IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1A1_4A-O1

Room A6

Date/Time: July 21 8:45-9:00

Importance of satellite-based volcanic aerosol data sets for climate simulations
Jean-Paul Vernier1 , Larry W Thomason2
1

Science Systems and Applications, Inc., USA, 2 NASA Langley Research Center, USA
E-mail: jeanpaul.vernier@nasa.gov

The stratospheric aerosol layer is regularly affected by volcanic eruptions, which can enhance its optical depth
by several orders of magnitude and lead to a subsequent cooling of the earth surface temperature for several
years. The observed upward trend in stratospheric aerosol optical depth over the past decade was mainly driven
by a series of small tropical and extra-tropical mid-size eruptions (Volcanic Explosivity Index <4). These playeda significant role in the global earth radiative budget with a radiative cooling of as large as -0.1W/m2 whichcounterbalanced up to 25 percent of global warming that would have otherwise occurred. Overall, the stratosphericaerosol layer is one of the most important natural factors of climate variability at multi-years and decadal scales.
In order to simulate accurately the climate impacts of volcanic eruptions, most global climate and earth systemmodels required a pre-calculated volcanic radiative forcing.

Satellite observations have provided almost 3

decades of global stratospheric aerosol extinction measurements from which a radiative forcing term at the topof the atmosphere was derived. The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) family of instruments,
which represents the longest source of measurements over the last 30 years, terminated in 2005. Herein, we
use stratospheric aerosol observations by space-based stellar occultation, lidar and limb-scatter instruments toassemble a continuous and coherent record for the period after the ends of the SAGE II mission. We will present
here the process by which this compilation was constructed using SAGE II, GOMOS and CALIPSO observations
and how this dataset is being used in climate studies.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1080

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1A1_4A-O2

Room A6

Date/Time: July 21 9:00-9:15

Impact of stratospheric volcanic aerosols on the daily temperature range (DTR) in
Europe over the past 200 years: observations vs. model simulations
Renate Auchmann1 , Martin Wegmann1 , Florian Arfeuille1 , Joerg Franke1 , Mariano Bariendos2 , Marc
Prohom3 , Arturo Sanchez-Lorenzo4 , Jonas Bhend5 , Martin Wild4 , Doris Folini4 , Petr Stepanek6 , Gerard
van der Schrier7 , Stefan Broennimann11Institute of Geography and Oeschger Center for Climate Change Research, University of Bern,
Switzerland, 2 Department of Modern History, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 3 Catalan
Meteorological Office (SMC, Meteocat), Barcelona, Spain, 4 Institute for Atmospheric and Climate
Science, ETH Zurich, Switzerland, 5 CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Australia,
6
Department of Meteorology and Climatology in Brno, Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, Prague,
Czech Republic, 7 Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), De Bilt, The Netherlands
E-mail: renate.auchmann@giub.unibe.ch

Explosive tropical volcanic eruptions can affect climate and weather on many timescales and over large areas andare one of the major causes of natural climate variability. The dominant and best understood mechanism throughwhich volcanic eruptions influence climate is the direct radiative perturbation through secondary sulfate aerosols inthe stratosphere, enhancing the reflectance of solar radiation and as a consequence leading to a loss of energy at
the Earth’s surface. The decrease of shortwave radiation on the ground affects the energy balance during daytime
only. During the night (and also during the day), even a slight increase in surface net radiation is expected dueto the increase in downwelling longwave radiation. Overall, these changes in the energy balance may lead to an
overall reduction of the daily temperature range (DTR). Hence, the DTR can be utilized as a quantitative measureof the radiative forcing impact through stratospheric volcanic aerosols.

We analyze this impact over Europe using long-term daily and sub-daily station records. Eight stratospheric
volcanic eruptions from the instrumental period (ca. 200 years) are investigated. Seasonal all-sky DTR anomalies
after volcanic eruptions are compared to contemporary (ca. 20 year) reference periods. We further use clear-sky
DTR anomalies to eliminate cloud effects and better estimate the signal from the direct radiative forcing of the
volcanic aerosols. We find a stronger negative signal in the clear-sky DTR anomalies compared to the all-sky
case. Although the all-sky and clear-sky anomalies for different stations, volcanic eruptions, and seasons show
heterogenic signals in terms of magnitude and sign, the significantly negative DTR anomalies (e.g., for Tambora)
are qualitatively consistent with other studies. We quantify the impact on clear-sky DTR through stratospheric
volcanic forcing, by applying a weighted linear regression model to clear-sky DTR anomalies and radiative forcing.
Our estimate points to a DTR change in the order of magnitude of previously published studies for the ’global
dimming’ period, however being at the lower end.
This comprehensive observation based analysis quantifies, for the first time, the impact of stratospheric
volcanic eruptions on clear-sky DTR over Europe, providing valuable information for geo-engineering purposes.
Furthermore, we compare our results from the observations to a modeling framework, repeating the same
methodology for a 30-member ensemble of ECHAM5.4 general circulation model simulations.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1081

