role asa source country was examined throughsurveys of native Japanese amphibians foundin both domestic and some international
marketplaces. Various rapid survey techniques
were employed to gauge the extent of the trade

and the range of species found in it. The scaleof international trade was assessed throughan analysis of Japan’s import data. This
study’s findings and recommendations should
complement those of earlier assessmentsof the international amphibian trade andprovide further impetus for the much-needed
conservation interventions for amphibians at
both national and international levels.

LEGISLATION
Japan regulates imports and exports of
CITES-listed species through the Customs Act
and the Foreign Exchange and Foreign Trade
Act. The Invasive Alien Species Act prohibits
the import of designated non-native species
deemed harmful to ecosystems, humansafety, and primary industries, and covers 15
amphibian species as of October 202125. The
Japanese Giant Salamander Andrias japonicus(Appendix I) and the Anderson’s Crocodile
Newt Echinotriton andersoni (Appendix III
since February 2021), the latter endemic to the
Nansei Islands, are the only native Japaneseamphibian species listed in the CITES
Appendices26.
Regulations regarding the domestic tradeof amphibians are currently limited. The Act
on the Conservation of Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora (ACES) regulates
the domestic trade of species listed in
CITES Appendix I and designated NationallyEndangered species. As of January 2022,
amphibian species covered by ACES included
24 CITES Appendix I-listed species and 40
Nationally Endangered species, of which 26(mostly Hynobius spp.) were designated in
January 2022, after this survey had been
conducted (Table 1)12,27.
Although the capture, trade (including noncommercial), advertising and import/export ofdesignated Nationally Endangered species areprohibited, currently 24 species of Japanesesalamanders are classified as second classNationally Endangered species; a category
introduced in 2017, which permits their noncommercial capture and trade.
The Act on Protection of Cultural Properties
further protects the Japanese Giant
Salamander as a special national monument.
Other amphibian species are also protected
at the prefectural or municipal levels throughlocal ordinances. However, amphibians alongwith fish and invertebrates are excluded fromthe scope of regulations under the Act on
Welfare and Management of Animals, meaningthat businesses dealing in live amphibians
are exempt from registration or other legal
obligations.

Photo caption title
ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 11

TABLE 1
List of Nationally Endangered amphibians with the date they came under ACES and their conservation status as designated by IUCN and theMinistry of the Environment of Japan (MOE).

Common Name

Year AND MONTHIUCN Red List 2021

MOE Red List
2020

Babina holst

Holst's Frog

2016 MarchEN

EN

Babina subaspera

Otton Frog

2016 MarchEN

EN

Limnonectes namiyei

Namie's Frog

2016 MarchEN

EN

Odorrana ishikawae

Okinawa Ishikawa's Frog

2016 MarchEN

EN

Odorrana splendida

Amami Oshima Frog

2016 MarchEN

EN

Odorrana utsunomiyaorum

Utsunomiya's Tip-nosed Frog

2019 February

EN

EN

Hynobius abei

Abe's Salamander

1995 April

EN

CR

Hynobius amakusaensi

Amakusa-sanshouo2015 December

CR

CR

Hynobius osumiensis

Osumi-sanshouo2015 December

EN

EN

Hynobius shinichisatoi

Sobo-sanshouo2015 December

EN

EN

Hynobius tokyoensis1

Tokyo Salamander2020 February

VU

VU

Hynobius tosashimizuensis

Tosashimizu-sanshouo

2019 February

CR

CR

Onychodactylus tsukubaensis

Tsukuba Clawed Salamander2015 December

CR

CR

VU

VU

Species Name

Ranidae

Hynobiidae

An additional 26 salamander species2 were designated in January 2022

Salamandridae
Echinotriton andersoni

Anderson’s Crocodile Newt2016 March

Hynobius tokyoensis is listed as a second class Nationally Endangered species.
The following additional species were designated in January 2022 (second class Nationally Endangered species are underlined):
Hynobius abuensis, H. akinesis, H. bakan, H. boulengeri, H. dunni, H. fossigenus, H. guttatus, H. hidamontanus, H. ikioi, H. iwami, H. katoi, H.
kuishiensis, H. kunibiki, H. naevius, H. nebulosus, H. okiensis, H. oyamai, H. sematonotos, H. setoi, H. setouchi, H. stejnegeri, H. tsurugiensis,
H. utsunomiyaorum, H. vandenburghi, Onychodactylus kinneburi, Salamandrella keyserlingii
CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable
1
2

12 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANSMETHODOLOGYThis study carried out a rapid assessment of Japan’s role as both a consumer and source country
in the amphibian trade using a range of data analysis and online and physical market surveys as
outlined in Table 2.

TABLE 2
Approaches used to assess Japan’s role as a consumer and source country in the amphibian trade

Types of data/survey

1) Japan as consumer country 2) Japan as source country

Japan Customs Import Data AnalysisxMarket Surveys in Japan
Physical Surveys of Major Fairsx

Specialised Sellers’ WebsitesxE-commerce Platformsx

Online Searches for Species Native to Japanx

Online Survey of Japanese Endemic Species in Europe and the USA

xJAPAN CUSTOMS IMPORT DATA ANALYSIS
Japan uses HS customs codes for the importof live amphibians recorded under 0106.90
which is designated for “live animals otherthan mammals, reptiles, birds and insects”,
whereby Anura (0106.90-011), Caudata(0106.90-012), and others (0106.90-019) areclassified separately. The data for these codes

for the period 2005–2020 were downloaded
from the Japan Customs website. Note thatconsignments valued as less than JPY200,000(~USD1,770 at the rate of October 2021) were
not included in these data, which likely results
in an underestimation of actual imports.

MARKET SURVEYS IN JAPAN
Physical Surveys of Major Fairs
Although extensive physical market surveys
were not possible due to COVID-19 restrictions,
two major reptile fairs held during weekends inNovember 2020 in Tokyo—the first considered
to be among the largest reptile and amphibian
fairs in Japan—were visited. The surveyors
recorded the amphibian species present
using the indicated names on labels. Other

information, such as the source and originof specimens were recorded where possible,
although there are no legal requirements todisplay such details and they were often notmentioned. The number of animals for sale
was only recorded at the first of these fairs
where the survey was conducted as the event
opened.

