Technical guidelines for reforestation in degradedlimestone areas under semi-arid climate- Based on the outcomes of experimental reforestation activities indegraded limestone areas under semi-arid climate in East Nusa
Tenggara Province of Indonesia -Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center(JIFPRO)

March 2015

Technical guidelines for reforestation in degradedlimestone areas under semi-arid climate- Based on the outcomes of experimental reforestation activities indegraded limestone areas under semi-arid climate in East Nusa
Tenggara Province of Indonesia -Eiichiro Nakama, Seiichi Ohta, Tokunori Mori, Yasuo Ohsumi
and Satohiko Sasaki
Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center

Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center(JIFPRO)

March 2015

Forward
During the past decades, deforestation and forest degradation continues especially indeveloping countries. According to the report of the Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nation (FAO), approximately 13 million hectors of global forests have been
lost annually due to forest land conversion to other land uses, forest fires and natural
disasters, while reforestation and natural regeneration account for an increase of
approx. 7.8 million hectors of forest cover. This means the net loss of global forest is
estimated at 5.2 million hectors.
Adverse impacts of forest conversion to farmland can be minimized as far as the land isproperly used and managed in a sustainable manner. However, in some cases, problem
soils are exposed and abandoned as degraded land. In Indonesia, among otherdeveloping countries, when forest covers are lost under the semi-arid climate conditions,agriculture and animal grazing activities will lead to decline of soil productivity. As aresult such land is left and become wasteland.
How to recover degraded forest land in semi-arid areas is not only an issue indeveloping countries, but also have become a global concern which need to be addressed
urgently. In order to tackle such an issue, the Forestry Agency of Japan, under its
program to support reforestation in developing countries, has started a four-year projectof “Model Forest Development in Degraded Lands” starting from the Japanese Fiscal
Year of 2011.
This project is aimed at developing appropriate methodologies for land preparation, tree
species selection, planting techniques for degraded land recovery, taking into
consideration the scientific data such as environmental and soil conditions of theplantation sites in semi-arid limestone areas of East Nusa Tenggara Province, throughon-site surveys and establishment of pilot reforestation sites. These technical guidelines
are the result of the model pilot reforestation activities.
We would like to express our sincere appreciation to the International Forestry
Cooperation Division of the Forestry Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries in Japan for their financial support and advises for the implementation of thisproject. Our special thanks also to the project advisory committee members chaired by
Dr. Katsuhiko Kojima, the University of Tokyo for their guidance on the planning andimplementation of the surveys. Last but not least, we owe our deepest gratitude to theDirectorate General of Watershed Management and Social Forestry Development of the
Ministry of Forestry in Indonesia and the Benain Noelmina Watershed Management
Center as our counterpart, the Forestry Research and Development Agency of Ministryof Forestry in Kupang and the Forestry Services of the Soe District Government in East
Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia.

March 2015

Dr. Satohiko Sasaki, President
Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center (JIFPRO)

Table of Contents
Chapter 1.

Background and purpose of the project ........................................................ 1

1-1. Present status of forest vegetation and degradations in East Nusa Tenggara
Province of Indonesia ......................................................................................... 1
1-2. Basic concept of reforestation in degraded dryland .......................................... 4
Chapter 2.

Technical Requirement and Implementing Procedure for Reforestation in
Semi-arid Limestone areas ........................................................................... 6

2-1. Technical Requirement for Reforestation in Semi-arid Limestone areas ........ 6
2-2. Implementing Procedure for Reforestation in Semi-arid Limestone areas ..... 7
Chapter 3.

Classification of soils and their characteristics (property) found in lifted(raised) coral-rags under semi-arid climatic conditions............................... 8

3-1. Soil environment of coral-rag areas in semi-arid land ..................................... 9
3-2. Inter-relationship among soil types, topography and land use ...................... 11
3-3. Soil type classification where afforestation and reforestation can be planned12
Chapter 4.

Reforestation technologies in degraded dryland originated from limestone15

4-1. Drought resistance of planting tree species .................................................... 15
4-2. Operations for avoiding desiccation of planted trees ...................................... 18
4-3. Selection of planting time and Increase of water supply to planted seedlings27
4-4. Summary of recommendations ........................................................................ 28
Chapter 5.

Maintenance and protection after tree planting (measures to prevent
damages by animals and wildfires) ............................................................ 30

5-1. Protective measure against animal damage ................................................... 30
5-2. Protective measure against wildfire damage .................................................. 31
Appendix ............................................................................................................................ 34
A1.

Planted Tree Species Adequateness (Adequacy assessment list of plant
species used at the reforestation experiments at semi-arid areas in East Nusa
Tenggara) .......................................................................................................... 34

A2.

Characteristics of trees examined in the experimental plots of exploited
semi-arid areas, Nusa Tenggara Timor ........................................................... 35

A3.

Characteristics of the planting tree species in Indonesia ............................... 45

Chapter 1.
1-1.

Background and purpose of the project

Present status of forest vegetation and degradations in East Nusa Tenggara
Province of Indonesia

These technical guidelines have been compiled based on the results obtained from the
sub-project: “Development of reforestation techniques on wastelands after humanactivities” under the “Project of forestation in developing countries” of Forestry Agencyof Japan. The sub-project was implemented by Japan International Forestry Promotion
and Cooperation Center (hereinafter referred to as “JIFPRO”) from April 2011 to March2015.
The main activity of the sub-project was to establish reforestation techniques throughexperimental planting on the following two model reforestation sites:
1) Acid soil areas of backfilling land by coal mining activities in South Kalimantan
Province under tropical rainforest climate;2) Degraded lands by extensive farming activities in limestone areas in West Timor of
East Nusa Tenggara Province under tropical savanna climate.
While the present reforestation guidelines are prepared for the latter model site,namely the degraded farming land under dry climate of West Timor, they could also be
applied to limestone based tropical monsoon forest areas of South East Asia in general,such as eastern islands of Indonesia, inlands of Indochina and Myanmar, western partsof the Philippines, southern parts of Papua New Guinea and northern parts ofAustralia.
Figure 1 shows monthly rainfall patterns at Banjarmasin and Kupang, the nearest
weather stations of the two experimental sites in South Kalimantan and West Timor
respectively. According to the precipitation data from 2012 to 2014, the annual rainfall
in Kupang city ranges from 1,500 to 2,000mm. The rain is mainly distributed in wet
season from November to April while average rainfall during dry season is only 80mm.
The climate in West Timor is categorizes as tropical savanna by Köppen climateclassification or dry sub-humid land by the UNEP dryland classification (with annual
rainfall exceeding 800mm in the tropics). In East Nusa Tenggara Islands in general,
rainfall is less in northwestern parts (including Kupang city) than in southeastern parts.
However, the annual rainfall in the model areas in southern part of West Timor would

1not fall under 1,000mm. Thus, West Timor can be categorized as severe seasonal dry
area or a relatively humid semi-arid area.
As discussed in detail in Chapter 2, the soils of West Timor are originated from lifted
limestone with savanna climate, where tall forest tree species, such as broad-leaved
and/or deciduous trees, could potentially grow. These trees can tolerate weak alkaline
soils and dry period for several months.
However, relatively humid savanna vegetation (grassland with scattered shrubs)
currently predominates in substantial areas of West Timor. As discussed below, this is
the result of retreat of natural vegetation succession by reckless farming activities andrepeated burning for grazing.
Indonesian Forest authority and local people wish to recover the natural forests onthese degraded lands, and to increase production of fruit and other forest products inorder to improve local livelihood.
According to "Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku" (K.A. Monk et al. 1997), averageannual rainfalls and lengths of dry season in Kupang City in 1980 was same as thepresent conditions, but total rainfall during the dry season had exceeded 300mm. It may
have turned somewhat drier recently.

2

500
450
Mo

400

nth

350

ly

300

rai

250

nfal
l

Kupang city
Banjarmasin city

200
150
100
50
0
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12

MonthFig. 1 Monthly rainfall at Banjarmasin city (average year) and Kupang city (average
2012 to 2014)
Annual rainfall and ranges of monthly average temperature are 2,870mm and 26.1～
28.0℃ in Banjarmasin and 1,755mm and 24.9～28.8℃ in Kupang.
While the potential vegetation of Nusa Tenggara Province belongs to dry forest zone
with deciduous trees, about 30% of the provincial territory is currently covered by dry
shrub forest (so called Belukar in Indonesian) (K.A. Monk et al. 1997). In Timor Island,
annual slush and burning of forest lands has repeatedly been practiced for more than acentury, in order to claim the land for shifting cultivation, grazing and hunting. Such
exploitive human activities have reportedly led to disappearance of dense forests andinvasion ofsavanna vegetation consisting of pioneer shrubs and alang-alang(Imperata cylindrical) grass.
In the degraded grassland of Nusa Tenggara region, in addition to pioneer shrub species,
the following tree species have been said to be a indictor; ①Albizia chinensis, ②

Eucalyptus alba, ③Melaleuca cajuputi, ④Acacia sp., ⑤Causarina junghuhniana,⑥Ziziphus mauritiana, ⑦Tamarindus indica,⑧Plam（Borassus flabellife，Coryphautan）(A.K. Monk et al., 1997).

3

In addition to these species, Acacia farnesiana, Bauhinia malabarica, Cassia fistula,

Schleichera oleosa, Ziziphus mauritana etc. are also said to be found in the grasslandsof East Nusa Tenggara (Adisoemarto 1982). According to van Steenis (unpublished, in
A.K. Monk et al.), if such grasslands in Timor are protected from human activities,
many pioneer tree species in surrounding natural forests would invade into thegrasslands by through seed dispersal. These include Dillenia pentagyna, Pandanus sp.,

Nauclea orientalis, Aegle marmelos, Causarina junghuhniana, Acacia leucophloea,
Melaleuca cajuputi, Sesbania grandifolia, Eucalyptus alba, Tamarindus indica,
Timonius sericeus, Borassus flabellifer, Corypha utan etc. These species would makesmall and mosaic colonies. These species will provide valuable information in theselection of planting species for degraded drylands.
Production and accumulation of plant biomass per a unit area will decrease as thevegetation cover changes from closed forest to open forest, to savanna and to wilderness.
This means that absorption and accumulation of atmospheric carbon dioxide would also
be reduced accordingly. Thus, reforestation of devastated grassland in East Nusa
Tenggara Province will not only help improving local environments, but also contributeto the conservation of global environment.
1-2. Basic concept of reforestation in degraded dryland
From the ecological perspective, the final goal point of reforestation in degraded land
is to recover the original climax vegetation in the given area. However, on the land
which is currently used or has been used by local people, the first measure to be taken is
to stop the degradation at present stage. It is believed that, while 13% of vegetative
degradation or desertification in semi-arid land are caused by natural factors, 87% are
the consequences of anthropogenic factors such as overgrazing, over-cultivation, annual
slash and burning (Yoshikawa et al., 2004). Degraded grasslands scattered around
Kupan city are also not an exception. Therefore, in the first stage of reforestation,prohibition or restriction of human activities could, in many cases, support naturalvegetation transition, namely from grassland to shrub woodland to closed shrub forest
and to closed tree forest. However, as described before, it would to take several
hundreds of years, for a grassland and pioneer shrub land to recover to the originalstate of tropical high forest (van Steenis in K.A. Monk et al., 1997). It is considered thathuman reforestation activities could shorten this period.
The present technical guidelines describe the reforestation technologies recommendable4

for raised coral limestone areas under tropical savanna climate, which are degraded byabove-mentioned causes. In addition to potted seedling planting method widelypracticed in tropical zones, basic technologies and know-how provided in theseguidelines are summed up in the following four points except the soil perspective
described in Chapter 2. These are 1) selection of tree species in situ, 2) selection ofplanting time 3) production of seedling with strong drought resistance, and 4)
preserving soil moisture.
In addition to those, other techniques often used in semi-arid area (where annual
rainfall ranges from 300 to 800mm) are also introduced in Chapter 3, because dry
ecosystem may be progressing in West Timor.

