iafor

journal of education
studies in education
Volume 9 – Issue 6 – 2021
Editor: Pearl Subban
Editor-in-Chief: Joseph Haldane

ISSN: 2187-0594

iafor
IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education
Volume 8 – Issue 6 – 2021

IAFOR Publications
The International Academic ForumIAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education
EditorPearl Subban
Monash University, Australia

Editor-in-Chief
Joseph Haldane, IAFOR

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor: Yvonne Masters
Journals Administrator: Ruth Mund
Publications Manager: Nick Potts
IAFOR Journal of Education: Undergraduate Education
Volume 9 – Issue 6 – 2021
Published December, 2021
IAFOR Publications © Copyright 2021
ISSN: 2187-0594
ije.iafor.org

Cover Image: cottonbro | Pexels https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-inwhite-shirt-with-brown-wooden-frame-4769486/

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education
Volume 9 – Issue 6 – 2021
Edited by Pearl Subban

Foreword
Dear Readers,With the world continuing to experience enormous uncertainties brought by the coronavirus,
the impact on our lives has been enormous. Education has experienced great and paradigm
shifts, as the policies and practices that governed our schools and universities before COVID19, have had to change. This has been an extremely challenging period for teachers and students
alike, and yet periods of great forced change bring with them unexpected opportunities for
growth and development, as the possibilities offered by online learning become apparent.
I would like to thank the authors, reviewers, and the IAFOR editorial team for their work on
this exceptional issue, but most of all to the editor of this edition, Dr Pearl Subban of Monash
University, Australia, who has worked so hard to bring this issue to completion.
The papers in this excellent volume, addressing the theme of “Sustainable Education for the
Future”, are a testament to the strength and range of the journal, that reflect the international,
intercultural and interdisciplinary mission and strengths of IAFOR. Articles from authors from
India, Malaysia, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, UK and the USA show that so many of theexperiences we are living at the moment fall into the category of “different but same”. As westruggle to make sense of what we are going through, both individually and collectively, it isclear that we have so much to learn from each other.
Happy Reading!
Joseph Haldane
Editor-in-Chief
IAFOR Journal of Education

Editorial Advice
Preparing a submission to the IAFOR Journal of Education is more than writing about yourresearch study: it involves paying careful attention to our submission requirements. Different
journals have different requirements in terms of format, structure and referencing style, among
other things. There are also some common expectations between all journals such as the use ofgood academic language and lack of plagiarism. To assist you in reaching the review stage forthis or any other peer-reviewed journal, we provide the following advice which you should
check carefully and ensure that you adhere to.
1. Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a practice that is not acceptable in any journal. Avoiding plagiarism is the cardinalrule of academic integrity because plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional, ispresenting someone else’s work as your own. The IAFOR Journal of Education immediately
rejects any submission with evidence of plagiarism.
There are three common forms of plagiarism, none of which are acceptable:
1. Plagiarism with no referencing. This is copying the words from another source (article,
book, website, etc.) without any form of referencing.
2. Plagiarism with incorrect referencing. This involves using the words from anothersource and only putting the name of the author and/or date as a reference. Whilst not as
grave as the plagiarism just mentioned, it is still not acceptable academic practice.
Direct quoting requires quotation marks and a page number in the reference. This isbest avoided by paraphrasing rather than copying.
3. Self-plagiarism. It is not acceptable academic practice to use material that you havealready had published (which includes in conference proceedings) in a new submission.
You should not use your previously published words and you should not submit about
the same data unless it is used in a completely new way.
2. Meeting the Journal Aims and Scope
Different journals have different aims and scope, and papers submitted should fit the specificjournal. A “scattergun” approach (where you submit anywhere in the hope of being published)
is not sound practice. Like in darts, your article needs to hit the journal’s “bullseye”, it needs
to fit within the journal’s interest area. For example, a submission that is about building bridges,
will not be acceptable in a journal dedicated to education. Ensure that your paper is clearly
about education.
3. Follow the Author Guidelines
Most journals will supply a template to be followed for formatting your paper. Often, there will
also be a list of style requirements on the website (font, word length, title length, page layout,
and referencing style, among other things). There may also be suggestions about the preferred
structure of the paper. For the IAFOR Journal of Education these can all be found here:
https://iafor.org/journal/iafor-journal-of-education/author-guidelines/

4. Use Academic Language
The IAFOR Journal of Education only accepts papers written in correct and fluent English ata high academic standard. Any use of another language (whether in the paper or the referencelist) requires the inclusion of an English translation.
The style of expression must serve to articulate the complex ideas and concepts being presented,
conveying explicit, coherent, unambiguous meaning to scholarly readers. Moreover,manuscripts must have a formal tone and quality, employing third-person rather than firstperson standpoint (when feasible), placing emphasis on the research and not on unsubstantiatedsubjective impressions.
Contributors whose command of English is not at the level outlined above are responsible forhaving their manuscript corrected by a native-level, English-speaking academic prior to
submitting their paper for publication.
5. Literature Reviews
Any paper should have reference to the corpus of scholarly literature on the topic. A review ofthe literature should:
•
•
•
•
•

Predominantly be about contemporary literature (the last 5 years) unless you are
discussing a seminal piece of work.
Make explicit international connections for relevant ideas.
Analyse published papers in the related field rather than describe them.
Outline the gaps in the literature.
Highlight your contribution to the field.

Referencing
Referencing is the main way to avoid allegations of plagiarism. The IAFOR Journal of
Education uses the APA referencing style for both in-text citations and the reference list. If
you are unsure of the correct use of APA please use the Purdue Online Writing Lab (Purdue
OWL), – https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ – which has excellent examples
of all forms of APA referencing. Please note APA is used for referencing not for the generalformat of the paper. Your reference list should be alphabetical by author surname and include
DOIs whenever possible.
This short guide to getting published should assist you to move beyond the first editorial review.
Failure to follow the guidelines will result in your paper being immediately rejected.
Good luck in your publishing endeavours,
Dr Yvonne Masters
Executive Editor, IAFOR Journal of Education

Table of Contents
From the Editor

1

Notes on Contributors

3

Online Higher Education: The Importance of Students’ Epistemological
Beliefs, Well-being, and Fun
Sujarwanto
Kieron Sheehy
Khofidotur Rofiah
Budiyanto

9

Perceived Discrimination and Students’ Behavioural Changes: The Roleof Cultural Background and Societal Influence
Somasundar M.

31

The Effects of Learning Stations on Socioeconomically Disadvantaged
Students’ Achievement and Self-Regulated Learning
Reem Alsaadi
Adam Al Sultan

51

Turkish Folk Music Lessons with Phenomenon-Based Learning:
Preliminary Lessons and Results
Meltem Çı̇ men
Banu Özevin

71

Effects of Gamified Learning on Students of Different Player
Traits in Malaysia
Mageswaran Sanmugam
Anurita Selvarajoo
Jeya Amantha David

89

Sustaining Language Learning through Social Interaction at a Japanese
National University
Julia Tanabe

113“Where am I?” A Critical Discourse Analysis of Religious Representation
Maretha Dellarosa

127

No Campus Life for Us: Personal Reflections of First-year Students at a
Malaysian University
Ireena Nasiha Ibnu
Wan Hartini Wan Zainodin
Faizah Din

145

Teacher’s Working Condition and Hybrid Teaching Environment– A Narrative Case Study
Neha Anand
Abbey Bachmann161

Critical Perspective Analysis of Higher Education Studies in the Online
Mode – Emerging Challenges and Solutions
Harshil Sathwara
Archie Joshi
Geetali Saha

177

Reviewers

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Volume 9 – Issue 6 – 2021

From the Editor

The global pandemic irrevocably altered every facet of our lives, compelling us to rethink theway we function and communicate. For education, the online platforms became an essential
tool to interact with our students, and to maintain a degree of normality when all else wasthrown into uncertainty. Now, with the world emerging cautiously from government-imposed
lockdowns and travel bans, students in both school and higher education are once again
beginning the more traditional practice of education. But, should we simply transition into ourprevious formats? Perhaps it is time to pause, reflect and take stock of the lessons we can learn
from this unusual time in our world’s history. What can be salvaged, realised and understoodfrom this time? It is in these lessons that we will gather details and data to sustain education in
the future.
This issue adopts an appreciative lens, drawing together elements of education which could
become the rungs of the ladder to lift us ahead. Undoubtedly, schooling during the pandemic
revealed several inequities, exposing aspects of vulnerability and positioning others withprivilege. It was overall a time of complexity and simplicity, and it is in this paradox that we
find ourselves drawing out those pearls of wisdom. It was complex because of its heavy needon technology, the need for devices, an internet connection, and dedicated spaces to connect
and engage electronically. It was simple because the home became a space of learning, parents
became natural, surrogate teachers, and students began to engage with their learning in new
and innovative ways. However, there were many points on this spectrum, which positioned
some as fortunate, and others less so.
Importantly, it was a time to develop and draw on our internal reserves of resilience. Acquiring
this resilience, is embedded in the words of former American President, Barack Obama, whenhe spoke of internalising excellence. As a race, humans are entrepreneurial, we strive to be anddo better, competitiveness is built into us. It is this spirit that preserved us when the pressuresof the pandemic became all too real and overwhelming. We preserved ourselves innately,
sustaining our momentum as a people who remain essentially and deliberately, learners. In thisissue of Studies in Education, we draw together ten articles, each referencing a different andvaried aspect of educational resilience.
The issue coalesces around education in the contemporary age, focusing on the challenges andthe joys of teaching and learning in the spectre of a global crisis.
In the first article “Online Higher Education: The Importance of Students’ Epistemological
Beliefs, Well-being, and Fun”, Sujarwanto, Kieron Sheehy, Khofidotur Rofiah, and Budiyanto,
present a mixed methods study which draws on both principal component analysis and thematic
analysis to explore student’s epistemological beliefs about online learning in higher education.
Somasundar M reflects in the second article “Perceived Discrimination and Students’Behavioural Changes: The Role of Cultural Background and Societal Influence” on how
cultural background and societal influences could shape discriminatory beliefs about behaviourchanges based on selected demographic variables.
In their article “The Effects of Learning Stations on Socioeconomically Disadvantaged
Students’ Achievement and Self-Regulated Learning”, authors Reem Alsaadi and Adam Al
Sultan investigate the effects of learning stations on developing academic achievement andself-regulated learning, among a group of Saudi Arabian students.

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The fourth article, “Turkish Folk Music Lessons with Phenomenon-Based Learning:
Preliminary Lessons and Results,” a Turkish study by Meltem Çı̇ men, focusing on the use of
Turkish folk music, utilises phenomenon-based learning to reveal that pedagogically strong
introductory activities are significant with regard to anchoring effective lessons.
In their article, “Effects of Gamified Learning on Students of Different Player Traits in
Malaysia,” Mageswaran Sanmugam, Anurita Selvarajoo and Jeya Amantha David reflect on
the use of gamified learning, through a rumination on player traits, noting that positivechanges could emerge to reshape education in the modern context.
The sixth article by Julia Tanabe “Sustaining Language Learning through Social Interaction at
a Japanese National University” is a study looking into sustaining language learning throughsocial interaction, demonstrating that characteristics like cooperation, interdependence andresponsibility are fundamental in achieving education for sustainability.
In a critical discourse of religious representation in Indonesia “’Where am I?’ A Critical
Discourse Analysis of Religious Representation”, Maretha Dellarosa observes that
representing people accurately and appropriately in elementary school textbooks, aligns withsocial expectations and consolidates respect and dignity among communities of people.
The eighth article “No Campus Life for Us: Personal Reflections of First-year Students at a
Malaysian University” zooms in on the effects of the pandemic on higher education. Ireena
Nasiha Ibnu, Wan Hartini Wan Zainodin and Faizah Din, in their Malaysian-based study,
consider the perceptions of first-year university students, who were compelled into online
learning during the global pandemic. The study notes that students prefer more in-person
interaction in order to sustain their learning.
The ninth article “Teacher’s Working Condition and Hybrid Teaching Environment – A
Narrative Case Study”, by Neha Anand and Abbey Bachmann is a narrative inquiry into the
lived experiences of a teacher during online learning. It illustrates both the challenges and joysof altered workloads and engaging with students.
Finally, in their critical perspectives of higher studies, utilising online modes of learning,
Harshil Sathwara, Archie Joshi and Geetali Saha, note in their article “Critical Perspective
Analysis of Higher Education Studies in the Online Mode – Emerging Challenges andSolutions” that academic progress can be sustained through deliberate efforts on the part oflearners and teachers, in the online classroom. Their study observed that a refocusing of theeducational lens could alter the way educational opportunities are provided and utilised in the
post-pandemic world.
Compositely, these ten manuscripts articulate an emerging need to salvage and reclaim,
following the disruption imposed by the pandemic. As a people, we have no choice but to move
forward, and it is the lessons from this crisis which will inform and underpin our efforts in the
education of tomorrow.
Pearl Subban
IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education
Email: studies.editor.joe@iafor.org

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Notes on Contributors
Article 1:
Online Higher Education: The Importance of Students’ Epistemological Beliefs, Wellbeing, and Fun
Sujarwanto is a research scholar at the Department of Education, Universitas Negeri
Surabaya in Surabaya, Indonesia.
Kieron Sheehy is a professor at the Faculty of Wellbeing Education and Language Studies at
the The Open University in United Kingdom. Kieron’s research interests are within the broad
field of inclusive education, often focusing on how teaching approaches or services can be
developed to successfully support diverse groups of learners.
Email: kieron.sheehy@open.ac.uk
Khofidotur Rofiah is affiliated with the Pedagogical University of Krakow, Poland. She hasa scientific background in the field of special education Universitas Negeri Surabaya,
Indonesia. At the end of 2020, she started her PhD studies at Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w
Krakowie, Poland.
Dr Budiyanto is a scholar from the Department of Education, Universitas Negeri Surabaya
in Surabaya, Indonesia.
Article 2:
Perceived Discrimination and Students’ Behavioural Changes: The Role of Cultural
Background and Societal Influence
Somasundar M is a Research Scholar at the Department of Psychology of the Maharaj
Vinayak Global University, Amer, Dhand, Jaipur in India.
Email: somasundar.researcher@gmail.com
Article 3:
The Effects of Learning Stations on Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Students’Achievement and Self-Regulated Learning
Dr Adam Al Sultan is Assistant Professor and Head of the Psychology Department at Imam
Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University in Saudi Arabia.
Email: adam.uod@gmail.com
Reem Alsaadi is a researcher from Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University in Saudi
Arabia.

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Article 4:
Turkish Folk Music Lessons with Phenomenon-Based Learning: Preliminary Lessons
and Results
Meltem Çı̇men holds a bachelor and post-graduation degree in Music Education and also she
is a PhD student in Music Education at Dokuz Eylul University, in İzmir, Turkey. She works
as a Music teacher at high school, since 2013. Her academic and research interest includes
music teaching pedagogy, musical literacy and active music learning methods.
Email: meltemcimenn89@gmail.com
Dr Banu Özevin holds degree both in Music Education and Sociology, a post-graduation inMusicology and PhD in Music Education. She works at Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of
Education, Department of Music Education, in Izmir, Turkey, since 2002. Her academic andresearch interest includes music teaching pedagogy, Orff Schulwerk music and movement
pedagogy, Kodaly Method, encouraging creativity in music and movement learning.
Email: banu.ozevin@deu.edu.tr
Article 5:
Effects of Gamified Learning on Students of Different Player Traits in Malaysia
Mageswaran Sanmugam acquired his B.Sc. (Hons) in Electrical Engineering from Universiti
Teknologi Tun Hussein Onn in 2005 and Master’s degree in Educational Management in 2012
from Universiti Utara Malaysia and Ph D in Educational Technology in 2017 from Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. He worked as an Educator in both Primary and Secondary schools from2008-2018, before being appointed as a Senior Lecturer in the Centre for Instructional
Technology and Multimedia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia (from 2018till now). His research interests encompass educational technology, game-based learning,
gamification and game theory. He currently serves as an exco-member in the Malaysian
Educational Technology Association (META), and as a Senior Member under the Institute ofElectrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Email: mageswaran@usm.myAnurita Selvarajoo graduated with B.Eng. (Hons) in Civil Engineering (Environmental) from
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, in 2006. She received her PhD in Fuels and Sustainability from
University of Nottingham Malaysia, in 2013. She currently works as an Assistant Professor at
the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of
Nottingham Malaysia. Her research interests focus on interactive teaching technology forhigher education. She serves as a reviewer in a number of journals such as Environmental
Technology, Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, Waste and Biomass Valorizationand Elkawnie Journal of Islamic Science and Technology. Anurita is also an affiliate member
with the Young Scientists Network of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (YSN - ASM).
Jeya Amantha Kumar received her BSc (Hons) in Electrical Engineering from Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia in 2001, MEd in Technical and Vocational educationfrom Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Johor, Malaysia in 2003 and a PhD in Instructional System
Design from Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia in 2016. She is currently
working as a senior lecturer in the Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang. Malaysia. She is passionate about instructional

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technology, mobile learning, design education, engineering education, structural equation
modelling and Human Computer Interaction.
Article 6:
Sustaining Language Learning Through Social Interaction at a Japanese National
University
Dr Julia Tanabe teaches full-time at Hiroshima University, at the Institute of Foreign
Language Research and Education. She has earned her PhD in English Applied Linguistics at
the University of Pecs, in Hungary. Her research interests are English language education,intercultural communication and study abroad.
Email: jtanabe@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
Article 7:“Where am I?” A Critical Discourse Analysis of Religious Representation
Maretha Dellarosa is a doctoral candidate in Multicultural and Equity Studies in Education(MESE), Department of Teaching and Learning, The Ohio State University. Her researchinterests include multicultural education, intersection of identities, diversity, race, and racism.
Email: dellarosa.1@osu.edu
Article 8:
No Campus Life for Us: Personal Reflections First-Year Students at a Malaysian
University
Dr Ireena Nasiha Ibnu is currently a course coordinator for liberal communication and asenior lecturer at the Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia. In 2019, she obtained her
PhD in Migration Studies from the University of Sussex United Kingdom. Her main area ofinterests include intercultural communication, gender, new media, transnational migration, andcultural anthropology.
Email: ireena@uitm.edu.my
Dr Wan Hartini Wan Zainordin is currently a deputy dean (academic) and a senior lecturer
at the Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia. She holds a PhD in Mass Communicationfrom UiTM. She has seven years of experience in the broadcasting industry and among her
previous positions are broadcast journalist, editor and scriptwriter.
Email: wanhartini@uitm.edu.my
Faizah Din is currently a Disability Liaison Officer and a senior lecturer at the Universiti
Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia. In 2002, she obtained her masters in Masters in
Communication Regulation and Policy at the University of Westminster, London.
Email: faizahdin@uitm.edu.my

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Article 9:Teacher’s Working Condition and Hybrid Teaching Environment – A Narrative Case
Study
Neha Anand (she/her) is a doctoral candidate at the University of Houston, Texas, USA. Sheis pursuing her PhD in Curriculum & Instruction with emphasis in Science Education. Throughher course of doctoral program, she has served as teaching fellow, teaching assistant andresearch assistant. At present she is working as a research assistant for a NSF Grant. Her
research interest includes culturally responsive Science education, and promoting diversity,
equity, and inclusion in science education.
Email: neha.a.ohrie@gmail.com
Abbey Bachmann (she/her) is currently a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Texas A&M
University. She has earned her PhD in Curriculum & Instruction – Literacy, Reading, andLanguage Arts from the University of Houston in Houston, TX. Prior to her postdoc role, she
was a full-time secondary English teacher in the Houston, TX area. Her research interests
include culturally responsive English education, diverse and multicultural children’s and YA
literature, and equitable disciplinary literacy instructional practices.
Email: abbeygagnon09@gmail.com
Article 10:
Critical Perspective Analysis of Higher Education Studies in the Online Mode- Emerging
Challenges and Solutions
Harshil Sathwara is pursuing an Electrical Engineering degree at G. H. Patel College ofEngineering and Technology (2019-2023). His interest includes Renewable Energy, EVs,
Power Electronics and IoT. He has won multiple Gold and Silver medals in Science, Maths,
English and I.Q. Olympiads. He has attracted funding for filing a patent for his project
Arogyakavacham- Automatic Hand Sanitizer Dispenser with Contactless Temperature
Measurement and has his research paper on it selected in Intelligent Systems and Signal
Processing (e-ISSP 2020) conference which is published in Springer’s Advances in Intelligent
Systems and Computing book series. He has also attracted funding of INR 35,000/- from SSIP
for his projects.
Email: harshilsathwara1512@gmail.com
Archie Joshi is pursuing her BA honours at Pandit Deendayal Energy University. She hasgarnered much acclaim for her thorough academic records. In 2013-2014 she received the best
student award for her model behaviour. She is well versed in linguistics and certified withnearly fluent proficiency in French and Korean. She was associated with Vedant Foundations
as a content writer and translator. She is gifted with exemplary speech and is the co-founder ofthe podcast, The Thought Lane, which is available on various platforms. She published her
poetry through Women's Era magazine.
Dr Geetali Saha is working as a Teaching Faculty in the Department of Electronics andCommunication, GCET, Gujarat. She has worked on challenging Industrial and state funded
projects, mostly based on real time IoT application. Her other interests include Time Series
Prediction Models, Health Monitoring Interfaces, Hydroponics, Artificial NN and Deep NN.
She has been associated as a Technical Program Committee Member, Reviewer and Technical6

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Session Chairs for various IEEE &amp; Springer conferences in India and abroad. She is abook editor for Springer’s AISC, eISSP 2020 proceedings. Department of Science andTechnology (DST) and Texas Instruments (TI) have awarded Prof. Geetali Saha recognition inappreciation for fostering an ecosystem bridging Government, Industry and Academia.