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 13

Specialised Sellers’ Websites
The websites of five major sellers ofamphibians, particularly those dealing inimports, were surveyed in December 2020.
Species information was collected from eachmain website (i.e. the list of species on order/
inventory pages) together with any information
available from blog pages describing new
arrivals posted during the 12 months of 2020.
For species listed on order or inventory pages,
the stock availability at the time was notconfirmed, but an assumption was made thatthey had been available at some point during2020. The names (Japanese and scientificwhere provided), together with any informationon the origin and source of species were noted.
The number of animals offered for sale or instock was seldom mentioned and therefore
was not recorded.

E-commerce Platforms
Snapshot surveys of four major e-commerce
platforms—Yahoo Auction, Amazon Japan ,Rakuten-Ichiba, and Yahoo Shopping —were
conducted between January–March 2021.
Yahoo Auction, Japan’s largest online auction
platform, has items sold by both businesses(B2C trade) and individuals (C2C trade).
The other three sites are for B2C sales only.
Relevant categories (i.e. live amphibians)
on each site were reviewed thoroughly once
during the period to identify and record
details from all active online postings for live
amphibians, including eggs. Data collected
included the names of species for sale (usually
the common names in Japanese), the identityof sellers, the origin and source of specimens,
and the number of animals available. Social
network sites were not surveyed in this study
as scoping searches in Japanese failed todetect any conspicuous groups operating.

14 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

Online Searches for Species Native
to JapanA rapid online keyword search was conductedin April 2021 of the Aucfan website, acomprehensive database covering auction
results from the past 120 days on multiple
auction sites including Yahoo Auction.
The common names of 91 species andten subspecies native to Japan (excluding
introduced species) described by the
Herpetological Society of Japan (as of 16
November 2020) were searched for [19]. Only
the presence/absence of online postings foreach species/subspecies was checked. Where
described, the origin and source of any animals
were also recorded.

A Master List of Species Observed in
the Japanese Market
Observations from all the above surveys
were combined to produce a master list ofamphibians found for sale in the Japanesemarket. The different methods and timing/
coverage of these surveys mean thefollowing caveats should be considered wheninterpreting this list: the representation ofnative species may be inflated due to thededicated searches for these species; andalthough surveys took place during January
2020–April 2021, individual surveys did not all
cover this entire time period.

ONLINE SURVEYS OF ENDEMIC JAPANESE
SPECIES IN EUROPE AND THE USA
The availability of 29 selected Japanese
endemic species (Annex 1) was surveyed
on specialist websites based in Europe andthe USA in April 2021. The selected species
were listed in Japan’s National Red List 2020
(equivalent to one of the IUCN categories
CR/EN/VU/NT), protected in Japan, or both.
The websites surveyed were Terraristik,
Faunaclassifields, Caudata.org, and over 20
specialised amphibian groups on Facebook.
Only scientific names were used in keyword
searches because postings on these specialist
websites commonly refer to species byscientific names.

Postings were recorded that included either:
1. offer for sale;
2. offer for trade with other animals; and3. indication of ownership.
Information was collected on the datesof postings and additional information on
the quantity, origin, subspecies/localityof specimens, and seller locations whereavailable.

LIMITATIONSThere are several limitations associated withthe methodology used in this research.
Firstly, it is almost impossible to verify
independently any statements made by sellers
about the origin and source of animals forsale. This and other information, such as
identification of the species/subspecies for
sale, was taken at face value.
Secondly, given these were rapid not long-term
surveys and there is a lack of information
provided by sellers, the number of species andnumber of wild-caught specimens in tradeare likely to be underestimated. Note that
information on artificially produced hybrids (asseen for South American horned frogs) was
not recorded.
Some species known to have been traded inJapan were not encountered during these
rapid surveys, indicating the results reported
here are likely an underestimation of the truelevel of trade. For example, Laos Warty Newt
Laotriton laoensis, which has been previously

highlighted as a high risk species1,2 was notencountered during the data collection of thisstudy but was found to be for sale in Japan at
the time of the writing via an online keyword
search. Furthermore, in 2018 the NationallyEndangered Amami Oshima Frog Odorrana
splendida, Otton Frog Babina subaspera, andnon-protected Amami Tip-nosed Frog Odorrana
amamiensis, were seized in Japan and had
been targeted for collection from the wild29.
None of these species were observed in thisstudy.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(Version 2021–2) was referred to as theprimary source of species information. MOE’s
Red List 202028 was used in parallel to describe
the conservation status of Japanese native
species. For common names and taxonomy,
the databases offered by AmphibiaWeb(https://amphibiaweb.org/) and the American
Museum of Natural History (https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/) were used.

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 15

KEY FINDINGSTHIS LATEST MARKET SURVEY HAS CHARACTERISED THE
DIVERSITY OF AMPHIBIAN SPECIES SOLD IN JAPAN. IT
IS LIKELY THAT MANY SPECIES ARE IMPACTED BY THE
TRADE GIVEN THE LACK OF REGULATORY OVERSIGHT

Fire salamander Salamandra salamandra, on leaves, Plitvice National Park, Croatia

16 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANSILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 17

JAPAN’S IMPORT OF LIVE AMPHIBIANS
The total number of live amphibians recorded
as imports by Japan Customs between 2005
and 2020 was 129,809 with a total value of
JPY384 million (~USD3.7 million). Nearly 82%
were Anura (frogs), with 18% Caudata (newts
and salamanders) and 314 live amphibians
classified as “Other”, supposedly caecilians(Gymnophiona). The import of live amphibians
increased from 2005 to 2019 by 430% in value
and by 230% in number (Fig. 1). This growth
reversed somewhat in 2020, possibly due
to the impact of COVID-19, although it was
still at 380% and 180% by value and number,respectively, of the 2005 figures.

20000
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

60000
50000
40000
30000
20000

Value (JPY1000)

Number of animals

FIGURE 1
Live amphibian imports to Japan by exporting regions between 2005–2020 (Source: Japan Customs).

10000
0
2020

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

YEAR
EuropeNorth America

Latin America

Asia

Oceania

Import Value

exports from The relative contribution of regions exporting
Europe, Latin live amphibians to Japan has changed overperiod (Fig. 1). North America, dominatedAmerica, theby the USA, was initially the largest exporter,
Africa and while Europe, Africa, and Latin America have
Asia taken over as key exporting regions over theare growing recent five to six years. Exports from Asia havebeen variable but seem to be growing steadily
in recent years, surpassing North America in
2020. The contribution of Oceania was verysmall.