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1A1_4A-O3

Room A6

Date/Time: July 21 9:15-9:30

No persistent North Atlantic Cooling during the Little Ice Age in Paleoclimate Modelling
Intercomparison Project 3 Last Millennium Simulations
Mira Berdahl, Alan Robock
Rutgers University, USA
E-mail: robock@envsci.rutgers.edu

Geological evidence collected from Baffin Island in the Eastern Canadian Arctic and Iceland shows sudden andpersistent cooling during the descent into the Little Ice Age (LIA), which caused ice caps to grow and remain in
their expanded states until the past century. The ice cap expansions are coincident with periods of major volcanic
perturbations over the past millennium, begging the question of whether successive volcanic eruptions could havetriggered the descent into the LIA. Some specific modeling experiments have shown that it is possible to induce longterm cooling given sea ice feedbacks, although the results are sensitive to ocean conditions at the time of eruptions.

Here we analyze the most recent suite of Last Millennium simulations (850-1850 C.E.) from the Paleoclimate
Modelling Intercomparison Project 3 (PMIP3) and the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5) todetermine if the current state-of-the-art models capture the sudden onset and persistence of the LIA cold period
inferred from geological records in the North Atlantic region. We find that snow cover over Baffin Island does
not show the sudden expansion as seen in the proxy records. This is likely a result of the models’ inability tocapture the critical plateau elevations that hold the ice caps. Sea ice expansion is seen in some PMIP3/CMIP5
models after single large eruptions, however none of these models produce significant centennial-scale effects.
This is likely caused by biases in the mean climate; average hemispheric temperatures range by more than 3
K between models, while NH sea ice extent is consistently lower in the models than in reconstructions overthe past millennium. This has critical consequences on ice and snow persistence in regions such as the Arctic
where temperatures are near the freezing point and small temperature changes can induce feedbacks, such as
ice-albedo, which could cause dramatic climate changes.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1082

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1A1_4A-O4

Room A6

Date/Time: July 21 9:30-9:45

Importance of tropospheric volcanic aerosol for indirect radiative forcing of climate
Anja Schmidt
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
E-mail: a.schmidt@leeds.ac.uk

Observations and models have shown that continuously degassing volcanoes have a potentially large effecton the natural background aerosol loading and the radiative state of the atmosphere. We use a global aerosol
microphysics model to quantify the impact of these volcanic emissions on the cloud albedo radiative forcing under
pre-industrial (PI) and present-day (PD) conditions. We find that volcanic degassing increases global annual
mean cloud droplet number concentrations by 40% under PI conditions, but by only 10% under PD conditions.
Consequently, volcanic degassing causes a global annual mean cloud albedo effect of -1.06 W m-2 in the PI era
but only -0.56 W m-2 in the PD era. This non-equal effect is explained partly by the lower background aerosol
concentrations in the PI era, but also because more aerosol particles are produced per unit of volcanic sulphuremission in the PI atmosphere. The higher sensitivity of the PI atmosphere to volcanic emissions has an importantconsequence for the anthropogenic cloud radiative forcing because the large uncertainty in volcanic emissions
translates into an uncertainty in the PI baseline cloud radiative state. Assuming a -50/+100% uncertainty range inthe volcanic sulphur flux, we estimate the annual mean anthropogenic cloud albedo forcing to lie between -1.16
W m-2 and -0.86 W m-2 . Therefore, the volcanically induced uncertainty in the PI baseline cloud radiative state
substantially adds to the already large uncertainty in the magnitude of the indirect radiative forcing of climate.