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Online Higher Education: The Importance of Students’ Epistemological
Beliefs, Well-Being, and Fun
Sujarwanto
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Kieron Sheehy
The Open University, United Kingdom
Khofidotur Rofiah
Pedagogical University of Krakow, Krakow, Poland
Budiyanto
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia

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Abstract
The global pandemic has accelerated the ‘move online’ of higher education in Indonesia. This
study aimed to examine the relationship between Indonesian students’ experiences of studying
online, their epistemological beliefs and their beliefs about fun in learning. A mixed method
approach was used to examine this relationship in a sample of 774 students. A Principal
component analysis (PCA) of questionnaire responses identified associations between social
constructivist beliefs about learning and the centrality of fun in learning. The PCA wasconsidered together with a thematic analysis of an open question ‘Has the COVID-19 situation
changed your feelings about online study?’ This revealed the significance of the epistemic
mismatch between many students’ beliefs and the transmissive online pedagogy that theydescribed. This mismatch is implicated as a factor in understanding the students largely
negative experiences of online study and the impact on their well-being, albeit within thecontext of a pandemic. This is the first time that this link has been proposed. The research
indicates that examining students’ epistemological beliefs can offer insights that are helpful inunderstanding students’ educational engagement and well-being when studying online.
Keywords: epistemological beliefs, fun, Indonesia, online higher education, well-being

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Whilst many universities have previously sought to develop their online teaching provision,
the global pandemic has accelerated this process with some choosing, and others being
instructed by governments, to ‘go online’ (Havergal, 2020; Mishra, Gupta, & Shree, 2020). In
the Republic of Indonesia, The Ministry of Education and Culture asked tertiary educators toprovide ‘meaningful’ online learning experiences for their students (Hidayati & Saputra, 2020).
This has been attempted in 80% of institutions, where the majority of students have left campus
and returned to their home locations (Nugroho, 2020). These students are drawn from a
population of over 270 million across Indonesia’s unique geographical and cultural context.
Indonesia is the ‘most diverse multi-ethnic state in the world… [and] the world’s largest
archipelagic country of more than 17,524 islands” (Direktorat Pembinaan Sekoloah 2008).
Given this scale and locational diversity it is not unexpected that one can find situations where
Higher Education (H.E.) learning systems and infrastructures can be lacking or inadequate(Hidayati & Saputra, 2020). It is against this backdrop that many of Indonesia’s eight million
H.E. students (Harun, Wardhaningtyas, Khan, An, & Masdar, 2020) are experiencing distanceeducation for the first time (Churiyah, Sholikhan, Filianti, & Sakdiyyah, 2020).
The pandemic notwithstanding, any students who receive their education online at distance areat greatly increased risk of drop out and disengagement from their studies (Meneses & Marlon,2020) and this creates a significant issue for educators (Aydin, Öztürk, Büyükköse, Er, &Sönmez, 2019). Therefore, as more students are placed, perhaps unexpectedly, in online
learning situations it is increasingly important for educators to understand the factors that
influence their students’ likelihood of success. Previous research has identified two key factorsthat are relatively underexplored in distance education: students’ epistemological beliefs andtheir beliefs about fun in learning (Okada & Sheehy, 2020a).
Students’ Epistemological Beliefs
Students epistemological beliefs reflect their conceptions of knowledge and how it is acquired(Marlene Schommer-Aikins, Unruh, & Morphew, 2015). These beliefs might include theextent to which learning occurs through information transmission (OECD, 2009) or issues suchas notions of ability, the extent to which it is innate or develops through education (SchommerAikins & Hutter, 2002). One way of framing epistemological beliefs is to draw distinctions
that reflect models of pedagogy and learning, for example traditional or constructivist beliefs(OECD, 2009), or social constructivist beliefs (Sheehy, Budiyanto, Kaye, & Rofiah, 2019). In
this framing, students who hold traditional beliefs view the process of learning primarily as asimple transfer of knowledge from the teacher (Otting, Zwaal, Tempelaar, & Gijselaers, 2010).
This contrasts with a constructivist perspective that foregrounds the importance of autonomous
activities facilitated by a teacher (Markic & Eilks, 2013). The social constructivist perspective,
drawing on the work of Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1967), frames learning as an interactive social
process mediated by language and other cultural tools ( Okada & Sheehy, 2020a)
The importance of epistemological beliefs in higher education students’ experience has been
researched for over 50 years, and evidence indicates a significant association between the
beliefs students hold and their subsequent academic performance (Richardson, 2013a;
Rodriguez & Cano, 2007). For example students who hold beliefs that they can develop theirabilities and actively construct knowledge appear to adopt more effective study strategies (Hao,Barnes, Branch, & Wright, 2017), with consequently better outcomes (Çevik, 2015). However,there is an absence of such work in the context of distance education (Richardson 2013), an
absence which has become more noticeable given a global turn towards online provision.

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Within Indonesian ‘traditional’ Higher Education there is a growing body of research regarding
teachers and student teachers epistemological beliefs (Sheehy, Budiyanto, Kaye, & Rofiah,2017), and research with college students (Aditomo, 2018) that indicates the impact of these
beliefs on outcomes in different study areas. There is also some acknowledgement of its
importance within English as a Foreign Language [EFL] education (Wulandari Tasik, 2020),
on determining their online learning strategies (Rahmiati, 2019). However, overall, there isnotable lack of research in Indonesian higher education regarding epistemological beliefs andonline education.
The Notion of Fun in Learning in Higher Education
It has been argued that, in order to facilitate students’ success, it is important to examine factorsthat influence students’ engagement with their studies (Sharp, Zhu, Matos, & Sharp, 2021).
Perhaps not unexpectedly, there is evidence of a significant correlation between the level ofsatisfaction that students report with their online learning experiences and their engagementwith and completion of studies (Martin & Bolliger, 2018). Enjoyment positively influences
student engagement (Bond, Buntins, Bedenlier, Zawacki-Richter, & Kerres, 2020; Groccia,
2018) and therefore it is logical to see the understanding and facilitation of enjoyment as a wayof improving engagement and student success. One effect of enjoyment is an increased intrinsic
motivation to study (Sharma, 2021), and an experience of having fun in learning promotes
greater engagement and ability to cope with study demands (Reeve, Cheon, & Jang, 2020).
However, the notion of “fun” in higher education pedagogy is controversial. This is partly
because whilst it can be defined as an emotion in relation to motivation and engagement (Reeve
et al., 2020), its exact nature and meaning is unclear (Tisza & Markopoulos, 2021).
Consequently, there is no consensus about its value for learning within higher education andthere exists…an ongoing debate about whether it [fun] is appropriate in relation to adultlearning, and many believe that it is unsuitable in the “serious” business ofHigher Education. (Whitton & Langan, 2019, p. 3)
This perception of “unsuitability” may contribute to the lack of research into the value of fun
within online H.E. education (Okada & Sheehy, 2020a). This debate can be discerned within
the handful of relevant Indonesian studies that exist. For example whilst one study concluded
that a positive or good mood would interfere with H.E. students’ learning and motivation(Febrilia & Warokka, 2011), another concluded that fun helped to ensure academic motivation(Triyanto, 2019). In the context of EFL, fun was associated with positive learning experiences,and it was recommended that educators designed fun into their teaching (Tunnisa, Mahmud, &Salija, 2019). However, none of these studies considered the epistemological beliefs of thestudents, or the relationship between these beliefs and beliefs about fun in learning (Okada &Sheehy, 2020a). This study seeks to address this gap within H.E. research.
Research Context
The context for this research was the Universitas Negeri Surabaya (UNESA), East Java
Indonesia. UNESA has approximately 39, 000 students, across seven undergraduate faculties
and graduate school. Starting in 2016 UNESA began to develop its own online learning
platform, Vi-learn UNESA, to support a blended learning model (Kristanto, Mustaji, &Mariono, 2017). Initially this form of provision was available for education and psychology
courses, and by 2019 it had expanded to 100 courses across varied disciplines for around 5000
students. Alongside this, Kemenristekdikti (Ministry of Research Technology and Higher

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Education) supports a national online education initiative SPADA (Sistem Pembelajaran
Daring-Online Learning System), and individual lecturers may adopt these or other learning
management systems (Wintarti, Masriyah, Ekawati, & Fiangga, 2019). In response to theinternational pandemic the Rector of UNESA enacted a regulation that all learning activities
should move online (Sabtiawan et al., 2020). Consequently, the number of courses available in
Vi-learn UNESA increased to approximately 150 courses undertaken by 7000 students.
This study sought to explore the relationship between epistemological beliefs and fun inlearning for students studying at UNESA, in the context of the move online necessitated by the
global pandemic.
MethodThe use of questionnaires to collect data is an established approach within epistemologicalbeliefs research (Schommer & Walker, 1995). A questionnaire was developed drawing on
Indonesian epistemological research (Sheehy et al., 2017) that had been developed for use
within an international H.E. context (Okada and Sheehy 2020a). The items are given in
Appendix 1.
Items 1-4 collect demographic data: occupation, year and level of study, province.
Item 5 asks if the student is registered as disabled. This was added as the experience of disabledstudents within distance education has been highlighted as a significant issue (Spirina,
Grabowska, & Liakh, 2020). There are over 4500 higher education institutions across thenation, yet only approximately five universities explicitly support access and enrol disabledstudents (Dzulfikar, 2019). UNESA is one of these few and has a disability support service toenable this, the Centre for Disability Studies and Services (Pusat Studi dan Layanan
Disabilitas-PSLD).
Statements 6-9, 22-24 reflect models of learning (Social Constructivist, and Banking) and aretaken from Okada and Sheehy (2020).
Statements 14-18, 10–12 relate to Constructivist and Traditional views of learning, from theOECD international survey (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2010,2013).
Statement 13 reflects the importance of beliefs concerning effort in learning in “non-western”
epistemological research (Lee, Zhang, Song, & Huang, 2013).
Statements 25- 29 elicit beliefs about fun and happiness that emerged as stable items from
Budiyanto et al.’s (2017) epistemological research.
Item 30 asks if the student enjoys studying online.
Item 31 asks if their feelings about online study have changed because of the COVID-19
pandemic. This item could be helpful in differentiating this cohort’s responses from subsequent
research (Unger & Meiran, 2020).
This questionnaire therefore contains items that assess students’ epistemological beliefs, theirnotion of fun, and their experiences of studying online.

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A preliminary discussion of the quantitative items and a tentative descriptive analysis occurredat the London School of Management Education international research conference 2021.
Ethics
Ethics review was conducted by the Human Research Ethics committees of the researchers’
universities and favourable opinions were obtained for proceeding. Study information was
posted on UNESA’s official Telegram community in an education space. Students could thenchoose to respond, or not, to the anonymous questionnaire hosted on Qualtrics ™.
Findings
Responses were obtained from 774 students from across Indonesia.
Participants’ locations and academic backgrounds. The locations of participants ranged
across the Javan provinces, Kalimantan, South Sulawesi and the lesser Sunda Islands (seeFigure 1).
Figure 1
Geographical Location of Participants [Map data ©2021 Google, INEGI]This illustrates the potential reach of online education across Indonesia. The majority ofparticipants (92.5%) came from an education and/or psychology discipline. Most (71%) werestudents in their 1st or 2nd year of study. All attended UNESA and 17 (2.2%) were registeredas disabled students. To put this latter figure in perspective, UK universities report on averagethat 6.6% of their students are categorised as disabled (Williams, Pollard, Takala, & Houghton,2019).
Response Analysis of Students’ Epistemological Beliefs
The data were reviewed with respect to carrying out a principal component analysis (PCA). A
Kaiser –Meyer–Olkin score of 0.911 was obtained, suggesting that factors could be extracted(Navarro Sada & Maldonado, 2007), and this was supported by Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p<0.001). A data scree plot suggested that 5 components could be extracted, and this was
confirmed by considering the total variance explained. These 5 components, all witheigenvalues greater than 1, explained 52.66% of the variance in responses giving a moderateamount of explanatory power (Navarro Sada & Maldonado, 2007) typical in social science
research (Taherdoost, Sahibuddin, & Jalaliyoon, 2014). The relative correlations between the14

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potential components were examined to select the type of data rotation (Dean, 2009) and a
direct Oblimin rotation was chosen, with a cut off at 0.35 (see Table 1).
Table 1
Pattern Matrix
Helping students
to talk to one
another
productively is agood way ofteaching.
Learning can be
defined as thesocial productionof knowledge
Meaningfullearning occurs
when students
are engaged insocial activities
with society
Students learn
best throughcollaborative
activities.
Teaching should
be built aroundproblems withclear, correct
answers.
Effective/goodteachers
demonstrate thecorrect way tosolve a problem
Students who
begin university
with “average”
ability remain“average”
throughout theirstudies
Students’
educational
potential is fixedat birth.
All students
should be taught
in homogenousclasses according
to theirintelligence.

1
.715

2

3

.703

.669

.634

.532

.449

.771

.725

.717

15

4

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IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

I believe there
should be asingle teaching
methodapplicable to alllearning
situations.
Learning should
involve fun
To learneffectively
students must be
happyStudents andteachers should
participate inlearning fromdiversity
togetherFun activities
can get in theway of student
learning

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.602

.892
.873

.680

.735

.438

Fun is part ofcuriosity anddiscovery
Students learn
best by finding
solutions toproblems on
their own.
I do not enjoy
studying online
Students shouldbe allowed tothink ofsolutions topractical
problems
themselves
before theteacher showsthem how they
are solved.

-.409
-.741

.800
.688

.570

The teacher’srole is tofacilitate
students’ own
inquiry.
Thinking andreasoning

-.514

16

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processes are
more important
than specificcurriculum
content.
Learning occurs
when students
reflect on theiraction in adiverse world
How much
students get fromtheir learning
depends mostly
on their effort.

-.470

-.449

Extraction method: Principal Component Analysis
Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser normalisation

Component 1. Social constructivist and traditional pedagogies together. This component wasformed from items related to social constructivist beliefs about teaching and learning. Thisview highlights the social production of knowledge, the importance of “talk”, and collaborative
learning. These associations have been identified in European research (Alexandra Okada &Sheehy, 2020b). However, in this Indonesian sample these beliefs are also associated with, andnot clearly differentiated from, teacher-led demonstrations of how to solve problems, and thevalue of having problems with clear correct answers, which have been seen as representing
traditional pedagogy (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OCED),
2013).
Component 2. Streamed by fixed abilities. This component contains beliefs that a person’s
abilities are innate and fixed, and that students should be taught in homogenous, that is,“streamed” groups always using a single teaching method.
Component 3. Inclusive, collaborative fun for happy learners. Here happiness and enjoyment
are believed to be pre-requisite for effective learning. This occurs through the collaborative
learning of teachers and students in the context of diversity, and should involve fun. However,this is tempered by a belief that not all fun activities can support learning.
Component 4. Discovery is not fun, and reflection is unnecessary. This component holds
beliefs that seem opposed to constructivist teaching approaches, in which teachers facilitate
students thinking about and solving problems. In line with this are beliefs that discovery
learning is not fun (in contrast to Component 3) and sees the learner as relatively passive.
Component 5. Online content delivery is not enjoyable teaching. Two items are grouped here,a belief that thinking and reasoning are more important than specific content, and not enjoying
studying online. The component title here is tentative, suggesting that this lack of enjoyment
is associated with online teaching that prioritizes content delivery-and that this has been theirexperience. As Figure 3 illustrates 46% of the sampled students did not enjoy studying online.

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Figure 2
Responses to Item “I Do Not Enjoy Studying Online”

This lack of enjoyment was reflected across different subject disciplines and the disabledstudent’s group.
The disabled students’ responses to the “enjoyment” question differed significantly from theirpeers (independent samples Mann Whitney U, p<0.001), with 14/17 (i.e. 82%) responding as
not enjoying, and 3 neither agreeing or disagreeing. In this respect they were more “extreme”
than their non-disabled peers.
Thematic Analysis of Students’ Experiences of Studying Online
Insights into students experience of studying online during the pandemic were suggested bytheir responses to the open question “Has the COVID-19 situation changed your feelings about
online study?”. Participants’ responses were analysed thematically with coding being carriedout by hand (i.e. no software package was used) derived from the steps proposed by Braun and
Clarke (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Odendaal, Hattingh, & Eybers, 2019). The responses wereinterrogated repeatedly to code and construct themes (Langdridge, 2004). This allowed theidentification of four themes that appeared as important in the data (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane,2006). Each is described in turn and illustrated with exemplar comments.
Online Study becomes Boring and Students Become DemotivatedEven students who initially enjoyed studying online could become bored. For example:
I used to feel that studying online was fun. However, learning is getting more andmore boring and unpleasant.
Yes, because learning becomes [our emphasis] very boring.
Several factors contributed to this situation. These were barriers that impeded social
interactions, reducing conversation with lecturers, and hindering social interactions withfriends. Learning became less fun.
Yes. Because online learning makes me feel bored and it is more difficult to discusstalking with and from the lecturer. It’s more fun if learning to rub [engage face toface] with friends.

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This change of experience appeared to be associated with students becoming “lazy” that is,demotivated or tired, which was repeatedly mentioned. This could be seen partly because of
the physical demands of increased screen-time.
Changes have also occurred in my enthusiasm level, I used to be offline, I wasvery enthusiastic when meeting friends and lecturers to study but now sometimes
I am lazy because I stare at my cellphone for a long time so it can cause sleepinessand hot eyes.
The thing that makes me feel uncomfortable is when I have to stare at the screenof my cellphone / laptop for a long time, it makes my eyes dry and I get tired
quickly.
Students who found themselves “not feeling like doing” and demotivated also cited the role oftechnological barriers, and the importance of accessing a stable network signal.
Yes, from those who used to be accustomed to face-to-face learning, they now
have to go online. where the main internet connection is most important for online
learning.
Yes, because sometimes feelings easily change [from happy to demotivated] whensuddenly there is an internet network disruption.
There are also costs of associated with accessing information, which has changed somestudents study experiences.
Initially I was excited about the online learning process because it can improveconcentration, but it has become increasingly uncomfortable with online learning
because it requires a lot of internet quota while finances have decreased since
COVID-19.
Learning online is wasteful in spending [money] to buy internet quotas.
The home situation itself [outside of cost and signal issues] could have a negative impact.
There is also a feeling of boredom with the atmosphere of studying at home whichcauses you to feel unfocused during lectures.
I lost enthusiasm and motivation to learn. Because the condition of the house is
not supportive.
What this theme suggests is that the “move online” has had a significant impact on somestudents’ study experience. The changes have resulted in many becoming bored anddemotivated with their studies, a situation that is exacerbated by technology related barriers
and home conditions. However, for a minority the changes were perceived positively.
A Qualified Success for SomeA few students explicitly reported that the move online had positive consequences for them.
Some valued the flexibility that the new approach offered.