Nicaragua At the country level, 41 countries/regions wereis the top exporter identified as exporters between 2005–2020
in recent years (Fig. 2), of which the USA was the largest,

followed by Germany and South Africa (Table

18 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

Africa3). In the three most recent years (2018–2020),
imports increased sharply. A total of 24
countries/regions exported live amphibians
to Japan with the top being Nicaragua
whose first exports to Japan were recorded
as recently as 2015 (Table 3), followed by
Cameroon, Germany, South Africa, the USA
and the Czech Republic. Similarly, Peru’s firstexports were recorded only in 2017, but thecountry appeared in the top ten exporters in
2018–2020. The sixth-largest exporter acrossall years, Madagascar, did not register in the
top ten in 2018–2020. Taiwan Province ofChina was the only top ten exporter in Asia in
2018–2020.

FIGURE 2
The 41 countries/territories (shaded colours) that exported live amphibians to Japan in 2005–2020 (Source: Japan Customs).
Number of animals

427,492TABLE 3
Top 10 exporters of live amphibians to Japan across all years (2005–2020) and in the three most recent years (2018–2020).

Top 10 exporters 2005–2020

Top 10 exporters 2018–2020

COUNTRY/TERRITORYQUANTITY%

COUNTRY/TERRITORYQUANTITY%USA

27,492

21.2%

Nicaragua

7,197

15.5%

Germany

12,5499.7%

Cameroon

4,720

10.2%

South Africa

10,254

7.9%

Germany

4,689

10.1%

Nicaragua

9,597

7.4%

South Africa

4,049

8.7%

Canada

8,465

6.5%

USA

3,686

8.0%

Madagascar

8,378

6.5%

Czech Republic

3,644

7.9%

Netherlands

7,107

5.5%

Peru

2,628

5.7%

Cameroon

5,357

4.1%

Canada

2,266

4.9%

Czech Republic

5,252

4.0%

Netherlands

2,249

4.9%

Suriname

5,111

3.9%

Taiwan Provinceof China

1,645

3.5%

Countries/territories shaded in grey were identified for both periods. Source: Japan Customs

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 19s

AMPHIBIANS OFFERED FOR SALE IN
JAPANSpecies-level Overview
Observations across all the physical and online
outlets surveyed for this research identified atleast 230 species and 25 subspecies offered
for sale in Japan between January 2020–April
2021. The combined 255 species/subspecies
comprised 163 Anura (64%), 86 Caudata (34%)
and six species of Gymnophiona (Fig. 3a).

The most recorded subspecies belonged to
Caudata. Some 216 (85%) of the total were
non-native species/subspecies (Fig. 3b). Salesof all these species were all legal in Japan asnone of them were listed under ACES which
prohibits domestic trade in designated species(see Legislation).

FIGURE 3
Compositions of amphibian species/subspecies observed for sale in Japan during January 2020–April 2021 according to (a) taxonomicorder and (b) indigeneity (N=255).

(b) Proportion of Japanese native species(a) Composition of amphibian orders
2%(a) Composition of
2%

15%
34%

34%

ve to Japan

Anura

Native to Japan-native

Caudata

Non-native

Gymnphiona
64%85%

the 230 species, 81% are not listed in
81% of the Of
the CITES Appendices (Fig. 4a). Of thosespecies listed in CITES, all except the North African

are not listed
in the CITES
Appendices. One
in four species
is considered
Threatened or
Near Threatened.

Fire Salamander Salamandra algira (which
was listed by Algeria in Appendix III), are in
Appendix II. The Family Dendrobatidae (poison
dart frogs) native to tropical Latin America
comprised the largest number of Appendix II
listed species observed (25 species). Six Asian
newt species listed in Appendix II in 2019 fromthe genera Paramesotriton and Tylototriton
were also observed.
Thirty-six species (16%) were categorisedas Threatened (CR/EN/VU) according to
the IUCN Red List (2021–2) (Fig. 4b, Table

20 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

4). Another 20 species were categorised
as Near Threatened (NT), making a total ofnearly one in four of the observed species ofconservation concern. Just over half of theThreatened species (20 species) were notlisted in the CITES Appendices. These included
six Critically Endangered species, namely: Rio
Pescado Stubfoot Toad Atelopus balios from
Ecuador, Limosa Harlequin Frog A. limosus
from Panama, Lemur Leaf Frog Agalychnis
lemur from Colombia, Costa Rica and Panama,
Anderson’s Salamander Ambystoma andersoni
from Mexico, Blue-gray Fire-bellied Newt
Cynops glaucus from China, and Kurdistan
Newt Neurergus microspilotus from Iran (Table
4).

FIGURE 4
Breakdown of amphibian species observed for sale in Japan during January 2020–April 2021 according to (a) CITES listing status and (b)IUCN Red List category (N=230).

[b] iucn red list category[A] cites listing status
0%

DD
1%

18%

1%

U

CR
3%

LC
72%

R

N

NA
2%

T

C

CITES

I

CITES

II

CITES

III

EN
5%
VU
8%

CR
EN
NT
9%

NT
LC

Not listed

D

VU

DD

A

NA
81%

8

TABLE 4
The 36 species categorised as Threatened (CR/EN/VU) in IUCN’s Red List (2021–2) observed for sale in Japan between January 2020–April
2021.