5

Chapter 2. Technical Requirement and Implementing Procedure for
Reforestation in Semi-arid Limestone areas
2-1. Technical Requirement for Reforestation in Semi-arid Limestone areas
While primary obstacle of forest restoration in semi-arid limestone areas is theabsolute shortage of rainfall, other disadvantages in soil properties, such as effective
soil depth, soil particle composition, clay mineral composition and chemical property,
may make tree growing more difficult.
Basic techniques needed for reforestation in semi-arid limestone areas are as follows;
1) To understand the characteristic of soil environment in the target area (Chapter 3)2) To select planting tree species and enhance drought resistance of seedlings (Chapter
4-1)3) To improve soil to avoid desiccation of planted trees and site preparation (Chapter
4-2)4) Selection of planting time and watering (Chapter 4-3)
5) Nursery (measures to prevent damages by animals) and maintenance (measuresagainst wild fire) after planting

Step 1: Understand the characteristic of soil environment in the target area
(Chapter 3)
Step 2: Select planting tree species and enhance drought resistance of seedlings(Chapter 4)
Step 3: Improve soil to avoid desiccation of planted trees and site preparation(Chapter 4-2)
Step 4: Select planting time and watering(Chapter 4-3)
Step 5: Nursery (measures to prevent damages by animals) and maintenance(measures against wild fire) after planting(Chapter 5)
Figure 2-1. Technical Requirement and Implementing Procedure for Reforestation in
Semi-arid Limestone areas

6

7

Select drought/
humid resistant tree
species

Select too-humid
resistant tree
species(Valley, lower slope)(Ridge, upper slope)

Improve physicalproperties ofplanting hole

Water collecting
landscape

Water discharging
landscape

Swelling clay

Select highly
drought resistanttree species

Enhance water
retention capacity

Thin effective layer(soil volume)

Normal drought
resistant tree
species

Select normal
drought resistanttree species

Enhance water
retention capacity

Various tree species
are acceptable toselectThick effective layer

Water collecting
landscapeThin effective layer

Non Swelling clay

Thick effective layer(soil volume)

Water discharging
landscapein Semi-arid limestone areas

Reforestation target site

2-2. Implementing Procedure for Reforestation in Semi-arid Limestone areas (Decision Tree)Chapter 3. Classification of soils and their characteristics (property) found in lifted(raised) coral-rags under semi-arid climatic conditions
Central part of semi-arid tropical zone is categorized as tropical savanna (Aw) by
Köppen climate classification. Soil Moisture Regime (SMR) under U.S. Soil Taxonomy iscategorized as “ustic moisture regime”, where a part of soil profile is dry in more than 90
cumulative days per annum and wet in more than 180 cumulative days as well as atleast 90 consecutive days.
Soil Temperature Regime (STR) is categorized as “isohyperthermic”, where meanannual soil temperature is 22 ℃ or more, and the difference between mean summer
and winter soil temperature is less than 6 ℃.
While primary obstacle of forest restoration in such areas is the absolute shortage of
rainfall, other disadvantages in soil properties, such as effective soil depth, soil particle
composition, clay mineral composition and chemical property, may make tree growing
more difficult.
Even in the same semi-arid condition, soil types vary in relation to parent materials,
topography and land use history. Thus, for the success of reforestation in semi-arid zone,
it is crucial to understand soil characteristics of the target sites in order to select plant
species and planting method accordingly.
The pilot project was implemented with an aim of developing a simple manual forforest restoration on problem soil areas in semi-arid zone. Pilot plantation plots were
established on degraded lands due to agro-pastoral use which are widely found in West
Nusa Tenggara Region (West Timor) of Republic of Indonesia. Plant survival andgrowth rates are monitored.
Unlike other volcanic islands of Sunda, Timor Island is formed by uplifting of crust.
Geologically, majority of the island consists of uplifted coral reef limestones, whilemarine sedimentary rocks are found in some areas. Central part of the island ismountainous surrounded by low-to-middle altitude mild hills and plateaus. On thesehills and plateaus, exploitive agriculture and pasturage have been practiced for long
period of time.
This chapter describes main soil types found under semi-arid climate conditions,especially on uplifted coral reef limestone areas of West Nusa Tenggara Region (WestTimor). It also explains general characteristics of each soil type and how to determine
such soils.

8

3-1.

Soil environment of coral-rag areas in semi-arid land

Several different soils covers (types) are distributed in the target areas according to
the soil map of Kupang Region of West Timor.
According to the soil classification of WRB (World Reference Base for Soil Resources),
most widely distributed soils are Leptosols (equivalent of Entisols under U.S. Soil
Taxonomy) in association with Kastanozems (Mollisols, ibid.). Second largest soil types
are Luvisols (Alfisols, ibid.) mixed with Inceptisols (Cambisols, ibid.) where Cambisols
and Leptosols are also found in relatively large areas. Vertisols together with other soilorders are also found in some areas.
Characteristics of these soil types in accordance with WRB, and corresponding names
used in FAO Soil Map of the World and U.S. Soil Taxonomy are described in Box 1.
Box 1: Major soil types (under WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources) found in
uplifted coral-rags under semi-arid climate conditions–– Example of West Timor ––Followings are the five major soil types which may be found in Kupang Region of West
Timor. Characteristics of each soil and their corresponding names defined in FAO Soil
Map of the World and U.S. Soil Taxonomy are described below.
✓ Leptosols:
Leptosols are so-called immature soils which comprise very thin soils over continuousrock (partially weathered or highly calcareous hard rock) and soils that are extremelyrich in coarse mineral fragments.
Leptosols strongly reflect characteristics of parent materials. Calcareous soils are
more fertile in chemical property than non-calcareous types, have good drainage but
their low water retention capacity limits effective soil volume for supporting rootsystems.
Leptosols include Lithosols of the FAO Soil Map of the World (FAO–UNESCO,
1971–1981), Lithic subgroups of the Entisol Order or Rendoll (subgroups of Mollisols) of
the US Soil Taxonomy.
✓Kastanozems：
Kastanozems, which are found in dry zones, have dark brown surface soils with richorganic matter and calcareous or gypsum subsoils. Their dark surface horizon (Mollichorizon) is thinner and not as dark as that of Chernozems. Biological production is low
under dry climate. The soil have high base saturation and the pH (H2O) is neutral to9week alkaline. Because of limited infiltration due to thin Mollic horizon with low
porosity (40-55%), cultivation on this soil type is susceptible to water erosion of topsoils.
The name ‘Kastanozems’ is used in the legend of FAO and Ustolls (related to Mollisols)in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
✓Luvisols：
Luvisols have subsurface horizons with high concentration of high activity clays. They
are high in cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation, with low aluminum
saturation. Luvisols have rich chemical property. This is because that the soil nutrientsare kept under dry climatic environment, where leaching process is restricted. The pH(H2O) is neutral to moderately alkaline. Drainage is generally good, but infiltration islimited when fine clays are accumulated in lower horizons. The name ‘Luvisols’ is usedin the legend of FAO and equivalent of Alfisols in U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
✓Cambisols：
Cambisols are characterized by slight to moderate weathering of parent material andfound in various environmental conditions. The soil properties widely vary in mineralcomposition, chemical and physical properties. Most Cambisols have medium texture,stable soil structure, high porosity and good internal drainage. Cambisols are mildly
acidic to neutral in pH (H2O) and generally fertile. The name ‘Cambisols’ is used in FAO
legend and include Dystrochepts and Eutrochepts (both are types of Inceptisols) in U.S.
Soil Taxonomy.
✓Vertisols：
Vertisols are dark, clayey deep soils dominated by swelling clay minerals such as
smectite, that expand upon wetting and shrink upon drying. They form wide cracks
from the soil surface down to at least 50 cm depth when drying out. The upper part ofthe soil commonly consists of strong and columnar soil structure. In the subsoil a typicalvertic horizon slickenside develops. Vertisols are relatively rich in chemical property
but have shortcomings derived from their physical characteristics: low hydraulicconductivity when wet and a rapid water loss through the cracks when dry. Both FAO
Soil Map of the World and U.S. Soil Taxonomy use the name ‘Vertisols’

Above mentioned soil distribution in Timor Island shows the coexistence ofrelatively mature soils with thick soil layers (such as Kastanozems and Luvisols) andimmature thin soils with gravelly layers (such as Leptosols) and weakly developed soils

10such as Cambisols. Such mixed distribution “mature” and “immature” soils may havebeen formed in association with geomorphological changes overtime and agro-pastoral
land use practices in the area.
3-2.

Inter-relationship among soil types, topography and land use

Lifted coral reef land in semi-arid zones generally forms wavy/undulating topography.
Only shallow and gravelly AC soils (Leptosols) often develop over silicon-deficit
limestone, where formation of crystalline silicate clay mineral is limited. Rendzina istypically found in topsoil (A horizon) which lay immediately over the parent material(limestone) without development of subsoil (B horizon). On undulating landscapes, soil
denudation usually dominates on convex slopes while sedimentation occurs on concave
slopes.
A survey conducted in the target area of West Timor revealed the fact that such land
has long been used for agro-pastoral activities. Severe erosive effects on convex land
surface have led to loss of fine-textured topsoil (fine earth materials). As a result, landwith shallow soil with rich coarse fragments (Leptosols) is left abandoned as degraded
land or used only for extensive agriculture or pasture land.
On the other hand, soil materials washed down from upper slopes by erosion are
accumulated on depositional landforms such as mildly concave slopes and depressions
edging convex slopes. In such areas, relatively thick and fertile soils such as
Kastanozems are formed in accordance with the types of local parent materials and soil
formation process. Such soils are being cultivated selectively due to their fertileness.
On relatively flat plateaus and mildly raised slopes, soil materials are not eroded andstay on the land surface. Such soils are rich in iron oxide minerals that are formed byweathering of limestones. Relatively well-developed red to dark-reddish Cambisols withgood drainage occur on such terrain. Some of such soils with thick effective layer andhigh water retention capacity, are actively used for agro-pastoral activities. Concave
slopes, where soils with thick effective layers occur, are also water catchment wheresoils are kept relatively moist. Thus, such land is typically used for crop cultivation
despite semi-arid climatic condition characterized by long dry season and limited
rainfall during wet season.
Convex slopes with thin and gravelly soils are also water discharging landscapesimultaneously, where soils are dryer due to low water retention capacity and excessive

11

drainage due to high porosity. Such soils are either abandoned as degraded land or used
for pasture and extensive crop cultivation. Soil conservation and development measuresneed to be taken on such land by increasing vegetation cover and organic matter supply
by afforestation activities.
Where there is supply of silicon from upper slopes, which have been produced byweathering of silicicolous rocks, clayey and vertic Luvisols and Vertisols occur.
3-3.

Soil type classification where afforestation and reforestation can be planned.

Based on the above observation, the following four soil types are identified as mainsoil types occur on raised coral-rag areas.
i)

Gravelly and immature soils ( Leptosols / Entisols)

Leptosols cover largest areas of plateaus in West Timor and are one of the main target
soils for forest restoration degraded area in East Nusa Tenggara. Mixture of Red todark-red Cambisols and Kastanozems with dark brown topsoils are also found in thisarea. In general, soils of this type are widely distributed on convex slopes, where finesoil materials are lost by erosion resulting from long intensive agriculture and livestock
production. As a result, the soils have extremely thin effective sola and rich in stones
and gravels with frequent limestone outcrops. Parent materials of raised coral reef havealkaline pH (pH 7 to 8 by field measurement). Water retention capacity as well as
nutrient supply of soils with such characteristics are expected to be low.
ii)

Relatively deep soils with red to dark reddish color (Cambisols/Inceptisols)
Red to dark reddish Cambisols occur on the plateaus or mild slopes on uplifted

coral-reef areas together with Leptosols described above. Cambisols have alkaline soil
reaction of pH 7 to 8. Because of their distribution on mostly flat or gently sloping
terrain, soil loss and erosion rate are relatively small (10 cm to 80 cm) and soil layers
are relatively thick. Since calcareous parent materials release little silicone byweathering, normal formation of silicate clay mineral is restricted. Most part offine-textured soil materials consists of secondary mineral represented by iron oxides.
With relatively large effective soil volumes, Cambisols in the target area areconsidered as soils with fewer disadvantages in chemical property, except for deficiencyof nitrogen and phosphate.
On the other hand, pseudo sand-like fine aggregates are formed in this type ofsoils. Extremely fine pores within such fine aggregates hold water with very highretention, and holding capacity of available water that is used by plants is restricted.
Water deprivation could stunt vegetation growth.