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Online learning only started during COVID and I just enjoyed it because in someways it became more flexible and less rigid.
Yes, we can follow the learning flexibly
Others enjoyed being able to use technologies.
Yes, because I don’t think online learning is too boring and we take fulladvantage of technology.
The role of moving online in tackling the pandemic, and as part of supporting their community,
was also mentioned.
Yes, I feel more positive lately, I think it’s because through this pandemic we haveto be healthier, have more understanding of various things, respect each otherand also take care of each other.
More typically however, these indications of positive consequences were qualified, andjuxtaposed with the less positive factors.
Yes. I like to be able to study at home close to my family, but on the one hand I am
tired because I have to study extra in places where it is difficult.
A Decline in Mental Well-Being
The third theme highlights the impact that the move online was having on mental well-being.
This was sometimes linked to factors indicated in the previous themes but was pervasive
enough in the coding to emerge as a distinct theme.
Many students had experienced increased stress levels.
It’s not just that online learning is not as effective as face-to-face learning …
emotions tend to be unstable, increased stress levels, dizziness and tired eyes.
And feelings of anxiety:I became less confident and often felt [feel] anxious.
Yes, anxiety increases because of the difficulties that exist.
My feelings when studying online are sometimes anxious and angry when I can’t
join the zoom meeting because of the unsupportive signal.
The impact over time of these changes could be significant.
Yes, studying online is quite physically and psychologically draining.
Feel burnout at home, I can’t manage my rest time.
This change could impact on students’ general mood to differing degrees. For some this was atemporary dip.

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Yes, because studying online, sometimes there are network constraints that cancause a person’s mood to go down.
In other cases, a low mood had become associated with studying.
Studying online is boring so when studying I feel a little depressed and bored.
There is a change in mood for studying.
There were also more profound changes.
“It really changed me. [our emphasis] Even though the beginning of thepandemic, I really used it to read a lot and think about and find out things that
had not previously been crossed. However, over time all of this actually made me
depressed because I could not learn directly and rarely interacted with it,
reducing my sensitivity and critical power.
Absolutely because it makes me feel like uncomfortable, low esteem instead.
A Less Social Pedagogy Isolates Students
The move online had interfered with the social interactions that students valued within theirteaching.
… what has changed is the interaction with lecturers and friends, which is now
very limited, in the past it was very easy to ask questions that [I] did notunderstand and look for sources of information in the library, but now it is difficult
which changes the interaction between students and lecturers and between
students to be changed and less optimal.
Students reported that they had valued previous face-to-face opportunities to discuss issues
with lecturers and their peers. These had been replaced with a “new pedagogy”, which delivers
online lectures accompanied by increased assignments to be completed alone.
Lecturers rarely come down to explain the material and only give a lot of
assignments.
Less efficient learning and more assignments than explanations from lecturers.
In the new online context students felt less able to ask questions or contribute.
Because I feel less confident in expressing my opinion and facing the camera.
If there is a discussion forum we feel uncomfortable.
The “new pedagogy” required learners to be more independent but its lack of interaction
created issues.
Yes, because you are required to be more independent, and learning interactions
that do not meet directly make you confused because there are many
misunderstandings

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In short, what has changed is that we are required to understand various tasks
and follow the demands of the task quickly.
Alone and not sociable.
I am confused about the many tasks, and I find it unpleasant to study alone.
In the online context teaching materials and presentations can lack transparency.
The material explanation is not as clear as when lecturing offline.
Plus starting to enter the world of lectures, a new world that is of course a lot ofconfusion and more and more confusion due to this online system.
There were also resource issues for students who had relied on physical resources (e.g. books,
databases, teaching materials) and emotional reassurance and support through peer discussion.
Whilst these issues might be predicted-for some the impact could be profound.
It feels like you’re struggling alone.
Discussion
The findings of this research make an original contribution to the research literature concerning
the epistemological beliefs of Higher Education students and their relationship to the notion of
fun in learning. It is the first Indonesian study to explore this area. The qualitative analysis
offers original insights into the effects that the “move online” has had on the study experiencesof Indonesian students, and how this has impacted on their well-being. Considering thequalitative and quantitative analyses together allows insights to be developed about therelationship between students’ epistemological beliefs and the impact of the “new pedagogy”.
Consequently, this is the first study to show that epistemological beliefs are an important factor
in how students respond to and are affected by the move online necessitated by the global
pandemic.
The importance given to collaborative social interactions in learning is evident in the opencomments’ analysis. This is also seen in Component 1 and 3. Component 1 shows that student’s
see learning occurring both through social constructivist and via traditional teacher-led
approaches. The distinctions between social constructivist and traditional beliefs found inWestern Europe research (Allodi & Carstens, 2013) are not found here. This complements alack of a dichotomous differentiation identified in previous research in some Asian countries(OECD, 2009; Sheehy, Budiyanto, Kaye, & Rofiah, 2017).
Collaboration is seen as important in learning (Components 1 and 3) and Component 3
indicates that fun, within the context of collaboration is believed to be a prerequisite for
effective learning. Research into the nature of fun in online learning is nascent, however thefindings here suggest that this component is describing “Collaborative fun” (Okada & Sheehy,2020). A major impact of the move online on students has been on their opportunities forcollaborative learning. In this way a particular type of fun has been removed from their learning
experiences.

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Component 5 indicates the association between beliefs that thinking and reasoning are more
important in learning than specific content and a lack of enjoyment of online study. That somany students (46%) do no enjoy online study [and 45% neither agreed or disagreed] suggeststhat the “new pedagogy” is that of content delivery. This is confirmed in the qualitative themes
in which the model of online learning is perceived as transmission of information accompanied
by an increased number of individual assignments. The concept of epistemic match (O’Siochru& Norton, 2014) is helpful in understanding this situation. This refers to the match between a
student’s epistemological beliefs and the beliefs that, perhaps implicitly, underpin thepedagogy of their teachers. A student whose beliefs are a close match with those of thepedagogy will be better able to locate the knowledge they need. (O’Siochru & Norton, 2014).
In the current research a lack of epistemic match is evidence for some students. This lack ofepistemic match, occurring in the context of the other factors identified in the thematic analysis,contributes to student’s lack of satisfaction.
Previous research has suggested that a lack of epistemic match will have a negative impact on
students’ academic outcomes (Dai & Cromley, 2014; O’Siochru & Norton, 2014). Our researchoffers a different perspective in the context of online learning. For students who value social
interaction as an essential part of their learning, the impact of the epistemic mismatch appears
to have had a profound effect on their personal well-being. Students can feel that they are“struggling alone” and over time this can have a negative effect. A caveat to this argument isthat the students were studying within a pandemic in which many aspects of their lives will
have been negatively impacted. With this caveat acknowledged, it seems reasonable toconclude that for many there were well-being consequences of a pedagogy without
collaborative fun.
Recommendations
This research reveals how Indonesian students’ epistemological beliefs relate to notions of funin learning, in particular the association between collaborative learning and fun. For many,collaborative fun is seen as essential for learning and their engagement is reduced when thisdoes not exist. This is an issue of “epistemic match” (O’Siochru & Norton, 2014) and to address
this educators should directly analyse the pedagogic epistemologies that are being enacted
within their online teaching contexts. The findings also inform future comparative research. It
has been suggested that there are different conceptualisations of happiness and fun in different
cultures (Jaafar et al., 2012) and these findings suggests that in Indonesia learning is not seen
as separate from social emotional networks but is part of it (Budiyanto, Sheehy, Kaye, &Rofiah, 2017; Wulandari & de Jager, 2018). This emotional enmeshment of learning and fun
arises within social collaboration and so would appear difficult to create with an onlinetransmission pedagogy. The “move online” is likely to continue post-pandemic (Lemoine,
Waller, McCormack, Garretson, & ..., 2021). Therefore, eliciting and understanding thesefactors, which our research shows impact on students learning and well-being during online
study, will remain a key issue for educators. Consequently, students’ epistemological beliefs
and notions of fun should be part of this area of future research.
Conclusion
The research highlights students’ epistemological beliefs as an important factor in their
engagement with online study. It offers original insights that show that there is a relationshipbetween the nature of these epistemological beliefs and students’ beliefs about the relationshipbetween fun and learning. These students had begun their online studies as a consequence of23

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the COVID-19 pandemic. Many reported a dissatisfaction with their study experience and also
decline in their well-being. In exploring this situation, this research suggests that the epistemic
match between students and the online pedagogy is an important factor in this situation, which
has been previously overlooked.

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Corresponding author: Kieron Sheehy
Email: kieron.sheehy@open.ac.uk

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Appendix 1
The Questionnaire items.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

In which province do you live?
What is your current area of study?
What is the level of you current study.
Which university do you study at.
Are you considered by the university as a disabled student?

For the statements below please select a number. 1 is strongly agree, 2 is agree, 3 is neither
agree or disagree, 4 is disagree, 5 is strongly disagree
6. Students learn best through collaborative activities.
7. Helping students to talk to one another productively is a good way of teaching.
8. Meaningful learning occurs when students are engaged in social activities withsociety.
9. Learning can be defined as the social production of knowledge
10. The teacher’s role is to teach facts.
11. Teaching should be built around problems with clear, correct answers.
12. Effective/good teachers demonstrate the correct way to solve a problem.
13. How much students get from their learning depends mostly on their effort
14. Students should be allowed to think of solutions to practical problems themselves
before the teacher shows them how they are solved.
15. Students learn best by finding solutions to problems on their own.
16. The teacher’s role is to facilitate students’ own inquiry.
17. Thinking and reasoning processes are more important than specific curriculum
content.
18. Students’ educational potential is fixed at birth.
19. Students who begin university with ‘average’ ability remain ‘average’ throughout
their studies
20. All students should be taught in homogenous classes according to their intelligence.
21. I believe there should be a single teaching method applicable to all learning situations.
22. Learning occurs when students reflect on their action in a diverse world
23. Fun is part of curiosity and discovery
24. To learn effectively students must be happy
25. Learning should involve fun
26. To learn effectively, students must enjoy learning
27. Fun activities can get in the way of student learning
28. Has the Covid 19 situation changed your feelings about online study? If so, mention
briefly what has changed.

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Perceived Discrimination and Students’ Behavioural Changes: The Role of Cultural
Background and Societal Influence
Somasundar M
Maharaj Vinayak Global University, Amer, Dhand, Jaipur

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Abstract
Discrimination among students in educational institutes is one of the key reasons for their
behavioural changes. Research has increasingly recognized the discriminating behaviour ofteachers, but the impact of perceived discrimination by teachers on students’ behaviouralchanges has not been investigated enough. Applying a theoretical model based on
Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST), the present study aimed
to investigate the manner in which students’ behavioural changes were determined by theirteachers’ perceived discrimination, after knowing family background and how this relationshipwas moderated by societal influence and cultural background. A sample survey of 215 class 8
to class 10 students studying in rural and urban schools located in Krishnagiri district in Tamil
Nadu, India was administered through questionnaires and partial least squares-structural
equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to evaluate the gathered data. Overall, perceived
teacher discrimination of students based on their caste, creed, and financial backgroundsignificantly influenced students behaviour. The association between students’ behaviouralchanges and perceived discrimination was significantly influenced by cultural background.
However, societal influence did not significantly change the effect of perceived students’discrimination on their behavioural changes.
Keywords: behavioural changes, cultural background, family background, perceived
discrimination, students’ societal influence

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Effective pedagogical environments have a direct connection with students’ interactive
behaviour. Perceived discrimination is a common practice across educational institutions(Hagiwara et al., 2017) and contributes to the gap in the caste and creed concerning theinteractive behaviour of students (Utsey et al., 2008; Mittal, 2020). Perceived discrimination
can be defined as a perceived approach wherein personal characteristics (e.g. physicalappearance and sexual orientation), attributes (e.g. gender and race), and other social factors
are used to differentiate or exclude a person or a group of persons (Giurgiu et al., 2015). The
discrimination of students by teachers based on caste and creed is considered as differential
and biased treatment (Carter et al., 2017). Multiple negative outcomes such as mental healthand physical health deteriorations, negative social interactions, etc., are primarily caused byperceived discrimination (Brondolo et al., 2009). The classroom environment is compromised
and interactive behaviour between students and teachers is affected negatively by teachers’
discriminating behaviour (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009). Discriminatory attitudes of teachers
result in students’ reduced sense of belonging, disengagement from classroom teaching all ofwhich can hinder students’ behaviour in educational institutions (Kidger et al., 2016). In
addition, previous studies have stated that discriminating behaviour in educational institutes
affects the students’ academic performance and psychological behaviour (Alvarez et al., 2004;
Cogburn et al. 2011; Sisask et al., 2014; Banerjee et al., 2018).
Factors that might buffer or prompt discrimination among students and the influence ofteachers’ discrimination on students’ learning outcomes and behavioural changes must berecognized by teachers and counsellors (Sehgal et al., 2017). Among Indians, cultural
backgrounds and societal factors affect sensitivity to perceived discrimination (Wu et al., 2015;
Yasui et al., 2015). Thus, the experience of perceived discrimination is not determined by casteand creed, but by the overlap of cultural background and societal influence (Assari and
Lankarani, 2017). As the value system, attributions and standards of each intersectional groupare unique, the causes and effects of the same perceived discriminating experiences may bedifferent (Caldwell et al., 2013).
Several studies have illustrated that students face discrimination based on religion, socioeconomic status, and gender which includes religion-based bullying of students by teachers,
discrimination in seat arrangements and exclusion based on gender (Ramachandran andNaorem, 2013; Dupper et al., 2015; Robnett, 2016). Caste-based discrimination was evident inschools from Telangana and Andhra Pradesh where students were denied from participating in
extracurricular activities such as sports, cultural activities, and so forth. (Dongre, 2017). The
discrimination of primary school students based on socio-demographic factors like age, family
background and parenting styles were reported in Mangalore, India (Joseph et al., 2021).
Although there are abundant studies on the conflict-inducing approach of teachers, studies
focusing on the discriminating behaviour of teachers are scarce and scattered (Ali et al., 2019).
Despite the fact that some studies have considered the relationship between teacher-student
relationship and students’ perceived discrimination, the effect of perceived discrimination byteachers on students’ behavioural changes has not been investigated enough. In addition,
though perceived discrimination is quite prevalent among students (Rosenbloom and Way,
2004), investigation regarding differences in family background, cultural background andsocietal influence concerning the impact of teachers’ discrimination on students’ behaviouralchanges is limited (Bryan et al., 2018). Moreover, studies that developed and utilized an
integrated framework investigating the components (environmental and individual
characteristics) that control the consequences of perceived discrimination on students’behavioural changes are not adequate (Williams & Bryan, 2013; McGee & Pearman, 2014).
Furthermore, studies with larger sample sizes to test moderations of perceived students’33

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discrimination on students’ behavioural changes are needed. The present study is unique
because it explores students’ behavioural changes.
Thus, to fill the relevant research gaps, the present study aimed to explore the effect ofperceived discrimination by teachers on behavioural changes among students after controllingfor family background. Besides, the study aimed to assess whether cultural background andsocietal influence controlled the association between students’ behavioural changes andperceived discrimination. Identification and examination of elements that control theconsequences of teachers’ perceived discrimination on students’ behavioural changes can
support the formulation of relevant precautionary measures. Considering the past studies on
sensitivity to discrimination (Wildhagen, 2011; Slobodin et al., 2021), this study anticipated awider impact of perceived discrimination on students’ behavioural changes in the presence ofmoderators.
Theoretical Underpinnings
Utilizing integrated frameworks that highlight the mechanisms and cause and effectrelationship, is vital for academic performance. This is specifically applicable when student
outcomes are considered because of risk factors based on individual and environmental
characteristics. Hence, this study turns to the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems
Theory (PVEST) (Spencer, 1995), which posits the role of contextual influence (social, culturaland family) on the development of young people (Spencer 1999). In the context of the PVEST
framework, the significance of examining risk factors (e.g., caste-based discrimination) andhow they have been linked to negative outcomes has been highlighted (Spencer et al., 2003).
The effect of perceived school-based discrimination of students by teachers is examined in thisstudy and it is theorized as total stress involvement in the PVEST framework. Such stressengagement might be associated with negative outcomes for youth in academic settings. Thenagain, perceived caste-based discrimination of youth might be linked to more adaptive
outcomes by the protective element of culture-family socialization.
Discrimination as a risk factor for behavioural outcomes. The differential treatment due torace, religion, caste, creed and economic backgrounds is termed discrimination (Smart
Richman and Leary, 2009). Unfortunately, in the present scenario, educational institutions havebecome one of the common spaces for all kinds of student discrimination. Caste and economic
backgrounds are listed as the main bases of discrimination in the Indian education system(Desai and Kulkarni, 2008). Discrimination based on caste, creed and economic backgrounds
in Indian educational institutions has been prevalent for decades. The physical elimination andbiased attitude of teachers towards the predicament of ostracized pupils is forcing several
learners to behave negatively and despite functional preventive interventions, little is being
done by administrations to address the issue (Sitlhou, 2017). Any such injustice taking placein educational institutions affects the academic outcomes, psychological health, and school
engagement of the students.
A negative teacher-student relationship, including a perceived bias, predicts poorer behaviouralfunctioning in adolescents (Hamre and Pianta, 2001). Jain and Narayan (2011) highlighted thediscrimination faced by the students based on their religious beliefs. Ramachandran andNaorem, (2013) pointed out that the students belonging to lower caste were not permitted toseat adjacent to an upper caste student. Further, the biases faced by backward caste students
were demonstrated by Kurian (2015). Additionally, Wenz and Hoenig (2020) also illustrated
the discrimination against the students. However, all these studies failed to assess the impacts
on student outcomes. Few studies like Ingul et al. (2012) reported that the psychological34

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adjustment due to bias led to negative perceptions about the school that in turn resulted in
reduced students’ interactive behaviour. Rueger and Jenkins (2014) highlighted diminishedphysical and mental health as a result of discrimination among students. Thus, persistent
discrimination based on caste, creed and economic background ultimately results in negative
behavioural outcomes, even in the education sector (Ali et al., 2019). The below-mentioned
hypothesis is formulated based on the discussion:
H1: There is a significant impact of perceived discrimination of students by teachers based on
caste, creed and economic backgrounds on students’ behavioural changes
Role of family background, cultural background and societal factors. Based on theacademic resilience outlook, moderating the relationship is one of the individual andenvironmental characteristics that affect the association between outcomes and risk factors(García-Izquierdo et al., 2018). Students’ overall success and academic performance isdetermined by their family background, which is largely expressed as the socioeconomic status(Adeyemo and Kuyoro, 2013). Besides, a substantial association between the prevalence of
behavioural problems in students and their family background in terms of parents or caretakers
being alcoholic or absent is evident in literature (Jogdand and Naik, 2014). Discrimination
among students is reportedly predicted by a low socio-economic status (Jackson et al., 2012).
Previous studies have examined family background as an individual variable that may modify
student outcomes (Lee et al., 2015). Students belonging to marginalized families are more
likely to experience behavioural changes caused by perceived discrimination by teachers(OECD, 2017).
Researchers have emphasized that cultural background has theoretical groundwork in the social
identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986), theorizing that the risk outcome of perceived
discrimination may be mitigated for individuals who identify with their cultural background(Phinney, 2003). However, in the context of educational institutions, previous studies alsosuggest that identification with a cultural background may result in negative student outcomesdue to increased awareness of negative labels and little importance of positive societal
influence on the cultural background (Oyserman, 2008; Wildhagen, 2011). For instance, in alongitudinal study by Cheng and Klugman (2010), students possessing a minority cultural
background had lower connectedness to schools. Banerjee et al. (2018) highlighted theprevalence of discrimination by teachers based on students’ cultural background, whichbuffered the influence of perceived discrimination on students’ learning outcomes. Although
perceived discrimination may exist in multiple contexts, all forms represent different degrees
of risks to various types of social identity needs, which relate to changes in behavioural
outcomes (Verkuyten et al., 2019). Consistent with the role of these factors in existing
literature, this study offers the following hypothesis.
H2: Cultural background and societal influence moderates the effect of perceived
discrimination by teachers on students’ behavioural changes
The conceptual framework proposed here builds on the perceived discrimination of students
that has been supported by theoretical perspectives to act as a direct antecedent of students’behavioural changes when controlling for family background. The alternative frameworkbuilds on the idea that cultural background and societal influence will moderate the association
between students’ behavioural changes and their perceived discrimination. These propositions
are illustrated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1
Theoretical Framework of the Present Study