FamilyScientific Name

Common name

CITES
listing

IUCN
Red
List

Range

Leptopelis vermiculatus

Amani Forest Treefrog-

EN

Tanzania

ANURA
Arthroleptidae

Atelopus balios

Rio Pescado Stubfoot Toad-

CR

EcuadorAtelopus limosus

Limosa Harlequin Frog-

CR

PanamaCeratophryidae

Ceratophrys stolzmanni

Pacific Horned Frog-

VU

Ecuador; Peru

Conrauidae

Conraua goliath

Giant Slippery Frog-EN

Cameroon; Equatorial Guinea

Epipedobates tricolor

Phantasmal Poison FrogII

VU

Ecuador

Oophaga granulifera

Granular Poison FrogII

VU

Costa Rica; Panama

Phyllobates bicolor

Black-legged Poison Dart FrogIIEN

Colombia

Phyllobates terribilis

Golden Poison FrogIIEN

Colombia

Bufonidae

Dendrobatidae

Hemiphractidae
Mantellidae

Phyllobates vittatus

Golfodulcean Poison FrogII

VU

Costa Rica

Ranitomeya benedicta

Blessed Poison Frog

II

VU

Peru

Ranitomeya fantastica

Fantastic Poison Frog

II

VU

Peru

Gastrotheca riobambae

Riobamba Marsupial Frog-EN

EcuadorMantella aurantiaca

Golden Mantella

II

EN

Madagascar

Mantella expectata

Blue-legged Mantella

II

EN

Madagascar

Mantella viridis

Green Golden FrogIIENMadagascar

Microhylidae

Scaphiophryne marmorata

Marbled Rain FrogIIVUMadagascar

Pelodryadidae

Litoria aurea

Green and Golden Bell Frog-

VU

Australia

Agalychnis lemur

Lemur Leaf Frog-CR

Colombia; Costa
Rica; Panama

Callimedusa ecuatoriana

Agua Rica Leaf Frog-

VU

Ecuador

Theloderma bicolor

Chapa Bug-eyed Frog-EN

Viet Nam

Phyllomedusidae
Rhacophoridae

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 21

Family

Scientific Name

Common name

CITES
listing

IUCN
Red
List

Range

Ambystoma andersoni

Anderson's Salamander-CR

MexicoAmbystoma mexicanum

Axolotl

II

CR

MexicoHynobius dunni

Dunn's Oriental Salamander

-

VU

Japan

Hynobius fossigenus

Japanese Rift Salamander

-

VU

Japan

Hynobius katoi

Akaishi Sansho-uo

-

EN

Japan

Hynobius utsunomiyaorum

Highland Salamander

-

VU

Japan

Cynops ensicauda

Sword-tailed Newt

-

VU

Japan

Cynops glaucus

Blue-gray Fire-bellied Newt

-

CR

China

CAUDATA
Ambystomatidae

Hynobiidae

Salamandridae

Neurergus crocatus

Azarbaijan Mountain Newt-

VU

Iran; Iraq; Turkey

Neurergus microspilotus

Kurdistan Newt

-

CR

Iran

Neurergus strauchii

Anatolia Newt-

VU

TurkeySalamandra algiraNorth African Fire Salamander III

VU

Algeria; Morocco;
Spain

Tylototriton kweichowensis

Red-tailed Knobby Newt

II

VU

China

Tylototriton shanjing

Yunnan Newt, Mandarin Newt

II

VU

China

Tylototriton shanorum

Taunggyi Crocodile Newt

II

VU

MyanmarSpecies names where specimens were labelled as wild-caught (WC) are underlined..

Wild
sourcing

was describedfor at least 27%of the species/
subspecies
observed

22 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

While information on the source and origin wasoften not displayed, at least one specimen label
or online posting described animals as wildcaught (WC) for 27% (68 species/subspecies)of the total 255 taxa (230 species and 25
subspecies) observed. At least one specimen
was described as captive-bred (CB) for 40%(103 species/subspecies) of the 255 taxa,
while specimens from both sources (WC andCB) were observed in 5% (13 species) of thetotal taxa. It was not possible to quantitatively
compare the WC and CB specimens tradedfor any given taxa or overall due to the lack oflegal requirement to properly label the source
and origin. Amongst the species in which WC
specimens were observed, nearly half (47%)
of these were native to Asia—made up of 31%
Japanese native species and the remaining
16% from elsewhere in Asia. The next highest
source regions were Latin America (23%) and
Africa (13%). Note these observations very
likely underestimate the true levels of wild
sourcing given the lack of legislation in Japanto mandate the disclosure of such information.

Hourglass frog Dendropsophus ebraccatus

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 23

TABLE 5
The top 20 most frequently observed species at the large reptile and amphibian fair held in Tokyo in November 2020.

1

Common nameScientific name

Count

%

WC
CITES
indication1

IUCN Red
List

Population
TREND2Range

Year
Assessed

Cranwell's Horned Frog

Ceratophrys cranwelli

78

12%

-

-

LC



Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; Paraguay

2004

Fire Salamander

Salamandra salamandra3

65

10%

-

-

LC



European States5

2008

Brazilian Horned Frog

Ceratophrys aurita

40

6%

-

-

LC



Brazil2004

Green Tree Frog

Litoria caerulea

33

5%

Yes

-

LC

-

Australia; Indonesia; Papua New Guinea

2004

Chaco Horned Frog

Chacophrys pierottii

29

4%

-

-

LC



Argentina; Bolivia; Paraguay

2020
2016

Red-eyed Tree Frog

Agalychnis callidryas

27

4%

Yes

II

LC



Belize; Colombia; Costa Rica; Guatemala; Honduras; Mexico;
Nicaragua; Panama

Sword-tailed Newt

Cynops ensicauda (popei)4

27

4%

Yes

-

VU



Japan

2020

Surinam Horned Frog

Ceratophrys cornuta

23

4%

Yes

-

LC

-

Bolivia; Brazil; Colombia; Ecuador; French Guiana; Guyana; Peru;
Suriname

2004

Argentine Horned Frog

Ceratophrys ornata

23

4%

-

-

NT



Argentina; Brazil; Uruguay

2004

African Bull Frog

Pyxicephalus adspersus

22

3%

-

-

LC



Angola; Botswana; Kenya; Malawi; Mozambique; Namibia; South
Africa; Tanzania; Zambia; Zimbabwe

2013

Azerbaijan Mountain Newt

Neurergus crocatus

22

3%

-

-

VU



Iran; Iraq; Turkey

2008

Western Tiger Salamander

Ambystoma mavortium

17

3%

-

-

LC

?

Canada; Mexico; United States

2015

Splash-Backed Poison Frog Adelphobates galactonotus

11

2%

-

II

LC

-

Brazil

2008

Sharp-ribbed Salamander

Pleurodeles waltl

11

2%

-

-

NT



Morocco; Portugal; Spain

2008

Red-tailed Knobby Newt

Tylototriton kweichowensis

11

2%

-

II

VU



China

2019

Asiatic Toad (Miyako Toad)

Bufo gargarizans(miyakonis)4

10

2%

Yes

-

LC

-

Japan

2018

Fleischmann's Glass Frog

Hyalinobatrachium
fleischmanni

10

2%

Yes

-

LC

-

Belize; Colombia; Costa Rica; El Salvador; Guatemala; Guyana;
Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua; Panama; Suriname

2019

Taunggyi Crocodile Newt

Tylototriton shanorum

10

2%

-

II

VU



Myanmar2016

Pacific Horned Frog

Ceratophrys stolzmanni

9

1%

-

-

VU



Ecuador; Peru

2018

Dyeing Poison Frog

Dendrobates tinctorius

9

1%

-

II

LC

-

Brazil; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname

2008

Species with at least one observation of a specimen/online posting describing it as wild-caught (WC) origin are marked Yes.