12

iii)

Dark brown soils with high organic concentration in topsoil (Kastanozems /Mollisols)
Kastanozems with dark brown topsoils occur on gently sloping concave terrain
alongside with Cambisols. Soil materials washed down from upper convex terrain aredeposited and stabilized in such concave area, forming relatively thick effective soil
layers (approx 50-100 cm). In addition, humic substance formed by continuous supply ofplant organic matter are accumulated as persistent calcium salt of humus.
As a result, topsoils exhibit dark color and contain relatively large amount of organic
matter and possess better physical and chemical properties accordingly.
Kastabizems, as well as above mentioned Cambisols, are considered as lessproblematic soils in the target areas since topsoils rich in organic matters are
considered to be fertile. But since mineral soil components mainly consist of iron oxideminerals, water retention capacity of this soils may be limited like Cambisols.
iv)

Clayey soils with vertic characteristic(vertic Cambisols -Vertisols / vertic

Inceptisols - Vertisols
Clayey soils with vertic characteristics, that well upon wetting and shrink upon drying
are found in part of relatively steep hills and mountainous areas. Main parent materialof such soils is considered to be limestones, since they are partly exposed to soil surface.
It is considered that mixture of silicone produced by weathering of silicate rocks andsilicate clay minerals, especially 2:1 type clay minerals such as smectite and vermiculitewith swelling-shrinking characteristics, generated from limestones under highconcentration of Ca and Mg in soil systems.
The pH is alkaline from 7.6 to 7.9. Soils become extremely hard in dry season due toexistence of 2:1 type clay minerals. Many surface cracks (mostly from 2-4 cm in width)
are formed by drying of shrinking clays. Due to excessive drainage through thesesurface cracks, soils may be kept dry even during scarce rains. Cutting of seedlings
roots may also restrict regeneration of vegetations in some cases.
During wet season, on the other hand, soil porosity decreases considerably by swellingof clay minerals and result in extremely poor internal drainage. Excessive moisture incoils could cause restricted growth and damage of root systems.
Since throughout the sola, soils are clayey and crack formation prevail, if developmentof slikensides are observed in lower layers, the soil is classified as Vertisols. Whenslikensides are not observed, the clay eluvi-illuviation is nor normally observed. In suchcase, the soil can be classified as vertic Cambisols.

13BOX 2: Profiles Major Soil Types found in Coral-Rag Areas in Semi-Arid Land

１

２

３

４

Figure: Profiles of four major soil types typically found in West Timor
No 1: Stony immature soil (Leptosols / Entisols), No 2: Reddish to dark reddish
relatively thin soils (Cambisols/Inceptisols), No 3: Dark brown soils with high organic
concentration on surface layers (Kastanozems / Mollisols), No 4: Clayey soils with vertic
characteristic (vertic Cambisols -Vertisols / vertic Inceptisols - Vertisols)

14Chapter 4.

Reforestation technologies in degraded dryland originated from limestone

Major impediments to vegetation growth in degraded dryland in general are (1) lackof moisture and (2)movements of topsoils. However, it is considered that the adverse
impacts of soil movements are insignificant in tropical savanna climates, except incoastal sand areas. Thus, this chapter focuses on the countermeasures to be taken
against lack of moisture during reforestation activities in semi-arid and dry sub-humid
areas (annual rainfall about 1,000mm, more than 6 months of dry season with monthly
rainfall below 50-60mm,under UNEP classification). Considering the current situationthat the climate in East Nusa Tenggara became a little drier due to the deforestationand degradation, this chapter also mentions other reforestation technologies used in thesemi-arid areas (annual rainfall 300-800mm, UNEP)
Related guidelines are also found in two JIFPRO reports; “Re-vegetation manuals foryellow sand measures” (2008, JIFPRO) regarding vegetation recovery technologies insemi-arid deserts of continental Central Asia and “Guidelines for afforestation to
improve forest vegetation and water supply” (2014, JIFPRO) which describes
significance and necessity of afforestation at semi-arid area of Kenya.
4-1. Drought resistance of planting tree species
1）Selection of planting tree species
When selecting planting species in an afforestation project, firstly, the purposes of the
project and then the environmental conditions of the sites need to be taken into
consideration. The purposes of this sub-project is to develop afforestation technologies
on the land degraded by human activities and to contribute to the improvement of local
livelihoods. From the ecological standpoint, in order to recover the vegetation on
degraded land, the first candidate species should be the ones that are currently
regenerating and the climax forest tree species that used to grow in the area. However,these species alone cannot meet the needs of local residents and also immediate
re-planting of climax tree species on degraded bare land is too risky. Thus, it isrecommendable that domestic and exotic tropical tree species that have already beenplanted in Indonesia be included as candidate species. In order to identify these species,
the ecological and distributional characteristics of approximately 90 candidate species
are studied. The results are shown in Attachment 2, Table of Characteristics ofAfforestation Tree Species of this report.
As the next step, the tree species suitable for environmental conditions of theplanting land were chosen. The annual rainfall of the planting site ranges from1,500mm to 2,000mm. 95% of which concentrates in 6 months of rainy season, leaving

15

remaining 6-months dry season extremely drought condition. Given the condition andsince pioneer trees or light demanding trees have high adaptability against dry bareland, such trees as pioneer and drought tolerant species (for example, deep-rooting
and/or deciduous trees) were selected from the above mentioned table as the candidate
trees.
Regarding further information about planting tree species that are tolerant to tropicaldry climate are described by Asakawa (1999). He classified dry conditions by length ofrainy season and amount of annual rainfall, and the tolerant trees species to them arelisted in Table 4 and 5 in his book “Afforestation Technology in the Tropics”. Chapter 1of this book also describes the indicator tree species of savanna grassland and thepioneer tree species invading into the grassland in Timor are as candidate tree species.
The planting sites of this sub-project is covered by soils derived from limestone. In dry
climate conditions, the surface soils tend to accumulates salts and prone to alkalineconditions. For this reasons, it is necessary to select tree species that are not only
tolerant to drought but also to salinization and alkalization. Relationship between tree
species and soil conditions in West Timor are described in Chapter 2. Tree species thatare resistant to high salt and alkaline soils can be selected from the “Table of
Afforestation Tree Species Characteristics” in Attachment 2. Worldwide tree species ofhigh salt tolerance and alkali-resistant tree species are listed up in the books by
Asakawa (1999) and Tumbull (1986).
From the groups of the tree species mentioned above, it is desirable to select theplanting tree species in accordance with requirement of local residents (refer toAttachment A-1 PlantedTreeSpecies_Adequateness). Timber and multi-purpose tree
species such as Swietenia macrophylla, Pterocarpus indica, Mangifera indica, Annona

muricata, and Syzygium sp. could be selected for a test planting from the view point ofresident’s request. By using a healthy and well harden seedling stocks and by promoting
a rapid root development after planting (these described below), these species canprobably survive and grow slowly, even if they have poor drought tolerance. One of themethods is to plant these species at base of slope where the soil moisture conditions
appear to be relatively good.
Finally there is a problem of seed and seedling supply. When the preparation term islimited, the supplying of seedling stocks become sometimes the limiting factors for
species selection. The species used in this project (Attachment A-1) is also no exception.

162）Enhancing drought resistance of seedlings
Relatively young seedlings with small capacity pot are generally used in case ofindustrial plantation in tropics. On the other hand, larger planting stocks (over 50cm
seedling in height) are used in the semi-arid area, because this method often supports
higher survival and growth rate of planted trees.
Regardless of the size of the seedlings, the most important thing is to enhance plant
resistance to strong sunlight and drying when raising seedlings. In the tropics, seedgermination and seedling are often carried out in a mild environment under the shadenet. Therefore, in order to enhance drought resistance of the seedlings, hardening
operation should be done before shipment. Such a practice is necessary for the seedings
to withstand intense heat and dryness of the planting sites. Details of hardening works
are explained in Table 1. Duration and strength of the hardening process need to bemodified in according with the species characteristics and seedlings production
processes. It is desirable to carry out the hardening process while observing the growthof the seedlings.
Seedlings produced without hardening process have some characteristics unsuitablefor planting on degraded bare land with long dry season. For example, the seedlings
grew up with full irrigation and mild light nurseries have generally tall but slim stem,
thin and broad leaves, and poorly developed root systems (Photo 1).
Table 1. Hardening of the seedlings
PurposeBy enhancing seedlings’ resistance capacity to dry conditions understrong light in order to improve their survival rate.

durationandtimingOne to a few months after reaching the required seedling height (Thefaster growth of seedling is, the shorter treatment term is).
This will be done just before shipment of the seedling.

Major1) Gradual reduction of watering up to and 1/2 to 1/3 of normal

treatments

watering.
2) Expose to sunlight fully. In the case of seedlings raised under dark
shade, gradually shift from full shade to open light toward the final
stage.
3) Generally reduction of fertilizers. When fertilizers are necessary,
reduce N and enrich the supply of P, K, and Ca.
4) Wide spacing between seedlings for stimulating growth of stems
and roots.

Major change of1) Thick and hard stem. Suppression of height growth.

17seedling form

2) Formation of hard, thick and small leaves. Reduction oftranspiration rates and increase of resistance to strong sunlight3) Well development of root systems. Shoot/Root ratio is small.

Cut

Photo.

1

Seedlings with poorroots grown under dark shade.

Photo. 2

Seedling grown at open bed.

The soil caught firmly by the roots when plastic pot
was broken, but thick root emerged outside of the pot.
This root should be timely cut off at nursery practices.

When potted seedlings are raised on ground surface, it is important to cut off the roots
growing below the pot by periodically moving them (Photo 2). In case of net shelves, root
trimming is unnecessary because the roots grow out from the pot dry up naturally. In
any case of nursery practices, seedlings should not be kept in a pot too long until theroots are coiling at the bottom, nor too short (or in dark condition) when roots can only
poorly develop. In the latter case, soils fall off when removing from the pot, leaving bareroots at the time of planting.
In summary, the species with weaker drought resistance or with slow root
development must be nurtured to enhance their strength and drought tolerance.
4-2. Operations for avoiding desiccation of planted trees
Of the following measures against moisture shortage of planting sites, 1)-i) and 2)-i)
are suitable for use in West Timor, and the others are generally used in more drier
regions (e.g. semi-arid area by UNEP classification).

18i) Micro catchment of rainwater, the promotion of a water penetration and a water
holding capacity of soils
Micro catchment is a method of inducing rainwater to the planted trees by building a
low embankment around the trees (Fig. 2, Photo 3). In addition to this, low soil bank
(Photo. 4) or stone bank and groove or terrace in mountain slope (Photo. 5, Fig. 3) aremade in order to prevent the runoff of rainwater and to stimulate the water penetration
into planting holes.

Fig. 2

Typical water catchment banks. From the left hand; open type, fish scale type, closed type

Photo 3 Water catchment banks and planting holes (Asakawa, 1999)19

Photo 4

Long type water catchment bank in Burkina-Faso

SubsoilPhoto 5

Planting in terrace on mountain

Fig. 3slope (Kourai, 2004)

Vertical section of terrace in Loess
Plateau of China (Fujimori, 2007)

In a case of terraces under drier conditions, there are various methods such as wider
spacing between terraces, lower planting density and so on. Lowering the planting
density is effective to reduce water consumption by leaf transpiration per land area.
These water-collecting methods have been widely adopted throughout the world inafforestation works in severe dry land in order to combat desertification.
ii)

Increase water holding capacity of soils:

Degraded dry lands by human activities often have low water holding capacity due toshallow top soils, hard soil particles and less organic materials. Digging as large anddeep hole as possible and then putting organic matters or topsoils into the bottom of the20

hole will improve the water holding capacity of deep soil layers. This operation iseffective to allow the tree roots to grow deeply. In addition to organic matters, charcoal
is also effective for a holding capacity of water and minerals. Water retention agents(polymeric absorbents, hydrogel) are used by some industrial plantation companies inIndonesia. Water holding capacity of soil will be improved by putting water retention
agents with plenty of water into the planting hole at the time of planting or attaching
the agents around the root. The agents generally release and supply water to the root
for about a week after the planting. In tropics, there is sometimes a period of no rain fora week to 10 days (dry spell) at the beginning or the end of rainy season. If the dry spell
come just after the planting, it is highly possible to dry out and kill the seedlings
because the roots is not fixing yet. With the application of water retention agents at thetime of planting, the survival of planted seedling will increase.
Water retention agent in dried solid form used in this experimental site in East Nusa
Tenggara absorbed water 100-150 times its weight for 5 hours. Place 5 litter of the agent
to a planting hole (30cmX30cm and 40cm in depth) and mix it with the bottom half soilof the hole. In this experiment, water retention agent was applied at the end of dry
season, in other words, before the rainy season. There were no rain for 2 weeks after
planting but all the planted 16 trees survived thanks to the agent and all fixed becauseof the rain falling 2 weeks later (photo 6).
However, if the water retention agents have larger water absorbing capacities than theroots, they could deprive water from the tree roots in reverse. That point should betaken into account when selecting the sort of water retention agents.