Materials and Methods
Sampling Procedure and Survey Administration
The present study used a quantitative research method and adopted a random sampling
procedure to collect data through a survey done on school students from class 8 to class 10
studying in one rural school and one urban school located in Krishnagiri district in Tamil Nadu,
India. In total, 215 questionnaires were found useful for further analysis. The student sample
included 116 males (54.0%) and 99 females (46.0%). Most of the students were aged between
16 and 18 years (63.3%). The sample included 113 class 10 students (52.5%), 58 class 9
students (27.0%) and 44 class 8 students (20.5%), respectively. The student sample included
66 family heads as skilled workers (30.7%), 60 as farmers (27.9%), 44 as unskilled workers(20.7%), 39 as government employees (18.1%) and 6 were unemployed (2.8%).
Research Instrument
This study included one exogenous variable: Perceived discrimination of students. The
endogenous variable was students’ behavioural change. Cultural background and societal
factors are used as moderating variables. Family background is used as the control variable.
This study employed a structured questionnaire consisting of 30 items that measured fivevariables used in the study. Some questionnaire items were negatively framed to check the
response bias. The first couple of statements were designed to understand perceived students’discrimination by adapting eight items from Fox and Stallworth (2005), Gelisli (2007) and Ali
et al. (2019). Meanwhile, to measure behavioural changes of students, six items were adaptedfrom Ali et al. (2019). Besides, societal factors and cultural background were explained by six
and three items by Soric (2011). Moreover, to assess family background, three categorical
items were adapted by Sun and Shek (2012) and Ali et al. (2019). All the variables, except for
the family background, were assessed through a 5-point Likert scale, wherein strongly disagree
was indicated by 1 and strongly agree was indicated by 5.
Data Analysis
The partial least squares (PLS)-structured equation modelling (SEM) technique was used toanalyse the data, inspect the latent constructs used in the measurement model, and test theinteractions between latent constructs and moderators in the structural model, as indicated in36

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Figure 1. A three-step process was followed in which R2 and sizes of effects for “perceived
teachers’ discrimination” on “students’ behavioural changes” were evaluated. First, the model
was run without the moderators (cultural background and societal influence); secondly, thedirect effects of “cultural background” and “societal influence” on students’ behaviouralchanges were measured; and thirdly, “cultural background” and “societal influence” wereincorporated and moderator effect was assessed. Following guidelines from Streukens andLeroi-Werelds (2016) for estimating the statistical significance of path estimates using PLSSEM, bootstrapping technique was executed using 10,000 sub-samples to increase the degreeof precision. SmartPLS and IBM SPSS were employed to analyze the data and generate theresults.
Results
Analysis of the Measurement Model
The measurement model was assessed by the study to ensure relevant reliability, composite
reliability, and construct validity of the scales used. The various items of latent variables were
subjected to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to assess overall fitness of the measurement
model. The result of the factor analysis of the study constructs is illustrated in Table 1. Averagevariance extracted (AVE) values and factor loading values were found greater than 0.50,
thereby ensuring convergent validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Composite reliability (CR)of the variables was above the threshold of 0.70 and it ranged between 0.78 and 0.81 (Hair et al.,2017). It can be inferred that constructs had high internal consistency for items associated witheach variable. The remaining constructs were eliminated as the AVE values were less than 0.50.

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Table 1
Reliability and Validity Outcomes
Cronbach's
Alpha
0.65

Latent constructs
Perceived teachers’ discrimination
DS1 Teachers don’t answer my questions in theclass
DS3 Teachers make disrespectful comments
towards me in the class because of my caste
DS8 I feel that teachers always pay attention to
students of higher caste
Cultural background
CF1 I have some beliefs that affect my interaction
with students of other caste
CF3 The curriculum provided by my school isbased on different cultural backgrounds
Societal influence
SF3 I am disciplined at school because I am
disciplined at home
SF4 I interact with students of different caste
SF5 The society has been the primary influence in
my life regarding how I feel about people of othercasteStudents’ behavioural changes
BCS1 I am not interested in listening to lectures in
the class
BCS2 I like to talk to my friends during the class
BCS5 I do not submit class assignments

Factorloading

CR

AVE

0.81

0.59

0.80

0.66

0.78

0.54

0.78

0.54

0.81
0.82
0.66
0.60
0.76
0.87
0.60
0.74
0.69
0.78
0.60
0.78
0.69
0.74

Note: CR=composite reliability; AVE=average variance extracted
A test of discriminant validity was assessed for all construct variables in the model. The
analysis presented in Table 2 shows that the AVE square root values of each construct werehigher than the multiple correlation values for the respective constructs, which demonstrated
the discriminant validity of all construct variables in the model (Hair et al., 2017).
Table 2Discriminant Validity Indicators
Construct
Behavioural changes (BCS)
Cultural background (CB)
Perceived teachers’ discrimination (DS)Societal influence (SF)

BCS
0.73
0.45
0.64
0.70

CB

DS

SF

0.81
0.37
0.34

0.77
0.62

0.74

The Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) criterion was also used to assess discriminant validity. The
analysis presented in Table 3 demonstrates that the HTMT values were below 0.90, thereby
confirming the absence of any issues on discriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).
Thus, the variables were distinctly different from each other. Therefore, discriminant validity
was achieved.

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Table 3Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT)
Behaviouralchanges
Behaviouralchanges
Culturalbackground
Perceived
discrimination
Societal influence

Culturalbackground

Discrimination

Societal
influence

0.88

-

0.82
0.88

0.64

0.83

0.61

Analysis of the Structural Model
Based on the assessment of the measurement model, the reliabilities and validities of thepresent model are confirmed, from which the structural relationships and significance of the
hypotheses are established. The Q2 value was greater than zero for the endogenous construct,indicating an adequate predictive relevance of the model (Geisser, 1975) (Table 4). The levelof perceived students’ discrimination can be explained by 61.0% variation in students’behavioural changes, thereby explaining nearly moderate to high variance (Chin, 1998) (Table
4).
Further, the PLS-SEM allows for identifying the significance of the relationships between thevariables. In considering their effect on each other, the association between students’behavioural changes and perceived discrimination showed a highly (0.29) significant effect inthe model (Figure 2), thereby confirming H1. Concerning the influence of moderating variableson the association between dependent and independent latent variables, the results showed that
cultural background significantly but negatively moderates the effect of perceived students’discrimination on behavioural changes (β = -0.12, T = 2.13, p < 0.001), implying that cultural
background can significantly reduce the effect of perceived students’ discrimination on their
behavioural changes. However, it was also observed that societal influence did not significantly
increase or decrease the effect of perceived students’ discrimination on their behaviouralchanges (β = 0.03, t = 0.70, p > 0.05) (Table 4).
Table 4Structural Paths and Related Indicators
DV

IV

BCS

DS
H1
DS*CB
H2
DS*SF

***

Hypothesis

R2

4.47
2.13

Significance(result)
Supported
Supported

0.70

Not supported-

Path estimates

t-Value

0.29***-0.12*
0.03

Q2

0.61 0.30-

p < 0.001, * p < 0.05

The PLS-SEM allows for further analysis through bootstrapping (see Table 5) in identifying
the direct relationships between the variables. Based on PLS-SEM procedure of direct effects,
it is established that the direct effects (cultural background → students’ behavioural changes:
β= 0.18, t = 3.39; societal influence → students’ behavioural changes: β = 0.43, t = 7.86; family
background → students’ behavioural changes: β = 0.13, t = 2.01) were significant.

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Table 5
Bootstrapping Direct Effects at 95% Confidence Intervals (CIs)βCultural background -> Behavioural changes
Family background -> Behavioural changes
Societal influence -> Behavioural changes

0.18
0.13
0.43

SampleStandard Deviation(STDEV)
0.05
0.05
0.05

T
P
Statistics Values
3.39
2.01
7.86

0.00
0.04
0.00

Figure 2
SEM Model for the Study

Moderating Effects
The role of cultural background and societal influence as moderators between perceived
discrimination of students was their behavioural changes were tested (Table 6). An effect sizeof predictors in each case was assessed following Cohen’s f2 criteria. The results demonstratethat the second case and third case in which direct and the moderating (cultural background)interaction effects were created, reported a higher effect size in comparison to other scenarios.
The results indicated an f2 value of 0.12 reflecting a small effect size (Cohen, 1988); thereby
partially confirming hypothesis H2.
Table 6Moderation Effects
State of model testing
Model without cultural background
Model without societal influence
Model with cultural background as a direct effectModel with societal influence as a direct effectModel with cultural background as a moderator
Model with societal influence as a moderator

40

Effect size
0.031
0.025
0.074
0.287
0.121
0.003

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Discussion
While research has consistently focused on discrimination based on caste and creed, less isknown about specific discrimination sources in different settings, including institutional
contexts. The present study focused specifically on perceived teacher discrimination. The
present research analysed the effects of teachers’ perceived discrimination on students’behavioural changes when controlling for family background. Besides, this study examined
whether cultural background and societal influence moderated the effects of school-based
discrimination on students’ behavioural changes. This study focused on the Indian sample tounderstand how perceived teacher discrimination based on caste, creed and financial
background of students may be associated with their behavioural changes.
In the present study, specifically, the empirical evidence that perceived discrimination byteachers (0.29) significantly affects students’ behavioural changes suggests that higher
discrimination strengthens behavioural changes in students. This finding is indicative of
declining in students’ interest to listen in the classes as a result of discrimination. Alfaro et al.
(2009) proposed similar arguments by stating that students who suffered discrimination byteachers showed little interest in their studies, curiosity and perseverance. Additionally,
discrimination also significantly affects students’ interest to obey rules in the classroom. Smalls
et al. (2007) established that discriminated students possibly exhibit truant behaviour at school.
Discriminating behaviour is intolerable, even among educated professionals, and adversely
affects student outcomes (Borrazzo, 2005; Haider and Hussain, 2014). Here, this finding
contributes to the previous studies which reported that perceived discrimination by teachers isa basic determinant of behavioural changes in students (Huynh and Fuligni 2010; Jain andNarayan, 2011; Dupper et al., 2015). The exclusion and discrimination based on caste werealso highlighted by Dostie and Jayaraman (2006). This kind of discrimination was also pointed
out by Ramachandran and Naorem (2013) who highlighted segregated seating arrangements ofbackward and forward caste students in a classroom as an example of perceived teacher
discrimination. Moreover, Kumar (2016) claimed that the humiliation and discrimination inschools based on the caste of the students was a reality in the Indian education system.
Additionally, girls in the backward caste were considered as less fit to study (Kurian, 2015).
Murray-Harvey and Slee (2007) and Stephan and Stephan (2013) argued that factors that
profoundly affect students’ psychological behaviour and learning originate from thediscriminating attitude of teachers. However, the present finding is different from the findings
by Bibi and Karim (2015) and Ali et al. (2019) where it was observed that students’ learning
outcomes and psychology were not influenced by teachers’ perceived discrimination.
Moreover, regarding perceived teacher discrimination, this study empirically established thatthe association between students’ behavioural outcomes and perceived discrimination was
controlled by cultural background in a significant, but negative manner. This finding
established that the effects of teachers’ perceived discrimination on students’ behaviour would
be mitigated by cultural background. This outcome is consistent with Banerjee et al. (2018),
who posited that the influence of perceived discrimination on academic performances ofstudents was weakened by cultural socialization. The cultural background has been associatedwith better performance of school students. Assari and Caldwell (2018) reported that culturalsocialization diminished the risk for greater behavioural changes in students due toexperiencing discrimination in the classroom by teachers. The authors argued that individualand environmental intersection is required to comprehend the role of discrimination on
students’ behavioural changes (Chavous et al., 2008). Theoretical perspectives on socialization
might facilitate our understanding of why cultural background may matter in the influences of41

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perceived discrimination on students’ developmental results (e.g., perceived teacher
discrimination on students’ behavioural changes). Cultural background shapes socializationand the different levels of teacher-student interaction (Brown and Harris, 2012). School
students receive negative perceptions through caste- and creed-based discrimination, but theyreceive positive perceptions through cultural background, resulting in positive outcomes(Banerjee et al., 2018). Previous studies suggest that family background or socioeconomic
status (Assari and Caldwell, 2017; Hudson et al., 2012) and cultural background (Assari et al.,2015; Beatty Moody et al., 2016) change experience and sensitivity to perceived
discrimination. Interpretation of unclear or arguable situations depends on various factors
including cultural identity that shapes the prominence of culture in gradual encounters (Sellers
et al., 2006). However, the present finding is different from previous studies that found nocontrolling consequence of cultural background in the association between students’ academic
outcomes and teachers’ caste- and creed-based perceived discrimination (Neblett et al., 2006).
Furthermore, the present results for societal influence was not significant, indicating thatsocietal influence was less of a concern in the present sample. This could be because of aparticular sample of the present dataset, where information was gathered from respondents ofthe same locality and ethnicity.
Conclusion
With the survey data collected from class 8 to class 10 students of rural and urban schools in
Krishnagiri district of Tamil Nadu, India, the present study explored the effect of perceived
discrimination by teachers based on students’ caste, creed and financial background on their
behavioural changes how this effect is strengthened in the presence of cultural background andsocietal influence. Overall, the present study revealed that perceived teacher discrimination
significantly leads to negative behavioural changes in students when controlling for family
background. Moreover, the present study identified the moderating effect of cultural
background on the direct association between students’ behavioural changes and teachers’
perceived discrimination.
Implications
The present study offers valuable insights for theoretical implications and practical
implications. The present study adds to the existing literature concerning the negative effect ofperceived teacher discrimination on behavioural changes in school students. Despite priorstudies having examined the conflict-inducing approach of teachers based on students’ religion,socio-economic status, and gender (Neblett et al., 2006), few studies have analysed thediscriminating approach of teachers towards behavioural changes in students with regards totheir cultural background, societal influence and family background (Ali et al., 2019). The
present study provides evidence that cultural background may buffer the negative behavioural
outcomes for school students as a result of perceived teacher discrimination, suggesting that
cultural socialization may balance the effects of discrimination in the school context. Besides,
the present results indicate that family background may be associated with behavioural changes
in students due to perceived discrimination. Schools might include educational practices witha focus on culture to mitigate discriminating behaviour among students and foster better
psychological and academic outcomes.
Recommendations
Since the present findings reported that perceived teacher discrimination adversely affects
students’ behavioural changes, school authorities should emphasize sources that may lead todiscriminating behaviour of teachers. Stricter actions towards intolerance to discrimination in42

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terms of termination, suspension, or demotion should be effective to regulate these sources.
Several interventions should be implemented by school authorities to alleviate perceived
teacher discrimination. Schools should prioritize a diverse workforce of teachers. Finally,
training programs should be conducted to educate teachers to mitigate blunt reactions and better
handle discriminating attitudes. Repeated mistreatment is considered to emotionally affectstudents (Baldwin and Baldwin, 1986). Although eliminating negative interactions between
teachers and students seems unrealistic, bias in teachers’ approach towards students could be
mitigated.
Limitations and Future Research Directives
The present study emphasises on school-based students’ perception of teacher discriminationand their views on their behavioural changes. Future research should consider the perceptionsof teachers and parents to provide in-depth insights for understanding the impact ofschool-based perceived discrimination on students’ behavioural outcomes and decrease theprobability of bias in self-perceived response. In addition, the present study did not control fororganizational and personal factors that could be a reason for perceived teacher discrimination.
Future studies may emphasize additional factors, like institutional strategies, which tend tocontrol the association between students’ behavioural changes and teachers’ perceived
discrimination. This, in turn, would enable to comprehend framing institutional policies
effective in regulating teachers’ behaviour and attitude. Moreover, the cross-sectional aspect
restricts the generalizability of findings as it provides an understanding of what is currently
happening. Therefore, longitudinal studies should be conducted to understand the relationshipbetween perceived teacher discrimination based on caste, creed and financial background andstudents’ behavioural changes. Efforts must be made to understand how such a relationship isbuffered by cultural-societal intersection and family background through different phases ofthe school level. A longitudinal study design on perceived discrimination might aid inunderstanding the nature and influence of the moderating factors.

