Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 21, No.3, December 1983

Notes

Social Life in BurlD.a in the 16th Century
Than TUN*

The main source materials for this paper
are the stone inscriptions in Burmese foundRatanaceti inscription of 1485 the Burmese
were living in such places as:largely at Ava, Pan.oya and Cakuz"n (nearArimattana~Mrancuin.o, Pan:ya~ Cakuin.o

Mantale, on both sides of the big riverand Ava.

Eravatl [List]) together with some in-luxurious lives in golden palaces full ofscriptions written

precious jewels, etc.

III

the lVIon languageof lower Burma [D Chit Thein

1965].

Burma in the early 16th century

was

In these places the kings led
There are four

rivers, the Eravati~ Panron, Panlon andK hyan: twan:.

The population along

divided into at least four states, two inthese

Ava and Tonnu
respectively as their centres, another inlower Burma with Hamsavati as its centre

literally the river banks are bending low
with the weight of the people that theyand the fourth on the western coastal strip

place of the Burmese [Listof Rakhuz"n with Mrok U as its centre.

15].

central

Burma

with

river valleys ishave to carry.

so densethatThis certainly is the1014/14-

The kings ruling at Ava were: Rhwenan:

According to this record, the Burmese were

kyoau,

Suihambhwa:

confined to the area around the confluence(1527-1542), Un.obhon Khunmuin.o (1542-

of four rivers, the Eriivati, Khyan: twan:,

1545), Muz":brai Narapati (1545-1551) andMracnay and Mu:.

Cakuin: Cansu Kyoua Than (1551-1555);

inscription of 1509 we find that:rhan (1501-1527),

In the Ratanabimhan

at Tonnu: Mahiiszrzjeyasura (1485-1530)

The (political centres) were located atand Man:tara :rhwetht.o (1530-1551); andCakuin:, Pan.~ya and Ava. Each of theseHamsavati: Bana.oram (1522-1526),
Surhantakarwatpi (1526-1539), Man:tara:places in turn was the city where theatrhwethz.o (1530-1551; he conquered Ham-kings resided [List1043/15-16].

The record continues to define Burma:

savati and made it his capital in 1539),

The clear cool water of the Eravati runs

Hamsavati Rhanphrurhan (1554-1581) andin the centre with Sunaparanta to the.iva .ochu Dayaka (1581-1599).
The Burmese did not occupy a large

north and Tambadtpa to the south.
A dynasty of kings ruled over these two

According to the Cakuin:

divisions where the Religion of Buddha

area at this time.

* Visiting Scholar, The Center for Southeast AsianStudies, Kyoto University

prospered [List1043/17-18].

This area constitutes only a small fraction267

of the present state of The Union of Burma.
Nevertheless the ruler was "absolute" in18]
Clerk Senior / Care: [List 1014/40; 1043/

the sense that he was usually described as

29]
Governess / Athin :toau"the Lord of all Water and Land" [List1055a/5] and also as "the Victorious Leaderof One Hundred Kings" [List 1055a/6].
He was, to his subjects, "the Ruler of all
Life in Water and on Land and Much
Superior to all Other Kings" [List 1055a/
20-21]. His kingdom was small but it
was often described as "an extensive land,teeming with towns and villages" [List1055a/l0] and the king as an overlord

his vassals,

1040a/4;

1055a/6J
Guard / Kuiwram [List 1014/27]
Holder of Town in Fief / Mrui, Ca:[List 1055a/9]
Horse Messenger / Mran: Lhyan

Inner Group Chief / Atwan: san: mhu:
[List 1037a/5J
Inner Three Thousand Chief / Atwan:-sum: thonmhu: [List1057a/7]

1055a/21; 66; 79] fromLand Officer / Mretuin[List

The defence of such a country[List

1050/65J"prettyfrequently received as hostages
daughters" [List[List

995/7;

1045/63]

required the ruler to be well versed in the

Mercenary / Kre: ca: [Listmartial arts of combat on horseback or

Officerelephant [List[List 1050/8; 65; 79; 1055b/1J
Paddy Store Chief / Capii: Cuiw Sukrt:

1045/15-16].