Population trends from the IUCN Red List Assessment:  indicates decreasing/- indicates stable.
In addition to the species-level description, the following subspecies were also observed: S. salamandra almanzoris, S. s. bejarae, S. s. crespoi, S. s. gallaica, S. s. gigliolii, S. s. salamandra, and S. s. terrestris4
All the observed specimens of the species were described as the subspecies specified in brackets.
5
Albania; Andorra; Austria; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czechia; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Italy; Liechtenstein; Luxembourg; Montenegro; Netherlands; North Macedonia; Poland;
Portugal; Romania; San Marino; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Switzerland; Ukraine
2
3

CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; LC = Least Concern

Popular Amphibian Groups in Japanese Markets
The number of amphibians for sale at thelarge reptile and amphibian fair held in Tokyo
was used as a proxy measure of the relative
abundance and popularity of amphibian groups
in the Japanese market. The observations
totalled 650 specimens from 92 species/

subspecies offered by 18 sellers. Figure 5
shows the genus-level breakdown of theobserved specimens, and the top 20 mostfrequently encountered species are listed inTable 5.

FIGURE 5
Genus-level breakdown of the number of specimens observed at the large reptile and amphibian fair held in Tokyo in November 2020
(N=650). Shades of brown and green indicate Anura (frogs) and Caudata (newts and salamanders), respectively.

Other
14%
Pleurodeles
2%
Bufo
2%

Ceratophrys
27%

Adelphobates
2%
Hyalinobatrachium
2%
Dendrobates2%
Pyxicephalus
3%
Neurergus
3%
Triturus
4%

Salamandra
11%

Agalychnis
4%Chacophrys
4%

CynopsAmbystoma
5%
5%

The genus Ceratophrys—South American
Horned Frogs or Pacman Frogs—were foundin the largest numbers comprising 27% of theobserved specimens (Fig. 6), with Cranwell'sHorned Frog Ceratophrys cranwelli the mostnumerous (Table 5). Many artificial breedsof Ceratophrys frogs, including hybrids
and artificially coloured morphs, were also
observed but are not included in the data.
Origins as WC were noted for the Surinam
Horned Frog Ceratophrys cornuta and as F1

Tylototriton
6%
Litoria5%(first generation from wild parents) for Chaco
Horned Frog Chacophrys pierotti. A careful
review of the impact of trade on this group
appears warranted, especially given the Red
List assessments have not been updated
for many of these species and given PacificHorned Frog Ceratophrys stolzmanni (VU) andArgentine Horned Frog Ceratophrys ornata (NT)were already of conservation concern in earlier
assessments (Table 5).

South
AmericanHornedFrogs

are the mostcommon group

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 25

Anderson's Crocodile Newt

A diverse array of newts and salamanders and some iconic tree frogs
A wide range of newts and salamanders wereobserved, ranging from fire salamanders
Salamandra spp. native to Europe, crocodile
newts Tylototriton spp. native to Asia, andmole salamanders Ambystoma spp. native to
Northern America including Mexico, together
comprising a total of 22% of the specimens
recorded at the reptile fair (Fig. 5). Across alloutlets, five species and 10 subspecies ofSalamandra were observed, with WC attributed
to Spotted Fire Salamander Salamandra s.
salamandra from Slovenia (species listed as
LC with declining populations). Six species
and four subspecies of Ambystoma wereencountered with some WC origin indicated forthree species: Tiger Salamander Ambystoma
tigrinum, Marbled Salamander Ambystoma
opacum, Spotted Salamander Ambystoma
maculatum (all LC with stable populations).
Four species of Tylototriton were observed,
none with any WC origin attributed to them.

CITES-listed poison dart frogs (e.g.
Glass While
genera Dendrobates, Adelphobates andfrogs Ranitomeya) remain popular, other groups

appear to
be gaining
popularity

26 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

of similarly small-sized frogs were also
encountered. In particular, glass frogs(Centrolenidae) native to Central and SouthAmerica were described by some sellers
in online posts as increasing in popularity,with some species apparently introduced

At the species level, commonly available
species with WC indications included Green
Tree Frog Litoria caerulea native to Australia,
Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea, andthe CITES Appendix II-listed Red-eyed Tree
Frog Agalychnis callidryas native to tropical
Latin America (Table 5). Both species are
categorised as Least Concern (LC) withdeclining populations. Among the fire-bellied
newts genus Cynops, native to Japan and
China, one Japanese endemic, Sword-tailed
Newt Cynops ensicauda (VU), in particular
the subspecies popei from the Okinawa
Islands, was commonly observed (Table 5)alongside Japanese Fire-bellied Newt Cynops
pyrrhogaster (NT) native to Japan, Blue-gray
Fire-bellied Newt Cynops glaucus (CR) and
Oriental Fire-bellied Newt Cynops orientalis (LC)native to China (data not shown). WC origin
was mentioned for only the two Japanese
species.

to the Japanese market in recent years.
Fleischmann's Glass Frog Hyalinobatrachium
fleischmanni ranked in the top 20 species at
the reptile fair with some indication of WC
sourcing. At least five other species of glass
frogs were observed across various sales
outlets (Table 6), including the specialist shops
and e-commerce sites.

TABLE 6
Glass Frog species observed in the Japanese market

Common nameScientific nameWC%
INDICATION1

IUCN Red
List

Population
TREND2

Range

Year Assessed

Atrato Glass Frog

Hyalinobatrachium
aureoguttatum

-

LC

-

Colombia,
Ecuador, Panama

2019



Colombia; Costa
Rica; Ecuador;
Honduras;
Nicaragua;
Panama2019

2019

White-spotted CochranFrog

1

Sachatamia
albomaculata

-

12%

10%

LC

Fleischmann's Glass Frog

Hyalinobatrachium
fleischmanni

Yes

6%

LC

-

Belize; Colombia;
Costa Rica;
El Salvador;
Guatemala;
Guyana;Honduras;
Mexico;Nicaragua;
Panama;Suriname

La Palma Glass Frog

Hyalinobatrachium
valerioi

-

5%

LC



Colombia; Costa
Rica; Ecuador;
Panama2019?