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-018-09476-0
Wildhagen, T. (2011). Testing the 'acting White' hypothesis: A popular explanation runs outof empirical steam. The Journal of Negro Education, 445–463.
Wu, H. P., Garza, E., & Guzman, N. (2015). International student’s challenge and adjustment
to college. Education Research International, 2015, ID 202753.
Yasui, M., Dishion, T. J., Stormshak, E., & Ball, A. (2015). Socialization of culture andcoping with discrimination among American Indian families: Examining cultural
correlates of youth outcomes. Journal of the Society for Social Work andResearch, 6(3), 317–341. https://doi.org/10.1086/682575
Corresponding author: Somasundar M
Email: somasundar.researcher@gmail.com

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The Effects of Learning Stations on Socioeconomically Disadvantaged
Students’ Achievement and Self-Regulated Learning
Reem Alsaadi
Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
Adam Al Sultan
Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia

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Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of learning station strategies on developing
academic achievement and self-regulated learning among middle school students of low
socioeconomic status. The sample group consisted of 68 female Saudi students. We applied aquasi-experimental design with an experimental and control group and a pretest and posttest.
We examined the correlation between academic achievement and self-regulated learning. The
data collection instruments included an academic achievement test and self-regulated learningquestionnaire. The results revealed a statistically significant difference between the meanscores of both instruments in favor of the experimental group. Additionally, there was apositive relationship between development of academic achievement and self-regulated
learning among the students for the experimental group. The study’s findings suggest that thelearning stations created a dynamic classroom, which prompted students to engage in selfregulatory behaviors and develop their knowledge and understanding.
Keywords: learning stations, achievement, self-regulated learning, low socioeconomic status52

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Considering the importance of sustainable education for the future of all students, including
students who come from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, investigating
instructional strategies that may support and amplify their learning experiences becomes anecessary intervention to address their educational needs. Additionally, students of low
socioeconomic status are often identified as students with low educational achievement andfrom low-income households who are at risk of inadequate academic preparation and weak
parental or family support (Dietrichson et al., 2017; Rubin et al., 2014). As such, strengthening
the focus on teaching quality and students’ learning abilities becomes central to providing
students from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds with appropriate and sustainableeducation for their future.
Previous research has established that students of low socioeconomic status, on average, havelower academic achievement levels than students of high socioeconomic status (e.g., Acar,
2019; Hernstein & Murray, 1994; Hertert & Teague, 2003). Although it is unrealistic to believethat school-based strategies alone can eliminate disparities in academic achievement between
socioeconomically advantaged and disadvantaged students, teachers with effective
instructional strategies can help narrow the achievement gap (Reardon, 2013). Many studies
have found that the role of teachers is a key factor in making a significant difference in students’achievement. For example, Haycock (1998) stressed that teachers have a more powerful
influence on students’ achievement than students’ socioeconomic status and parent education.
Similarly, Marzano et al. (2001) indicated that even in low-performing schools, teachers could
affect achievement in students and help them attain their fullest capacities. Collectively,
students may face socioeconomic and academic challenges during their educational journey,
but effective teaching strategies can address their achievement needs (Wronowski, 2017).
Furthermore, existing research recognizes the critical role that self-regulated learning plays instudents’ academic achievement. Drawn from social cognitive theory, self-regulated learning
mainly involves cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and resource-management
strategies, which are known within self-regulation literature to support students’ learning andacademic achievement (e.g., Graham & Harris, 2009; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011).
Additionally, adept self-regulated learning is correlated with satisfactory levels ofachievement, and high-performing students implement self-regulated learning more often andmore successfully than their lower-performing peers (Dent & Koenka, 2016).
However, a crucial question is what instructional strategies should be targeted by teachers andencouraged by educational decision makers that have the potential to narrow the achievement
gap and foster self-regulated learning among students from socioeconomically disadvantaged
backgrounds. Nevertheless, adopting an instructional strategy to address academic
achievement is a decisive and challenging decision because not all established instructional
strategies maximize achievement levels, and they may unintentionally increase theachievement gap (Atlay et al., 2019). Moreover, learning stations (also known as stations orscientific stations) are part of an instructional strategy that provides an alternative way to guide
instruction for diverse learners, differentiate instruction, and foster a positive learning
environment (Tomlinson, 2014). Learning stations are essentially different physical locationsin the classroom where students work on various tasks simultaneously (Jones, 2007). Several
sources provide key characteristics that support the selection of learning stations as an
instructional strategy to use with struggling students from socioeconomically disadvantaged
backgrounds (e.g., Aydogmus & Senturk, 2019; Jones, 2007; Tomlinson, 2014). One main
characteristic is that the teacher can creatively design and methodically build each station toaddress the students’ academic needs. Learning stations also encourage small group instruction

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and facilitate interactions among peers, which decreases student to teacher ratios. Therefore,
students are in charge of executing their own problem-solving and consequent learning, whichbuilds students’ interest in the content area and allows for more inquiry and discovery.
Additionally, rotating students through learning stations that address their academic
weaknesses can minimize their frustration. As such, students adjust or modify their learning
strategies based on their current station and the intended goal, which may influence them topractice self-regulated learning.
Although cooperative learning, feedback, and tutoring seem like promising approaches,
providing the most suitable teaching interventions for students from socioeconomicallydisadvantaged households is still a conundrum (Dietrichson et al., 2017). Therefore, thepurpose of the study is to investigate the effects of learning station utilization on thedevelopment of academic achievement and self-regulated learning among middle school
students from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. The following questions guided
the current study:
1. How effective is the learning stations strategy in the development of academic
achievement among second-year middle school students?
2. How effective is the learning stations strategy in the development of self-regulated
learning among second-year middle school students?
3. What is the relationship between academic achievement and self-regulated learning
among second-year middle school students?
Literature Review
Learning Stations
Learning stations are part of an instructional strategy that supports differentiation (Tomlinson,2014). Learning stations are distinguished locations (e.g., distinguished by signs, symbols, orcolors) in the classroom where groups of students collaboratively work on different tasks
simultaneously to learn content and develop skills related to a topic. The groups rotate fromstation to station until each group of students has completed all the tasks. Additionally,
designing learning stations and setting up the classroom can take different forms. Two to fourlearning stations are ideal for most classrooms, and student groups should range from four to
six members. Furthermore, each learning station is recommended to have simple instructions
that students can quickly read and spend approximately 10–15 minutes accomplishing at eachlearning station (Jarrett, 2010). Moreover, there are varying arrangements for learning stations
that are premeditated based on the nature of the subject, available class time, and student’s
grade level, such as exploration stations, reading stations, yes-or-no stations, visual stations,acting stations, electronic stations, and art stations.
In the context of middle school education, the learning stations strategy has been examined inseveral subject areas. For example, Suoed and Taha (2020) investigated the effect of using
learning stations on student achievement in a computer course. Suoed and Taha employed aquasi-experimental design using 72 second-year male middle school students who weredivided into an experimental and control group. This study included four learning stations: anelectronic station, exploration station, reading station, and visual station. Using a multiplechoice achievement test, the results revealed a significant difference between the mean scoresof both groups in favor of the experimental group. The researchers elaborated that the learning
stations strategy created a positive learning environment for the students to engage with eachother, ask questions, and actively interact with the lesson and its materials.

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Allihaibi (2015) conducted a study that revealed the impact of learning stations on developing
achievement and positive attitudes toward the subject of physics. The sample was composedof 60 second-year male middle school students who were divided equally into the experimentalgroup and in the control group. This study used three learning stations: an exploration station,a reading station, and a yes-or-no station. The researchers used a multiple-choice achievement
test and a three-point Likert scale to gauge participants’ attitudes toward physics and collectdata from them. The results showed significant differences in favor of the experimental groupbetween the mean scores in the post-application of the achievement test and the attitude toward
the physics questionnaire. The researchers concluded that the learning stations provided
students with an opportunity to constructively build their own knowledge by graduallydeveloping their understanding of physics at each station. Additionally, the researchers
indicated that the learning stations allowed students to engage in meaningful science discoursethat may have influenced their positive attitudes toward physics.
Another example is Al-Hafidh’s (2020) study that aimed to explore the effect of learning
stations on developing deductive thinking in science among first-year middle school students.
The sample was composed of 65 students divided into an experimental (30 students) andcontrol (35 students) group. This study had four learning stations: an electronic station,
exploratory station, imaginary station, reading station, audio station, and a yes-or-no station.
The researchers developed a 20-item deductive reasoning test. The findings showed significant
differences between the mean scores of both groups in the post-application of the deductive
reasoning test in favor of the experimental group. The researcher stressed that the learning
station approach allowed students to interact with various educational stations that helped themconstruct their own knowledge and work with their peers to create a sound cognitive structure.
Overall, these studies highlight that the number and type of learning stations should be chosen
based on the nature of the subject and content being taught. Additionally, hardly any studies
have investigated the effects of learning stations on developing academic achievement and selfregulated learning among middle school students from socioeconomically disadvantaged
backgrounds.
Self-Regulated Learning
Self-regulated learning can be defined as “self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions thatare planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals” (Zimmerman, 2000, p.
14). As such, self-regulated learning centers around the individual’s active and constructive
processes of planning, monitoring, implementing, and reflecting to attain academic
achievement (Pintrich, 2000). Additionally, self-regulated learners are active agents in theirlearning process by planning, setting goals, and engaging in strategies to enhance their progress
toward academic achievement (Zimmerman, 1986). Furthermore, self-regulated learning
strategies are systematically directed toward the achievement of learning goals. As such, selfregulation is a multidimensional construct that can be categorized into the following strategies:
cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management (Pintrich et al., 1991; Pintrich, 2004;
Zimmerman, 1990). Based on the studies mentioned above, we used the following definitionsof self-regulated learning in the current study. Cognitive strategies refer to methods andtechniques the learner uses to integrate new knowledge with prior knowledge, which also
involves contribution strategies that help them recall, elaborate on, and organize ideas.
Metacognitive strategies refer to the learner’s self-awareness about their cognitive processes
and the strategies they employ to set goals and monitor, plan, and regulate their learning.
Resource management refers to the learner’s ability to manage and control their learning
environment to achieve their goals using tools such as time and effort, management, helpseeking, and peer-learning. Overall, many studies have highlighted that self-regulated students

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adopt strategies that align with the cognitive demands of tasks and activities to better reach
their goals of high academic achievement (e.g., Broekkamp & Van Hout-Wolters, 2007;
Komarraju & Nadler, 2013).
Methodology and Methods
Population and Sample
General education in Saudi Arabia consists of three stages: six years in elementary school,
three years in middle school, and three years in high school. The population in this study wascomposed of second-year middle school female students from public middle schools in the cityof Khobar, Saudi Arabia. Of the 20 public middle schools in Khobar, two schools containstudents of low socioeconomic status due to low income and education achievement in theirfamily’s households. Random sampling was not possible because selection of the middle
schools had to be disclosed to the Department of Planning and Development in the Eastern
Province Branch of the Ministry of Education so that ethical approval could be obtained. Thus,
we purposefully approached one of the two middle schools that were willing to participate in
the study.
Research Design
A quasi-experimental design with an experimental and control group and a pretest and posttest
was used to investigate the study’s research questions. The chosen middle school consisted offive second-year classes. Two classes were randomly selected. Thirty-three students comprised
the experimental group, and 35 students comprised the control group. The experimental group
received the pretest, the treatment (learning stations), and the posttest. The control group
received a pretest followed by a posttest. All students in both groups were of low
socioeconomic status (i.e., from households with low income and educational achievement).
Additionally, there were no differences between the two groups regarding the following
extraneous variables: gender, age, educational content, or previous academic achievement.
Furthermore, the subject of science was chosen because both the school’s principal andacademic counselor indicated that science was a challenging subject for their second-year
students, and the students were at risk of having a significant achievement gap in science.
Furthermore, the following two units from the science textbook were used for this study:“Support, Locomotion, and Response” and “Reproduction and Development.” The first unit
included two lessons, which were “Skin and Muscles” and “The Skeleton and Nervous
Systems.” The second unit included two lessons, which were “The Endocrine and Reproductive
Systems” and “Stages of Human Life.”
Research Tools
The development of the academic achievement test. The academic achievement test wasdeveloped to measure students’ level of understanding related to the “Support, Locomotion,
and Response” unit and the “Reproduction and Development” unit (see Appendix A). Together
with an expert teacher from the middle school, we examined several resources when drafting
the academic achievement test, which included the learning objectives of each lesson, thescientific concepts in each unit, previous academic achievement tests carried out in the school,and samples of academic achievement tests supplied by the Saudi Education and Training
Evaluation Commission. The academic achievement test included 28 multiple-choicequestions designed to test different cognitive levels – remembering, understanding, applying,
and analyzing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).

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Moreover, content validity was established by having the test reviewed by two curriculum andinstruction professors at the researchers’ university. They were asked to review the test’sdegree of representation in the content, the clarity of the questions, the suitability of thealternatives for each of the questions, and the suitability of the questions for the corresponding
cognitive level and give any other necessary feedback. Accordingly, changes were made basedon the reviewers’ feedback, which included minor wording editing and the cognitive difficultyof some questions. Then, the researchers piloted the test on 58 third-year male middle school
students who were not participants in the study. The internal consistency was assessed by
calculating Pearson correlation coefficients between each question and the total mark for thecognitive level under which the question falls, as shown in the following table:
Table 1
Pearson Correlation Coefficients for the Academic Achievement Test
Remember
UnderstandPearson Questi
PearsonQuestiCorrelati on
Correlati on
onon
0.693*
1
0.630*
3
0.732*
7
0.559*
90.580*
8
0.683*
100.744*
14
0.584*
18
0.661*
15
0.614*
19
0.595*
16
0.519*
20
0.503*
17
0.638*
21
0.579*
25
0.660*
22
0.727*
27
0.629*
26* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

Apply
PearsonCorrelation0.782*
0.862*
0.724*
0.854*

Questi
on
2
4
12
28

Analyze
PearsonCorrelatio
n0.749*
0.813*
0.665*
0.629*
0.762*
0.641*

Questi
on
5
6
13
11
23
24

Table 1 shows that all correlation coefficients between each question and the total mark for a
cognitive level under which the question falls are statistically significant at 0.01, which meansthat the academic achievement demonstrated internal consistency. Additionally, the internalconsistency was calculated for each cognitive level individually with overall test scores. The
value of coefficients for remembering, understanding, applying, and analyzing were 0.722,
0.665, 0.603, and 0.648, respectively. Thus, all coefficients were statistically significant
correlations at 0.01, indicating an existing strong internal consistency of the test. Furthermore,
the reliability of the test was verified through two methods Cronbach’s alpha and split-halfreliability (Spearman–Brown). We calculated the results of both methods to be 0.865 and
0.867, respectively. This indicates high reliability and thus confirms the appropriateness of thetest for application.
Furthermore, the difficulty and discrimination coefficients were examined for each question.
The difficulty coefficients ranged from 0.38 to 0.76 with an average of 0.58, and thediscrimination coefficients ranged from 0.31 to 0.69 with an average of 0.54. Accordingly, theacademic achievement questions have appropriate difficulty and discrimination coefficients,
and thus they are considered suitable. Finally, the academic achievement test tookapproximately 40 minutes to complete.
Development of the self-regulated learning questionnaire. The self-regulated-learningquestionnaire consisted of the following three components of learning strategies, each of which

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includes three skills as follows: (1) cognitive strategies: recalling information, organizing, andelaborating; (2) metacognitive strategies: planning, regulating, and monitoring; and (3)resource management strategies: time managing, peer learning, and help-seeking. These
specific self-regulated-learning strategies and associated skills were chosen because of theirsuitability for the abilities of the study participants, and the items were taken from literature in
the context of middle school education (e.g., Al-Shammari, 2019; Muhammad, 2017). The
questionnaire consisted of 36 statements, with each skill having four statements. Negative
phrases were considered in the development of the questionnaire, and negative statements were
included in items 8, 16, and 36. The questionnaire included a three-point Likert scale: rarely(score 1), sometimes (score 2), and always (score 3). Two experts in educational psychology
reviewed the questionnaire to confirm content validity. They were asked to evaluate each item
for clarity, readability, and relevance. All necessary changes recommended by the reviewers
were addressed, which mostly involved wording and minor grammatical changes to avoid
misinterpretation and ensure clarity. Then, the questionnaire was pilot tested on 58 middle
school students who were not participants in the study. The internal consistency was assessedby calculating Pearson correlation coefficients (refer to Table 2).
Table 2
Pearson Correlation Coefficients for the Self-Regulated Learning
Questionnaire
Recalling information
Organizing
No. Pearson
No. Pearson
Correlation
Correlation
1
0.803*
5
0.738*
2
0.769*
6
0.758*
3
0.792*
7
0.837*
4
0.749*
8
0.733*
Planning
Regulating
No. Pearson
No. Pearson
Correlation
Correlation
13
0.778*
17
0.837*
14
0.805*
18
0.775*
15
0.798*
19
0.773*
16
0.774*
20
0.859*
Time managing
Peer learning
No. Pearson
No. Pearson
Correlation
Correlation
25
0.882*
29
0.804*
26
0.768*
30
0.796*
27
0.847*
31
0.784*
28
0.805*
32
0.825** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

Elaborating
No. Pearson
Correlation
90.783*
10
0.843*
11
0.827*
12
0.775*
Monitoring
No. Pearson
Correlation
21
0.866*
22
0.815*
23
0.828*
24
0.842*
Help-seeking
No. Pearson
Correlation
33
0.811*
34
0.747*
35
0.802*
36
0.826*

Table 2 shows that all correlation coefficients between each statement and the total mark forthe habit of mind under which the statements fall are statistically significant at 0.01 and 0.05,
indicating that the questionnaire is internally consistent. Additionally, we calculated theinternal consistency of each skill with overall questionnaire scores. The values of thecoefficients were as follows: recalling information (0.646), organizing (0.589), elaborating(0.752), planning (0.661), regulating (0.679), monitoring (0.699), time managing (0.662), peer

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learning (0.768), and help-seeking (0.575). The values of the coefficients were statisticallysignificant at 0.01. The reliability of the questionnaire was tested by using Cronbach’s alpha,which was calculated as 0.925, and split-half reliability (Spearman–Brown), which wasestimated as 0.872, both of which are acceptable degrees of reliability. The questionnaire tookapproximately 20 minutes to complete (see Appendix).
Teachers’ guide to learning stations. In Saudi middle schools, science is generally taught
four times per week, and each class is 45 minutes long. In this study, we used three learning
stations: an exploration station, visual station, and reading station. At the exploration station,
students were engaged in hands-on activities where they carried out and explored a specificconcept from their lesson. Then, students moved to the visual station, where a computer screen
was set up for them to watch a video clip related to the lesson content. Finally, the students
proceeded to the reading station, where they interacted with a scientific text related to thelesson. At this station, the students linked and extracted information included in the reading
text with previous knowledge gained from the exploration and visual stations. They also
engaged in reading activities, such as identifying main ideas, underlining key concepts, andexpressing meaning in their own words. At each station, the students were asked to take notes
and answer questions on the accompanying worksheets.
Furthermore, we developed a teacher’s guide to learning stations for the “Support, Locomotion,
and Response” and “Reproduction and Development” units. The guide includes the following
sections: introduction to learning stations strategy, lesson objectives, scientific concepts
included in each lesson, lesson plans according to learning stations, using learning stations inlarger classes, and worksheets for each learning station. The teacher’s guide was reviewed by
two science education professors and by an experienced middle school teacher. Necessarychanges were made upon receiving their written feedback and verbal suggestions.
Procedures
Before carrying out the study, we sought approval from the Eastern Province Office of the
Ministry of Education, which issued a letter to the targeted middle school allowing us to
conduct the study with second-year female middle school students. All participating students,
their parents, and the classroom teacher agreed to voluntarily participate in the study.
Moreover, we applied descriptive statistics to analyze the data of this study, which included
calculating the mean, standard deviation (SD), and degrees of freedom (df) values for both theacademic achievement test and self-regulated learning questionnaire. Additionally, we used
Pearson correlation coefficients to investigate the connection between the two dependent
variables. Initially, the normality in each group was estimated using a Shapiro–Wilk’s test, theresults of which showed that each had nonsignificant readings and followed a normal
distribution. As a result, we employed inferential statistics, which included a t-test forindependent samples to identify differences between the experimental and control groups indeveloping the academic achievement test and self-regulated learning questionnaire and theeta-squared (η2) coefficient to calculate the effects of the size of learning stations on academic
achievement and self-regulated learning.
Furthermore, we administered the pretest using the test and questionnaire on the chosen
experimental and control group to verify their equivalence. We examined the equivalence ofthe two groups by using an independent sample t-test. Table 3 illustrates the results.

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Table 3
T-Test Results for the Pretest Academic Achievement Test
Group

N

Mean

SD

df

T valueSignificancelevel

Experimental
Control

33
35

7.39
7.71

2.16
2.26

67

0.597

0.553

Table 4
T-Test Results for the Pretest Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire
Group

N

Mean

SD

df

T valueSignificancelevel

Experimental
Control

33
35

56.52
54.69

7.55
8.37

67

0.944

0.348

Tables 3 and 4 show that the test significance level is above 0.05, which indicates that there
are no statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups.
Therefore, there is equivalence between both groups. Finally, after the four-week treatment
was completed, we conducted the posttest by using both instruments for the experimental andcontrol groups.
Results
Research Question One
To answer the first research question, we tested the following hypothesis: “There are no
statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) between the posttest mean scores of theexperimental and control groups in the academic achievement test.” Table 5 shows thesummary statistics for testing this hypothesis, which corresponds to the first research question.
Table 5
Posttest Summary Statistics for the Academic Achievement Test
Group

N

Mean

SD

df

T-testExperimental
Control

33
35

25.36
18.17

1.85
3.13

67

11.44

η2

Significance
level

0.665

0.00

Table 5 reveals that the significance level is less than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis isrejected, which means that the use of learning stations made a difference in the posttest in favorof the experimental group. Additionally, eta squared (η2) is calculated at 0.665, revealing alarge effect size. This indicates that learning stations had a significant and effective impact on
the students’ performance on the academic achievement test.
Research Question Two
To answer the second research question, we tested the following hypothesis: “There are no
statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) between the posttest mean scores of theexperimental and control groups in the self-regulated learning questionnaire.” Table 6 shows
the summary statistics for testing this hypothesis, which corresponds to the second researchquestion.