(a)Put water retention agent into hole(b) Planting

21

(c) Planted seedling 3 months after plantation (d) 100% survived (all 16 planted trees)

Photo 6

Planting with the application of water retention agent at experimental site in

East Nusa Tenggaraiii) Size of planting hole
In relation to i) and ii) of the section 1 above, let’s introduce an example of land
preparation in semi-arid zone in central part of Myanmar. In that area, annual rainfall
is about 800mm and continuous 7 months have rainfall less than 100mm. They dig
planting holes of 30cm width, 90cm length and 60cm depth during the dry season(Photo 7). Then they put back topsoils and humus in the center bottom of the hole.
Excess subsoils are used for making small embankment which is built at the side of thehole in order to collect rainwater. This planting hole can be sufficiently effective in thewater catchment, penetration and holding as described above. Hundred percent ofsurvival of planted trees have been achieved at the place where watering could done at
the same time of planting. The tropical monsoon zone in Southeast Asia, including thesavanna zone of West Timor, where drying is weaker than that in Myanmar, theseplanting method would not be necessary.

22

90cm

30cm
30cm
30cm
Photo 7a deep planting hole and its vertical section (right). Wideness of hole is 30cm.

Left hand side of the hole is topsoil and the right is subsoil. A part of subsoil is used forwater catchment bank at the side of the hole. Big seedlings of nearly 1 meter in heights
is planted.

2) Prevention measures of moisture evapotranspiration from soil and planted treesi) Prevention of moisture evaporation from soil:
Prevention of moisture evaporation from soil is usually done by mulching which
prevents direct exposure of soil surface to sunlight. Mowed grass, sometimes smallstone or sand are laid around planted trees as mulching materials (Photo 8). The
surface of sand dunes is very dry but the sand at 10cm depth is often wet. Inspired bythis idea, farmers practice ‘sand cover agriculture’, a method to cover farmland with athin sand layer, in dry areas of northwest China (Koizumi et al., 2000). In heavily
degraded land in Bolivia, as described the next section, a method of direct seed sowing
and stone mulching was applied in afforestation projects (Photo 9). These methods may
not be use in tropical areas because temperature of sand or stone may rise too high anddamage stems of planted trees. Another method to prevent evaporation of ground waterfrom the soil surface is shallow tilling of soil surface in order to cut the capillaries of soil
water (Fig. 4). In the case of West Timor, mulching with organic matters such as mowed
grass is recommendable if such materials are available.

23

Decrease of moisture evaporation from
Soil surface
Tillage of Top soil

Increase of soil capillary

Dry soil

Wet soilwater
Photo 8

Grass mulching (Asakawa, 1999)

Fig. 4

Cutting of soil capillary water surface
by tillageii) Restraining of transpiration from transplanted seedlings
It is important to maintain good water balance of seedlings immediately after
planting in order to support their survival and subsequent growth. Transplanted
seedlings have limited water absorption capacity for some days until their roots are
expanded into soil. During this time, moisture evaporation from their twigs and leaves
need to be minimized. Best time for transplanting deciduous trees is, thus, when they
defoliate. As for the species with high coppice ability, stump seedlings whose shoots androots are partially removed, are used for transplanting because water loss from theseedlings can be minimized. Use of stamp seedlings is famous for teak planting in
Thailand. Generally deciduous hardwood trees have strong sprouting force and also
hold sufficient amounts of storage materials in their bodies during dry season. They can
expand buds and roots even at a term of no photosynthesis activities. For the species
with such physiological ability, stamp seedlings can also be used in afforestation in dry
area. For example, it may be possible to cut the upper part of the shoot before shippingof potted seedling stocks, and then plant them after removing pot at the plantation sites(Fig. 5).
Asakawa (1999) listed the tree species which have high possibility of stamp planting(Table 2). It should be noted that levels of adaptability for stump seedlingtransplantation vary even among species listed in the table. For example, Verbenaceae
species belongs to the groups with high adaptability of stump planting while
Dipterocarpacaea belongs to weaker group. In any case, use of properly hardened
seedlings is important in transplanting.

24

Table 2

Tree species that are available to planting by stump seedling

Family nameSpecies nameAnacardiaceae

Spondias mangifera

Apocynaceae

Alstonia sp.

Bombacaceae

Bombax malabaricum，Ceiba pentandra

Boraginaceae

Cordia alliodora

Combretaceae

Terminalia sp.

Dipterocarpaceae

Shorea roxbrugii，Hopea orodata，Vatica odorata

Euphorbiaceae

Bischofia javanica

Leguminosae

Acacia sp.，Cassia sp.，Dalbergia sp.，Erythrina sp.，Gliricidia sepium，Leucaena luecocephala，Pterocarpus sp.，Xylia sp.

Lythraceae

Lagerstroemia speciosa

Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica，Cedrela sp.，Khaya sp.，Lovoa sp.

Moraceae

Chlorophora excelas

Rubiaceae

Adina cordifolia

Sterculiaceae

Triplochiton scleroxylon

Verbenaceae

Gmerlia arborea，Tectona grandis

1

2

3

1: Ordinary potted seedling,
2: Cut off upper stem of the seedling andtransport to field,
3: Planted stump seedling after removing
the plastic pot.

Fig. 5 Example of planting by stamp seedlings
Planting density is not so much important factor in the case of young tree plantations.
However, after 10 years or more of plantations, plantation with high tree density may
have a die back of tree top or sometimes death of a whole tree due to water constraint.
There is a possibility that water supply from highly closed forests in water reserve area
may decrease during dry season, too. Therefore, it is desirable to select a planting
density under consideration of annual rainfall. If annual rainfall is less than 800mm, it
would be difficult to make high density forests (e.g. >1,000/ha) in the tropics. In the areaof annual rainfall is less than 300mm, planting of trees other than special shrubs areusually difficult.
The climatic condition of West Timor is savanna climate with around 1,500mm or25

more of annual rainfall as described above. High forests with deciduous trees can beestablished there. In savanna area with annual rainfall less than 1,000mm (e.g.
southeast area of Sumba and Uetaru Island or central part of Myanmar), planting
density would be safe below several hundred per hectare. Indeed, the standard planting
density in semi-arid area of Myanmar is 750 seedlings/ha.
Underplanting method is also effective for protecting planted seedlings from thestrong sunlight (Photo 9). Sometimes, methods to cover planted trees by artificial
shades (netting or bamboo baskets) are tried in limited areas such as street trees andgarden trees. Coffee, cocoa or some agroforestry crops are usually grown under shadetrees.

Photo 9 Planting between trees (Asakawa, 1999)
3) Direct sowing and direct cutting-planting
Direct seed-sowing can sometimes be used in dry land and/or degraded land. Because
devastated drylands have less weed, germinated seedlings do not need to compete withweeds. Furthermore, the seedlings rarely die from little dryness because their roots
grow naturally into deep soil layer (Noda, 2000). It is important to combine the direct
sowing and other planting measures. For example, there is a successful example ofdirect sowing at degraded land by using terraces or groove construction and stonemulching (Photo. 9, Fig. 6 by Shiozuru 2003). Candidate species for direct sowing are
the species of large seed and pioneer species because these species can grow promptly
and vigorously even in degraded land. In other cases, the seeds of a grass (Agriophyllum

squarrosum) of semi-desert that can germinate as soon as they have some rain are
sprayed to prevent the shifting sand in devastated semi-desert. In greening of wide
areas, the aerial dissemination of tree seeds from an airplane is carried out in China,
Australia, etc. (Yoshikawa et al., 2004) .

26

Seedling
Stone

20 cm

Tillage 5cm
30cm
Photo. 9

Direct sowing of Acacia sp. in theFig. 6 Longitudinal schematic view of photo. 9

trench and stone mulching (Bolivia, Shiozuru, 2003)
Tree planting by direct cuttings to the bare ground are widely carried out in thesemi-arid areas of north China. Poplar and willow are suitable species for direct
cuttings, and their thick and long scions are inserted deeply into the soil before theirspring growth. Even in tropical areas, Gliricidia sepium, Caliandra calothyrsus,

Gmelina aborea, Pterocarpus indicus, Peronema canescens are easy to do cuttings, andthey are widely used such as hedges and boundary fences.
4-3. Selection of planting time and Increase of water supply to planted seedlingsi) Selection of planting time
Although this is a matter of common-sense, planting during early stage of rainy season
is the most important point under tropical savanna and tropical monsoon climates. In
the case of West Timor, the rainy season lasts from the middle of November to the
middle of April. The best planting time is therefore December to January, because
planting site gets fully moist and planted trees can develop their roots deeply until theend of rainy season. Development of roots into deep soils are important for a plant tosurvive during severe dry season for 6 months. In central dry zone in Myanmar, forexample, tree planting starts after the second rain of the rainy season. This is to firmly
confirm the start of rainy season, because in some years, rain may not start some timeafter the first rain of the season. Considering the plant physiology, dormant trees is27most suitable for planting as they are ready for budding at the end of dry season (plant
dormant period). Thus, it is recommendable to prepare the planting at early as possible
toward the end of dry season. By tilling of planting holes during the dry season, rainwater will penetrate into soils and water holding capacity will be enhanced. This will
help planted trees to tolerate temporal water deficiency before the roots develop andstimulate resuming of smooth regrowth.
ii) Watering
Continuous Irrigation: Under the tropical savanna climate such as West Timor whereannual rainfall is more than 1,000mm with 5-month rainy season, continuous irrigation
is not necessary. In the semi-arid and semi-desert areas, the water conduits from
irrigation dam and/or sub ground water are set up for farmlands, but these systems are
generally uncommon for tree plantation. Continuous supply of large amount of water insemi-arid area often leads to accumulation of salt on the ground surface. To prevent this,dripping irrigation method is adopted for fruit and agricultural crops (Yoshikawa et al.
2004), while this method is still at the experimental stage in tree plantation.
Temporal watering: When the water supply is needed at the tree planting site insemi-arid area, this would be done once at the same time of planting, or a few times
when rainfall is scarce. Planted trees are generally left under natural condition in manycases.

4-4. Summary of recommendations
Afforestation technologies at the lands where dry season are more than six months intropical savanna zones have been described in Chapter 3. Application places of thesetechnologies are mainly divided into two climatic areas from the view point of economy
and efficiency. Namely, in Southeast Asia, the first is the region where annual rainfall
exceeds 1,000mm (i.e. dry and semi-wet area)and the second is the regions whereannual rainfall is a range between 300 to 800mm (i.e. semi-arid area). The first places
are, for example, inland of Indochina Peninsula, East Java, the most parts of Nusa
Tenggara Islands and the second places are central area of Myanmar and southeast
area of Sumba Island etc.
In dry and semi-wet areas, for example where the annual rainfall is one thousand andhundreds mm like West Timor, it is recommended that the following afforestation
technologies are adopted.

281) To select high resistant species for drought. In other words, to select from thefollowing species groups; pioneer species, light demanding species, deciduous species,
deep-rooting species, species with hard and small leave, etc.
2) To plant the seedlings at moist soil conditions after start of rainy season, and then tofinish the last planting three months before rainy season ends. In order to keep
proper plant timing, it is desirable to finish land preparation such as digging holes
within dry season.
3) To raise strong seedlings for degraded dry lands. This can be done, for example, byhardening practices and root trimming in the nursery.
4) To reduce moisture evaporation from ground during dry season by the mowed-grassmulching around planted trees. It is recommended to mow the grasses at the plantedsite between the end of rainy season and the early dry season in order to prevent thewildfire and livestock entering. The mowed grasses can also be used as mulching.
5) To input the top soil or composts at the bottom of planting hole in order to stimulate
the root growth rapidly and deeply. This practice is important in all cases of tree
planting.
In addition to the above recommendations, in semi-arid areas where annual rainfall
is less than 1,000mm, the following treatments have been done in central arid zone in
Myanmar and Sahel area in Africa will be effective; 1) Setting up the micro-catchmentof rainwater, 2) digging the large planting hole in order to increase the water holding
capacity of soil, 3) watering at the time of planting, and 4) using the shade trees orunderplanting. In addition to these, it is safe to keep a low planting density of hundreds
per ha, because maintenance of high and dense forests is generally difficult in dryland.