Colombia; Costa
Rica; Ecuador;
Honduras;
Nicaragua;
Panama2019



Costa Rica;
Honduras;
Nicaragua;
Panama2019

Chiriqui Glass Frog

Teratohyla
pulverata

Grainy Cochran Frog

Cochranella
granulosa

-

-

4%

4%

LC

LC

Species with at least one observation of a specimen/online posting describing it as wild-caught (WC) origin are marked Yes.

While quantitative assessments were only
conducted in the physical reptile fair survey, it
was apparent that many of the rarer species
recorded in this research were only observedin online postings from specialist outlets.

Conversely, Japanese native species tended tobe recorded more often on regular e-commerce
platforms, particularly Yahoo Auction (see page
31 for details).

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 27

Species Potentially Impacted by Wild Sourcing
Beyond groups/species offered in the largest
numbers, others of potential concern wereidentified from those in which a WC origin was
indicated (although it is highly likely many otherspecies are also of WC origin with a varying
degree of impact on wild populations). Table

7 lists those species non-native to Japan witha conservation status of CR/EN/VU/NT or
declining populations according to the IUCNRed List while Table 8 lists species in thesecategories that are native to Japan.

genus Theloderma—bug-eyed frogs or
Bug-eyed The
mossy frogs—native to Indochina, appeared tofrogs require attention. Wild sourcing was indicated(Table 7) and not mentioned for two others: Hill
Garden Bug-eyed Frog T. asperum and Malaya
Bug-eyed Frog T. leporosum (data not shown).
Other species of potential concern from wildsourcing included Spiny-headed Tree Frog
Triprion spinosus (NT) from Central America
and several CITES-listed species (Table 7).

from Asia
potentially
impacted by wild
sourcing

for three species with declining populations:
Chapa Bug-eyed Frog Theloderma bicolor(EN), Tonkin Bug-eyed Frog T. corticale (LC),and Taylor's Bug-eyed Frog T. stellatum (LC)TABLE 7
Species non-native to Japan found in the Japanese market with some indication of wild sourcing and with a conservation status of CR/EN/
VU/NT or declining populations according to the IUCN Red List.

Common nameScientific nameCITES

IUCN Red
List

Population
TREND

Range

Year
Assessed2016

Red-eyed Tree Frog

Agalychnis callidryas

II

LC



Belize; Colombia;
Costa Rica; Guatemala;Honduras; Mexico;
Nicaragua; Panama

Mexican Giant Tree Frog

Agalychnis dacnicolor

-

LC



Mexico2014

Spiny-headed Tree Frog

Triprion spinosus

-

NT



Costa Rica; Honduras;
Mexico; Panama

2019

Oriental Fire-bellied Toad

Bombina orientalis

-

LC



China; North Korea; South
Korea; Russia

2019

Sambava Tomato Frog

Dyscophus guineti

II

LC



Madagascar

2016

Marbled Rain Frog

Scaphiophryne marmorata

II

VU



Madagascar

2015

Chapa Bug-eyed Frog

Theloderma bicolor

-

EN

?

Viet Nam

2004

Tonkin Bug-eyed Frog

Theloderma corticale

-

LC



Viet Nam2015

Taylor's Bug-eyed Frog

Theloderma stellatum

-

LC



Cambodia; Thailand

2015

Thao Whipping Frog

Zhangixalus feae

-

LC



China; Laos; Myanmar;
Thailand; Viet Nam

2015

Jor Flying Frog

Zhangixalus prominanus

-

LC



Indonesia; Malaysia;
Thailand2020

Chinese Warty Newt

Paramesotriton chinensis

II

LC



China

2019

Fire Salamander

Salamandra salamandra1

-

LC



European States2

2008

Mexican Caecilian

Dermophis mexicanus

-

LC



El Salvador; Guatemala;Honduras; Mexico;
Nicaragua

2019

Subspecies in which WC origin described: Salamandra salamandra salamandra
Albania; Andorra; Austria; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czechia; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Italy;
Liechtenstein; Luxembourg; Montenegro; Netherlands; North Macedonia; Poland; Portugal; Romania; San Marino; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia;
Spain; Switzerland; Ukraine1
2

28 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

TABLE 8
Species native to Japan found in the Japanese market with some indication of wild sourcing and with a conservation status of CR/EN/VU/
NT or declining populations according to the IUCN Red List.

1
2

Common nameScientific nameCITES

IUCN Red
List

Population
TREND

Range

Year
Assessed

Kajika Frog

Buergeria buergeri

-

LC



Japan (Honshu, Shikoku,
Kyushu)2020

Japanese Common Toad

Bufo japonicus1

-

LC



Japan (Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku)

2020

Sword-tailed Newt

Cynops ensicauda2

-

VU



Japan (Nansei-shoto)

2020
2020

Japanese Fire-bellied Newt Cynops pyrrhogaster

-

NT



Japan (Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku)Japanese Rift Salamander

Hynobius fossigenus

-

VU



Japan (Honshu)

2020

Mahoroba Salamander

Hynobius guttatus

-

NT



Japan (Honshu)

2020

Hida Salamander

Hynobius kimurae

-

LC



Japan (Honshu)

2020

Tohoku Salamander

Hynobius lichenatus

-

LC



Japan (Honshu)

2020

Mitsjama Salamander

Hynobius nebulosus

-

LC



Japan; Japan (Kyushu)

2020

Black Salamander

Hynobius nigrescens

-

LC



Japan (Honshu)

2020

Eiffinger's Tree Frog

Kurixalus eiffingeri

-

LC



Japan; Taiwan Province of
China

2004

Bandai clawed salamander Onychodactylus intermedius -NTJapan (Honshu)

2020

Japanese Brown Frog

Rana japonica

-

LC



Japan (Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku)

2020

Montane Brown frog

Rana ornativentris

-

LC



Japan (Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku)

2020

Owston's Green Tree Frog

Zhangixalus owstoni

-

NT

?