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Table 6
Posttest Summary Statistics for the Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire
Group

N

Mean

SD

df

T-testExperimental
Control

33
35

100.12
65.77

5.59
9.65

67

17.81

η2

Significance
level

0.828

0.00

Table 6 shows that the significance level is less than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis isrejected, which means that the use of learning stations made a difference in the posttest in favorof the experimental group. Additionally, eta squared (η2) is calculated at 0.828, which is alarge effect size. This indicates that learning stations had a significant and effective impact on
the development of students’ self-regulated learning.
Research Question Three
To answer the third research question, we tested the following hypothesis: “There are no
statistically significant correlations at (α ≤ 0.05) between academic achievement and selfregulated learning among middle-school students.” Table 7 shows the summary statistics fortesting the third hypothesis, which corresponds to the third research question.
Table 7
Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients Between Academic Achievement and Self-Regulated
Learning
Group

N

Pearson Correlation

Experimental
Control

33
35

0.534
0.125

Significance
level
0.001
0.474

Table 7 shows that the correlation coefficient in the case of the experimental group reached0.534, which is greater than that of the control group 0.125. The significance level for theexperimental group is less than 0.05; therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. Additionally,
there is a positive correlation for the experimental group between students’ achievement on thetest and their development of self-regulated learning when using learning stations.
Discussion
Regarding the learning stations strategy making a difference in the post academic achievement
test in favor of the experimental group, a possible explanation could be the collective effect of
the three learning stations on the students’ achievement on the test. In the exploration station,
students were given the opportunity to learn through their own interactions with tangible
experiences. The activities in this station stimulated students’ curiosity, established a desire tolearn, and raised questions. As students progressed, spontaneous processes of exploring new
ideas were triggered to address questions or problems they encountered during the explanation
activities. Ocak (2010) stressed that exploration stations are active and dynamic, which
provides students with the opportunities for experimentation to develop their personal
knowledge and meaning.
Furthermore, considerable empirical evidence reveals that students of low socioeconomic
status are more likely to have poor reading and writing skills (e.g., Ming & Powell 2010;61

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Wamba, 2010). As such, the visual station may have helped the students who are weaker inthese areas by maximizing their cognitive and emotional awareness. Additionally, the visual
station worked to bring scientific concepts of the lessons closer to the students’ minds andhelped to embody verbal meanings that the students could easily perceive by watching thevideo clips. Berk (2009) explained how educational video clips are processed in students’brains. Berk concluded that educational video clips have the potential to tap into students’ core
intelligence and interpersonal emotions. Similarly, Choudhury (2011) indicated that video clips
could support students’ retentive memory and help them recall what was taught in class.
Moreover, the reading station set the final stage to address the concepts of the lesson. This
station provided the students with more formal instruction by having them read texts that wereoriented toward the lessons’ concepts. Because the students engaged in both experimentationand visual activities, the reading station encouraged an active search for meaning rather thanmechanical memorization and a lack of meaningful connection when learning the scientificconcepts. Overall, comparisons of our findings with those of other studies confirm that using
learning stations significantly affects students’ academic achievement levels compared to using
conventional educational methods (Al-Hafidh, 2020; Allihaibi, 2015; Suoed & Taha, 2020).
With respect to the learning stations making a difference in the post-self-regulated-learningquestionnaire in favor of the experimental group, a possible explanation is that each learning
station created a cooperative and engaging context for solving problems and fostered thedevelopment of students’ self-regulated learning. The exploration station’s activities
emphasized the continuity of self-learning and pushed the student toward researching andemploying their ideas in problem-solving, which enhanced their self-regulated learning skills.
Additionally, the exploratory nature of the learning station’s activities may have assisted thestudents in remembering and retrieving information, which in turn facilitated the process ofretaining and organizing the lesson’s content and concepts in the student’s cognitive structure
to improve long-term retrieval. Previous researchers indicated that practicing activities thatallow students to adopt cognitive strategies (i.e., planning, elaboration, and organization)
deepens their engagement with the lesson content, which aids them in remembering andretrieving information (Pintrich, 2003).
The learning stations also provided the students with the opportunity to employ metacognitive
strategies. Across the stations, students took responsibility when dealing with the activities andidentifying their strengths and weaknesses while learning, which prompted them to employ
metacognitive strategies such as planning, regulating, and monitoring their learning.
Additionally, with each station having a specific time limit, students would search for effective
ways to increase their awareness and understanding at each station using self-regulated learning(i.e., resource-management). Collectively, the study’s results suggest that the systematic andexploratory nature of the learning station provided the students with a greater awareness of
their self-regulated learning skills. Additionally, the study’s findings align with those ofprevious studies, which indicated that students with varying backgrounds and abilities could
develop self-regulated learning strategies (Lichtinger & Kaplan, 2011; Nilson, 2013).
Furthermore, using the learning stations, we were able to show a positive correlation between
academic achievement and self-regulated learning. Several studies indicated that students oflow socioeconomic status face unfavorable odds in attaining academic success and narrowing
the achievement gap (Johnson et al., 2011; Sirin, 2005; Thomson, 2018). Additionally,classroom context has been recognized as a significant contributor to students’ development ofself-regulated learning (e.g., Paris & Paris, 2001; Turner & Meyer, 2000). As such, a possible
explanation for this result may be that the learning stations created a dynamic classroom
context where students in each station were required to be active learners by working toward

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successfully completing the station’s activity (e.g., the station’s worksheets), as well as
deliberate planning and monitoring the accomplishment of the station’s task. The instructionalsettings of the learning station allowed students to deepen and manipulate the associatedcontent of the lessons. That is, each station played a role in encouraging students to employ
various cognitive approaches to acquire the content knowledge of the lesson and develop
processes by which they could exercise control over their thinking, affect, and behavior (i.e.,
self-regulated learning).
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of learning stations on developing
academic achievement and self-regulated learning among students from socioeconomicallydisadvantaged backgrounds. Results from the current study suggest that teachers can use
learning stations to benefit students of low socioeconomic status and develop their academic
achievement and self-regulated learning. The academic achievement growth seen in theexperimental group might be explained by considering the multiple opportunities students had
to address the content of the lesson at each station (i.e., exploration, visual, and reading
stations). The continued exposure to the lesson content and information may have been
sufficient for acquiring knowledge. Furthermore, it is important to note that classroom
activities that are easy to complete might make students lose interest, and activities that are too
challenging are likely to make them feel frustrated or lost (Gilliam, 2015). As such, findings
from the current study suggest that the learning stations created a classroom context that offereda reasonable amount of challenge, which prompted students to engage in self-regulatory
behaviors, such as organizing, monitoring, peer-learning, time-managing, and help-seeking.
Our purposeful sampling may be viewed as a potential limitation. However, the Saudi
educational system is centralized, so it is likely that little variation in the results will be present
when similar studies are conducted in the region. Moreover, further research could explore
students’ attitudes toward the use of learning stations strategy and the use of observation sheets
to investigate pre-service or in-service teachers’ skills when using the strategy. Teacher
education programs and professional development workshops should include experiences andinstructional strategies that adequately meet the needs of students of low socioeconomic status.
Considering the importance of sustainable education in improving the futures of students oflow socioeconomic status, further research is needed to evaluate other instructional strategies
that have the potential to narrow the achievement gap and develop students’ learning abilities.

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Corresponding author: Adam Al Sultan
Email: aaalsultan@iau.edu.sa

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Appendix A: Academic Achievement Test (Example)
1. The chemical produced by epidermis cells that protects the skin from the sun’s rays andgives it its color is called: (Remember)a. Hemoglobinb. Hormonesc. Melanind. Sweat glands
6. Ligaments differ in their function from the tendon in that they: (Understand)a. Connect the bones together in the joint
b. Move the limb bonesc. Move cartilage
d. Help the spongy bone to move
9. The structure and basic function in the nervous system that conveys nerve impulses in one
direction is called: (Apply)
a. Neuronb. Synaptic cleftc. Spinal cordd. Brain
12. Ahmed fell while playing football. The doctor diagnosed him with a knee joint injury. This
joint type is: (Analyze)
a. Hingeb. Axialc. Sphericald. Sliding
Appendix B: Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire
1.
2.
3.
4.

I repeat difficult concepts when studying science until I memorize them.
I recite important concepts for myself many times so that I will not forget them.
I read definitions aloud several times so that they stick in my mind.
I write down important points several times while studying so that I can rememberthem.
5. I use symbols and shapes to help me organize my studies in science.
6. I create drawings and maps of the concepts in the lessons.
7. I compare scientific concepts when I study science topics.
8. I lack the ability to organize new information into tables and charts.
9. I relate new ideas to what I previously learned while studying science.
10. I underline important phrases to facilitate understanding and review.
11. I summarize the most important things I learned in the lesson in simple paragraphs.
12. I create a hierarchy of lesson ideas.
13. I set goals for myself before I start studying.
14. I make a schedule of my daily activities.
15. I create an action plan before or during my study.
16. I study directly without prioritizing, remembering, or revising lessons.
17. I ask myself questions while studying science to assess my understanding.
18. I compare my answers with those of the teacher in the classroom.
19. I compare my academic progress with that of my classmates.

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20. I can spot my mistakes when doing science activities.
21. I mark points that I did not understand while studying.
22. I follow my way of doing the homework.
23. I spot the parts where I made mistakes for review.
24. When I study, I pause from time to time to make sure I understand the material.
25. I organize my time when studying science lessons.
26. I complete my science assignments on time.
27. Before I start studying, I specify times to rest and eat.
28. I prepare for the test well in advance.
29. I exchange notes with my classmates while learning.
30. I enjoy practicing teamwork with my classmates to help one another.
31. When I understand the lesson well, I explain it to my classmates.
32. I participate with classmates to simplify difficult-to-understand scientific concepts.
33. I seek help from others when it is difficult for me to complete my homework.
34. If there is something that I cannot understand, I ask my teacher to explain it to me.
35. I ask my classmates about concepts that I did not understand well in science.
36. I feel embarrassed when I seek help from my classmates to do science activities.

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Turkish Folk Music Lessons with Phenomenon-Based Learning:
Preliminary Lessons and Results
Meltem Çı̇ men
Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey
Banu Özevin
Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

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Abstract
This paper presents the results of a pre-experimental design. The study was carried out with asingle-group posttest model. In this study, the Turkish Folk Music unit was chosen forinvestigation as part of Phenomenon Based Learning with 10th grade high school students. In
order to carry out the Phenomenon Based Learning process in an effective way, the teacher ismeant to be well-prepared in different aspects. Therefore, during the research, the musicteacher tried different introductory and follow-up activities. Following this, the opinions of 84
high school students were considered, concerning the activities. Results revealed that the
introductory activities have the utmost importance in Phenomenon Based Learning. Although
this study was carried out within time constraints, it was evident that these activities had a great
impact on the students and the teacher. The students’ discoveries and inferences about both
Turkish Folk Music and themselves for the future emerged as promising.
Keywords: music education, phenomenon-based learning, Turkish folk music72

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The teaching and learning approach, which combines and integrates course subjects that havebeen offered in different ways in Finnish schools since the 1980s, and has become part ofFinnish teaching culture, plays a leading role in the 2014 Finnish National Education
Curriculum. The approach is called Phenomenon Based Learning (PhBL). With theimplementation of this new curriculum in 2016, all schools in Finland began to feature a
multidisciplinary program devoted to problem-based teaching and learning at least once a year
(Sahlberg, 2018, p. 94–96).
In terms of the topics and main areas covered in PhBL, “the development of multidisciplinary
modules in various fields such as language, geography, science and economy and discussionof topics such as climate change, the European Union or the 100th anniversary of Finland’s
independence” (Sahlberg, 2018, p. 94), and contains an applied structure of pedagogicallydifferent models. Ottava College calls PhBL an umbrella approach “rather than a pedagogicalmodel...a way of organizing learning in which different research-based pedagogical models areapplied” (quoted by Karlsson, 2017, p. 29–30).
Lonka (2019, p. 173) states that PhBL accentuates a holistic approach to learning. Thisapproach is based on the idea that school knowledge should be associated with real-life
problems. Students need to learn to come up with new solutions collaboratively. It also
combines information on different topics. The aim is not to replace subject learning, but to put
it in a broader perspective. “The aim of PhBL is simply opening the bigger picture to the worldand understanding it” (Karlsson, 2017, p. 25).
In PhBL, Valamis (2019) listed on its website, that “no specific subject is taught, nor is there
any preset learning objective” but “it is also possible to study a subject matter in a phenomenonbased way” (Lonka, 2019, p. 173). The important points are that students work collaboratively,
develop problem-solving skills, foster creativity and research skills, learn how to learn, linkschool knowledge with real-life problems, examine issues from an interdisciplinary andmulticultural perspective, and take in other broad 21st-century skills simultaneously (Fields,
2019a; Lonka, 2019, p. 173; Valamis, 2019). The World Economic Forum (2020) presents 21st
century skills as Complex Problem Solving, Critical Thinking, Creativity, People
Management, Coordination with Others, Emotional Intelligence, Judgment and Decision
Making, Service Orientation, Negotiation, and Cognitive Flexibility.
PhBL has five dimensions. These five dimensions are identified and defined within researchas:Holism: “PhBL emphasizes a holistic approach to learning. It is based on the idea that in orderto develop problem-solving skills, school knowledge needs to be linked to real-life problems.
Students need to learn how to create new solutions in collaboration. It also combines
knowledge from different subjects.” (Lonka, 2019, p. 173).
Authenticity “implies the use of methods, tools and materials, which are necessary for realworld situations to solve problems that are relevant to students’ lives and significant in thecommunity” (Symeonidis & Schwarz, 2016).
Contextuality “refers to the learning of phenomena as systemic entities, which are meaningful
in a natural context and setting. In this sense, a phenomenon cannot be predefined but stays
rather vague and ambiguous, as it is brought up by the students who observe their wider context

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In PhBL and teaching, holistic real-world phenomena provide the starting point for learning”(Silander, 2015b).
Problem-based inquiry: In PhBL the phenomenon “starts from asking questions or posing
problems. At its best, PhBL is problem-based learning, where the learners build answers
together to questions or problems posed concerning a phenomenon that interests them”(Silander, 2015a, p. 17).
Open-ended learning processes: “In the learning process, new information is always applied
to the phenomenon or solving a problem, which means that the theories and information have
immediate utility value that is already evident in the learning situation” (Silander, 2015a, p.
17).
In the last decade, different studies have been conducted in different countries on PhBL. Thesestudies reveal that students who study with PhBL show significant improvement compared to
students who study with traditional methods. When the topics covered are examined, it is clearthat issues related to 21st- century skills emerge as research topics, such as digital development
and literacy (Nolkhom and Saifah 2020), creative thinking in physics (Tongsoong andJermtaisong, 2020), language (Nguyen, 2018), reading (Valanne et al., 2017), and agroecology(Francis et al., 2013).
The Role of the Teacher in PhBL
In traditional education, the teacher is regarded as the most knowledgeable person in the room,
the one who teaches those who are willing to learn, utilizing systematic step-by-step planned
lessons. With PhBL, the teacher’s role is decentralized. However, this does not diminish therole of the teacher but differentiates it, and probably makes it difficult for teachers accustomed
to traditional teacher-centered approaches. Lonka (2019, p. 186-187) describes this situation
as such: “Even though the phenomenon-based approach calls for the active and responsible
role of the participants, the role of the teacher-facilitator should not be undermined. On thecontrary, carrying out a phenomenon-based project calls for interdisciplinary and fine-grained,
sensitive coaching by the teacher. In addition to subject matter experts, pedagogical knowledge
is at the center. The teacher needs to have very good social and emotional skills in order tosupport constructive interaction and a deepening interest. The task of the teacher is to create an
encouraging and safe atmosphere and to act as a ‘scientific midwife’ in order to help to create
new insights about the phenomenon, the topics, the group process, and the emotional
challenges of the project.”To carry out the PhBL process in an effective way, the teacher should create a safe environment
in which every student can freely express their opinions in the classroom, ask questions,conduct research, cooperate with their classmates, create and structure their knowledge withthe right guidance; the teacher should guide them competently in this regard, and come to thefore when necessary to determine the “anchor phenomena” (Gunshenan et al., 2021) at the
points left incomplete by the students. The teacher should also prepare and apply lectures and“scaffolding studies” (Bjønness & Kolstø, 2015). “Each teacher may tailor the elements of
PhBL according to their own pedagogical style” (Lonka, 2019, p. 183). In other words, theteacher should be able to take the initiative, consider the needs of the class, including learning
objectives and atmosphere and possess sufficient pedagogical equipment and experience.

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Background of the Research
In this experimental study, the Turkish Folk Music (TFM) unit was chosen in accordance with
the PhBL approach with 10th-grade high school students. In studies conducted in different
cities across Turkey, it was found that the rate of listening to TFM is low among adolescents’music listening preferences (Sakar and Maba, 2015).
Beyond listening preferences, TFM is not seen as an interesting subject in music lessons, andlittle effort is made to learn it. Donna Fields noted a similar situation in her speech at the Oxford
National Conference in Italy in 2019 but rejoiced in the fact that all students passed exams
successfully for the first time when PhBL was used on the subject of “Ancient Civilizations,”a course that a teacher in Spain had had difficulty teaching for years. Fields’s (2019b) speech
inspired us to choose the topic of TFM in this thesis, a topic in which students generally show
little interest and on which they score poorly on exams.
As Lonka (2020) states, “in terms of establishing relationships between different subjects,
PhBL teaching also includes an interdisciplinary teaching approach. Interdisciplinary teachingis based on the view that a certain concept, problem or issue is evaluated with the perspectivesof different disciplines and then brought back as a whole.” At this point, the connection of TFM
with the disciplines of geography, history, ethnography, folk dance, visual arts, and literature
was deemed appropriate for interdisciplinary work, and it was thought that there would be
acculturation, information-gathering, and sharing not only for TFM but also for different
aspects of the Turkish culture by establishing interdisciplinary connections. In the thesis
process (beyond learning the dynamics and history of TFM), ways to adapt the elements of thismusic style and use them as a means of expression will be sought.
When the 10th grade music program was examined, the educational attainments of TFM aredetermined as follows.
Learning Area: Listening-Singing
Sings heroic folk songs
Listens to TFM songs
Sings modal pieces of Turkish music
Learning Area: Musical Perception and Knowledge
Recognizes the beats of Turkish music styles
Recognizes the modal structure of Turkish music
Learning Area: Music Culture
Explains the general characteristics of 17th and 18th-century Turkish music
Explains the importance of the compilers’ contribution to TFM
Recognizes Turkish musical instruments
The Rationale of the Research
The teacher who applies PhBL should guide their students in the stages of asking questions
and determining the phenomenon, create a safe environment for the students to express theirideas freely, support the group and help them find direction, and observe the students’ ability
to think holistically, originally, and critically. Students should be willing to connect withdifferent fields, do research, and share their research results. The teacher should back awayfrom his/her position as the only active, leading person in the classroom, and prepare, support,
maintain, and evaluate the environment in which students participate.