Reference:

Schmidt, A., Carslaw, K. S., Mann, G. W., Rap, A., Pringle, K. J., Spracklen, D. V., Wilson, M., and Forster,P. M.: Importance of tropospheric volcanic aerosol for indirect radiative forcing of climate, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12,7321-7339, doi:10.5194/acp-12-7321-2012, 2012.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1083

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1A1_4A-O5

Room A6

Date/Time: July 21 9:45-10:00

The role of volcanic forcing on northern hemisphere decadal to multidecadal climate
variability and future carbon cycle
Odd Helge OtterÃ
aff1, Jerry Tjiputra1 , Tao Wang2
1

Uni Research, Bergen, Norway, 2 Nansen-Zhu International Research Centre, Beijing, China
E-mail: Odd.Ottera@uni.no

Decadal to multidecadal climate variability is an important feature of the observed northern hemisphere climate
record. For instance, decadal variations in Atlantic SSTs have been suggested to affect a number of importantregional climates, such as North American droughts, summer temperatures in Europe, changes in the monsoon
systems and the intensity of hurricanes. In addition, decadal-scale SST variations in the North Pacific, the so-called
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), have been associated with low-frequency changes of climate patterns over North
America, Australia and East Asia. The ultimate causes and governing mechanisms for these observed decadal tomultidecadal SST variations are not fully understood, although they are likely caused by a combination of changes
in forcing, atmospheric and oceanic processes. Here, we present findings from historical simulations with Bergen
Climate Model (BCM) covering the last 600 years highlighting the potential important role played by natural andanthropogenic forcing factors in modifying and controlling these patterns. In particular, the results suggest that
volcanoes play an important role in decadal SST variations in the Atlantic through their direct radiative forcing on
tropical SSTs. In addition, volcanic eruptions tend to strengthen the Northern polar vortex, which in turn forces apositvie response of the so-called North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) at the surface. A more positive NAO is associatedwith increased production of intermediate to deep water masses in the high northern sinking regions (i.e. Labrador
Sea) and thus leads to a post-volcanic strengthening of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation. In the North Pacific,
it is found that volcanic eruptions tend to push the simulated PDO into its cold phase. Finally, idealized simulations
are used to assess the potential role of volcanic eruptions on future projection of climate change and its associatedcarbon cycle feedback. The analysis show that potential future eruptions induce positive feedbacks (i.e., morecarbon sink) on both the terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycle.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1084

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1A1_4A-O6

Room A6

Date/Time: July 21 10:00-10:15

Deciphering the climatic effects of volcanic aerosols: what will happen when the next
Tambora-like event occurs?
Stephen Self
US-NRC, NMSS Mail Stop EBB 2B2, Washington DC 20555, USA
E-mail: steve.self1815@gmail.com

The twentieth century was perhaps unusually free of explosive eruptions that affected highly populated Northern
Hemisphere regions, where about 90 percent of global residents live, thus our informed historic perspective on
aspects of widespread volcanic-aerosol-induced climatic changes is limited. Because future eruptions will occurthat will generate dense aerosol clouds, it will serve society well if we understand the climatic impact of past
eruptions. Which eruption type and size should be considered in this regard? What is the most severe climatic
impact that we can expect from an eruption? Highly explosive eruptions up to VEI 6 (Krakatau-size, bigger than
Pinatubo), with a mean frequency over the past millennium of about 2 per century, cause ash and aerosol clouds
that affect global climate, weather, and possibly communications; aerosol-induced cooling is small (less than 1
degree C).
Perhaps VEI 7 explosive eruptions (bigger than Tambora 1815) should concern us more? They are under-reported
in the record of past eruptions, with a greater than 10 percent chance of one occurring in the next century. However,
the radiative effects of aerosols derived from Tambora’s approximately 60 Mt release of sulphur dioxide may havebeen limited by rapid aerosol droplet growth and sedimentation from the stratosphere; estimates of the hemisphericor global aerosol-induced cooling are quite small (1-2 degrees C). In order to assess what lies in our future, further
modelling is required to attempt to isolate the effects of volcanic stratospheric aerosols from the influences of otherforcings that lead to climatic variability. This is especially important for the types and sizes of eruptions in the VEI
6-7 range, that have a high likelihood of happening in the next century.
Our society should not be overly concerned about newsworthy but rare super-eruptions (greater than VEI 8); theprobability of one occurring in the foreseeable future is negligible and expected climatic impacts may not be as
severe as past studies have suggested, but may be prolonged above the usual 2-3 years of cooling and othereffects. The magmas typically causing super-eruptions probably have low S contents, meaning that masses ofsulphate aerosols may be limited. Positive effects of future eruptions include possible offset of global warming via
radiatively effective stratospheric aerosols and ash-fall onto oceans, which may help decrease atmospheric carbon
dioxide.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1085

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1A1_4A-O7

Room A6

Date/Time: July 21 10:15-10:30

Volcanic eruptions as an analog for geoengineering
Alan Robock
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
E-mail: robock@envsci.rutgers.edu