29

Chapter 5. Maintenance and protection after tree planting (measures toprevent damages by animals and wildfires)
In general it is important to make Maintenance activities and protect the planted
trees after the plantation. Especially in semi-arid areas, there are many cases in whichplanted trees are damaged by grazing cattle and they are lost by wildfires during thelong dry season. Protective measures for the planted site are described below.
5-1. Protective measure against animal damage
In the semi-arid areas it is impossible to cultivate crops during the long dry season.
So extensive grazing is popular in many areas. During the dry season when thevicinity of planted site is burnt by wildfire, grass (food for cattle) becomes so scarcethat cattle may invade in the plantation to bite. Thus it is necessary to build a guard
fence around the planted site as below.
1) Set up a hedge (bio fence) around the planted site
Iron bar may be used as a pole of guard fence for planted site but it is expensive. Woodlogs go bad in a few years. So the tree species which can grow from stem cutting such as

Gliricidia sepium (Gamal) and/or Lannea coromandelica(Kedondong Pagar) are used as
the pole of bio fence. Bamboo or wire is tied around the pole to set up the fence. Suchfence is widely used in the semi-arid limestone areas because it can be set up easily andat relatively low cost.

Photo 1 Grazing cattle invading into the

Photo 2 Bio fence

plantation30

5-2. Protective measure against wildfire damage
If a wildfire occurs after the plantation, all the efforts for forest rehabilitation so far
will come to nothing. Two experimental sites among 4 of this project in East Nusa
Tenggara Province were damaged by wildfires (Photo 3, 4).

Photo 3Wildfire damage at the plantation Photo 4 Number tape melted by wildfire

Wildfire may occur by lightning or leaves rubbed each other in the dry forest area in
America and Australia. But it is rare in the grassland in East Nusa Tenggara Province.
It is reasonable to assume that fires are caused by human because they occurred in thedry season and there were no trees hit by lightning. Man-caused wildfire will be usuallyas follows; Fire spreading during slash-and-burn, firing to renew grass plant for grazing
cattle, mishandling of tobacco or bonfire and arson out of curiosity.
There are mainly two countermeasures against wildfire; technical countermeasureand social countermeasure.

1) Technical countermeasure to prevent wildfire damagei）Set up firebelt outside the tree planted area (photo 5)ii）Separate the tree planted area into some parts and set up firebelt between the parts.
iii）Remove completely the flammables such as dried grass within the planted areaiv）Prescribed burning/Controlled burning in the firebelt

31

Photo 5 Firebelt outside planted area

Photo 6 Prescribed burning/controlled burning(12m wide)

Source) The Nature Conservancy

2) Social countermeasure to prevent wildfire damagei）Regular patrol to the planted areaii）Set up a rule for the prevention of wildfire in the surrounding villagesiii）Introduce responsibility sharing system to manage the planted area and pay cash
reward to the effort to prevent a wildfire.
iv）Plant trees which will give benefit to the residents within or without the tree plantedarea.

References (order of the Japanese syllabary)
Asakawa Sumihiko (1999) Afforestation Technology in the Tropics
Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center 137pp.
Koizumi Hiroshi, Ohguro Toshiya, Mariko Shigeru (2000) Ecology of grassland anddesert, Invitation to Ecology (in serial)

Kyoritsu Shuppan Co., Ltd. 250pp.

Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center (2009)
Technical Manual for Reforestation in yellow sand areas (Measures against
desertification and greenery at arid land)

JIFPRO 203pp.

Korai Yasuyuki (2004) Introduction of afforestation case in Sichuan Province, China
Tropical Forestry N.S.61：53-60
Noda Naoto (2000) Afforestation by direct seeding of Senna siamea (Cassia siamea)(Follow-up report) –Appropriate technology to reduce risk in semi-arid land- Tropical
Forestry N.S.48：53-58
Fujimori Suehiko (2007) Afforestation technology in Loess Plateau in China
Tropical Forestry N.S.69：48-56

32

Shiozuru Takamichi (2003) Afforestation by direct seeding – project of afforestation anderosion prevention by local residents in Tarija valley in Bolivia, Tropical Forestry
N.S.58：31-40
Yoshikawa Ken, Yamanaka Norikazu, Ohte Nobuhito (2004)

Nature and Greenery ofarid land – for the restoration of ecosystem in the desertified land- Kyoritsu
Shuppan Co., Ltd.

233pp.
(available only in Japanese)

Adisoemarto、 S. (1982)

Sumber daya alam di Camplong dan Sekitarnya、 Kecamatan

Futule’u-Kabupaten Kupang Timor、 NTT. Lembaga Biologi National、 Indonesia
Kathryn A. Monk、 Yance De Fretes、 Gyatri Reksodiharjo-Lilley (1997) The Ecology of
Nusa Tenggara and Maliku、 Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. 966pp.
Turnbull、 John W. (1986) Multipurpose Australian Trees and Shrubs.
Australian Center for International Agriculture Research. 316pp.
van Steenis (1997) not published, referred to former book (K.A. Monk et al. 1997)33

Appendix 1. Suitability of the planting tree species which were used for the
rehabilitation in degraded drylands based on the result of the demonstration study
Suitability
Penfui

NekbanNo.

Planting tree species

Vertic / clay soil
2012/
2013

1 Annona muricata
2 Persea americana
3 Santalum album
4 Eucalyptus urophylla
5 Syzygium cumini
6 Syzygium samarangense
7 Aleurites moluccana
8 Acacia sp.
9 Cassia siamea
10 Dalbergia latifolia
11 Enterolobium cyclocarpum
12 Pterocarpus indicus
13 Samanea saman
14 Tamarindus indica
15 Artocarpus heterophyllus
16 Casuarina junghuhniana
17 Sterculia foetida
18 Schleichera oleosa
19 Anacardium occidentale
20 Azadirachta indica
21 Swietenia macrophylla
22 Toona sureni
23 Citrus sp.
24 Manilkara zapota
25 Planchonia valida
26 Gmelina arborea
27 Tectona grandis
Number of the species

2013/
2014
(replant)

Silu
Soe
Shallow Shallow
Deep soil
rocky soil rocky soil
2012/
2013

2013/
2014

2014/
2015

△

○
△

○

◎
◎
○

△
○

○

○
◎

△
◎
○
△

◎
○

◎

◎

◎
◎

△
△
○

△

○

△
◎

○
○

○
○
○

◎
◎

○
◎
◎
◎

○
○

△

◎

◎

◎
△
◎
8

◎
○
10

< Suitability >◎ : Excellent○ : Good△ : Fair / Poor
N.A. : No data is available

34

◎
△
8

○

◎
◎

15

14

35

Indonesian names are cited by PROSEA and local names are advised by Ms.

areshallow,

Oil extraction from seed.
Oil used for cosmetics snd

33℃, daily deviation: 8～10℃. Very

sub-tropical rain forest and seasonal

H:20m.

2 ℃ ). Suitable temperature: 25 ～-Origin: Mexico to Peru. Tropical and(Avokad)tree

Fruit use. Fresh eating.

Small

Resistant to low temperature (1～Lauraceae.

Persia Americana

Grafting

good strain to stocks from seed.

Propagation: by seed.

No resistant to cool temperature.

roots

1,000m. Latitudinal limit: 25°S

Asunsuitable under dry conditions.

spell. Hightemperature and high humidity. Up todrysoils.

shortforestwit

water logging. Good on well drained Good fragrance and taste.

Tropical rain forest ~ tropical seasonal

Use for juice and ice cream.

common soils. Unsuitable under

H:3~10m. Origin: Tropical Ameica.

(Sirsak)

Fruit use. Fragrant fresh fruit.

Use and other topics

Tree would be able to grow on

physiology,

Annonaceae. Shrub ~ small tree -conditions,

Annona muricata

Sitepropagation

Distribution and general feature(Indonesian name)Scientific nametrees were also listed up.

Desitarani in Ministry and field staffs of Forestry Research Institute, Kupang. Books used for investigation of these characteristics ofspecies are investigated on the characteristics above.

As among 27 species, 2 species are unknown in suitable scientific name – Acacia and Citrus. 25

Origin and natural habitats, preferable site conditions, propagation, utilization and other noteworthy topicsof these tree species were investigated.

Nusatenggara Province).

27 trees are examined on survival and growth at the experimental plots set on the over exploited areas in Nusatenggara Tomor (East

Appendix 2. Characteristics of trees examined in the experimental plots of exploited semi-arid areas, Nusatenggara
Timor.

36

Wood use – medium weight –S.G.0.66。

mixed planting with other trees isgood. Good on moist soil. Not good

planting.

3,000m.

toAustralia.

Tropical

Himalaya(Jamblang,

Local

Myrtaceae. Small tree - H:10～15m.

Syzygium cumini

planting : 500～1,400m (Bali).

ineasy because of rapid growth after

temperature: 8~12℃. Elevation: Up toelevation

Management after planting is also

tropical seasonal forest. Minimum
Suitableare very easy. Propagation: by seed. As initial growth is good andResistant to dryness.

Tolerant to various types of soil.

sunlight.

located in high elevation. Member ofstrongPlanting & natural regeneration&in National Park of East Timor where

dryness

toMoluccas Islands (8～10 ﾟ S). Growing

E.

alba
Domestic species.

with

is

Fodder use. Medicinal use of

Fruit use. Fresh fruit & juice.

observed.

Hybridis recommended in Indonesia.

wood quality is good, planting

places are good in Indonesia.

Plantations in Bali & otherwood – S.G. about 0.7.

soil. Resistant to dryness. Resistant

Wood use – medium ～ heavy

200cm. Lesser Sunda Islands andplants are needed in juvenile stage.

10℃. Cooler site in tropical areas.

Domestic species

S.G.0.9。

(Ampupu)

fragrance would be more. Host

1,200m. Minimum temperature: overBest on deep, moist, well drained

grow fast on sandy soil, intensity of

600 ～ 1,500mm. Elevation: 600 ～Wood use – heavy wood –Myrtaceae. Large tree - H:55m、DBH:

sunlight. Although tree does not

Tropical seasonal forest. Precipitation:

incense production.

Essential oil, sandal wood andEucalyptus urophylla

well drainage sites. Need well

DBH:30cm. India, Indonesia ~ PNG.

(Cendana)

Good on deep & moist soil. Good inimportant.

Seed loses activity in a week.

Santalaceae. Small tree - H:10m 、

tree or shelter trees are very

～2,500mm. Propagation: by seed.

on sea water and Cl-. Precipitation: At planting time, supporting

medicines.

weak to windy condition. Therefore,

Santalum album

forest with short dry spell.

37

forestwithdry

Suitable pH ranges pH5~8.0.

forest to sub- tropical seasonal forest.

to

Sumatra. Dry dipterocarp forest and(Johar)Leguminosae. Small to medium size

-DBH:50cm、H:20-30m. India to(=Senna)× seasonal forest. Montane species..

Acacia auricuriformis ×mangium ?. TropicalsiameaCassiamangium

auricuriformis

SimilarEndemic? in Timor. Hybrid of Acacia

tree.

(Local name – Akasia)

size

Leguminosae,

Acacia spp. (auraria?)

Mediumdryness and strong sunlight.

Good on deep soil. Resistant toGood on moist sites in dry areas.

Should be examined.

base with pale stripes – very

wood S.G.0.8 ～ 1.0. Blackish

Wood use - (iron wood) –heavy

Endemic in Timor?.

Domestic species.

Should be preserved in Timor.

Domestic species?

Member of Lowland forest.

ofcandle,toxic

material

oil,

some

No information on wood use.

paints, so on.

medicinal

Industrialuse,

includesubstances.

Nuts

Nut use – Candle Nuts.

other food.

fragrant extraction is used for

Fruit has fragrance. The

Fruit use. Fresh fruit is edible.

Domestic species.

seeds, locally. Fire wood.

