Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Xiaoli Qin（Kanazawa University Graduate Program in Cultural Resource Management）

ABSTRACT Most turquoise objects from early Neolithic sites in China are pendants made of asingle material. From the later Neolithic period, however, people started to create turquoise ornamentswith two or more composite materials. Ornaments were inlaid with turquoise and other materials using new techniques. In the Early Bronze Age, the turquoise production process reached its peak. At
the Erlitou site, archaeologists found a large dragon-shaped turquoise mosaic, a variety of animalshaped turquoise decorations, and turquoise workshops. The purpose of this paper is to understandthe importance of turquoise products in the formation process of early state formation in China by analyzing the following topics: the technological evolution of turquoise manufacture, the combination ofcomposite materials, the use of adhesive in turquoise inlay, and the as sociated production processes
as they developed from the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age.
KEYWORDS: Ancient China, turquoise ornaments, inlay technology, Yellow River region, Erlitou
Culture, regional exchange.

INTRODUCTION

Early Bronze Age, a number of social changes andInlays are small fragments of material embedded

technological innovations took hold in the upperin objects made of different media. The purpose ofreaches of the Yellow River. The use of bronze

inlay is to enhance the beauty of objects by adding

and turquoise inlays is an example of significant

color and texture. Archaeological researchers intechnological developments that relate to major

China have documented the earliest use of in lays tosocial change in the area. Turquoise inlay was often

the Middle Neolithic period (c. 3300 B.C.). During

used in objects related to ritual activities or symbols

that era, the most common material used for inlayof power. How ever, understanding turquoise inlay

was bone, while turquoise was rare. Turquoise

technology requires analysis beyond that of theinlay became popular starting in the Late Neolithic

inlays themselves. It is important to examine all

period (c. 2500 B.C.). Turquoise inlays are more

relevant components, including the compositioninteresting and attractive than bone inlays, andand origin of raw turquoise materials, the nature

they continued to play an important decorative roleof adhesives used to affix the turquoise, and thethrough the Erlitou Culture period (c. 1900–1600

various materials (i.e., bone, stone, wood, leather)B.C.) around the Yellow River region.

of which the main objects were made.

During the transition from the Neolithic to theTurquoise is a hydrous phosphate of copper and47

Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

aluminum. Some scholars believe that turquoise

TURQUOISE DECORATIONS AND INLAY

is produced in dry geological environments such

TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT CHINA

as deserts.

1

Turquoise nodules usually form

Early to Late Neolithic Age

between other stones, so they rarely appear as

Turquoise was probably first exploited in Chinalarge pieces. For this reason, and unlike jade, it isaround 7000 B.C. Excavation data show thatnot possible to carve turquoise into a wide range

turquoise was mainly found at sites along theof different shapes. Consequently, turquoise was

Yellow River. The distribution, form, and ornament

typically used to produce small, simple ornaments

production technology changed with time. Dongor as inlays in larger objects. The bright colors

Junqing and other scholars (Dong et al. 2011) haveand striking features of turquoise create a striking

compared the unearthed jade ornaments found incontrast with other materials. The color of theHenan Province from the Neolithic to the Early

turquoise mainly depends on the content of copper

Bronze Age. Based on their research data, from theand iron in the rock. Copper enhances the blue,

Neolithic to the Erlitou Culture period, the mostwhile iron brings out the green. Because of thesecommon material used for ornaments was turquoise,natural characteristics, tur quoise has often been

but after the early Shang dynasty, the main material

incorporated into mosaics.

changed to tremolite. The largest numbers ofThis article explores the background of inlay

turquoise objects were found at the Jiahu 贾湖 site

technology involving turquoise, in cludingof the Peiligang Culture, the Xiawanggang 下王

discussion of relevant materials such as the岗 site of the Yangshao Culture, and the Erlitou

adhesives used and the main media into which

二 里 头 site of the Erlitou Culture. The chemical

turquoise inlays were set. Ancient Chinese people

composition of the turquoise objects was the same atbegan using turquoise inlay approximately 5300

Jiahu and Xiawanggang. Where these objects wereyears ago, but their inlay methods varied between

made cannot be confirmed, but they were all pureregions. For example, a black gum or jelly adhesive

turquoise, in the iron turquoise and zinc turquoise

was a key fixative in the upper reaches of thecategories. Main Neolithic to Early Bronze Age

Yellow River, whereas strings strung through holes

sites, especially those associated with more than ten

were used to afﬁx different materials to each otherpieces of decorative turquoise objects, are shown inin the Shandong area. Research on the complex

Figure 1.2

technology of turquoise inlay should elucidate theArchaeological evidence of the earliest use of

relationship between the origins of raw mate rials

turquoise ornaments comes from the Peiligang 裴

and inlaid products and their association with social

李岗 Culture (c. 7000 –5000 B.C.). According

change. This research may also help determine why

to Chen Xingcan (2009), turquoise pendants inturquoise was so popular as a decorative medium

different shapes were unearthed from 5 Peiligang

during the Erlitou Culture period. An analysis ofsites in the middle of Henan Province. A total of

inlay technology, comparisons of inlay methods, and68 turquoise artifacts were found at these 5 sites.

exploration of turquoise sources and distribution

Approximately 74 percent of these artifacts were

will assist us in under standing the aesthetic views

found in tombs; 13 percent were found in pits; andof the ancient Chinese, along with their associatedanother 13 percent were found in cultural layers.

cul tural background and probability of cultural

The presence of these objects at multiple sites means

exchange.

that turquoise ornaments had become thoroughly

See istone website managed by Ishino Iwanosuke (2009),
http://www.istone.org/turquo.html.

2

1

48

Over 100 sites have been identiﬁed that contained fewer
than 10 pieces of turquoise each.

Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Fig. 1. Distribution of turquoise and turquoise inlay decorations at Neolithic and Bronze Age sites. Sites in which less than twopieces of turquoise have been recovered are not shown on this map. 1) Peiligang 裴李冈 ; 2) Shawoli 沙窝李 ; 3) Shuiquan 水
泉 ; 4) Jiahu 贾湖 ; 5) Xiawanggang 下王冈 ; 6) Xiajin 下靳墓地 ; 7) Taosi 陶寺 ; 8) Dongxiafeng 东下冯 ; 9) Yuanxu 垣曲商
城 ; 10) Beigou 北沟 ; 11) Fengxia 丰下 ; 12) Bei fudi 北福地 ; 13) Dawenkou 大汶口 ; 14) Wangyin 王因 ; 15) Yedian 野店 ;16) Zhufeng 朱封 ; 17) Huating 花厅北区 ; 18) Jinzhai 金寨 ; 19) Fuquanshan 福泉山 ; 20) Shixia 石峡 ; 21) Daxi 大溪 ; 22)
Xisiping 西寺坪 ; 23) Beishouling 北首岭 ; 24) Jiangzhai 姜寨 ; 25) Laoniupo 老牛坡 ; 26) Longgangsi 龙岗寺 ; 27) Liuwan 柳
湾 ; 28) Zongri 宗日 ; 29) Zhujiazhai 朱家寨 ; 30) Dianhe 店河 ; 31) Caiyuanqiedaoba 菜园切刀巴 ; 32) Qinweijia 秦魏家 ; 33)
Dahezhuang 大何庄 ; 34) Yuanyangchi 鸳鸯池墓地 ; 35) Huangniangniangtai 皇娘娘台 ; 36) Dibaping 地巴坪 ; 37) Erlitou 二里头 ; 38) Dongxiafeng 东下冯 ; 39) GaochengTaixicun 藁城台西村 ; 40) Zhukaigou 朱开沟 ; 41) LiangchengYaozi 凉城窑子 ;42) Beipiaofengxia 北票丰下 ; 43) Aohanqi Dadianzi 敖汉旗大甸子 ; 44) Shajing 沙井 ; 45) Siba 四壩 .

Fig. 2. Turquoise pendants unearthed from: (left) Longgangsi site (Shaanxi Kaogusuo 1990: ﬁg. 124-3); (right) Beifudi site (Hebei Kaogusuo 2010 : 156, ﬁg. 13).

49

Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

incorporated into the material culture of Peiligang(Kong 2002; Pang 2014).

Turquoise is often discovered in the upper
reaches of the Yellow River in the Gansu–Qinghai-

Simple pendant artifacts made of turquoise have

Ningxia region. A lot of turquoise ornaments havebeen discovered dating to the middle Yangshao 仰

been unearthed from the Majiayao 马家窑 Culture韶 period (c. 5000–3000 B.C.), but the number of(3300 –2000 B.C.) sites. For example, the Liuwan

turquoise ornaments found in Yangshao contexts is

柳湾 site in Qinghai Province is a multiculturalvery uneven. For example, while many turquoise

site that includes Banshan 半山 (2900 –2350 B.C.)

pieces have been found at the Xiawanggang 下 王

and Machang 马厂 (2335–2035 B.C.) components,

岗 site in Henan Province and the Longgangsi 龙as well as graves associated with the Qijia 齐家岗寺 site in Shaanxi Province, nearby sites such

Culture (2200 –1600 B.C.) and the Xindian 辛店

as the Beifudi 北 福 地 site in Hebei Province only

Cul ture (1300 –1000 B.C.) (Qinghai Wenguanchu

contained one or two pieces (Hebei Kaogusuo 2010)

and Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 1984). Excavations(see examples in Fig. 2).

have uncovered 257 tombs of the Banshan type andMost turquoise objects unearthed from Neolithic

872 of the Machang type. A total of 40 turquoise

contexts are circular, trapezoidal, square, orornaments were found in 26 Banshan-type tombs

rectangular; they were usually made into pendants orand 204 turquoise ornaments from 16 Machang-typeearrings. The Long gangsi site, located in southern

tombs. Most of these artifacts were positioned near

Shaanxi Province, is an Early Neolithic Yangshao

the heads, necks, or chests of the deceased. Strung

Culture site dating to c. 5000–4000 B.C. A total ofornaments (i.e., necklaces, bracelets) consisting

77 pieces of turquoise have been recovered from thisof combined turquoise and seashell artifacts weresite (Shaanxi Kaogusuo 1990). Except for 3 pieces

found for the ﬁrst time in the Machang-type tombs

from the Early Neolithic period, all were unearthed

M615 and M916. A ﬂat turquoise ornament inlaidfrom 30 Middle Neolithic period tombs.

3

Thewith bone beads was recovered from M1086. A

turquoise ornaments appear in a variety of forms

total of 119 non-perforated, flat rectangular andsuch as spades, trapezoids, rectangles, polygons, andtrapezoidal turquoise artifacts, each 1 cm long andcircles, among others. The spade shape (27 pieces)

0.4 – 0.5 cm wide were found in M1406. Theseand circle shape (28 pieces) comprise 80 percent offlat, non-perforated objects appear to be pieces ofthe objects. All of the objects served as pendants.

a turquoise mosaic, but the material that housed

The shapes and functionality of these Longgangsi

the mosaic was not found, probably because it had

Culture turquoise ornaments are generally similar to

decayed (Qinghai Wenguanchu and Shekeyuan

those of Peiligang Culture ornaments.

Kaogusuo 1984). Another example of turquoise

The Xiawanggang site is located to the south ofmosaic in Qinghai comes from the Zongri site,

the Han River in Henan Province. Excavations haveduring the Majiayao Culture (Chen Honghai 1999).

focused on a large Yangshao period cemetery at

The mosaic turquoise inlay appears on a bonethis site. Only 2 turquoise earrings from Yangshao

bracelet (Fig. 3b). These examples support the

Culture Phase 1 contexts have been found there.

conten tion that mosaics occurred in the Middle

Phase 2 contexts yielded 23 pieces, but the number

Neolithic of ancient China.

decreased to 5 in Phase 3. Three turquoise earrings

Tomb M58 at the Yuanyangchi 鸳鸯池 Machang-belonged to the Longshan Culture period (Henantype site contained a bone arm ornament similar to

Kaogusuo and Changjiang 1989).

those found at the Dibaping 地巴坪 site in Guanghe

The tombs were occupied by 19 female adults, 8 maleadults, 3 children, and 2 individuals whose age/ sex has notbeen determined.
350

广河 , Gansu. The bone bracelet is made with many
cut and polished elongated bone chips attached toa black gum mount encircling the left wrist of a

Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Fig. 3. (a) Bone ornaments with inlay from Yuanyangchi site (Ganbo and Wuwei 1974 : 302, ﬁg. 5); ( b) turquoise inlay on bonebracelet from Zongri site. Photo by Chen Honghai.

human arm (Ganbo and Wuwei 1974). From M32

turquoise pendant was also found at QM52 (Ningxia

at the Yuanyangchi site, two pieces of beautifully

Kaogusuo and Libo 2003). Sixty-six Banshan-

crafted bone hairpins were recovered. One of themtype tombs have been excavated in Dibaping.

has a round bar shape with a black gum cone on its

Most of the ornaments there were bone beads andbase, while another one has an additional 36 whitebracelets. In total, 342 bone beads were found nearbone beads inlaid on the black gum on the base (Fig.

the necks and wrists of the deceased in 7 tombs.