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Students who have been exposed to a rote, knowledge-based process in the education system
for many years may resist a student-based, libertarian education approach like PhBL, which isgroup-work-oriented and requires that students process and structure information themselves.
For this reason, in this research, what can be done differently during the introduction to the
PhBL course, what types of strategies might be used to direct students to ask questions andfind phenomena, and guidance structures are examined. This study attempts to reveal how
students and teachers alike evaluate this process.
Materials and Methods
A pre-experimental design was used in this research. “In pre-experimental designs, theresearcher works on a single group and an intervention is made to this group during theexperiment” (Creswell, 2017, p. 170). The study was carried out with a single-group posttest
model. “The application of the independent variable to a randomly selected single group andthe measurement of the effect on the dependent variable constitute the single-group model”(Karasar, 2004, p. 96).
Research group. PhBL activities were held with a total of 102 students from different levels
studying at a local high school involved in distance education during the pandemic time (10thgrade - 11 students; 11th grade - 81 students; 12th grade - 10 students). Following the lessons,the opinions of 84 people (58 girls, 26 boys) who were willing to answer the research questions
were recorded.
Data collection. Data were collected using the interview technique, one of the primary
qualitative research method techniques. Interviewing is defined as “a mutual and interactive
communication process based on asking and answering questions and conducted for apredetermined and serious purpose” (Stewart & Cash, 1985; quoted by Yıldırım and Şimşek,2013, p. 147). To prepare the interview form, questions were determined with the input of one
educational sciences expert, one music education expert, and one high school guidance expert.
In line with the opinions of the experts, 11 questions were posed to the students. In the interview
form, the questions pertained to feelings that PhBL activities aroused in students, its differenceswith other music lessons, whether they want to do this type of work again, whether they want
to see this type of work in other lessons, how their knowledge of TFM changed (as well as theirinterest in this type of music), and what these lessons looked like to them (through theapplication of metaphors). After a music lesson, students were informed about the study, what
the questions were, and the importance of their answers.
Ethical procedures. Written permission was obtained from the school administrators
regarding the experiment and interview process prior to the research. In addition, the parentsof each student were contacted, the nature of the process was explained, and their written
permission was obtained. Afterwards, an interview request was sent to the students who
attended the classes, and the students who were willing to be interviewed were included in the
research process.
Data analysis. Content analysis was applied to the data collected through the interviews.
Content analysis has the objective of identifying concepts and relationships to explain thecollected data. For this purpose, the collected data must first be conceptualized, then organized
logically according to the emerging concepts, and accordingly the themes that explain the data
must be determined.” (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013, p. 259).

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Following research guidelines, the following steps were followed in the data analysis process:
•
•
•
•

•

All data were subjected to content analysis and codes were given to “significant
sections among the data” (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013, p. 259). The coding was done
according to concepts obtained from the data.
In the metaphor analysis, sentences lacking “cause” and which were not meaningful
were excluded from the data.
Then the categories were determined. Yıldırım and Şimşek (2013, p. 268) stated, “codes
were brought together and examined, common aspects were examined, and categories
and subcategories explaining these categories in more detail.”
The reliability formula, “Reliability=Agreement/ (Agreement + Disagreement),”suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994) was used for reliability calculation and theagreement coefficient between encoders was calculated. The agreement coefficient
between the two researchers was found to be 79.95%. Studies with a concordance
coefficient above 70% are considered reliable (Miles & Huberman, 1994). This result
reveals that the collected data was reliable.
Categories and subcategories were tabulated. Sample sentences that were thought tobest express the categories were selected, presented, and interpreted.

Experimental procedures. During the study, a total of 240 minutes was spent with each group(4 weeks x 2 course hours; class hours: 30 minutes). In the first two weeks, introductory
activities were studied, while in the 3rd and 4th weeks, follow-up activities were studied. The
courses were held through Zoom and the EIN (Education Informatics Network) digital
education platforms. Since the students were not required to attend distance education classes
during pandemic conditions, the study was carried out with students who attended the course.
TFM, which is a common subject in the experimental process, was investigated utilizing the
PhBL approach, but with different introductory and follow-up activities with each group. The
findings were evaluated as a whole with the logic of all students participating in PhBL
activities, but teachers’ observations concerning each activity were shared separately.
Activities
In order to understand the dynamics of PhBL and gauge “phenomenon identificationquestioning” orders in different ways, the teacher first provided “Covid19” as a phenomenon
and the students were given the opportunity to ask questions, they were curious about. In thefollowing lessons, activities related to TFM were carried out. In these activities, after different
introductions, the students first asked questions about the subject, the questions were noted,
and each student was asked to list three questions they were most curious about. The questions
that received the most votes were re-read, and the phenomena that would enable the subject tobe handled holistically were determined by the students. Once phenomena were determined,
lessons were created to explore them.
Below are the different introductory activities undertaken in different groups:– Without any preliminary preparation about TFM, students asked questions they werecurious about. As such, phenomena were determined.
– Students were asked to create mind maps about TFM, and then ask questions about the
subject and identify phenomena.
– The study began with a visual about TFM that gave brief information. In the image[1], there
are instruments, artists, and folk dances of various regions on the map of Turkey. The given

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image was interpreted with the help of questions asked by the teacher. Questions
concerning differences in folk dance costumes, the effects of climate and geography onmusic, life and culture were asked, and the visual was interpreted. Then, students asked
questions they were curious about, and phenomena were determined.
Students were first asked to create mind maps about TFM, the visual related to the subject
was revealed and interpreted, and students were asked to read and interpret an article
containing brief information about TFM. In the next stage, students determined thephenomenon related to the subject by asking questions they were curious about.
The teacher started the lesson by playing the bağlama and singing a folk song, then briefly
focused on the type of music, the region of its origin, and the story of the folk song. Students
were asked to write questions that they were curious about, and phenomena were
determined, taking their mind maps into account.

Following these introductions, different mini-events were held in which students worked
individually, performed research, and prepared mini-presentations to consider what might bedone to turn the subjects into projects. These activities included the following scenarios:–––“Let’s assume that a museum about world music will be established. In this museum, there
will be a room dedicated to the music of every culture. There will also be a room describing
TFM. What should we know about TFM in order to design this room? Which aspects of
TFM should we consider? How would you design the room?”“Let’s assume that our school decided to bring your ideas together with the students whoshare the same desks as you in the future in the I Have a Message from the Past to the
Future campaign. You are requested to write your ideas about the place and future of TFM
in today’s music genres in these letters to be opened and exhibited in 10 years. How can
you convey your thoughts by building a bridge between the past and the future of TFM?”“As a cultural transmitter, you have a journal in which you write to your grandchildren on
various topics. Tell your grandchildren about the past, present, and future of TFM by
writing an article explaining what TFM is, how it developed, and its importance andnecessity.”
Findings

In this section, the categories obtained from the data analysis are presented in tables, following
by a narrative.
Students described their feelings as happy, excited, curious, enthusiastic, confident, and relaxedwhen reflecting on their experiences with PhBL, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
The feelings that PhBL evokes in the students
Happy
ExcitedCurious
Enthusiastic
Confident
Relaxedbecausethe activities are fun.
the classes are going very well.
I am learning something new.
I am thinking “what are we going to do today?”
I contribute to the lesson by participating in activities.
I can freely express my own ideas and they are respected.

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Table 2 illustrates the categories consisting of students’ statements about the quality of PhBL
which were determined as follows: Curiosity and Imagination, Accessing and Analyzing
Information, Information Literacy, Effective Thinking, Questioning and Problem Solving,
Creativity and Innovation, Holism and Contextuality, Interdisciplinary, Student-Oriented.
Table 2The Quality of PhBL Lessons
Category

Sample Sentence

Curiosity andimagination“It felt very nice to think and talk about such a thing (creating a museum)even if it was a dream.”

Accessing andanalyzing
information“After the lessons we did, what I realized were the wrong things I thought I
knew. A lot of things I knew were actually wrong. I was very happy that thesemistakes were corrected after the lessons.”“It required more participation than other events. I needed to ask morequestions and think.”

Information
literacy“We learned that musical events do not necessarily require instruments, andwe can gain a lot of information about music by doing the right research.”

Effective“Thanks to my teacher’s comment on my way of thinking, I found the answer
to the question that had been lingering in my mind for a long time. My teacher
thinking,
questioning and got to know me much better because the thought was at the forefront.”
problem solving “I loved the activity where we asked questions. Because I’ve never thought
this deeply about things before.”
Creativity andinnovation“I gain different perspectives, I answer the questions I ask, and I place thosequestions in my imagination.”“I really felt that I had improved myself so much just in a lesson without
giving away our days and weeks.”“I can think creatively, even for a short time, which I noticed in myself.”

Holism,contextuality“I think we are talking about things in the easy world life.”“In fact, we learn gradually as we go gradually, so it stays better in mind.”“I like to find the phenomenon words or phenomenon sentences about TFM
because it is both interesting and comprehensive in that it summarizes a huge
subject.”

Interdisciplinary “I would like to be able to compare and contrast music with other branchesof art because in this lesson we looked at music from different angles andbranches.”“It seems music matches with different areas.”

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Student-oriented “These were more student-focused, thought-provoking courses.” “Lessons
are generally very student-oriented. It’s a really important feeling to go withthe flow as if you were teaching with Socrates in Socrates’ time and that his
ideas are really important—of course, our teacher is not trying to change ourideas like our teacher Socrates, but she is trying to show us the way.”

Students stated that their views on TFM changed positively and that their positive attitudes on
research and learning have developed independently of music, which can be seen in Table 3.
Table 3Thoughts after PhBL
Related to TFM“I started listening to TFM, it caught my attention more, and I wondered
about the instruments and researched them. I think it’s a nice genre ofmusic and it’s never ordinary.”

Related toholistic point ofview“I think it made us appreciate and love music a little bit differently.”“Instead of waiting for someone to answer the questions I wondered
about, I started researching myself.”“I learned to look from many points of view, not from one direction. I
realized the mystery in the visible.”

Students’ opinions on the inclusion of PhBL in other courses were mostly positive (%88) asshown in Table 4.
Table 4
Opinions on the Inclusion of PhBL in Other Courses
OpinionSample Sentencesf

Positive“There is no other lesson where my ideas are so important and able tochange the course of the lesson.”74“...because I would be happy to know where each lesson or topic comesfrom and why, and I think we are very hungry for information rightnow.”“...because when you do, you become more aware of the things you do,
the paths you take, and the effort you put into understanding somethingis the key to understanding the logic of that business. And you don’t
easily forget something you understand the logic of.”Negative “I think it won’t happen in other courses because there are scientific 110
courses.”“I don’t want to see the activities we do in other lessons because that’s
what makes the music lesson special.”“I don’t want it because it would be difficult.”

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The categories of the metaphorical views of the students towards PhBL are as follows:
Comforting, Entertaining, Instructive, Self-Confidence Developer, Liberating, Creative,
Holistic, Intriguing. The metaphors and the causes of the metaphors are presented in Table 5.
Table 5The Categories of the Metaphors
Category
Comforting

Metaphor
Sea
Therapy
Therapy
Chocolate dessert

Entertaining

Educational game
Sitting in the park andwatching the children
play and have fun
A meaningless, happy
feeling
Football game
Activities inkindergarten
Fruit

Chess**
Watching TV
Coming home after atiring day and making
coffee and sipping yourcoffee with classicalmusic.
Instructive

Ferris wheel
ChangeUtopiaInterview
Project assignment
SeminarCause“It comforts you.”“Sometimes thinking, sometimes having fun,relaxes the soul.”“You go to the psychologist and pour yourheart out; it’s like asking questions like that.”“It always makes a good impression.”“We learned by having fun like children
playing with toys.”“There is no reason to watch them, but you are
happy for no reason.”“If you speed up the car a little while going
downhill and you get a feeling that you can’t
understand but it makes you extremely happy,
that’s it.”“All emotions in one place.”“Personal and entertaining.”**“If you care about it and do it to truly learn,
you will be as happy as if you ate fresh fruit,
but if you do it casually you will be sad as if
you ate rotten fruit.”“Provoking and entertaining.”**“I enjoy watching a movie as well as doing theactivities we do in class.”“I can say that like I love coffee, I love andenjoy the activities we do together.”“To reach the information we have stored isthe best way when the time comes.”“Cause young people to learn TFM.”“It is not possible, but after all, it is based on
thinking.”“Mutual dialogues resemble conversations.”“Careful work.”81

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Basketball training
Talking to my friend

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“We learned what we did not know by asking
questions and gained new and different
information.”“I gain a new experience with the sweat I shedin basketball, and I think it’s worth it, and I’mhaving a lot of fun at the same time.”

Scientific study
Buying something new
Archaeologicalexcavation
Self-confidencebuilder

Studying with Socrates

Meeting
Car
Liberating

Butterfly
My books
SeasideChat environment
Social activity
Reading book

“Because when I talk to my friends, I usuallylearn something.”“There are those types of questions.”“We do something new and learn.”“You know that there are many valuable
things under the ground, but you need to becareful, touch the right place, and work hard.”“It’s a really important feeling to go with theflow and have your ideas really matter—ofcourse, she’s not trying to change our minds
like our teacher Socrates did, she’s trying topoint the way.”“Because everyone’s opinion is valued andtheir right to speak is taken seriously.”“The car would not have been able to move
forward without our participation.”“I liken it to freedom.”“One of the places where I can find my own
world.”“I feel free by the sea.”“A setting where we say what we know andthink about a topic.”“We can be more active.”“While reading a book, we dive into the book,and when we listen to music, we get caught up
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Creative

LetterSnow

Brainstorming
Being in charge of a
new exhibition as agroup
Finnish education
systemHypnosis

Holistic

Layers of theatmosphere
Endless jukebox
Pomegranate

Intriguing

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“The activities or articles we did would be ourown ideas and thoughts, and the most
comfortable platform for us to do or write
them comfortably would be letters.”“Actually, everything we do from the outside
is the same, TFM, but all those questions, all
the thoughts, are very different from eachother and unique.”“Many people come up with their own
opinions and we reach good conclusions abouta subject.”“I likened us to a group that generates ideas for
exhibition design.”“It does not make the student memorize, itteaches, it is made according to the student’s
request and makes the student happy.”“But not in a bad way. We are all focusing on
the same thing, and we all have different ideas
in our minds.”“Atmosphere has layers; events in music canalso be these layers.”“When you open that box, a matryoshka
comes out in different shapes; it is very
impressive.”“It’s whole and not interesting on the outside,
but inside it has a lot of different things.”

Scrolling through social “My friends’ ideas are new tabs, and othermedia
things may interest me at any time.”
Chatting with myself“The times I ask questions and wonder areusually with myself.”
Ripped sock
“When you grab the end of the yarn, turn to the
Crossword
area of interest, the rest is coming, just keep
pulling.”“Because it is fun, informative andintriguing.”**** Fits in many different categories.
Teacher Observations
Teachers noted that the importance of the introductory activities in PhBL had been understood,
and it was seen that students’ questions will enable them to deal with the subject from a holistic
perspective that will prepare the ground for a good start. They also reported that the fact thatthey were curious about their own questions on the subject and would work on the phenomenon
they determined based on those questions excited students and motivated them to seek answers
to their questions. The why, how and what-if questions and scenarios that are not based on
definition eliminate memorization and utilize knowledge and creativity together, giving a spark
to students.

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Furthermore, when only the questioning activity was performed without preliminary activities,
the questions asked were very similar and the subject could not be dealt with holistically. As aresult of this, although the phenomena determined by students were related to the subject, they
were insufficient on their own, and students could not make a choice among the determined
phenomena. As such, they interpreted this as an inadequate introduction to the subject. Students
who were not informed about the study stated that they were hesitant to ask wrong questions
about the subject and that if the introduction part started with a video, visual, or horizonopening, better questions would be formed, and the study would be more efficient.
It has been observed that students were influenced by the visuals in the questions that beganwith them, and they were inspired to form questions. Additionally, it has been observed thatstudents can handle the subject holistically in the mind-mapping activities and, as a result, they
asked a variety of questions. The mind-map enabled students to establish different ways ofthinking about the subject and to develop different perspectives that allowed them to ask
questions pertaining to different disciplines on the subject. In the activity where the teacher
played the bağlama and sang a folk song, students paid attention, and the teacher’s singing
with an instrument instead of a recording, aroused their interest. The class responded to theteacher’s questions about the folk song, and the lesson, which started in a conversational mood,continued with different activities that preserved the same participatory atmosphere.
While designing the TFM room in the museum event, it was observed that the process ofcreating questions was done naturally and without difficulty, with the question “What should
we know to design this room?” It was observed that students’ questions addressed multidisciplinary perspectives. When the students were asked to address their grandchildren, theyused sincere and warm language and stated that they gave advice that encouraged them to listen
to TFM and that they wanted them to know the value of our music. The same warmth is not
felt in the letters to their peers.
One of the important observations of the study was as follows: When PhBL activities were
offered to the same class at different times, students who had difficulty in asking questions thefirst time and were insecure and hesitant, while determining the phenomena, participated more
actively and did not have difficulty (or had less difficulty) in the next activity owing to theirprior experience.
Another noteworthy data in practice is that students describe TFM as “old,” something which
older people listen to. During the study, they concluded that TFM and folk songs are part oflife. Listening to the folk songs allowed them to reflect on the lives of people, gain knowledge
about the subject, and, most importantly, deal with the subject holistically by establishingconnections with other disciplines.
Results and Discussion
In the implementation of PhBL, the teacher’s mastery of the main principles of PhBL, as wellas his/her mastery of the field, of active learning methods and approaches, inclination tointerdisciplinary work, pedagogical equipment, and social skills (communication skills withboth students and other teachers) are important. It is immensely important that a teacher who
has not been trained in PhBL gains knowledge and, more importantly, experience. As a matterof fact, Fields (2019b) warns teachers about this issue: “it won’t work for the first time. It won’t
work really well the second time. The third time you are more confident, your students are alittle more confident. And it begins flowing.” As Fields stated, it is extremely essential for the84

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teacher and students to gain competence in this subject for the efficient functioning of the PhBL
process. In the same way, active participation (asking questions, identifying phenomena, andpreparing a ‘product’) helps students as they navigate the new approach. These activities also
strengthen communications between the teacher and students.
Each of the introductory activities in this study provided the teacher with direction in asking
questions and managing the phenomena-finding processes. In addition, it has been revealed
that visual and audio media benefit student learning and participation. Bjønness and Kolstø(2015) point out the importance of scaffolding activities. For the present study, only the mind
map activity was used. It has been witnessed that it is effective and that students can ask
meaningful questions and identify phenomena thanks to the mental connections they haveestablished through the activity. Thus, starting from the view that PhBL is an umbrella covering
many active learning methods and approaches, enriching lessons with different activities
should be an emphasis.
This study clarifies the position of students in the traditional educational approach. In thiscontext, they are used to the process of listening, taking notes, and accepting what is given
without questioning. In such a system, student creativity is dulled. Learning in a rote-based
system means not being encouraged to add to the knowledge base, and most importantly, notbeing curious about the existence of different information. These may hinder student
development. When students’ opinions concerning PhBL are examined, their positive feelings
become apparent. Students expressed their feelings as excited, curious, enthusiastic, relaxed,and self-confident. Lonka (2019, p. 18) notes changes brought out by the PhBL approach:“According to the Finnish core curriculum, pupils are guided towards recognizing and naming
different emotions from early on. Furthermore, they need to gain awareness of their own
values, strengths, and weaknesses. In order to cope with others, it is necessary to be aware of
one’s values, thoughts, hopes, and feelings in different interactions and situations. Suchawareness helps to separate one’s own thoughts, goals, and feelings from those of others.”
Students’ opinions that met the dimensions of the new approach in terms of 21 -century skills
were considered important. Particular emphasis was placed on the processes by which students
acquire knowledge, how they process it, express themselves effectively, ask questions, produce
original ideas, and center themselves within the process. While evaluating this relatively
limited process, a student noted that “we learn more information and discover more than otheractivities.” Another praised its time efficiency: “I really felt that I improved myself in a lesson
without giving away our days and weeks.” The majority of the students stated that they enjoyedasking questions and that they realized how effective it was to ask questions (“I liked theactivity where we asked questions. Because I had never thought about this topic so deeply
before.”). Asking qualified, in-depth questions that lead to potential research helps students
become better critical thinkers and also fosters holistic thinking and cognitive skill. One student
noted, “I had a little trouble finding a keyword because it was a bit difficult to find that keyword
from a broad perspective.” The students themselves coined the word “keyword” to better
understand the notion of “phenomena.” As a matter of fact, when asked, “Do you want thistype of work to continue or to be in other courses?” only one student responded negatively: “I
don’t want to because it would be difficult.”st

Seventy-four of the 84 students (88%) who answered the research questions expressed apositive opinion on the PhBL approach, displaying an eagerness that they should continue,
both in music lessons and other lessons. Only 6 of them gave a negative answer believing thatthe music lesson is special: “I do not want to see the activities we do in other lessons because

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I think that’s what makes the music lesson special, it is different.” Therefore, these views areheard as positive rather than negative. Two of the students thought that certain lessons are notsuitable for PhBL: “I don’t think it is suitable in other courses because there are scientificcourses, I do not know how it works there.” This judgment of the student actually stems from
inexperience. Previous research and studies reveal that scientific courses indeed are suitablefor PhBL.
The categories of the metaphorical views of the students towards PhBL are as follows:
Comforting, Entertaining, Instructive, Self-Confidence Developer, Liberating, Creative,
Holistic, Intriguing. In these categories, the dimensions of PhBL, 21 -century skills, and therelaxing and liberating qualities of these activities were emphasized. Students expressed thatthey changed their opinions about TFM: “I know that TFM is not as simple as I thought
anymore… If someone asks me what kind of society the Turks are living in, I recommend thatthey listen to TFM…” It reveals that the PhBL activities delivered results in terms of music
specifically.
st

Although focused on a single group of students, this study reveals important findings regarding
the phenomenon-based approach used with teaching secondary school students. Conductedduring the global pandemic, it also clarified the role of more traditional education, and revealed
the enthusiasm of students for learning which gave them greater control. The study also offered
the perceptions and experiences of teachers and considers their competence in planning,
implementing, and evaluating PhBL activities and projects. The students’ discoveries andinferences concerning both TFM and themselves for the future were evaluated as promising.