27.4 ℃ . Precipitation: 640~4,290mm.

Propagation: by seeds.

survive on wide range of sites.

Islands? Mainly dry tropical seasonal-18.7~

Resistant to dryness. It can

is not clear. India to Polynesian

Up to 1,200m. Temperature:

sandy soil and limestone hills.

effective for good growth.

-DBH:150cm、H:10~40m. Detail origin

to(Kemiri)up
Natural habitats are well drained

LowlandFertilization is

Euphorbiaceae. Small to medium size

spell.

sub-water level.

Suitable on sandy soils with highSuitable on moist clayey soils.

conducted for getting good quality.

Propagation: by seed. Grafting is

Aleurites moluccana

1,200m。

slightSemarang, Islands. Tropical rain forest with

Local name - Jawa)(JambuDBH:25 ～ 50cm. Malaya, Andaman

drysamarangense

distinct

Myrtaceae. Small tree - H10～18m、season. Up to 600m.

seasonal

Syzygiumname – Jambu Air)38

on well drained soils. Soil with poor

soil.
Propagation: by seed – easy.

America. Evergreen & dry topicalseasonal forest.

(Sengon Buto)

planting is introduced. Plantation

record: DBH:49cm/60y. (Malaysia)。 Wood: yellow fluorescence.

Elevation: up to 100m in PNG, but it

can be planted up to 600m.

Stump

Propagation:seasonal forest. Rich in riparian areas.

seed.

demander. Resistant to dryness.

Tropical rain forest~deciduous tropicalbygrows various types of soil. Light

brown

wood

with

and

wood

works.
Domestic species. Listed on red

furniture

One of the most useful wood forbeautiful dark yellow stripes.

Reddish

S.G.0.55~0.90.

pacific islands. Very wide distribution.

–

name – Kayu Merah)

hardwoodsoil in riparian areas. The tree

DBH:350cm 、 H:40m. Myanmar to(Sonjokembang, Local

Wood use – medium to heavy

Better growth is expected on deep

Leguminosae. Medium to large tree -East Asian countries.

land rehabilitation in SouthOne of the suitable tree for

Shade tree: coffee plantation.

Low durability.

Wood use – light wood - 0.47.

Domestic species.

Pterocarpus indicus

sunlight. Adapted to poor nutrient

DBH:300cm. Originated from Central

cyclocarpumof branches and roots is possible.

Plantation: up to 1,000m.

Leguminosae. Large tree - H15~30m、 Resistant to dryness and strong

fuel wood. Leaves: fodder.

6 ﾟ C. As fruiting is not good, cuttingof precipitation. Up to 600m in Java.

Enterolobium

Young tree are very good forstrong sunlight. Min. temperature:

forest. Less than 6 months of 40mm>

beautiful dark purplish color.

suitable. Resistant to dryness andforest to tropical deciduous seasonal

0.80~0.86. Wood shows very

nutrient and rocky soil are notmedium to heavy wood S.G.

Wood use (rose wood) –and wood carvings.

beautiful. Good for furniture

Indonesia. Tropical evergreen seasonalto

H:43m 、 DBH:180cm.

(Sonokeling)

Nepal

Good on deep and moist soil. Good

Leguminosae. Medium to large tree -Propagation: by seed.

Dalbergia lathifolia

tropical seasonal forest. Up to 1,100m.

39
forest.

CasuarinakemandoCasuarinaceae. Medium～large tree -No special demand to sites.

Wood use – heavy wood –weight – S.G.0.60

mm.

Wood - material of painting.

Sap is used for glue.

cooking. Nuts are also edible.

Wood use – light to medium

Propagation: by seed.

is not so good.

8.0. Growth on soils from limestoneFresh eating and material for

Fruit use – so-called Jack fruit.

Indonesia. Precipitation: 700~4,200

swampy lowland.. About 1,000m in

Similar to Artocarpus Mixed dipterocarp forest. It grows on

seasonal

tropical(Nangka)~tropical

DBH:50cm. India ～ Myanmar. Sub-heterophyllus

moist soil. Suitable pH: pH4.3~

Moraceae. Medium size tree - H:30m、 Not so resistant to dryness. Good on

Artocarpus

after planting.

Fruiting is decreased in rainy sites.

Fruiting starts 4~5

material.

climate. Propagation: by seed.

Many varieties.

fruit is used for cooking as sourto dryness, strong wind & cool

sour, people make jam. Youngmaterial of cakes. When fruit iseaten in fresh and used for

Fruit use. Matured fruit isPlantation would be below 2,000m.

forest.

Unsuitable to acidic soil. Resistantseasonal&

tropicalNutrient demand is not so strong.

from tropical Africa. Tropical savanna

dryfrom sandy soil to clayey soil.

DBH:200cm. Origin: not clear, maybe(Asam)

Tree can grow in many types of soil,

Leguminosae. Large tree - H:30m、

Tamaridus indica

temp.:18~22℃.

Fuel wood.

Propagation: by seed

Dark stripes in wood: wood

Precipitation: 1,000~2,500mm. Min.

-

Tolerant to seasonal water logging. carving and handicraft.

month

S.G.:0.55.

Wood use – medium weight –Shade tree – wide tree crown.

2~4month>). Elevation: up to 1,000m.

(dry

sunlight & dryness around 700mm.

forestseasonal

strong5.5~8.5.

America. Tropical rain forest～tropicaltocondition. Adequate pH ranges in

DBH:200cm<. Northern parts of South(Trembesi)
Resistant

Leguminosae. Large tree - H:25~40m、 Suitable on wide range of soil

Samanea saman

list in original areas.

40

seasonal

TropicalIslands
MontaneIndonesia).

forest.

of

Sunda

has

nodulesofFrankia.

demand to soil.
Propagation: by seed – easy.

Hawaii. Tropical seasonal forest with

distinct dry season. Lowland & coastal

spell

name

2~5months). Precipitation:

Tropical seasonal forest with short dry(Jambu Mede, Local–

Northern part of Brazil to Guiana.

Resistant to dryness. Minimum

Suitable pH range: pH4.5~7.0.

Unsuitable to water logging.

Good on deep and well drained soil.

Seeds lose activity in short period.

temperature: 24 ℃ . Precipitation -900~3,000mm.

from root is used.

well drained soils.

1,000m (naturally --600m). Minimum

occidentale

Jambu

specialPropagation: by seed. Sprouting

Anacardiaceae. Small tree – H.:12m.

–

much

light

dry

Good on slight acidic soil. Good on

Not

in

dry tropical seasonal forest. Up to

Anacardiumname Kesambi)

to Indonesia. Tropical rain forest to(Koosambi,

Local;

Spindaceae. Small tree - H:15m. India,

Scleichera oleosaforest. Elevation: 1,500m>

demander.

distribution – from east Africa toclear

Nitas)

Very

conditions.

H:40m、DBH:90～120cm. Very wide

(Kepuk, Local name -good performance

Very

Stericuliaceae. Medium to large tree -time.

would be important in planting

Inoculation of Frankia in nursery

Root

Propagation: by seed.

Sterculia foetida

forest. Up to 3,000m in Sunda.

speciesLessor(endemicto

H:35～60m、DBH:100～150cm. East

Gunung, Java

Local name - Kasuari)(Cemarajunghuhniana

of

nuts.
material from bark.

crust

Painting

and used for juice. Oil fromNuts use. Fresh fruit is eaten

Domestic species.

Wood use – S.G.0.90~1.08.

quality lac and charcoal.

& so on. Fruit is edible. Highquality). Used for cooking, lightfrom nuts (Makassar Oil – highRoasted nuts are eaten. Oil

Domesticspecies?

weight - S.G.0.25～0.60.

Wood use: very light to medium

painting are from bark.

Medicine and material of batik

eaten. Oil for light from nuts.

Nuts use. Roasted nuts are

Domestic species.

Synonym: C. montana.

very easy processing.

durability to water.. Usage:

S.G.0.79～1.3. Wood has good41

temperature: 17℃. Condition of

type

of

tropicalalkaline

2,000m.

Citrus family. Shrub ~ small tree.

would be expected on Ca rich,Precipitation: 800 ～ 1,800mm. Up to

Citrus sp.

drainage.

New Guinea. Tropical seasonal forest.

Resistantto
Need dry spell. This cultivar isdryness. Propagation: by seed.

soil.

growthon moist loamy soil with suitable～60m、DBH:100～300cm. Nepal ～(Suren)Favorable

Very good on deep fertile soil. Goodsunlight.

well

Meliaceae. Medium to large tree - H:40

seasonal forest. Lowland forest.

wetteranddrained areas. Resistant to strong~

convexforeston

Suitableonparts of South America. Tropical rain

goodcalcareous soil (calcic Cambisol).

very

H: 40m. Central America to northernbut

In Peru, not so good on acidic soil

Peru, tree is giant size) - DBH :150cm、 (Acrisol),

Meliacease. Medium ~ large tree (inof mahogany.

light and dryness.

Toona sureni(Mahoni)macrophylla

Swietenia

Good wood quality – a member

2,000mm. Resistant to strong sun

to 1,500m).

-

Hypsipyla robusta

Fruit use. Fresh fruiot andDomestic species.

Wood processing is very easy.

Wood has ceder flavor.

wood – S.G.0.53.

Wood use – medium weightpart of Kalimantan.

gives Severe damage in some

Insecthigh in quality.

S.G. 0.5 ～ 0.6. Wood is very

Wood use – medium weight –hardwood – S.G.:0.72-0.92.

areas around 400mm and overWood use – medium~heavy

Up to 700m (in case of plantation – up

Savanna ~(or Mindi)

Some of pesticide.

1,000mm, but tree would grow in

Suitable precipitation is around

90cm、H:25m. Pakistan to Myanmar.

(Mimba)Medicinal use.

quality.

–S.G.0.63. Not so high in

Wood use – medium weighttropical seasonal forest.

Suitable soil pH ranges in 6.2 - 7.0.

Meliaceae. Small~medium size - DBH

time of fruits. Propagation: by seed.

flowering and very dry in maturing&

elevation.

forestgood fruiting: small rain in

Lowlandcoastal forest. Not many in higher

800~1,000mm.

Azadirachta indica

Mente)

42

effective.
introduced for keeping good strain.

species such as coastal plain. Up to

500m.

to

highlandranges pH6.5～8.0. Suitable soil
for growth: Ca & P rich soil. Wet

H:50m 、 DBH:150 ～ 25cm. India to

Laos. Tropical ~ sub-tropical seasonal(Jati)

Good tree for rehabilitation.

by seed.
Good on deep soils. Suitable pH

Planting for devastated areas.

Resistant to dryness. Propagation:

Verbanaceae. Medium to large tree -& so on.

not suited because of competition.

to 1,500m (India).

～
contained

S.G.0.8

in

is
which

Wax
wood

0.75.

Wood use – medium weight –Use for furniture, construction

Mixed planting with other trees isseasonal forest (wide distribution). Up

Easy processing.

0.50.

Wood use- light wood – S.G.ca.

for grafting.

kauki, is used as seedling stock

carving. Similar species, M.

S.G.0.9 ~1.15. Good for wood

Wood use – heavy wood –Lac is produced – low quality.

Fresh fruit has good taste.

Fruit use. “Sapodilla” fruit.

bleached soils. Light demander -Tectona grandis

name - Gmelina)

adapting

climate of Timor Island.

for

Cultivar of Citrus reticulateof Japan.

Lanka. Tropical rain forest to tropicalGood on fertile moist soil. Poor on

DBH:100cm、H:30m. Pakistan ~ Sri

Local

(Jati

Putih,High nutrient demand such as Ca.

usually

Verbenaceae. Small to medium size -isGmelina arborea

GraftingisAt

America. Tropical rain forest. Lowland

shading

fertilization. Propagation: by seed.

this species originated in tropicaltime,

dry condition. Remarkable effect of

the genus are distributed in Asia, butplanting

which is almost sand. Unsuitable to

H:25m, 100cm. Various varieties in(Sawo)

on stump.

Indonesia: 600~1,300m.
Good on sandy soil such as Regosol

cool climate. Propagation: budding

seasonal forest. Suitable elevation in

Sapotaceae. Small ~ medium tree -soil. Good in moist sites. Tolerant toN~35 ° S. Tropical ~ sub-tropical(Jeruk Keprok?)