3a).

No turquoise ornaments were discovered, but 12

In addition to turquoise and seashells, agate beads

unusual bone bracelets were unearthed from 7 ofare found for the first time in contexts associatedthe 66 tombs. These bracelets were not the com

with the Qijia Culture. A total of 141 ornaments

monly found simple bone circles, but instead were

have been found in Qijia Culture graves. Thirty-four

made by connecting many elongated pieces ofturquoise ornaments have been found in 26 Qijia

bone together with a black gum. They were placed

Culture period tombs at Liuwan. Among these werearound the wrists of the deceased, one on the rightnecklaces for 11 women. Tur quoise has also been

wrist and one on the left. Most were in a poor statefound in the mouths of deceased men and women inof preservation; the black gum had lost its shape

tomb M1061. White marble, white seashells, andand was difficult to identify. The well-preserved

red carnelian artifacts were also found. Combiningbone pieces are all similar sizes: around 2 cm longsuch materials with turquoise would have made theand 1.4 cm wide. Their front faces were cut andbody decorations quite colorful.

polished smooth, but their backs were rough andQM52 of the Majiayao Culture site of Caiyuan
Qiedaoba 菜 园 切 刀 把 in Ningxia contained eightaffixed to a black adhesive material (Gansusheng
Bowuguan 1978).

examples of turquoise inlay on pie-shaped black

Turquoise inlay on pottery objects appears

adhesive. The turquoise pieces were polygonal andstarting in the Qijia Culture period. Two ceramics

of different dimensions, but all were between 0.1

inlaid with turquoise were discovered in the Ningxia

and 0.15 cm thick. Their surfaces were smooth. A

Guyuan Dianhe 固原店河 site Qijia Culture tombs.
51Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

Fig. 4. Pottery with turquoise inlay: (a) from Guyuan Dianhe (Ningxia Kaogusuo 1987 : 676, ﬁgs. 7, 8); (b) from Siba (Gansu Ribao 2013: n.p.).

Fig. 5. Turquoise inlay unearthed from Shangdong: (a) Dawenkou Culture context (Shandong Kaogusuo 1974:
n.p., ﬁg. 29); (b) Longshan Culture context ( Du 1994 : 55, ﬁg. 2).

M1:10 is a vessel with a constricted waist; unfor

inlay developed. In the Wangyin 王因 cemetery,tunately, the turquoise inlay has separated from thiswhich belonged to the Dawenkou 大 汶 口 Culture

object. Another one (M2:7) is better preserved.

(4200 –2400 B.C.), 18 turquoise pendants and 2

Seventeen flat turquoise fragments were intactbone bracelets have been unearthed. Unlike theand inlaid on this vessel (Fig. 4a). The turquoisebone bracelets from the upper Yellow River area,

fragments average around 2.8 cm long and 1.3 cm

the ones here were not put together using a black

wide ( Ningxia Kaogusuo 1987).

gum adhesive. There are two or three bone pieces

From later Siba 四坝 Culture (1800 –1300 B.C.)

per bracelet; both sides of each piece have holes,

sites, archaeologists have also unearthed an orange

probably for linking the pieces together using string

ceramic with turquoise inlay on its shoulder (Fig.

(Fig. 5a). This shows that different pro cesses were4b). Inlaying turquoise on an orange backgroundused to produce similar effects in different regions

created a very bright decorative effect (Gansu Ribao(Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 2000).

2013).

The Dawenkou cemetery has material from all

Finds at Neolithic sites in Shandong Province

three periods of the Dawenkou Culture. Theresuggest this was one of the areas where turquoise

is only one known turquoise necklace from the52Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Fig. 6. Turquoise inlaid ornaments from Taosi Culture sites: (a) two bracelets (Shanxi Kaogusuo 1998 : 9, ﬁgs. 10, 12); (b) hairornament. Photo by author.

early period, but ex cavators found three beautiful

According to Gao Wei, one of the excavators ofrings with turquoise inlay from the middle period

the Taosi cemetery, 24 jade hairpins decorated withtomb M22. Dating to the late period, tomb M10

bone and turquoise inlays were also recovered fromcontained a bone tube with turquoise inlay, along

24 separate tombs (pers. comm. 1998; Gao 2001)

with a necklace composed of 19 turquoise pieces.

(Fig. 6b). The turquoise inlays in these 24 tombs

Another bone tube with turquoise inlay waswere mosaics, each consisting of 10 – 60 pieces offound in tomb M4. This tube was 7.7 cm longturquoise. An additional 900 small turquoise pieces

with a smooth polished surface. Excavators also

have been found at the Taosi cemetery.

unearthed a small turquoise earring from a small

Gao (2001) divided these artifacts into three types

tomb (M5) (Shandong Kaogusuo 1974). Likewise,of collections. The ﬁrst collection type is typiﬁed byfour turquoise pendants and four bone and ivory

the burial M2010, which contains 3 jade ornaments

cylinders were found at the Yedian 野店 Dawenkou

and a bone hairpin. The bone hairpin was inlaid

cemetery in Zouxian 邹县. Four turquoise

with 27 turquoise pieces attached with a paint orfragments were inlaid in the upper and lower ends

gum (represented by a black carbonized material).

of the cylinders (Shandong Kaogusuo 1980). Also,

M2001 contained 2 jade ornaments and a single

in a tomb at Zhufeng 朱封, a Longshan Culture site,

hairpin; 26 turquoise pieces were inlaid on thea jade engraved crown with turquoise inlay was

hairpin. M2028 had 3 jade ornaments and a bonefound (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo Shandongdui 1990)

hairpin with 10 pieces of turquoise inlay. M3018(Fig. 5b).

also had 3 jade ornaments and a bone hairpin with

Aside from the Erlitou Culture, a lot of turquoise

26 turquoise pieces of inlay, similar to the hairpin

pieces have been unearthed from Taosi Culture

from M2001. The second collection is similar to thesites. For example, in the middle reaches of theﬁrst type except it contains L-shaped jade pendants

Yellow River in Shanxi Province, at the Xiajin 下that use black jelly to cohere inlaid turquoise. An靳 cemetery of the Taosi 陶寺 Culture (2500 –1900

example is from M2023, which included a boneB.C.), three bracelets with turquoise inlay were

hairpin with 60 turquoise pieces of inlay. There arefound on the wrists of deceased people (Fig. 6a).

no turquoise inlays in type 3.