In the hardtask of administration he would have theand999/3]
Minister / A mhu : A mat[List 98la/7]
Privileged Man or Noble / Sukon: [List

[List
[List
999/4 j 1001/29-30J, the "Old Ministers"[List 1005/14J and many wise ministers
and officers [List 1055b/l]. The king, tohis subjects, was in fact "King of Kings"

7J
Steward / Bha1J{a Cuiw [List[List 1055a/3 j 9J who maintained anarmy [List 1014/3; 1045/15J comprised

1045/63]
Supreme Leader of Monks / Samgharaja

of infantry [List 1050/8; 15J and cavalry[Lz'st 1050/65]. Men and officers in his[List 1005/8]
Three Thousand Boats Chief / Lhoauka:

service were as follows:
Cavalry Chief / Mran: Mhu: [List1037a/7]
Chief / Acuz'; Akai [List 1045/62J

Sum: thon Mhu: [List l037a/6]
Town Chief / Mruiw, Sukrz: [Listassistance of the
1845/22; 42J, theCrown Prince
Chief Queen

City Chief / Pran Sui: [List 978b/18;
1045/63]
Civil Officer Junior / Sampyan [List1045/58; 64; 66]
Clerk Junior / Cakht, Cakhyt [List 978b/268

98la/7J
Reservoir Chief / Kan Puin [List1043/

978b/18;

1002/23]
Village Chief / Rwa Sukrt: [List1001/

33; 1014/25]
Village Controller / Rwa

K ai

[List

Village Ruler / Rwii Man: [List978b/1045/63]18]

Than TUN: Social Life in Burma in the 16th Century

Worker / Amhu Lup [List1014/27]
The relationship between the ruler and

The majority of the people who were thus
taxed were Burmese and most of them were

the ruled might well have been of a strained

cultivators.

nature since the ordinary common people

in the Kingdom of Burma at that time:

avoided any dealings withservants if possible.

government

One record of 1481

says:

Here is a list of people living

Cakraw [List802/46; 1046/10J

Kantu [List 802/55J
Karan Mratle: chu inscription/9

The Land Officer could not be trusted.

Kasan: [List936a/23J

He might reckon a piece of land measur-

Kharan [List949a/25J

ing one unit as only half a unit andKhyan: [List958a/5; 963a/21; b/11J

a half unit as only a quarter unit [ListThis statement suggests that the officers

Krwam [List 963b/52; 54; 55; 1014b/40J
Kula: [List 934b/24]
Lankhrow [List 963a/38]

were usually corrupt or oppressive.

Lawa [List995/7].
There934a/23; 943b/15J

is also another statement in a similar strain.

Mranma Kan U inscription b/17

It says:

Mrun [List 963a/21; b/11J
Naga Rail. Oil. Mrail. inscriptionj8
Panse: [List 963aj2l; b/ll]

Try to avoid meeting a king's servant
when one comes into the village.

Let

not even a dog bark at him (Just ignore

Pasan [Listhim.) [List

But we know that it was impossible to ignore

Pa Uiw [List 963a/38]
Phrum Nakya Kan U inscription b/17

king's servants who went round the villages

Ponlon [Listto collect taxes.

Prow Rail. Oil. Mrail. inscription/18 and 34

995/15].

They exacted the Wet

963a/25J

947a/36][List 1045/68J on
the products of rivers and lakes and the Dry
Tax / Akhrok Khwan [List 1045/68] on

Puiw Cetilha inscription b/34

the products of cultivation.
taxes were:

In detail the

Rokchwai Kan U inscription b/17
Sak [List 943aj5; 963a/21; b/11]

Taxes on the use of bullock carts, wheelbarrows, ports, ferries, scales, baskets,

Syam ThUpa:rurh inscription 15a/2
Tanluiit Thuparum inscription 15a/1

looms, licenses to collect toddy juice, toTanu ThUpa:rum inscription 15a/8

produce oil, to receive court fees

Taruk [List 947a/5J
Tonsu Re Mrak inscription/II

Tax / Acwat Khwanorfines, to run a brokerage, to start culti-

Pyu [List 963b/53; 55; 1050/7J
Rakhuiit Kan U inscription b/17

vation on plots of land subjected to

We notice that the name of Pyu does not

yearly inundation, to raise cattle suchas buffaloes and oxen, to make pots, toappear in any inscriptions after 1500.
The livelihood of the people as found ingrow sesamum, to collect cotton, bamboo,

the inscriptions was as follows:

pelts and to enjoy certain commISSIOn

Architect / Pissuka [Listfees [List995/11-14].