Manilkara zapota

dryness. No specific demands onof Unshu orange of Japan. 45 °soe?

Citrus reticulate c.v. Origin – India ~ China. Same species developed in Soe. Resistant to juice – same as Unshu Orange

43of good tree on stumps is popular.

sunlight. Propagation by seed.

300~1,300m.

smoothtasteof& construction,

species in original sites.

Domestic species. Endangered

Young leaves: vegetable.

Good for fuel wood.

wood: S.G. 0.61~1.01.

Wood use – medium to heavy

Small trees are used as poles.

for furniture

wood. High quality wood - good

introduces

Commission of EU, FORDA

Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) (1992-continued): vol.1 to vol. 12, Remens, Soeranegara, Wong, and others (ed.): ITTO,

Man information;[Book list for specie investigation]strong light. Resistant to strong

Tropical seasonal forest. Elevation;

damage by fire. Requirement ofRelatively moist sites. Resistant toLangaha - Sunda)

Malesia,

Sumatra, to Lesser Sunda Islands.

–

Fafi Nakaf – Timor,

Origin

DBH:150cm.

(Putat, Local name -Good on swampy alluvial soil.

Lecythidaceae. Large tree: H:50m,

conducted.

Indonesia 400～600 years ago.

Planchonia valida

Stump planting is usually(Indonesia). The tree introduced to2,000mm

Precipitation:~

Seed reproduction is good. Grafting

distinct dry season. Up to 1,000m.
1,200

soil & acidic soils are unsuitable.

forest (deciduous type). May have

44

Fruit of Brazil(1978): Goro Hashimoto, Tropical Agriculture research Series, No. 15

Agriculture Research Series No. 16 – in Japanese

Useful Timber Tree in Tropics(1978):Tropical Agriculture Research Center(Kaburagi, Kikata, Kitano, Hara & Yamada)、TropicalJapanese

Plant list on useful tropical plants(1984)：Research group on tropical plants(Iwasa, Kikata, Kitana, Sasaki, Suzuki, & Hara) – in

Handbook of Nuts (1989): James Duke, CRC Press, United StatesIndonesia

Field Guide book of Plants for Restoration (2014): Desitarani, Miyakawa, Ismail & Rugayah, Ministry of Forestry, JICA & LIPI, Jakarta,

Eucalypts for Planting(1979): Maxwell Ralph Jacob(ed.)、FAO Forestry Series No.11, RomeForestry Department & Sarawak Forestry Department

Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak(1995~2012-continued):vol.1 to vol. 7 Soepadomo, Wong, Saw and Chung, (ed.) ITTO, FRIM, Sabah

Supporting information;

45

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Moraceae

Moraceae

Fabales

Fabales

Fabales

Fabales

Fabales

Fabales

Fabales

Rosales

Rosales

Fabaceae

Fabales

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Fabales

Fabales

Fabaceae

Fabales

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Fabales

Fabales

Fabaceae

Fabales

Fabaceae

Rhizophoraceae

Malpighiales

FabalesHypericaceae

Malpighiales

Fabaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Malpighiales

FabalesEuphorbiaceae

Malpighiales

Fabaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Malpighiales

FabalesCelastraceae

Family name

Celastrales

Order nameSonokeling

Johar

AkasiaAkasia0

Artocarpus heterophyllus

Artocarpus altilis

Tamarindus indica

Sesbania grandiflora

Samanea saman

Pterocarpus indicus

Parkia speciosa

Paraserianthes falcataria

Leucaena leucocephala

Koompassia excelsa

Gliricidia sepium

Nangka

Sukun

Asam

Turi

Trembesi

Angsana, Kayu merah

Petai

Sengon laut

Lamtoro

Gamal

Enterolobium cyclocarpum Sengon buto

Dalbergia latifolia

Delonix regia

Cassia siamea

Acacia mangium

Acacia decurrens

Acacia crassicarpa

AkasiaPrepat darat

Combretocarpus
rotundatus

Acacia auriculiformis

Geronggang

Jarak

Karet

Kemiri

Perupok djawa

Indonesian name

Cratoxylum arborescens

Jatropha curcas

Hevea brasiliensis

Aleurites moluccana

Lophopetalum javanicum

Botanical nameT

hedge, fodder,
apiculture, etc.1

5

E

1

E

W

1

1

0

1,6

6

1

1

fruit meat, seeds,
timber, etc.3

W

1

5

T

1

T

T

T

T

T

W

fruit, timber, etc.3

T

fruit meat, medicine,
etc.3

1,6

T

firewood, fodder,
medicine, etc.3

timber, fodder, etc.3

timber, etc.3

shell, seeds, etc.3

timber, plywood, pulp,
etc.3

greening, fodder,firewood, etc.3
TT

timber, furniture, etc.3

6

E

18

T

T

T

timber, etc.3

timber, etc.3

gargen & roadsidetrees, etc.3

timber, firewood, etc.3

Wtimber, firewood, pulp,
etc.3

17

T

various matrials, etc.3

T

6

W

1

1

6

1

W

T

T

6

0

W

T

W

6

1

6

0

0

W

T

pulp, etc.E

1

T

T

1

2

T

T

7

0

W

T

timber, firewood, pulp,
etc.3
1

1

1

0

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

1

1

2

1

T

5

swa sand
drou
flood
rocky
ght
mp
y

interior wood,
furniture, etc.3

furniture, plywood,
etc.3

seed oil, hedge3

rubber solution,
timber, etc.3

seed oil, timber, etc.3

furniture, plywood,
etc.3

Use

Appendix 3. Characteristics of the planting tree species in Indonesia

2

0

15

5

＞3.8

W

4-5

15

6

w-T,
adapt

T

15

1,2,6

1

15

T
4.5-6.5

T

>3.0

T

T

acid

6-7.5

0

4.5-8.7

5

6

17

6

T
5.5-7.7

T

W

T

11

7

2

6-9

<8

alcaline

T

T

T

6

0

5

18

1,2，6

T

T

T

2

E

1

1

T W

W

1

W
10

1

0

W
15-25

1

17

7

15 <

-5℃

T

8℃

salinit low
y
temp.

2

E

6

6

1

T W

n)

0

1

1,5

6

0

T
(grow

T

root-

root-T

w-T

w-T

frost

10

non-

root-T

frost

10

non-

frost

1

？T ,
non-

frost

T

1

1

W

air

0

T
salt

1

5

W

T

6

17

T

T

1

7

W

T

wind

6

E

1

1,5

W

T

root-

T

root-T

T

fire

E

T

T

T

T

T

T

1

6

1

1

6

1

grass

0

1

0

6

1

1

0

1

1

1

6

6

9

(humid) tropis and sub-tropics

1

high-temperature and humid lowland
tropical forest, river-side and/or swamp
0
forest edge in PNG

lowland forest with broad soils and climatic
0
conditions, savanna and open forest

tropical humid and semi-arid land , often0
manglobe hinterland forest

tropical lowland

seasonal moisture forest , humid tropics

1

coastal to middle-altitute forest andtropical lowland rainforest

perenial humid and monsoon climate

tropical humid or semi-humid zone

tropical lowland forest

broad habitat in tropical and sub-tropical
1
zone

zone

1

broad habitat in tropical and sub-tropicaltropical dry deciduous forest

tropical savanna climate

6

tropical monsoon climate2

moist to humid , tropical lowland

170cool and temperate semi-humid zone

semi-humid tropics, savanna climate

temperate to high-temperature humid andclimatetropical lowland with dry season, savanna

humid tropics, peat swamp and Kerangas
0
foresthumid tropics, often dominant species in0coastal swanp forest

arid to semi-arid, relatively dry tropical1
zone

tropical evergreen rainforest

arid to humid climate in subtropics and1tropics

peat swanp forest

lowland rainforest or often inundated and/or

Climate, Habitats

17

6

6

6

2

1

1500mm<

9

1200-2500m

0

6

6

5
6

6

6

2000-3000 .

510-4300

1000mm<suitable 適

760-3000mm

2000-2700mm

1000-3000 mm

1200 mm <(400)9006
1500(3500)mm

750-2000mm

700-1800mm

650-1500mm

1500-3000 mm

1000mm(350)600-

1000-3500
mm1,5003500mm6

1

8

7

700-2000 mm

750-3000mm

650-4300mm

Rainfall

5

1

6

1

6

6

1

6

1

7

0

8

1

E

6

6

E

6

<1500m60<400(1200)m00,6<800(1200)m

<700m

0

<600m (1300
6
m )

0

6

<1000(1400)m

6

6(3300)m<1500m<1600

50< 500 m

<650m

<600

<900(1100)m

0

0

0,6

<600(1000)m<2000m<1000m001,0<200(800)m<2000m<200(700)m< 80(400) m<100(300)m<900-(1800)m<1800m< 400-500 m<1200m<1400mAltitudeshort dry season <600(1000)m

9 months

2-4 months

0 month

8-10 months
1
2-4 months

6-7 months

5(8) months

1-6 months

0

6<6 months

6 months

4-6 months

6

10

1

<3-4 months<3-6 months< 7 months

8

1

7

<4-6 months

2-3 months

3-5 months

Dry period

Bacteria

15

15

Non N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

Non N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

15

N fix

Mycorrhiza

E

6

6

6

6

6

fast,
intolerant1

intolerant

fast1,
pioneer0

intolerant

intolerant

fast6

fast6

intolerant

fast,
intolerant6

E

slow

intolerant

intolerant

fast, pioneer,2

fast,
intolerant17

fast6

fast0

0

E

E

7

secondary

intolerant

intolerant

intolerant

Growth46

Casuarina junghuhniana

Terminalia catappa

Casuarinaceae

Combretadeae

Lythraceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Anacardiaceae

Anacardiaceae

Anacardiaceae

Anacardiaceae

Anacardiaceae

Meliaceae

Meliaceae

Meliaceae

Meliaceae

Meliaceae

Meliaceae

Sapindaceae

Sapindaceae

Dipterocarpaceae Anisoptera marginata

Fagales

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Myrtiflorae

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

Sapindales

MalvalesSchleichera oleosa

Nephelium lappaceum

Toona sureni

Swietenia macrophylla

Sandoricum koetjape

Melia azedarach

Khaya senegalensis

Azadirachta indica

Mangifera odorata

Mangifera indica

Mangifera casturi

Lannea coromandelica

Anacardium occidentale

Syzygium Samarangense

Syzygium cumini

Syzygium aromaticum

Melaleuca leucadendron

Melaleuca cajuputi

Melaleuca alternifolia

Eucalyptus urophylla

Eucalyptus pellita

Eucalyptus deglupta

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Duabanga moluccana

Casuarina equisetifolia

Casuarinaceae

Fagales

Octomeles sumatrana

Datiscaceae

Cucurbitales

Mersawa tenam

Kesambi

Rambutan

Suren wangi

Mahoni

Kecapi

Mindi

Mimba

Kuwini

ManggaKasturi

BantenJambu mente

Jamby semarang

Jambu hutan

Chengkeh

AmpupuBenuang laki

Ketapang

Cemara gunung?
Kasuari?