These turquoise inlays were on a black gum-like

According to Gao (2001), black adhesive gum issubstance, but the substance could not be identiﬁed

a very important material for the inlay of turquoise

because of decay (Shanxi Linfen and Shekeyuan

on bone hairpins. However, this black substance

Kaogusuo 1999; Xiajin Kaogudui 1998). A similar

has yet to be iden tiﬁed. All that is known is that it

bracelet was supposedly found at the Taosi cemeteryis a natural material. The results of future analysis(Shekeyuan Kaogusuo and Shanxi Kaogusuo 2015).

will help us understand why some areas had this sort53

Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

of inlay technology, while others did not.

emphasis was placed on turquoise inlay. The large
number of objects inlaid with turquoise that were

Early Bronze Age

produced is particularly noteworthy. Through out

Turquoise production peaked during the Early

the entire span of Erlitou periods I–IV, more thanBronze Age. Excavators unearthed many different

ten intact objects with turquoise inlay have beentypes of artifacts inlaid with turquoise at Erlitou

found (Chen Xuexiang 2003; Hao 2008) in addition(capital of the ﬁrst Chinese state). Some of the mostto the innumerable turquoise pieces that have fallen

famous discoveries from the Erlitou site include

away from the objects on which they were originallyritual artifacts such as turquoise-inlaid bronze

inlaid.

plaques with animal masks and a large turquoise

After the discovery in 2002 of a dragon-shaped

dragon-shaped artifact made of over 2000 pieces

turquoise inlay ﬁgure, a large number of turquoiseof turquoise; each piece has one smooth side andwasters were found. These wasters mark a turquoise

one rough side with black gum. Excavations of theworkshop occupying an area of approximately

Erlitou site also uncovered a turquoise production

1000 m2 ( Du 1994; Li 2006). This archaeologicalfacility. Turquoise inlay technology and its products

discovery brought scholarly attention to turquoise

may have played an important role in Chinaʼs early

and its associated unique inlay technology.

state formation.

Bronze animal plaques inlaid with turquoise

As many as 980 turquoise ornaments dating tohave been found at sites other than Erlitou. One

Erlitou Period III have been found. In addition,

example was recovered from Gansu Tianshui 甘肃

3 bronzes with inlaid turquoise were found from

天水 (Zhang 2002). This object measures 15 ×

Erlitou Period III. Five circular bronzes with

10 cm and is decorated with a sheepʼs head–shaped

inlaid turquoise were also found, but it is unclear

pattern (Fig. 7c).4 Another example comes from thewhat these bronzes were used for. On the edges

Gaopian 高骈 locus at the site of San xingdui 三星

of the circular bronze from VKM4:2, 61 pieces of

堆 in Guanghan 广 汉 , Sichuan 四 川 (Du 1995).

turquoise were arranged uniformly, like a clock

This example measures 12.3 × 5 cm and has a(Fig. 7a1). Two circles of turquoise pieces were

surface covered with geometric decorations (Fig.

inlaid in cross shapes in the middle. Each circle has

7b). Another example from Sichuan was found at

13 crosses. The front was covered with 6 layers of

the Zhenwu 真武 locus at Sanxingdui and mea sures

textiles of different thicknesses, each with a 17 cm

13.8 × 5.2 cm ( Du 1995). These pieces are similar

diameter. On the outside edge of the circular bronze

in shape and style to the arti facts from Erlitou.

from VIKM3:16 were inlays of turquoise pieces

Turquoise inlay technology can be separated into

each 0.1 cm thick and 11.6 cm in diameter. A piece

three types: turquoise embedded in copper or bronzeof turquoise was sandwiched between two copper

utensils and plaques; turquoise embedded in organic

circles of another, smaller (10.3 cm diameter, 0.2–

materials such as bone; and turquoise embedded in

0.3 cm thick) circular bronze from VIKM3:17.

jade. An example of the ﬁrst type is from the 1987

An inlaid turquoise tip-like device was unearthed

excavation at the Erlitou site in context 6-M57,

from 80YL3M4. Furthermore, excavators foundwhere a medallion-shaped bronze plaque and a

150 turquoise pieces dating to Erlitou Period IV

bronze ornament were found (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo

from burial 84YL4M6. These were probably inlay

Erlitou Gongsuodui 1992). Most bronze plaques

fragments that were formerly affixed to or ganic

share a generally rounded rectangular shape withmaterials.
The Erlitou site excavations demonstrate that, in
addition to common turquoise decorations, a striking
54

This ornament is now conserved at Tianshui Museum in
Gansu Province.
4Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Fig. 7. Turquoise inlaid bronze artifacts from: (a1 and a2) Erlitou (photos by Xu Hong); (b) Sanxingdui (photo byauthor); (c) Tianshui (photo by author).

Fig. 8. Turquoise inlay (a) in jade and (b) in lacquer or wood, Erlitou site. Photos by Xu Hong.

a slightly wider lower edge, but these objects had

inlaid on lacquer or wood. The bedding seems tobeast-shaped frames with small pieces of turquoise

have been braided, but because of serious damage,arranged on them. The plaque was 15.9 cm inadditional research is needed to conﬁrm this.

length and 7.5–8.9 cm wide, with more than 400

The third type is turquoise inlaid in jadeturquoise inlays. In context, 5-M4, a bronze plaqueornaments and ritual objects. An example is theinlaid with turquoise was unearthed that contained

jade yue 钺 with a small piece of turquoise inlaid

more than 320 pieces of turquoise (Fig. 7a2). The

in the middle (Fig. 8a). All such objects have holes

turquoise pieces were rectangular, trapezoidal, andground into them for inlaying the turquoise.

conical.