Japan (Nansei-shoto)2020

Japanese Gliding Frog

Zhangixalus schlegelii

-

LC



Japan (Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku)

2020

Subspecies in which WC origin described: Bufo japonicus formosa and B. japonicus japonicus.
Subspecies in which WC origin described: Cynops ensicauda ensicauda and C. ensicauda popei

Trade in Japanese Native Species
Of all the 91 species and ten subspeciesof amphibians native to Japan searched,
online postings were found for 39, of which
all but five, were endemic. None of them
was legally protected at the national levelat the time of this survey.ii Seven species/
subspecies were Threatened (EN/VU), andnine additional species were Near Threatened(NT) according to the IUCN Red List, together
accounting for about 39% of all observed
native species. Most of these were endemic
newts and salamanders, including Swordtailed Newt Cynops ensicauda (VU) (bothii

subspecies, ensicauda from Amami andpopei from Okinawa), and Japanese Firebellied Newt Cynops pyrrhogaster (NT), andnine species of Japanese salamanders (seeTable 9 for a list of all Japanese salamander
species encountered). Species of frogs withconservation concerns included Dark-spotted
Frog Pelophylax nigromaculatus (NT), Ryukyu
Brown Frog Rana kobai (NT), and Owston'sGreen Tree Frog Zhangixalus owstoni (NT).
WC origin was indicated in at least 22 out of
the 39 native species/subspecies observed,
suggesting this practice is widespread.

39 native
Japanese
species/
subspecies
were offered forsale

Note that 26 species of salamanders were newly designated under ACES in January 2022 (see Table 1).

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 29

TABLE 9Japanese salamander species observed in the domestic market.

Genus

Species Observed (IUCN Red List Category/MOE Red List Category)

Hynobius

H. dunni (VU/VU); H. fossigenus (VU/VU); H. guttatus (NT/VU); H. hirosei (NT/NT); H. katoi (EN/EN); H. kimurae (LC/NT); H. lichenatus (LC/NT); H. nebulosus (LC/VU); H. nigrescens (LC/NT); H.
retardatus (LC/DD); H. setouchi (NT/VU); H. tsuensis (NT/NT); H. utsunomiyaorum (VU/VU)

Onychodactylus

Onychodactylus intermedius (NT/NT); Onychodactylus japonicus (LC/not listed)Species underlined were designated as Nationally Endangered Species under ACES in January 2022.

ENDEMIC JAPANESE SPECIES INOVERSEAS MARKETS
searches of key Europe and USA-based
three Online
specialist websites for 29 selected Japanese
at-risk endemic species of concern (see Annex 1)
endemic found at least three endemic newt species
for sale or trade: Sword-tailed Newt
Japanese offered
Cynops eniscauda, Japanese Fire-bellied Newt
newt Cynops pyrrhogaster, and Anderson’s Crocodile
species Newt Echinotriton andersoni. The last of theseoffered for salein Europe and theUSAis listed in CITES (Appendix III since February2021) (Table 10). The number of such online
postings for sale or trade found in total was
only 16, over a period ranging from 2008 to
2021.3 The small number of online postings isperhaps expected given the selected species
are mostly rare or Nationally Endangered,although it should be borne in mind that once
sold, such postings tend to be removed, so thisis likely to be an underestimate of the actual

trade. Also encountered were postings relating
to seven species of Hynobius salamanders
and one Tsukuba Clawed Salamander
Onychodactylus tsukubaensis (CR) owned byindividuals based in North America and Europe
over a period ranging from 2004 to 2017 (Table
10).
Overall, the online postings included reference
to sale or ownership of three NationallyEndangered species —Anderson’s Crocodile
Newt, Tsukuba Clawed Salamander, and Tokyo
Salamander Hynobius tokyoensis—although thepostings either pre-dated legal protection or did
not contain sufficient information to determine
whether the specimens involved were illegallysourced in Japan or from captive bred stocks
overseas.

TABLE 10
Japanese endemic species identified on Europe and USA based specialist websites through keyword searches covering the period 2004–2021.

Type of postingsSpecies observed (IUCN Red List Category/MOE Red List Category)Offers for sale

Cynops ensicauda (popei) (VU/NT); C. pyrrhogaster (NT/NT); Echinotriton andersoni1,2 (VU/VU)

Ownership

Hynobius dunni3 (VU/VU); H. kimurae (LC/NT); H. lichenatus (LC/NT); H. nebulosus3 (LC/VU); H.
nigrescens (LC/NT); H. tokyoensis2 (VU/VU); H. tsuensis (NT/NT); Onychodactylus tsukubaensis2(CR/CR)E. andersoni has been listed in CITES Appendix III by Japan since February 2021.
Species considered Nationally Endangered by ACES at the time of the survey: E. andersoni from March 2016; H. tokyoensis from February
2020; and O. tsukubaensis from December 2015.
3
Species newly listed under ACES in January 2022.
1
2

30 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

E-COMMERCE SALE OF AMPHIBIANS
IN JAPAN
Snapshot surveys of Japan’s primary
e-commerce websites found active sales of live
amphibians, although not all for the pet trade(e.g. live feed for aquarium fishes). In particular,a survey of Yahoo Auction identified a total of
71 sellers and 63 species/subspecies offeredin 476 online postings (Table 11). Although
on a smaller scale, the major online shopping
malls—Rakuten-Ichiba, Yahoo Shopping,and Amazon Japan—also hosted retailers
selling live amphibians. Threatened species
were found for sale on all four platforms,

including Sword-tailed Newt Cynops ensicauda(VU) observed on all four platforms withindications of WC origin in some postings.
Pacific Horned Frog Ceratophrys stolzmanni(VU) was observed on two platforms. Other
threatened species offered on one of theplatforms, included Anderson’s Salamander
Ambystoma andersoni (CR) and Giant Slippery
Frog Conraua goliath (EN), as well as the
CITES-listed North African Fire Salamander
Salamandra algira (VU) and Yunnan Newt
Tylototriton shanjing (VU).

threatened
species
observed for saleon all surveyed
platforms

TABLE 11
Online postings for live amphibians on Japan’s major e-commerce platforms, January–March 2021