1050/22; 25;

26; 72J

269

Astrologer I Durii [List1050/23; 25; 72]

Big Drum Player / Pat Ma Tz: Kranikan
inscription a/28

Sculptor I Tamo, [List981a/22; 1014b/

26; 39; 1045/38]
Singer / Sikhran:Blacksmith / Panbhai [List1014b/26;

38]
Breaker of Stones I Kyok K hwai [List1045/37]

Umbrella

San [List 1045/19]
Bearer / Thz: Chwai [List1045/72]
The cultivators' main crop was nee.
Due to the frequent inroads of the Shans

Carpenter / Laksamii:[List

981a/23;1014b/26]
Carrier of the Sick and Wounded / Sunii

Tham: [Lt·st 1045b/6]
Cowherd / Nwii: Thin: [List 1045/59]
Dancer / Kakhre San Ma [List 1045/

of the north, many farms did not get propercare and as a result yields were poor.
one case we find that:In

One payl) only produced one basket of
paddy [List1045/61].

D sually it would be twenty baskets or more.

D nfortunately the inscriptions do not give20; 1050/67]

Harpist I Con: Ti: [Listmuch information on economic conditions,963b/34]

but from the names that we find in them weMason / Puran [List 981a/22; 1014b/26;
39; 1045/30; 31]

have the following list of trees and plants:

Massage Expert / Laksii Kranikan in-

Acanthus illicifolius / Karii: [List 1014/

scription a/7
Nautch / Pantyii [List88; 1045/35]
Areca catechu / Kwam: Sz: [List48]

963b/52; 1014b/

40]
Painter / Pankhi [List40; 1045/39]

981a/22; 1014bl

Palanquin Bearer / Tham Can Tham:[List 1045/72]
Player of Brass Drums I Kre: Pat San
Kre: Pat Tz: [List 1014b / 40]
Kranikan inscription a/28
Player of Cymbals / Lankhwan:[List 1014b/40]

San

Player of a Ring of Leather Drums / Sare

Pat San [Listinscription a/28

1014b/40] Kranikan

Player of a Series of Leather Drums /Chuin: Wuin: Tz: [List
Kranikan inscription a/28

1014b/40]

Artocarpus integrifolz"a, J ackfruit Tree I
Pinnai [List 1014b/18]
Arum / Pin: [List 1014b/18]
Banana / Nhakpyoau [List1050/22]

Calophyllum / Punnak [List 1014b/18]
Citrus / Rhok [List 1014b/18]
Coconut / Un: [List 1014b/18]
Cringe Tree / Con: rha: [List 1014b/18]
Custard Apple / Ojii [List 1014b/18]
Egg Plant / Kharam: [ListEugenia / Sapre [List1014b/18J

1050/70]

Foetid Sterculz"a / Lakkhup [List 1050/
67J
Gourd Creeper / Bhu: [List 1055a/22;
b/5]

PIayer of a Set of Brass Gongs I Pat

Grass I Nejii, Mrejii [ListNarancarii San [List 981a/12; 15]
Sawyer I Lhwa San [List 1045/39]

Gum / Sacce: [List270

1014a/

1050/70]1050/70]1) 1.75 acresjO.70875 hectare.

Than TUN: Social Life in Burma in the 16th Century

Heritiera attenuata 1 Kanacui:1014b/18]
Holarrhena
[List

[List

antz"dysenterica / Lakthut

1014a/48]

Lily / Kra [List[List
840a/10] and another record mentions thatof some pagodas were repaired""a finial on one pagoda top was fixed in AD
1482" [List 1001/16]. In the Pagan period
pagodas did not have the crown which is1005/47; 52]

Lime 1Sampara [List1014b/18]

now called Thi: (Umbrella) and this record

Mango / Sarak [List1014b/18]

of 1482 suggests that the practice of fixing a

Mesua pedunculata / Kam koau

[List

finial to pagoda-tops had started by the 15th
century.

1014b/18]

Repairs at some religious estab-Millet 1Chapswa: [List1045/44]

lishments were carried out very often andOlive / Samlwan [List1050/19]

one record of 1484 says:

Palmyra Palm / Than: [List1014b/18]

Pine / Than: ru: [List1050/46]
Pomegranate / Salai; Talan [List 1014b/
18]

Pterocarpus indicus, Gumkino Tree /Pitok [Listfixed on it.

Golden bells were hungaround these finials so that they chimed
most pleasantly (at every waft of breeze).

1050/70]

Rice / Capa: [List

The religious edifice was completely
whitewashed. The bulbous part was(made new) and five tiers of finials were

981a/7; 25]

Bright colours were also painted (allover the building) [List1050/6-10].