In developing methods of inlaying turquoiseor shell fragments onto bronzes, Erli tou Culture

An example of the second collection type is ainlay technology reached a peak of sophistication

dragon-shaped object found at Erlitou. The object

that continued to the Late Bronze Age. Designs

measures 70.2 cm long and its body contains moreincorporating the eyes or heads of animals arethan 2000 pieces of inlaid turquoise in various

typical in bronze plaques with turquoise inlay

shapes (Fig. 8b). Each turquoise piece is about(Hakari 2006; Tang 2012; Wang 2004, 2007;

0.5 cm in length, 0.4 cm in width, and 0.1 cm in

Zhongguo Xinwen Wang 2014). For example,

thickness, with a smooth front and grooves cut

turquoise pieces were embedded into the rectangular

into the back, originally covered with a sticky

bronze plate from Erlitou locus 84M11 (Fig. 9 left).

black substance (Tang 2012). According to the

The left and right sides have two lines, and one side

excavators, the pieces of turquoise were originallyof the plaque has a groove for the turquoise to be55Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

Fig. 9. Bronze plaque from Erlitou locus 84M11(left); traces of silk fabric on its verso side (right) (Zhongguo
Xinwen Wang 2014: n.p.).

Fig. 10. Agate necklaces (left) and seashells (right), from the Dadianzi cemetery (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 1996: n.p., ﬁgs. 19, 20).

inlaid within an animal-shaped pattern. The back

The Dadianzi 大甸子 site of the lower Xiajiadianof the plaque has traces of textile, probably silk

Culture 夏 家 店 下 层 文 化 (2200 – 1600 B.C.) is(Fig. 9). Some scholars believe the textile was theanother source of information about turquoise

same material people used for clothes and that theinlay. The site lacks bronze plaques with turquoise

plaque may have been wrapped in the cloth after the

inlay, but contains a lot of lacquerware and pottery

inlay was complete (Li 1991; Zhongguo Xinwenwith turquoise inlay, as well as large numbers

Wang 2014). However, closer ex amination of theof turquoise ornaments (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo

plaque reveals that most surfaces are covered in

1996). The excavated area is primarily a cemetery,the skeuomorphism of textiles. It is therefore morecomprised of 143 large tombs, 434 medium-likely that the textile covered the object before thesized tombs, and 52 small tombs. Eighty-five of

inlay rather than after. The patterns on the plaques

the graves have yielded a total of 334 turquoise

were designed before the inlay, then small stones

ornaments, which can be divided into two types.

were placed in the grooves on the plaque to create

The first type (221 specimens) is typified by flat-

the pattern.

bodied quadrilaterals with a hole on the long side,56

Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

probably earrings. The other type (121 specimens)

logical development.

consists of cylindrical beads. The turquoise earrings

Inlay technology varied in different cultural

were associated more with men than women, while

contexts. The main materials used for mosaics werethe cylindrical beads seem to have been used more

pieces of bone, bone beads, fragments of pottery,5

by women and children than men. In addition tojade, lacquer, wood, and bronze. Auxiliary materials

turquoise, marble, onyx, and seashells with white,

included adhesives, textiles, leather braids, andgreen, and red parts were the main media foranimal bone collagen. Wood cannot be observed

ornamentation, demonstrating that the Xiajiadianas a primary material for inlay of mosaics because

Culture people of Dadianzi placed a strong emphasis

it decays so quickly; however there are someon color and contrast (Fig. 10). Thirty-eight of theexamples of poorly preserved traces of associatedtombs in Dadianzi cemetery included ceramics,

wood. Associated ancillary technology for mosaics

lacquerware, and woven goods inlaid with shells orvaries by cul tural period. For example, drills forturquoise (13 inlaid objects contained turquoise).

creating holes in jade panels, tools for cutting bone

Pottery with shell and turquoise inlay on the rims

pieces, and bronze framework for holding inlay

was found in tombs M885, M905, and M818.

were all developed in different places and times.
These mosaic technologies were then transferred to

C ATA L O G I N G T U R Q U O I S E O R N A MENTS AND INLAYS
Types of Turquoise Decorations

making tur quoise ornaments and artifacts.
As noted earlier, one feature of raw natural
turquoise is its small size, a factor that makes it

Archaeological data shows that the majority

suitable for ornamental inlay. Figure 11 shows theof turquoise ornaments are small objects such as

distribution in size of turquoise unearthed from three

earrings and pendants; these comprise 80 percent

different sites: Jiahu, Longgangsi, and Liuwan.

of all turquoise decorations. Such small objects

Even though they are located in different areas,

make up 95 percent of turquoise ornaments in themost of the turquoise fragments found in these three

Peiligang Culture period. However, beads andsites are quite small. The average size at these three

tubular-shaped turquoise ornaments are foundsites are: Jiahu 1.7 cm × 0.6 cm; Longgangsi 3.3

dur ing the Middle Neolithic age at sites suchcm × 2.0 cm; Liuwan 2.2 cm × 1.1 cm.

as Xiawanggang, Longgangsi, Majiayao, andDawenkou. These were probably used for making

Inlay Technology

bead necklaces. Bead necklaces require a more

The turquoise inlay technology associatedcomplex level of technology, since beads are morewith Erlitou Culture sites is highly elabo rate anddifﬁcult to manufacture. Their presence shows thatsophisticated. By this time, turquoise had become

turquoise technology was becoming increasingly

one of the most com monly used decorative

sophisticated over time. Toward the Latematerials. Although turquoise inlay technology

Neolithic, the Qijia, Taosi, and Longshan cultures

was not started during the Erlitou period, Erlitou

all are associated with inlay, exhibiting anothercraftspeople developed a beautiful aesthetic based

development in technology. The use of mosaics,

on various forms of mosaic inlay. Mosaic inlay

putting small pieces of different stones together tocan be divided into three types: monolithic inlay,

create elabo rate patterns, also began at this time,

amorphous inlay using panels, and neatly trimmed

indicating yet another significant step in techno

inlay.

5

Of the 85 burials containing turquoise, roughly half weremenʼs graves, a quarter were womenʼs, and another quarter,childrenʼs.

Monolithic Inlay─ This method usually does

not involve the use of adhesives. The turquoise57Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

is cut into a specific shape and embedded directly

jigsaw pattern. Other examples are five circular

into the base object. This method is commonly

bronze objects from the third period of the Erlitou

found in the Lower Yellow River area during thesite (Du and Xu 2005). The turquoise inlays

Late Neolithic. An example from the Dawenkou

on these objects were set in a counterclockwisesite is a cylindrical bone device with turquoise inlay

manner. The same method, neatly cut bone inlays,(Shandongsheng Wenguanchu and Jinan Bowuguan

can also be found on a bone arm decoration from1974). Other examples are from the Zhufeng 朱封

the Majiayao Culture (Ganbo and Wuwei 1974).