Species/subspecies
categorised as
threatened (CR/EN/VU)
by IUCN

Species listed in the
CITES AppendicesE-commerce platform

No. of online postings

No. of sellers

No. of species/
subspecies observed

Yahoo Auction

476

71

63

9

3

Rakuten-Ichiba

95

11

23

6

2

Yahoo Shopping

37

8

11

3

1

Amazon Japan

15

4

4

2

1

Amazonian Frog Hyla granosa

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 31

CONCLUSIONSTHE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY HIGHLIGHT THE NEED FOR
URGENT ACTIONS AT MULTIPLE LEVELS TO ADDRESS THE
FOOTPRINT OF THE GLOBAL PET TRADE ON AMPHIBIANS

Sword-tailed Newts

32 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANSILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 33

CONCLUSIONSThis study’s analysis of Japan’s amphibian
imports has found an overall increase inrecent years, with source regions diversifying
and countries such as Nicaragua and Peru
emerging as key exporters. Although the USA
and Europe have been the leading international
suppliers of captive-bred amphibians toJapan, recent data suggest that imports ofamphibians directly from range states in otherregions are increasing, and may be indicativeof the exploitation of wild-caught specimens of
new taxa.
The number of amphibian species observedin the Japanese pet trade (230 species
and 25 subspecies) was significant, albeit
slightly less than the numbers encounteredelsewhere, notably in the more comprehensive
assessments made by the Global Amphibian
Assessment (278 species), market surveys
in Germany (352 species) and systematic
literature reviews and LEMIS data (443
species)2,9,14. Doubtless the results of this rapid
study in Japan are an underestimate of the true
extent of the amphibian trade there.
This latest market survey has characterised
the diversity of amphibian species sold inJapan through various outlets, including
online sales through the major e-commerce
platforms. It is likely that many species soldthis way are impacted by the trade given thelack of oversight of international trade ordomestic regulations within Japan. About 81%of the species encountered were not listed
in the CITES Appendices, while one in four
species was categorised as Threatened or
Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List (CR/EN/VU/NT). This latest review sheds further
light on some high-risk taxa that are currently
not regulated by CITES, popular in the market,
found with an indication of wild sourcing andare of conservation concern from declining
populations. While the results are by nomeans comprehensive, the genus or higherlevel taxonomic groups indicated as likely inneed of better monitoring and regulation of
their trade include South American horned
frogs (Ceratophrys spp. and Chacophrys

34 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

pierottii), fire salamanders (Salamandrasp.), mole salamanders (Ambystoma sp.),fire-bellied newts (Cynops sp.), glass frogs(family Centrolenidae), and bug-eyed frogs(Theloderma sp.).
Within amphibians native to Japan, the Swordtailed Newt Cynops ensicauda endemic to
the Nansei Islands stood out as it is alreadythreatened (VU) and under pressure from bothinternational and domestic trade. Various
other native species, including a range ofJapanese salamanders (Hynobius sp. andOnychodactylus sp.), were also found in thedomestic market with an indication of WC
specimens, especially those available throughe-commerce. In January 2022, MOE prohibitedthe commercial trade in 26 additional speciesof Japanese salamanders by designatingthem under ACES as Nationally Endangered, aprudent move given the likely impact of tradeon these species. Regulations relating to otherspecies at risk from wild sourcing (listed inTable 7 (non-native species) and Table 8 (native
species), as well as the threatened species
listed in Table 4), should also be reviewed inconjunction with the list of high-risk species
produced by the previous assessments by
TRAFFIC and others1,2.
Aside from Sword-tailed Newt, Japanese Firebellied Newt, and the Anderson’s Crocodile
Newt, few active sales of native Japaneseamphibians in overseas markets were detected
for the subset of Japanese species surveyed
in this study. However, more robust monitoringis required to determine the extent of native
Japanese amphibian species entering theinternational markets.
Overall, the results of this study indicate aneed to regulate the international trade inamphibians through CITES and at the national
level in source countries and in Japan as aconsumer country. Furthermore, the study also
highlights the need for responsible actionsin the private sector, including businesses
dealing in live amphibians and providers of
e-commerce platforms.

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ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 35

IMAGE CREDITS
Cover

Staffan Widstrand / Wild Wonders of China / WWF

2

Days Edge Productions / WWF-US

4

Brendan Beale

5

WWF-Indonesia / Jimmy Syahirsyah

8-9Bryan Purcel

16

Wild Wonders of Europe / Maurizio Biancarelli / WWF

23

Rex Lu / WWF

25

Yuma Kanamori

31

WWF-Brazil / Zig Koch

32 - 33

Kaname Tanino

36 ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS

ANNEX
Annex I – Japanese endemic species selected for online surveys in Europe and USA based websites

Species Name

National
Protection

Year of Entry into
MOE Red List (2020)
Force

IUCN Red List (2021-2)

Hynobius katoi

-

-

EN

EN

Hynobius abei

Yes

1995

CR

EN

Hynobius amakusaensis

Yes

2015

CR

CR

Hynobius hirosei

-

-

NT

NT

Hynobius dunni

-

-

VU

VU

Hynobius osumiensis

Yes

2015

EN

EN

Hynobius nebulosus

-

-

VU

LC

Hynobius nigrescens

-

-

NT

LC

Hynobius setouchi

-

-

VU

NT

Hynobius shinichisatoi

Yes

2015

EN

EN

Hynobius tsuensis

-

-

NT

NT

Hynobius tokyoensis

Yes

2020

VU

VU

Hynobius lichenatus

-

-

NT

LC

Hynobius tosashimizuensis

Yes

2019

CR

CR

Hynobius fossigenus

-

-

VU

VU

Hynobius kimurae

-

-

NT

LC

Hynobius utsunomiyaorum

-

-

VU

VU

Hynobius guttatus

-

-

VU

NT

Onychodactylus tsukubaensis

Yes

2015

CR

CR

Onychodactylus intermedius

-

-

NT

NT

Echinotriton andersoni

Yes

2016

VU

VU

Cynops pyrrhogaster

-

-

NT

NT

Cynops ensicauda

-

-

NT

VU

Odorrana splendida

Yes

2016

EN

EN

Odorrana ishikawae

Yes

2016

EN

EN

Odorrana utsunomiyaorum

Yes

2019

EN

EN

Babina subaspera

Yes

2016

EN

EN

Babina holsti

Yes

2016

EN

EN

Limnonectes namiyei

Yes

2016

EN

EN

ILLUMINATING AMPHIBIANS 37

march 2022
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