Rice, Early / Koklyan [List1045/64]

Rice, Husked / Chan [Lz'st

1045/69]

Perhaps it was through such repairs that

Rice, Late / Kokkri: [List1045/64]

many old and original works of art were

1001/28]
Rice, Spring / Muran: [List 1001/28]
Shorea siamenois / Ankraii: [List 1014b/

lost in Burma, as even today in Burma

18]
Sugar Cane / Kram [Listwere natural calamities like earthquakes
and floods that also caused much damage

Rice, Rainy Season / San [List1045/60]

Tea / Laphak [List 1045/29; 40]
Tobacco / Che: (AD 1485) [List 1014a/

antiques are usually ruined by repairs.
Apart from the ravages of the wars, there

to the ancient monuments.

One record of1426 says: "Because of a great earthquake
the earth trembled intensively and many48]
Yam / Sandwe: [List1050/63]
This list gives us some idea of what herbs,
plants and trees the people used for con-walls fell" [List1014a/19].

In anotherrecord we find:
On Thursday 14 July 1485 2 ) at dawn,

struction materials, food, medicine, etc.
The second quarter of the 16th century

there was a great earthquake that broke

was, as we all know, a very troubled perioda result the whole pagoda fell to the level

and the reconstruction of various importantof the flower alter (which was not verybuildings destroyed during this time washigh above the ground) [Listcarried out from about the middle of the
century.

One record says: "Damaged parts

up the pagoda into several pieces.

As

1014b/10J.

2) Using Irwin's Tables all Burmese dates are
given AD equivalents.

271

In another record the cause of the de-mously changed the society.

struction of old buildings was clearly stated:reformation in the

One was aOrder of Buddhist

At Ava the Capital and at Pugam,

Monks that was carried out during the last

Pan:ya and Cakuin: which were nearby,various religious monuments, together

quarter of the 15th century and the otherwas the extension of Buddhism to thewith many libraries where copies of thepeople of north and northeastern Burma

Pi/aka were kept, were destroyed byduring the middle of the 16th century.
The reformation was carried out by King

non-believers (who came to loot andnorth, whom we know were converted toRamadhipati (1472-1492), known popularly
as Dhammace# [Pe Maung Tin 1958a],
who was a Buddhist monk in his early life.

Buddhism by the middle of the 16th

He could recite by rote the Three Pi{akacentury.

and Weda.

plunder) [List 1073b/8J.
These non-believers were the Shans of the

Towards the end .of the 16th

century large-scale looting of pagoda relicHe was well versed in theThis time it was the Portuguese who did

Witak, Byakaruin, Chan:,Alanka and Che: bindo. He was also
skilled in the arts of masonry andthe looting [Mhannancarpentry.

chambers occurred again in lower Burma.
1829(III): 169].

texts

of

At the end of an important social activity

He had a high OpInIOn of the religion ofor a business transaction, a kind of feast

SrilankEL and sent several senior monks fromwas usually given to celebrate the occasion.
During the whole of the Pagan period andhis capital to be reordained there.
From its very beginning, the Buddhist

for some time after the fall of Pagan, plenty

Sect of Mahavihara (in SrilankEL) hadof meat and fermented drinks called "siy"had a line of venerable monks.

Arak, thedistilled alcoholic liquor, was introduced
into Burma by the second quarter of themonks from Ramanna went there (andwere consumed at such feasts.

16th century and the downfall of King

joined that sect).

Some

With reverend seniormonks of that sect as upajjhaya, they

Man: tara: rhwethz: was attributed to thewere ordained at the Udakukkhapa Simaon the bank of the K alya1Jz river wherefact that he became an alcoholic [Mhannan

the Buddha himself had bathed (when1829(11) :he visited SrilankEL).

252-253].

It

seems

that

In this way these

Buddhism was able effectively to suppressmonks brought back the pure lineage ofthis important social custom of drinking

monks of the (Mahavihara Sect of Sri-liquor in public.

lanka) to Ramanna.

Eating the pickled .tea

called Labhak, which was probably a Shan

They in their own

At lawturn became upaJjhaya and ordained
new monks.

courts, when both parties were happy about

Now on 21 January 1476 the king invitedthe judgement, they took tea together.

the Most Reverend Moggalana to his palacecustom, took the place of alcohol.

N ow I would like to mention two im-

and consulted him on how best he should

portant religious movements that enor-

carry out a reformation with Singhalese272

Than TUN; Social Life in Burma in the 16th Century

help.

As a result 10 senior monks went

to Srilailkil.

9

On 16 July 1476 they wereThose who were already rich throughtrade, etc., though still kept up thereordained as Buddhist monks in Srilailka..

pretence of being monks.