Longshan Culture site, where hollow jade ornaments

In addition to the different styles of mosaics,

with turquoise inlays were unearthed. Jade knives,

variations in the methods used to afﬁx inlay can bejade scepter (yazhang) blades, and half-moon

divided into seven types, outlined below.

objects with turquoise inlays have also been foundat Erlitou sites (Hao Yanfeng 2008). At Dawenkou,

Type One: Bone on Black Adhesive ─ In thisbone cylinders contain four to ﬁve inlay holes, andtype, black gum is first stuck onto bones, thenjade panels have two symmetrical holes that seem tobone pieces, bone rings, and seashells are affixedsymbolize eyes (Shandong Bowuguan and Liangzhu

to this adhesive. This type of inlay is mostly

Bowuyuan 2014).

found at Majiayao and Qijia culture sites. In the
Yuanyangchi cemetery, for example, many bone

Amorphous Inlay Pieces ─ Amorphous inlay

bracelets with bone inlays involve the use of black

can be found on pottery from sites associated withadhesive (Ganbo and Wuwei 1974). The base end

the Qijia Culture (e.g., the Guyuan 固原 Dianhe 店

of a hairpin with a bone ring inlay also used a black

河 site in Ningxia 宁夏 [Ningxia Kaogusuo 1987]).

jelly adhesive. Another example comes from the

Other examples can be found at Taosi, where 900

Banshan phase at the Guang he Dibaping site, where

pieces of turquoise have been unearthed (Shekeyuan

12 bone bracelets using the same inlay method were

Kaogusuo and Shanxi Kaogusuo 2015). Most

found (Gansusheng Bowuguan 1978). Artifacts

were inlaid on the tail part of bone hairpins or boneusing the same inlay method were also found atbracelets, but some of the main bodies of inlaid

the Liuwan cemetery (Qinghai Wenguanchu andturquoise objects are so decayed we do not know

Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 1984).

what they were made of. The turquoise pieces areof many different shapes. The Xiajin cemetery

Type Two: Turquoise on Black Adhesive ─

presents examples similar to those from Taosi. In

In this type, turquoise pieces are directly inlaid

both cases the turquoise pieces all used black gum

to black adhesive. This method can be found at

as an adhesive material, a key component in inlay

sites associated with the Qijia Culture and thetechnology. The turquoise-inlaid objects at the

Taosi Culture. From the Caiyuan Qiedaoba site

Zongri site also belong to this type (Chen Honghai

in Ningxia, for example, archaeologists recovered1999).

a pie-shaped black substance with eight turquoise
inlays (Ningxia Kaogusuo and Libo 2003).

Neatly Trimmed Inlay ─ Typical examples ofSimilarly, at the Taosi and Xiajin sites, bracelets

this type of turquoise inlay are the bronze animal

were found with turquoise and shell inlays affixedplaques with inlay and the mosaic turquoise dragon

with black jelly adhesive (Xiajin Kaogudui 1998).

from the Erlitou site (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 2014).

Further analysis is required to determine the nature

All the turquoise inlay pieces were neatly cut andof the black adhesive.

congruent. The pieces are about 0.5 cm in lengthand are stuck to each other using an intercropping
58

Type Three: Turquoise in Pottery ─ In this third

Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Fig. 11. Turquoise size distributions: (a) Jiahu; (b) Longgangsi; (c) Liuwan.

59Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

Type Six: Inlay in Lacquer or Wood

type of inlay technology, turquoise is directly inlaid─ In thisonto pottery or grooves are made to fit turquoise

type, turquoise and/or shells are inlaid on lacquer

inlay after firing. Turquoise inlaid on pottery wasor wood. There were some pieces discovered at thefound at the Dianhe site in Qijia Culture contexts

Dadianzi site, but be cause wood decays, little detail(Ningxia Kaogusuo 1987). This is the earliest

about these objects is known (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo

example of pottery with turquoise inlay. A similar1996).

example was found at the Siba site (Gansu Ribao
2013). At this site, pottery with turquoise inlays

Type Seven: Turquoise Inlay in Bronze ─ Whenwas found and turquoise inlays were discovered onbronze with turquoise inlays appeared, copper-

jars (Gansu Kaogusuo et al. 2012).

making technology (including the creation of molds
and complicated smelt ing processes) and inlay

Type Four: Turquoise Inlay without Adhesive ─technology became two separate processes (GuIn this inlay type, turquoise is inlaid onto bone or2011).6 According to some scholars, the method forivory without the use of adhesive. Instead, a hole

inlaying objects into bronze is to score the bronze

is made into which the turquoise ﬁts. This type iswhile it is being made, then inlay decorative objects

mainly found in the Shandong Dawenkou Culture

into the grooves (Li 1991, 1997; Wang 2008; Wu

area. Examples include turquoise inlaid onto ivory1998). If this supposition is accurate, turquoise

and bone cylinders (Shangdong Wen guanchu andpieces would have been cut to match the dimensions

Jinan Bowuguan 1974). A related form of inlayof the grooves. During the Erlitou period, turquoise

uses string to attach bone pieces to different objects.

used for inlay was small and thin, roughly 0.5 cm in

A sample of this type of inlay was found in tomb

thickness. Then a sticky substance would be used

M168:7 from the Wangyin cemetery (Shekeyuan

to adhere the turquoise to the bronze. A rough stone

Kaogusuo 2000).

would then have been used to polish the bronze
surface to make it smooth.