In response to the global warming problem, there has been a recent renewed interest in geoengineering "solutions"involving "solar radiation management" by injecting particles into the stratosphere, brightening clouds or the surface,or blocking sunlight with satellites between the Sun and Earth. This talk addresses stratospheric geoengineering,
the topic that has produced the most discussion. While volcanic eruptions have been suggested as innocuous
examples of stratospheric aerosols cooling the planet, the volcano analog also argues against geoengineering
because of ozone depletion, regional hydrologic responses, and other negative consequences. I will show climate
model calculations that evaluate stratospheric geoengineering, and then give volcanic examples that can inform us
about their validity. Volcanic eruptions are an imperfect analog, since solar radiation management proposals involve
the production of a permanent stratospheric aerosol layer, while volcanic layers are episodic. Nonetheless, we canlearn much from the volcanic example about the microphysics of stratospheric sulfate aerosol particles; changes
in atmospheric circulation, producing regional climate responses, such as changes to the summer monsoon;
atmospheric chemistry; changes of the partitioning of direct and diffuse insolation; effects on satellite remotesensing and terrestrial-based astronomy; and impacts on the carbon cycle. By the way, I now have 26 reasons
why geoengineering may be a bad idea, and nine reasons why it might be a good idea. Much more research isneeded before we can quantify each of these, so that policymakers in the future can make informed decisions about
whether to ever implement stratospheric geoengineering. This research needs to develop additional observational
programs to take advantage of future volcanic eruptions to inform us about the potential impacts of geoengineering.
Given what we know today, global efforts to reduce anthropogenic emissions and to adapt to climate change are amuch better way to address anthropogenic global warming.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1086

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1W_4A-P1

Date/Time: July 21 Poster

Climate forcing by very large basaltic eruptions - Insight from oxygen isotopes ofbiogenic silica from the finely laminated diatomite of the Fur Formation, Denmark
Johan H. Schmith, Paul M. Holm
Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, DenmarkE-mail: jhs@geo.ku.dk

The sensitivity of oxygen isotope composition of biogenic minerals to the temperature of seawater invites
investigation of possible climate change in periods of extensive volcanic activity by high-resolution studies ofsuitable stratigraphic sections. Here we present the initial results from a study of the oxygen isotope compositionof finely laminated (<0.25 mm - 4 mm) diatomite deposited in direct contact with tephra layers within the Fur
Formation, Denmark. More than 200 layers of volcanic tephra of predominantly basaltic composition are exposedin the Fur Formation (Mo-clay), Denmark. The tephra layers are associated with the explosive volcanism following
the extensive flood basalt volcanism during continental break up in the North Atlantic.
Historic volcanic events have shown to affect average global temperatures significantly, e.g. 0.5-0.6°C coolingfollowing the Pinatubo eruption in 1990 and 1°C drop in northern hemisphere average temperatures in 2-3 years
following the Laki eruption in 1783-1784. The climatic effect of the volcanic eruptions associated with the Furformation is expected to be significantly greater.

In a shallow ligated inland sea as the sea for deposition of the Mo-clay, it is assumed that temperature
variations in the sea waters are reflected in the oxygen isotope composition of the diatom silica.
The temperature influence on the oxygen isotope fractionation during formation of the diatom silica is anticipatedto give a difference in δ 18 Odiatom of approx. 0.2 ‰(relative to SMOW) per 1°C change of temperature with anuncertainty of the temperature coefficient of ±0.05 ‰. However, quantitative paleoclimate applications are indeed
limited by uncertainties about the nature and the magnitude of the temperature influence on the oxygen isotope
fractionation during formation of the diatom silica.

The average sedimentation rate associated with the deposition of the Mo-clay is prudently estimated to 1
mm/decade. The finely laminated nature of the Mo-clay indicates high-frequency environmental change throughtime; however it is not believed to be annual rhytmites. This is rather interpreted as multiannual phenomena suchas extraordinary external nutrient loading or upwelling of nutrient rich waters with following phytoplankton blooms
as a result of tropical rainfall regimes associated with intense storms.
To ensure high resolution climate studies on this 55 Ma old formation a sampling protocol has been designed toenable sampling of layers down to less than 0.1 mm thick and a highly specialized separation protocol including
chemical attack, sieving, heavy-liquid separation and ultra sound treatment has been designed to handle sample
sizes of down to about 20 mg. Thus obtained samples are expected to represent a resolution of down to 1 year per
sample.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1087

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1W_4A-P2

Date/Time: July 21 Poster

Climate and carbon cycle response to the 1815 Tambora volcanic eruption
Jessica Kandlbauer, Peter O Hopcroft, R Stephen J Sparks, Paul J Valdes
University of Bristol, United Kingdom
E-mail: jessica@aeroscience.ch