They came back and reached Hamsavati

This second request of his was in accord

on 12 October 1476.

A site for a new

ordination

selected

with the prescriptions of the Vinaya but
his first request had no real Buddhist sense

hall

was

on

22

November 1476 and when the hall wasin it.

built, it was named the KalyaJ}t Sima.
Various other Sima were constructed andfeudal elements in the Order of Monks.

consecrated throughout the kingdom andthe Shans of north and northeastern Burma

there were 15,666 new monks ordained

was instigated by another king.

altogether.

The king made two special

Chaiiphrurhan was in fact a usurper who

requests to all the senior monks who would

began his attempt to become king earlylead the community of the new order ofin 1551.

monks.

Firstly that no one who had been

Toniiu, on 30 August 1551 Pran, on 12

punished by the king for being guilty ofMarch 1552 Hamsavati and on 22 January

a crime or who was reputed to be a thief

1555 Ava.

or who had a serious physical deformity

in the north and northeast on 9 November

should be accepted as a candidate for
Secondly he requested that

1556. When Mongmit, the Ruby Land,
was taken on 10 January 1557, the king had

the leaders expel the following from thecommunity of monks.

a pagoda constructed and the chief and his
subjects were converted to Buddhism.

12

Those who practised medicine.
Those who practised astrology andFrom there he marched north again. He
and his army crossed the Eravati using

alchemy.

a3

Those who painted or dyed clothes.

February 1557 and he took Mui: nhaii: on

4

Those who carved wood.

6 March 1557.

5

Those who were engaged III one formor another of those occupations that an

centre, was taken on 26 March 1557.

Shans were animists and at the death ofordinary man would do for his liveli-

a chief, his favourite wives, servants and pet

hood.
Those who sang songs as part of a dis-animals were killed and buried with him.
The king passed an order on 2 April

course on the Religion.

1557 to the effect that this custom wasThose who begged agricultural products

intolerable in his territories and should bethat could be stored up for later con-stopped at once.

sumption instead of begging food daily

been living among the Burmans before andfor immediate consumption.
Those who sought the company of lay

after the fall of Pugam might have been

people.

during the reign of a Shan chief frommonkhood.

6
7

8

Obviously he disliked having anti-

The movement to extend Buddhism to

Hamsavati

On 11 January 1551 he seized

He then started a campaignboat-bridgeatTht: khyuin

on20

Mui: kon:, another Shan
The

Whilst Shans who had

Buddhists from about the 10th century,273

Mui: nhan: who ruled Ava temporarily

it helped the people to live peacefully to-from 1526, treasures from many pagoda

gether and this certainly paved the way

relic chambers were looted.

for a much better situation in the 17th

And, con-sidering monastic establishments centres ofcentury.

potential enemies, Suihambhwii:, the thenconqueror of Ava carried out a massacreof monks in 1539 [Mhannan142].

1829(II):

Now the king's order prohibiting

this horrible custom was to have a profoundinfluence over the people living in thenorthern, northeastern and central parts of
Burma.

From about the middle of the

16th century all the people of Burma werepolitically unified under the rule of a strong
king and as a result of Hamsiivatz Chan-phrurhan's conversions all of them embraced the same faith, Buddhism, so thatliving together would now be much easier.
In conclusion, we find Burma in the 16th
century was passing through a difficult
phase of its development, when several
different races of people were politicallyunified and Buddhism was introduced to
all these races.

This conversion to a single

faith proved to be quite advantageous as

274

References
A List of Inscriptt"ons Found in Burma (List).
1921. Rangoon: Government Publications.
Irwin, Alfred. 19100 Elements of the Burmese
Calendar from AD 638 to 1752. The IndtOan
Antiquary November: 289-315.
Mhannan: Rajawan (Mhannan:). 1829. II andIII.
Rangoon: Prafikri: maI}<;luin. (1967
Reprint)
Pe Maung Tin, ed. 1956. Rhwecan:khuin Mon
Inscriptt"on. Translated into Burmese by Pe
Maung Tin. Rangoon: Ministry of Union
Culture.
----~. 1958a.
The Kalya1;lt Mon Inscriptt"on. Translated into Burmese by Pe
Maung Tin. Rangoon: Ministry of Union
Culture.
1958b. Rhwetiguin Mon Inscription. Translated into Burmese by Pe
Maung Tin. Rangoon: Ministry of Union
Culture.
U Chit Thein, ed. 19650 All Mon Inscriptt"ons.
Collected and translated into Burmese by
U Chit Thein. Rangoon: Ministry of Union
Culture.