Type Five: Turquoise in Jade ─ In this type,This typology reﬂects technological developments

turquoise is inlaid onto jade stone objects. The

beginning in the Early and Middle Neolithic, during

traditional Chinese jade-making process involved

which most of the unearthed turquoise from thecutting, grinding, drilling, and engraving jadeYellow River and Han River sites can be dated.

to make jade ornaments; inlaying was the final

Examples along the upper Yellow River (as sociatedstep. There are two types of engraving: one typewith the Majiayao Culture) include Liuwan 柳 湾 ,involves making a small groove, while the other

Linjia 林家 , and Guanghe Dibaping 广河地巴坪 .

involves cutting out most of the jade, leaving a

Along the Han River, sites with turquoise include

small piece. Turquoise is usually inlaid with the

Jiahu 贾湖 , Xiawanggang 下王岗 , and Longgangsi

ﬁrst method. The result of this inlay technology is龙 岗 寺 . The Dawenkou 大 汶 口 , Yedian 野 店 ,a strong contrast in the colors of the two materials.

and Wangyin 王因 sites, which belong to the lower

Presenting such a colorful contrast is the primarypart of the Yellow River, are additional locations forfunction of turquoise inlay production. Examples

finding turquoise inlaid objects. The distribution

include a jade stone crown found with two turquoiseof turquoise is wider than for other stone materials

inlays at a Zhufeng site (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo

used for ornamental purposes. The distribution

Shandongdui 1990), and a couple of jade yueof turquoise did not change much between theweapons and jade zhang blades found with turquoise
inlays from an Erlitou site.

60

The separation of these processes marks the beginning of
inlay technology in the Late Bronze Age.
6

Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Late Neolithic and the Erlitou period even though

A source of turquoise in Xinjiang Hami Heishanlingassociated technology changed drastically. The

that was rediscovered sometime in the 1970s or

stability of the distribu tion area may be related

1980s had probably been exploited in antiquity. The

to the location of raw material and production ofmine is 2.5 km long and 5– 40 m wide. Holes had

objects incorporating turquoise, discussed in the

been dug at 10 places in the mine; one of the holes

next section.

was 10 m deep (Luan 2001). Archaeologists also
found a small house on the mountain that contained

PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE

pottery and stone tools; they surmise that it was

When inlay technology developed during theused by miners in antiq uity. Some scholars argue

Early Neolithic, the demand for tur quoise alsothat the mine may have been opened as early as theincreased. This resulted in a greater need for

Early Neolithic.

turquoise workshops. During that time, possessing

Another mine in Yunnan Kunming contains

turquoise ornaments indicated high social status,

turquoise with a homogeneous color. The pieces

wealth, and power. Turquoise became more thanare small and production from this mine seems tojust an ornamental stone. Elite people began using

have been low. It is unknown when this mine wasit in the context of festivals and political events.

opened. Other turquoise mines have also been

As a consequence, the social role of turquoise

found in Sichuan and Tibet ( Luan 1989).

changed, not only because of its value but because

Since source locations may be as far as 200of the sophistication of the associated technology.

km from the sites where turquoise was found, weAnalyzing turquoise inlay technology thus helps us

cannot assume that turquoise ornaments unearthedunderstand the processes by which early dynastic

in any particular region were produced locally.

polities may have been established.

Scientific analysis is required to determine where
the turquoise came from. So far, such analysis

Turquoise Sources

has been implemented for only a few sites such as

Known turquoise mines in China are located in

Jiahu, Wangchenggang, and Erlitou. Feng Min,

northwest Hubei 湖北 , Shaanxi Baihe 陕西白河 ,from the University of Science and Technology ofHenan Xichuan 河南浙川 , Anhui Maʼanshan 安徽

China, analyzed turquoise objects from the Jiahu

马鞍山 , Yunnan Kunming Anning 云南昆明安宁 ,site and found that the material had not originated

Qinghai 青 海 , Xinjiang Hami 新 疆 哈 密 , amongfrom mines in the region (Feng et al. 2003; Mao etother places. In northwest Hubei, over 40 mines

al. 2005). Similarly, Dong and colleagues (2011)

exist in the counties of Yunxian 郧县 , Yunxi 郧西 ,analyzed turquoise from Wangchenggang andand Zhushan 竹山 . These are the biggest and mostErlitou and found the turquoise came from many

important turquoise mines in China. Turquoise

different locations. An other report of analyses

from this region is shaded green and azure.

conducted on the Erlitou collection using X-Ray

In Shaanxi Baihe, turquoise is found in the

Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared

Yueertan 月儿潭 mine. In this area, there are threeSpectroscopy (FTIR), and Multi-Collector In

main mines: Yandongzi 岩 洞 子 , Bailongdong 白

ductively Coupled Mass Spectrometer (MC-ICP-龙洞 , and Muguizhai 穆桂寨 . Because the minesMS) indicated that the turquoise at the Erlitou sitewere heavily exploited historically, production

came from mines located in Henan and Shaanxi

levels today are quite low.

provinces instead of Hubei Province (Shekeyuan

The scale of the turquoise mining is smaller in

Kaogusuo 2014). While turquoise mines exist inHenan Xichuan and Anhui Maʼanshan. It is not

the vicinity of these sites, the excavated turquoise

clear when people started to mine in these locations.

fragments were not all collected locally. How can61

Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

Fig. 12. Turquoise workshop at Erlitou site. Original plan by Xu Hong, translated by author.

we explain the origin of these turquoise materials?

that broke off from their principal source rocks andTurquoise deposits in the form of small stones arefell into rivers that carried them downstream, where

mostly found as by-products of other ores. Small

they were picked up by people who used them toturquoise stones are easily washed downstream in

make turquoise ornaments. Turquoise production

rivers, making them available to people who live

and consumption patterns may indicate relationships

7

far from the original source. This would explain

between entirely different groups who engaged infor example why the turquoise found at the Jiahu

trade and exchange.

site might not necessarily have come from the
Hubei Yunxian mine, which is close to the site.

Turquoise Workshops

The turquoise might even have been sourced from

Recent excavation of the area south of the palace

multiple locations (Feng et al. 2003; Mao et al.

district at Erlitou has revealed the remains of a2005). According to Yokota Yoshiaki (1984), mostturquoise manufacturing workshop that belonged toof the turquoise probably came from small nodules

the late Erlitou period (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 2014)(Fig. 12). This workshop was located very close to

A similar example of this phenomenon is in Niigata,Japan. An emerald mine is located in Niigata, but small
pieces of emerald are found far downstream along a nearby
river (Yokota Yoshiaki 1984).
762

the palace area. A bronze production workshop was
located south of the turquoise workshop. We canthus assume the production of turquoise was directlyTurquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Fig. 13. Turquoise product from the turquoise workshop at Erlitou site. Photos by Xu Hong.