The sulphur released by the 1815 Tambora eruption resulted in a global cooling of the earth surface, and is believed
to have at least partly caused "the year without summer" in 1816. A series of simulations have been performed
using HadGEM2-ES Earth system model to assess the climate and carbon cycle responses to the 1815 Tambora
eruption. The model simulates a global mean temperature decrease of 1°C and reduced precipitation by about
4% the year after the eruption. The northern hemisphere shows generally colder temperatures than the southernhemisphere likely due to the larger continental area in the north. Precipitation patterns are dominated by tropicalregions, where a southwards shift in the ITCZ leads to drier than usual conditions north of the Atlantic equator, andwetter conditions in the south. The climatic conditions after the eruption lead to an overall increase in terrestrial net
primary productivity (NPP), mainly due to a strong reduction in plant respiration which more than compensates fora reduction in gross primary productivity (GPP). Globally, the land carbon inventory is increased, implying a small
drawdown of atmospheric CO2 . The soil carbon pool takes up most of the carbon especially in tropical regions.
The results suggest that the carbon uptake in the tropics is caused by increased litter carbon input, with only asmall reduction in soil respiration. A carbon sink is found in the northern high latitudes, associated primarily within
the vegetation pool. In this region the reduced litter carbon loss is not strong enough to compensate the greatly
decreased carbon input from NPP. Looking into the carbon cycle in more detail, to the C3 and C4 plants and crop
productivity respectively, the results show globally decreased C4 plant productivity in 1816-18 (though with large
regional variability) and more uniform pattern of increased C3 plant productivity for the 1818-22 time period. Thesefindings could improve understanding of crop responses after a large volcanic eruption.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1088

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1W_4A-P3

Date/Time: July 21 Poster

Sulphur yield and climatic impact of the AD 1835 eruption of Cosigüina volcano,
Nicaragua
Marc-Antoine Longpré, John Stix
McGill University, Canada
E-mail: m-a.longpre@mcgill.ca
The January 1835 eruption of Cosigüina volcano, Nicaragua, produced a bulk tephra volume of ∼6 km3 and ranks
among the Americas’ largest and most explosive historical eruptions. Ice cores from both the Arctic and Antarctica
commonly show a prominent sulfate spike near AD 1835, suggesting that the Cosigüina eruption injected ∼13
Tg of sulphur into the stratosphere. New electron microprobe data on matrix glasses and melt inclusions revealthat syn-eruptive devolatilisation of the 1835 magma alone released 2.2-3.3 Tg S. Most of the sulphur discharged
during the eruption was probably derived from a sulphur-rich gas phase stored in the magma chamber beforehand.
Temperature-sensitive tree-ring chronologies indicate significant cooling in 1836 and 1837 due to the eruption. The
climatic impact of the Cosigüina eruption was thus likely sizable and comparable to or even larger than that of the1991 eruption of Pinatubo.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1089

IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly - July 20 - 24, Kagoshima, Japan
Forecasting Volcanic Activity - Reading and translating the messages of nature for society

1W_4A-P4

Date/Time: July 21 Poster

Volcanic and anthropogenic contributions to stratospheric aerosol changes from 2000 to2009
Thomas Diehl1 , Mian Chin2 , Nickolay Krotkov2 , Kai Yang3 , Eric Hughes3
1

Universities Space Research Association, USA, 2 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, USA,
3
University of Maryland College Park, USA
E-mail: thomas.diehl@nasa.gov

Major volcanic explosive eruptions can significantly perturb stratospheric aerosol.

However, a persistentbackground aerosol layer is present in the stratosphere even during periods without large explosive eruptions,as was the case during the last decade. Observational data indicates that the stratospheric aerosol layer was
actually increasing during this timeframe. Since variations of the stratospheric aerosol can have long-term climate
effects, it is important to understand the underlying causes for such a variation. Two potential sources for thisincrease have been suggested, namely numerous volcanic eruptions which have occurred during this period, andthe growth of anthropogenic SO2 emissions in Asia. We present results from a study which we performed with theglobal chemical transport model GOCART in conjunction with observations from both satellite-based instruments(OMI, CALIOP, SAGE II) and ground-based lidar data (MPLNET, EARLINET). In our analysis, we assess the relative
contributions of volcanic and anthropogenic SO2 emissions to the stratospheric aerosol loading and its variability
from 2000 to 2009.

©IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. All rights reserved.

1090