Cemara laut

BenuangT

medicine, spice,fuelwood, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

Tseed oil, timber,medicine, etc.3
E

1

T

1

0

1

W

T

1

1,0

W

E

1,6

T

T

1

2

T

2

2

E

E

4.5-6.5

T

T

E，6

15

0

6

1

14

6.2-7.0

W

6-7.5

T

2

E，6

T

T

1,6

T

E

1

1,0

W

W

1

E

non19
frost

10

？T
non-

W

T

1,0

air

19

T
salt
T

T

T

W

19

10

10

1,0

root-T

root-T

6

1

1

1,0

1

1,6

1

0

1

2

2

tropical and sub-tropical monsoon forest

6

middle to small forest and rainforest, tropicaland sub-tropical zone6

tropical semi-moist to semi-arid zone

tropical humid to semi-moist zone

river outlet zone in sub-tropics and lowland
19
forest along swamps

monsoon climate

secoundary open mountain forest in

humid and semi-moist tropical lowland

humid tropics

humid to arid tropics

humid tropics

tropical monsoon zone

semi -arid to semi-moist zone
6-8 months

T

T

0

1

T

0

T

0

E,12

T

6.5-7.5

0

1

1

0

W

T

1

1,0

T

T

W

W

1

6

0

1

6

1

1

1

1

12

Podsol heath0

grows in humid tropics, peat swamp andtropical semi-arid to humid forest

tropical humid lowland

floristic regions of tropical india to malaysia

rainforest

savanna pine forest to edge of climax

tropical humid and monsoon climate

1

sub-tropics , tropical monsoon

forest with relatively high precipitation

scattered in riverside forest and savanna0

most areas of tropical plain , originated from6
tropical and sub-tropical dryland

humic tropics

1

tropical to sub-tropical , monsoon climate

E

0

0

90012
1500(3000)mm

2500mm<

400-2500mm

6

9

6

0

1

600-1000mm<

700-1500mm

650-1150mm

1 01200 mm <750-2500mm

1200 mm<

800-1000 mm

62

1500-3500mm

650-1500 mm

2

10

1300-1750 mm

800-2200mm

10

0,9

6

1000-4000mm

2000-5000mm

250-1250mm

700-1500mm
9750-2500mm

E

6

2

9

9

0

1，0

0-4 months

short period

1

3 months <<1-2 months

4-6 months<1-2 months<4-8 months

2

10

9

<2-3 months

3-8 months

2-4 months

no dry season

6

9

6

1

0（4 ）-8 months

4-6 months

4-6 months

6

6<1 month66200-5000 mm

700-2000 mm

0

1

E

6

1,0

0

0

<1200m0<600(1000)m

<600m

0

12

<1700(2100)m<1500m069<600 (1200) m<2000m<1800m

13

1

<700m
6
(1500m )0< 1000 mm< 600(1200)

flat land300(800)m1

2<1000m

<500m

2

19

<200m

<300m

10

10

0,9

0

0

6

90-2000m<800m<1800m<600m<1200m<3000m60< 1500 m<1000mActinomycetesFrankia

ectomycorrhiz

15

N fix

15

N fix

0

16

a

13

middle0understory

intolerantE

young-Fast

6

tolerant

weak shadeintolerant0

intolerantE

intolerantEE

intolerantE

young6
tolerant
middleunderstory

intolerantE

intolerantE

intolerant19

0E

secondarysecondary

intolerant6

fastE

pioneer

fast1

intolerantE

intolerant6

intolerantE

T

T

T

>2.8

T

1500mm<cultivated in Mataram, South Kalimantan,
threatened species

1,0

T

T

2

2

1

6

0

E

1

T

T

E

T

T

humid tropics 湿潤熱帯

secondary

T

2

2

19

T

1,6

6

Distributed in India to Southeast Asia,
deciduous open forest in monsoon zone in24
Thailand

W

T

T

T

E

1，6

T

T

T

T

W

E

1

W

T

T

fruit, seeds, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

fruit, medicine, shadetree, etc.1

timber, firewood, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

timber, medicine3

fruit, etc.3

fruit, timber, etc.3

hedge, etc.E

fruit, timber, etc.3

fruit

colorant, timber

E

2

2

W

T

medicine，piles，
fuelwood, etc.2

19

1,0

19

W

1,0

T

T

1，6

1

1,6

T

T

E，6

T

medicine, spice, etc.3

1

6

1,6

W

T

T

T

W

essential oil, piles,
wind-break, etc.19

timber, etc.3

timber, pulp, etc.3

timber, pulp, etc.3

timber, pulp, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

shade treesand dune
stablization, timber,
firewood, etc.3
timber, firewood, etc.3

timber, plywood, pulp,
etc.3

47

Ebenaceae

Apocynaceae

Apocynaceae

Apocynaceae

Gentianaceae

Rubiaceae

Rubiaceae

Rubiaceae

Verbenaceae

Verbenaceae

Verbenaceae

EricalesGentianales

Gentianales

Gentianales

Gentianales

Gentianales

Gentianales

Gentianales

Tubiflorae

Tubiflorae

Tubiflorae

Reference

Theaceae

EricalesTectona grandis

Peronema canescens

Gmelina arborea

Jati

SungkaiJati putih

Kopi

Jabon merah

Anthocephallus
macrophyllus

Coffea arabica

Jabon putih

Tembusu

Jelutung

Anthocephalus cadamba

Fagraea fragrans

Dyera costulata

Pulai

Pulai hitam

Alstonia angustiloba

Alstonia scholaris

Kayu hitam

Puspa

GaharuDiospyros ebenum

Schima wallichii

Aquilaria spp.

Thymelaeaceae

Malvales

Koko

Balsa

Theobroma cacao

Lai

Malvaceae

Durio kutejensis

Malvaceae

MalvalesKapuk

MalvalesCeiba pentandra

Malvaceae

MalvalesNitas

Ochroma lagopus

Sterculia foetida

Malvaceae

MalvalesWaru gunung

Malvaceae

Hibiscus macrophyllus

Malvaceae

MalvalesMalvalesHibiscus cannabinus

Malvaceae

MalvalesWaru

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea roxburghii

MalvalesHibiscus tiliaceus

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea leprosula

MalvalesDamar kaca

Malvaceae

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea javanica

Malvalesbalangeran

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeran

MalvalesMerawanDurianDipterocarpaceae Hopea odorata

MalvalesKapur paji

Durio zibethinus

Dipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops lanceolata

MalvalesKapur bukit

Malvaceae

Dipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops aromatica

MalvalesKeruing

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus alatus

MalvalesE

timber, etc.3

timber, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

seed drink3

timber, plywood, etc.0

timber, plywood, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.

timbertimber, plywood, etc.

timber, etc.

furniture, ornament26,
timber, etc.3

timber, etc.3

0

T

6

1

6

E

T

6

1

0

1

W

T

T

E

25

T

T

6

21

T

T

W

6

1

E

W

T

T

1

20

W

T

W

W

22

26

W

T

W

spice, timber, fiber,
etc.3

21

E

1

1

W

T

T

T

seed butter, etc.3

materials for floaterand varios craft, tc.3

timber, fiber, etc.

fruit meat, seeds,
etc.3

fruit meat, etc.3

floff (綿毛), plywood,seed oil, etc.3

timbertimber, firewood, fiber,
etc.4

fiber

timber, plywood, etc.E

timber, plywood, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.E

timber, resin, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

timber, plywood,
medicine, etc.3

timber, plywood, etc.3

6

6

T

0

1,6

0

W

T

6

22

W

W

T

E

E,0

W

T

W

T

1

1

W

T

E

E

E

E

E

E

1

W

T

4.7-6.9

T

T

T

T

6

6.5-7.5

E

E

E

0

W

T

T

T

6

T

6

1

W

E

22

T

T

>-3℃

6

1

20

E

root-T

T

W

T

6

22

W

W

6

W

6

root-T

root-T

E

E，6

T

T

6

E，6

W

T

root-

1

E

W

6

1

6

0

6

1

0

0

22

0

0

6

1

21

0

0

0

0

0

0

temperate, humid tropics with dry season

humid tropics

0monsoon forest

1

tropical dry and monsoon area, high altitude
20
rainforest

rather than Jabon putih

humid tropics, more torelant in dry climate

humid tropics

tropic humid to monsoon climate

humid and monsoon

relatively arid areas from India to Sulawesi

broad habitat in tropical and sub-tropical1
6zone in asia

tropical forest in Southeast Asia

1

6

2

humid tropics , lowland rainforest

humid tropics

humid and semi-humid tropics

humid tropics

tropics and sub-tropics

humid evergreen and deciduous forest ,

area

0

tropics: often river-side and coastal stonytropica Asia

30°S

grows in tropics, sub-tropics1, from 45°N todeciduous, evergreen and bamboo forest

tropical monsoon climate, often arid

tropical lowland rainforest

tropical lowland rainforest

tropical peat swamp forest

riparian forest

tropical humd evergreen forest , common in1

tropical lowland, middle slopes , basic
0
volcanic soils

6tropical lowland, along mountain ridge

evergreen and arid deciduous forest ,6tropical monsoon climate

1

6

0

21

6

23

0

600-4000 mm

1

E

0,6

1500-5000mm

750-5000mm

101500-2000 mm(200)-5000

1500-5000mm>1300mm1100-1400mm in
6
China

1000-3000mm

1500mm<

1500mm<

1000-5700mm

Growing peirod：>100mm/month,>２２
20℃

1600 mm <1

3-6 months

3-5 months

6

6

0

< 1-2 months<4 months

6

1

6

6

< 6 months<0 month< 6 months

6 months

1

0

0

21

0

6

0

0

0

0

<1000m0<600(-900)m<1200m1

0,6

1500-2000 m<1000m<1000m00<1500(2800)m<500(-1000)m<900m<3300m100-1300m

<300m

6

0

6

<1000(1800)m<800(1800)m<Foothills<600(1200)m<1000m01,00<1500(2400)m01,0<1200m< 700 m

< 300(500) m<100(1000)m

1< 600 m ，

0

0

<800m

<400m

< 300 m ,6

< 500 m6

border1
regeneration

borderectomycorrhiz
16

6

0

15

Non N fix

16aectomycorrhiz

0

6

0

0

0

0

pioneer0

Fast,
intolerant0

Fast,
intolerant0

weak shadeE
tolerant

pioneer0

secondarysecondarypioneer

6

21

understory
intolerant6,
young slow
growing6

middle-understory

pioneer

Fast,

intolerant6

intolerantEsecondary

intolerant２２

regeneration

borderectomycorrhiz
border16
0aregenerationaregeneration
ectomycorrhiz
secondary16aborderectomycorrhiz
16
regenerationaEborderregeneration16aectomycorrhiz

0

toleranta16

ectomycorrhiz young shadea16

ectomycorrhiz

48

0 PROSEA Vol. 2, 5(1), 5(2), 5(3), & 12(3)1 Agroforestree Database, World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/resources/databases/agroforestree
2 John W. Turnbull Edit (1986) Multipurpose Australian Trees and Shrubs. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
3 熱帯植物研究会編（1984）熱帯植物要覧. 養賢堂
4 Wikipedia (2011閲覧) http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/
5 Office of International Affairs U.S. (1984) Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop fo te Tropics. National Academy Press U.S.
6 森徳典ら（1996-97）熱帯樹種の造林特性第1-3巻. 国際緑化推進センター
7 森 德典（2013） 熱帯のAlueritas. 海外の森林と林業 NS.No. 85
8 Jones, L & Miller, J.H. (1991) Jatropha curcas. Astag Technical paper, Land Resources Series No.1, The Worl Bank Asia Tehcnical Department Agriculture Division, 12pp.
9 浅川澄彦 (1992) 熱帯の造林技術. 国際緑化推進センター
10 John C. Doran and John W. Turnbull Edit.(1997) Austrarian Trees and Shrubs: Species for land rhabilitaion and farm planting in the tropics. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research1
11 Jatropha curcus plantations（2013閲覧）. www.jatrophacurcasplantaions.com/
12 Jomes A. Duke (2001) Handbook of nats. CRC Press
13 E. Soepadano, L.G. Saw and R.C.K. Chung (2004) Tree flora of Saba and Sarawak. Vol.5 & 6. Malaysian Government
14 FAO (1979) Eucalyptus for planting
15 Dale O. Evans and Lawrence T Szott Edit. (1955) Nitrogen Fixing Trees for Acid Soils. NAFTA & CATIE
16 Simmathiri Appanah & J. M. Turnbull Edit. (1998) A Review of Dipterocarps, Taxonomy, ecology and silviculture. CIFOR
17 Acacia decurrens (2013閲覧) http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Acacia+decurrens
18 Wikipedia(2013閲覧) Delonix regia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delonix_regia
19 Kew Royal Botanical Garden, Melaleuca alternifolia. (2013閲覧) http://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Melaleuca-alternifolia.htm
20 Wikipedia (2013閲覧） コーヒーノキ http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%92%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8E%E3%82%AD
21 Kew Royal Botanical Garden, Theobroma cacao (2013閲覧) http://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Theobroma-cacao.htm
22 GlobinMed (2013閲覧） Hibiscus cannabinus. http://www.globinmed.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=80300:hibiscus-cannabinus-l
23 R.S. Troup (1986) The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol.2.
24 S. Gardner, P. Sidisunthorn, and V. Anusarnsunthron (2000) A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand
25 Forest Inventry and Planning Institute (1996) Vietnam Forest Trees
26 熱帯農業研究センター（1978） 熱帯の有用樹種
E Experience & Estimation, 経験上の知見及び記述からの推定（赤字）