Fig. 14. Turquoise from workshop at Erlitou site: (a) raw material; (b) semi-ﬁnished product; (c) damaged product.
Photos by Xu Hong.

controlled by the Erlitou aristocracy.

discovered at a number of Neolithic and Bronze Age

According to archaeological coring in the vicinity

sites. For example, at the Liuwan site in Majiayaoof the refuse pit, large amounts of raw turquoise

Culture contexts, 15 seashells have been found evenstones were available within 1000 m2, hence thethough this site is located far from the ocean. Six

inference that this was a turquoise production

stone seashell-shaped items were found in related

workshop. Unearthed artifacts from this site reveal

strata. At the same site, in contexts associated withthe most frequently produced ornaments were

the Qijia Culture, 36 seashells were found: 34 fromturquoise tubes, beads, and ornamental panels

tomb M992, 1 from M979, and 1 from M1042(Fig. 13). A refuse pit was found in the workshop(Qinghai Wenguan chu and Shekeyuan Kaogusuo

containing waste products of turquoise manufacture.

1984). Many pieces of red carnelian beads have

Along with fragments of other stones, over 2000

also been uncovered at the Zhujiazhai site (Liupieces of turquoise were found in this pit. Most

1992). Combining these materials ─ red carnelian

had traces of having been cut (Fig. 14). Analysis

beads, blue-green turquoise, and white seashell ─of these samples enables us to discern turquoise

creates a quite distinctive effect. Majiayao Culture

production technology. The turquoise production

people were the first to combine these materials,

process can be divided into the following steps:

but the practice continued through the Early Bronze

mining of the raw stone, breaking the stone, cutting,

Age with the Qijia Culture. For example, at thepolishing, and perforating the stone, and inlay.

Dahezhuang site, 2 red carnelian beads were foundalong with turquoise (Gansu Kaogusuo 1974). Red

Other Objects with Turquoise Inlay

carnelian beads and seashells have also been found

Examples of other exotic goods that wereto gether at the following sites: Qinghai Zongri 青

sometimes combined with turquoise were

海宗日 (Chen Honghai 1999), Minhe Hetaozhuang
63Turquoise Ornaments in Ancient China

民和核桃庄 (Qinghai Kaogusuo et al. 2004),

bone and black adhesive. The use of black jelly

Gansu Huzhu Zhongzhai 甘肃互助中寨 (Yi 2016),

adhesive represents the start of inlay technology; fur

Xujianian 徐家碾 (Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 2006), andther research must be done to identify this material.

Zhu jiazhai 朱家寨 (Liu 1992; Rawson 2010).

Bone inlays using black jelly adhesive changed

A bracelet with turquoise inlay along with shellto turquoise inlays using black jelly at the Zongri

decorations was found at the Taosi site (Shanxisite. This technology continued to be associated

Linfen and Shekeyuan Kaogusuo 1999; Xiajinwith the Qijia and Taosi cultures. During thisKaogudui 1998). Dating to the Bronze Age, redtime, turquoise pieces were inlaid using the multi-

carnelian beads and seashells were found at Erlitou,

unshaped (irregular) pieces mosaic inlay method on

and 213 red carnelian beads and seashells were alsoornaments and ceramics. By the time of the Erlitou

found at Dadianzi, far northeast of Erlitou (Shelach

Culture, the ﬁxed quantity neat-cut (regular) pieces

1994). Turquoise, red carnelian beads, and seashells

mosaic inlay method had been adopted for ritual

have been unearthed together at many important

artifacts. Roughly contemporaneous sites such assites. This combination may be related to how

Dadianzi show similar patterns to Erlitou. This

these raw materials were obtained, quite possibly

suggests that turquoise craft techniques experienced

through long-distance exchange systems. All thisa significant change during the Erlitou Culture

information demonstrates that it would have been

period and that this manufacturing technique wascommon for the turquoise used for inlay to haveused by craftspeople associated with the first state

originated far from the sites where it is now found.

of ancient China.
Turquoise inlay became popular long after bone

CONCLUSION

inlay had been established. Its popularity may be

Turquoise ornaments appeared very early in

attributed to its natural characteristics and special

China. Turquoise was already being used forcolors. The distribution of two other special

adornment starting around 7000 B.C. in thematerials, red carnelian beads and white seashells,

Peiligang Culture. Unlike objects made of otherwas more restricted, likely because these materials

fine-stone materials (generically referred to as

were more difficult to acquire than turquoise.

“jade”), turquoise was only used for small things

Nevertheless, these have been unearthed together

such as earrings and pendants. This is becausewith turquoise at many sites, especially at Zongri

large pieces of turquoise are hard to ﬁnd since it isand Dadianzi.

a secondary mineral. Because turquoise nodules

Around 2000 B.C., turquoise inlay technology

are so small, they are easy to transport over long

became popular in the Yellow River basin. Thisdistances. The distribution and use of turquoise wastechnology peaked during the Erlitou period.

thus not limited to locations near source mines.

Normal jade ornament culture was influenced by

The development of inlay technology is

the Longshan Culture in eastern and southern areas.

associated with changing aesthetics during the

However, the turquoise inlay and earlier bronzes

middle Neolithic period. It is unclear why thewere more influenced by cultures to the northperspective on beauty changed, but archaeologicaland northwest. Turquoise ornaments and inlay

data demonstrate that before turquoise inlay became

technology were not as popular in areas where thepopular, people were experimenting with different

use of jade was already well developed, such as

methods of inlaying various materials with one

sites of Liangzhu, Ling jiatan, and Shijiahe cultures.

another. The earliest forms of inlay are known from

Turquoise was much more popular among Qijia,

contexts associated with Majiayao Culture sites, atTaosi, and Shandong Longshan cultures. Not only

which time the main materials used for inlay were

were turquoise decorations popular in the earlier

64Turquoise ornaments and Inlay technology in Ancient China

Majiayao Culture, so was the inlay technique.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

shuo 广 汉 三 星 堆 商 代 铜 牌 饰 浅 说 [Study ofShang bronze plaques, ornaments from Guanghan

This paper is based on my presentation at the

Sanxingdui]. Zhongguo Wenwu Bao 中 国 文 物 报

SAA 80th Annual Meeting in San Francisco in2015. I would like to thank Prof. Rowan Flad who
provided me the opportunity to present my research,
for his extensive advice on this paper, and forediting my manuscript. This work was supportedby the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science(JSPS) Grants-in-Aid for scientific Research(KAKENHI) Grant Number 15K02975.

(April 9):n.p.
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