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References
Bjønness, B., & Kolstø, S. D. (2015). Scaffolding open inquiry: How a teacher provides
students with structure and space. Nordic Studies in Science Education, 11(3), 223237. https://doi.org/10.5617/nordina.878
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Silander, P. (2015b). Phenomenon Based Learning Rubric.
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Corresponding Author: Meltem Çı̇ men
Email: meltemcimenn89@gmail.com

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Effects of Gamified Learning on Students of Different Player Traits in
Malaysia
Mageswaran Sanmugam
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia
Anurita Selvarajoo
Nottingham University Malaysia
Jeya Amantha David
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia

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Abstract
Diversified learning is the path to supplement students’ needs in the contemporary generation.
These students’ lives have revolved around technology since birth; as such, the role oftechnology cannot be ignored. Furthermore, this was prevalent during the lockdown imposedby the global pandemic which compelled the incorporation of educational technology into
student’s lives. As gamification harnesses the power of game elements, identifying how
gamified learning affects a student’s game player traits will be vital in identifying whether
specific learning methods can invoke, change and cultivate better learning outcomes. Thisquasi-experimental study involving two groups of students learning computer science in
Malaysia was carried out over eight weeks. Findings revealed that most prevalent player traits
changes were evident in the primary construct of social player traits, followed by subconstructs
of customization, relationship, socializing, and mechanics. These changes are attributed to theneed to reach out, communicate, and collaborate with their peers and look into how the system
works for them individually, within the context of the learning and explorative needs ofstudents. As such, gamified learning has not only managed to offer a new paradigm into thelearning ecosystem but has also shown that positive changes can be cultivated based on these
conditions.
Keyword: educational technology, gamification, diversified learning, learning ecosystem

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As the world soldiers on past the restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic; many fields
have turned to harness technology to ensure their survival and continuity in their respective
fields (Mohd Nasir et al., 2021; Pongsakornrungsilp et al., 2021; S. Rashid & Ratten, 2020;
Wagner, 2021). In the field of education, although an adaptation of technology has been
gradually taking place in the past few years (Tomlinson, 2018), the sudden need for emergency
remote teaching (Hodges et al., 2020; Schlesselman, 2020) to supplement the lessons taking
place during lockdown has been dependent on technological innovations that were placed on
the back burner before this scenario (Eradze et al., 2021). From learning management systems(Başal & Kaynak, 2020) to video conferencing tools (Correia et al., 2020; Gillies, 2008;
Lawson et al., 2010; Martin, 2005), everything available has been put up front to ensure it isused to supplement and support the learning process. However, simply using a primary LMS
platform may not be sufficient for the students from Generation Z (Kasasa, 2020; Widodo etal., 2020), as their needs may be different since their lives have been revolving aroundtechnologies since the day they were born. Although sophisticated and advanced technology
like Mixed Reality or Augmented Reality might be suitable for simulation-based education(Eradze et al., 2021), it not be suitable to be implemented within the context of mainstream
education, as this may require workforce training; as well as the equipping of students with thenecessary tools. The most readily available tools for diversification are gamified learning tools
such as Kahoot, Quizizz, and others, platforms which are freeware and are easily accessible.
Gamification-based learning is implemented to cater to the educational, technological learning
process, which allows for the integration of technology and education laced with gameelements to facilitate the learning process (Deterding & Dixon, 2011). By diversifying themethod of learning, it is also hoped that these methods and the elements can trigger as well as
cultivate player motivation that exists within a user (Monterrat et al., 2015; Mageswaran
Sanmugam, Abdullah, Mohd Zaid, et al., 2016; Schoenau-Fog & Henrik, 2014). Thus, thepurpose of this study will be to identify internal player traits that exist in students using
gamification in learning and exploring the relationship between the player traits, gameelements, achievement, and engagement levels.
Implementation of gamification on the teaching and learning process has been widely shown
to positively impact the student’s achievement (Wolf et al., 2018) and engagement levels(Molnar, 2018; M. Rashid & Suganya, 2017). As gamification uses game elements in a nongaming context, students tend to relate the experiences of acquiring game elements as a part of
the gaming experience. Therefore, game player traits or player motivation will play a vital role
in regulating a better-suited learning model for students. Thus, eliminating the one size fits allmodel implemented in technology-based learning.
Literature Review
Infusing technology into the traditional classroom is the next phase or next upgrade in theteaching and learning method. Nevertheless, treating technology as an add-on to the learning
process is a mistake as it leads to the students being disconnected (Selwyn, 2006) and bored(Craig et al., 2004), and their expectation of technology may be different from what is being
offered (Sleeman et al., 2020). Hence, just absorbing technology in education has not reaped
the same effects as games or using social networking services such as Facebook, Google+,
Twitter, and Myspace (Boyd & Ellison, 2007) as when it comes to games, it is something
intriguing (Cheng et al., 2015) and for some, it is part of their daily routines (Gardner & Eng,
2005; McGonigal, 2011). Therefore, with this arises the need to consider an approach that
fulfills the needs of various students and allows them to be immersed in the learning process.

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Finding a suitable tool that caters to the need of all users is near impossible, although finding
a common mousetrap may be the best solution in hand – as such, using games as a tool to
supplement learning may be the next best choice. Although game-based learning has long been
proven to have a significant impact on learners achievement, cognitive and social development(Prensky, 2001; Sung & Hwang, 2013), it is to be noted that the creation of a full-fledged gamefor a certain subject or subtopic, especially digital games are beyond reach for an educator(Muntean, 2011). Despite the use of game generators to invoke students’ critical thinking
which are readily available now (Meishar-Tal & Kesler, 2021), they are yet to teach targeted
topics. This approach is known as gamification – the use of game elements instead of creating
the whole game itself (Deterding et al., 2011) – is the next best alternative for educators andthe organization.
In the context of Malaysian education, gamification has been used to investigate the feasibilityof usage (Ong et al., 2013), offline usage in teaching (Hong & Masood, 2014), renderinglearning explicit while retaining fun factors (Tan et al., 2014), student attitude and acceptancetowards usage in learning (Fah et al., 2016), how game elements affected their learning process(Mageswaran Sanmugam, Abdullah, Mohamed, et al., 2016), using analogue gamification toenhance learners attitude (Mee Mee et al., 2021). However, there was a need to look extensively
into implementing gamification, where the identifying specialized need of the users will help
understand and identify personalized learning to cater to students within the Malaysian
education system.
When it comes to playing games, many types of player needs or motivation represent theirplayer traits when engaged in a game (Deterding et al., 2011). Although in gamification, Iosup& Epema, (2014) looked into gamification using Bartle’s player motivation scale (Bartle, 1996)
and reported a high success rate, what seemed to bring dispute is the change in describing theplayer traits. A revised version of Bartle’s player motivation scale by Yee (2006) considers theplayer motivation scale for online platform gamers compared to Bartle’s player motivation
scale created based on multi-user dungeon (MUD) gamers. The usage of player traits as an
early indication system to identify the individual needs of students will help future researchers
in either game-based learning, serious games, or gamification. Yee (2006) carried out researchwith 3000 multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG); based on 40 questionnaires(quantitative study), streamlined the previous research findings and came up with three main
player traits; Achievement, socializer, and immersion. Users under the Achievement spectrum
tend to get satisfaction gaining or achieving something within the gaming scenario. Users under
the Socializer spectrum, on the other hand, find satisfaction in connecting with others.
Moreover, finally, users under the Immersion spectrum strive to submerge themselves and their
gaming persona within the game’s lore.
The achievement player traits can be further expanded into 3 sub-components:
1. Advancement: – players/students who want to progress or gain something in their tasks
or learning process
2. Mechanics: – players/students who prefer to explore the elements of the game or system
to improve their learning task performances
3. Competition: players/students who use the challenge as the goal to achieve in theirlearning tasks

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The Socializer player traits have 3 sub-components:
1. Socializing: – players/students who like to communicate and help otherplayers/students
2. Relationship: – players/students who would like to create a bond with otherplayers/students
3. Teamwork: – players/students who like to collaborate to achieve the game goals
The Immersion player traits has 3 sub-components:
1. Discovery:– players/students who like to find something unique or new that others do
not find in a game or learning tasks given to them
2. Role-playing: – players who like to create an imaginary persona in a game or learningtasks
3. Customization: – players who like to change and modify the gaming persona that they
have in a game or learning tasks
With the Gen-Z students being born into a world filled with technology (Fister Gale, 2015b),technology in entertainment, especially games, is not a significant surprise. Thus, instead oflooking at the drawbacks of games and weeding them out, it would be more meaningful ifinterest in these games is adequately cultivated, to better suit educational outcomes. Many
researchers have stated that harnessing the power of games can lead to not only meaningfullearning (Muntean, 2011) but also engaging them to the lesson (Farhangi, 2012; Lister, 2015;
Meluso et al., 2012; Morrison & DiSalvo, 2014; M. Sanmugam et al., 2017) as well as
encouraging autonomous learning among the students (Jang, 2008). Nevertheless, before thislevel can be achieved, it will be essential to identify the explicit interest of these users to allow
the creation of a personalized path of learning as it has to be noted that technological pedagogy
in learning is not a one size suits all affair. Therefore, this current study used Yee’s player
motivation scale as it is a revised version of Bartle’s player motivation scale, and it was basedon online platform game player motivations. Besides that, Yee’s player motivation will besuitable as it helps map out players’ traits in participating in the gamified learning process.
Methodology
This study will implement a quasi-experimental study that applies quantitative methods (Cohenet al., 2007; Creswell, 2012). Convenience sampling was utilised (Creswell, 2012), and 53
participants completed the pre and post-intervention, with 25 participants from the treatmentgroup and 28 participants from the control group. The research process began with theadministration of the questionnaires involving both control and experimental group students pre-intervention to identify the levels of player types before any intervention. Then both theexperimental and control group students proceeded with their learning process; with theexperimental group learning using a gamified e-learning method using Kahoot (exercises will
be carried out in this platform), while, the control group learned with non-gamified learning
using Google Classroom (The google classroom will be used to only share exercises of thelessons). Upon completion of the second topic, a questionnaire was administered again to see
whether the learning process influenced the player types.
The selection criterion for the participants were students from boarding schools who werethemselves selected and enrolled into these learning ecosystems based on their excellence inacademics (Khalidah et al., 2014; Noriah Mohd Ishak, Ramlee Mustapha, 2006). As such, a93

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boarding school from the Southern state of Malaysia was chosen for the control and treatmentgroup. The selection was also based on the availability of a computer laboratory. This is toeliminate factors of technology influence and experience among students. Besides that, toreduce learning style bias and impact on the learning process, both control and experimental
batch were taught by teachers with the same level of teaching experience, between 5 to 10
years, which is sufficient to teach the subject properly (King Rice, 2010). For confidentiality
purposes, the schools’ identities are not revealed in this research. The data collection process
was carried out over nine weeks.
The instrument /questionnaire which was administered in this research included the Game
Player Types Inventory by Yee (2006), based on the technical specifications, the factor
loadings of the survey items used are as follows: Advancement (Cronbach’s α=.79), Mechanics(Cronbach’s α = .68), Competition (Cronbach’s α = .75), Socializing (Cronbach’s α = .74),
Relationship (Cronbach’s α = .80), Teamwork (Cronbach’s α = .71), Discovery (Cronbach’s α= .73), Role-play(Cronbach’s α = .87), Customization (Cronbach’s α = .74), and Escapism(Cronbach’s α = .65). Based on the principal components analysis the 10 factors were extractedwith eigenvalues greater than 1. Together, these factors accounted for 60% of the overallvariance.
The administration of the instruments was done in dual language (English and Bahasa Melayu)
as the Malay language is the mother tongue for most of the students, and this will create easy
access and responses by the participants. The instruments were rated using a Likert scaleranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Agree) and was administered using SurveyMonkey.
As this study used a quasi-experimental design, the Pre- and Post-test design was applied tomonitor the change in the measures throughout the study. The use of a control group in thisresearch enhanced the ability to distinguish the effects of the intervention. Secondly, as there
was multiple observation, this method did not require exploring a large number of samples.
The design notation of the study is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Design Notation of the Study
Topic 1
Group 1
Group 2

Time
Obs
Obs

LegendObs
Tx

Measurement
Treatment

Tx

Obs
Obs

The research utilized the mean analysis, paired sample tests, and independent-sample t-tests,
supplemented by Cohen D’s effect size. For the latter, Table 1 reveals the individual effectsizes.

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Table 1
Cohen D’s Effect Size
Relative Effect Size
Small
MediumLarge

Effect Size
0.2
0.5
0.8
Findings

For the mean analysis of the three main player traits, Achievement, Social, and Immersion,
among the control group pre-and post-intervention, achievement player traits for postintervention were higher (mean=3.712) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.610).
Meanwhile, the Social player traits for post-intervention were higher (mean=4.223) than the
Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.679). Finally, the Immersion player traits for post-intervention
were higher (mean=3.770) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.758).
For the mean analysis of the ten-player traits sub-constructs, Advancement, Mechanics,
Competition, Socializer, Relationship, Teamwork, Discovery, Role-playing, Customization,
and Escapism; among participants from the control group pre-and post-intervention; it can beseen that Advancement sub-construct for the post-intervention score was higher (mean=3.935)
than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.839). The Mechanics sub-construct for the postintervention score was higher (mean=3.955) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.768).
The Competition sub-construct for the post-intervention score was higher (mean=3.134) than
the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.107). The Socializer sub-construct for the postintervention score was higher (mean=4.223) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.946).
The Relationship sub-construct for the post-intervention score was higher (mean=3.560) than
the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.321). The Teamwork sub-construct for the postintervention score was higher (mean=3.821) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.679).
The two mean values reveal that participants’ Discovery sub-construct for the post-intervention
score was higher (mean=3.839) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.679). The Roleplaying sub-construct for post-intervention score was higher (mean= 3.813) than the Preintervention phase (mean=3.750). The Customization sub-construct for the post-intervention
score was lower (mean=3.762) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=4.000). The two meansof Escapism sub-construct for the post-intervention score was similar to the Pre-intervention
phase (mean=3.631)
Meanwhile, the results of the repeated-measures T-test, in n Table 2, for primary constructs ofthe player traits and Table 3, for sub-constructs of the player traits, note that none of theconstructs were found to be statistically significant at the 0.05 level.

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Table 2Paired Sample Test Statistics for the Control Group Pre- and Post-Intervention for Main
Constructs
Main Construct (Control)
1
2
3

Paired Samples Test
Paired Mean
Differences

Achievement(Pre) –Achievement(Post)
Social (Pre) -Social (Post)
Immersion (Pre) - Immersion(Post)-0.102-0.218-0.013tdf

Sig. (2tailed)-0.762-1.990-0.123

27
27
27

0.452
0.057
0.903

Table 3
Paired Sample Test Statistics for the Control Group Pre- and Post-Intervention for the SubConstructs
Sub-Construct (Control)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Paired Samples Test
Paired Mean
Differences

Advancement (Pre) -Advancement(Post)
Mechanics (Pre) - Mechanics(Post)
Competition (Pre) - Competition(Post)
Socializer (Pre) - Socializer (Post)
Relationship (Pre) - Relationship(Post)
Teamwork (Pre) - Teamwork(Post)
Discovery (Pre) - Discovery (Post)
Role-playing (Pre) - Role-playing(Post)
Customization (Pre) - Customization(Post)
Escapism (Pre) - Escapism (Post)tdf

Sig. (2tailed)-0.095-0.57527

0.570-0.188-0.027-1.549-0.113

27
27

0.133
0.911

-0.277-0.238-1.792-1.842

27
27

0.084
0.077

-0.143-0.161-0.063-1.008-1.288-0.482

27
27
27

0.322
0.209
0.634

0.238

1.376

27

0.180

0.000

0.000

27

1.000

The next phase of the analysis looks into the treatment group. For the mean analysis of thethree main player traits, Achievement, Social, and Immersion, the achievement level for postintervention was lower (mean=3.600) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.671).
Meanwhile, social player traits for post-intervention were lower (mean=3.593) than the Preintervention phase (mean=3.687). Finally, the Immersion player traits for post-intervention
were lower (mean=3.629) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.683).
For the mean analysis of the ten-player traits sub-constructs, Advancement, Mechanics,
Competition, Socializer, Relationship, Teamwork, Discovery, Role-playing, Customization,
and Escapism; some differences were evident between participants from the control group preand post-intervention. From the two means, participants’ Advancement sub-construct for the
post-intervention score was lower (mean=3.787) than the Pre-intervention phase(mean=3.860). The Mechanics sub-construct for the post-intervention score was lower(mean=3.600) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean= 3.680). The Competition sub-construct

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for the post-intervention score was lower (mean=3.320) than the Pre-intervention phase(mean=3.380).
From the two means for the Socializer sub-construct, the post-intervention score was lower(mean=3.820) than the pre-intervention phase (mean=3.880). The Relationship sub-construct
for the post-intervention score was lower (mean=3.053) than the Pre-intervention phase(mean=3.573). The two means of the Teamwork sub-construct for the post-intervention score
were higher (mean=3.770) than the pre-intervention phase (mean=3.580).
The Discovery sub-construct for the post-intervention score was lower (mean=3.510) than the
Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.850). The Role-playing sub-construct for the post-intervention
score was lower (mean=3.710) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.740). The
Customization sub-construct for post-intervention score was higher (mean=3.560) than Preintervention phase (mean= 3.480). The Escapism sub-construct for the post-intervention score
was higher (mean=3.747) than the Pre-intervention phase (mean=3.587).
Meanwhile, when it came to the results of the repeated-measures t-test, as seen in Table 4, it
was found that none of the primary constructs was significant at the 0.05 level or the 0.1 level.
Meanwhile, according to Table 5, the relationship sub-construct was significant, t(25) =2.564,
p<0.05.
Table 4Paired Sample Test Statistics for the Treatment Group Pre- and Post-Intervention for theMain Constructs
Main Construct1
2
3

Paired Samples Test
PairedMean
Differences

Achievement (Pre) - Achievement(Post)
Social (Pre) - Social (Post)
Immersion (Pre) - Immersion (Post)

97

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

0.071

0.666

24

0.512

0.095
0.054

0.851
0.496

24
24

0.403
0.625

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Table 5Paired Sample Test Statistics for the Treatment Group Pre-and Post-Intervention for the SubConstructs
Sub-Construct
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Paired Samples Test
Paired Mean
Differences

Advancement (Pre) -Advancement(Post)
Mechanics (Pre) -Mechanics (Post)
Competition (Pre) -Competition (Post)
Socializer (Pre) - Socializer (Post)
Relationship (Pre) -Relationship (Post)
Teamwork (Pre) -Teamwork (Post)
Discovery (Pre) -Discovery (Post)
Role-playing (Pre) -Role-playing (Post)
Customization (Pre) -Customization(Post)
Escapism (Pre) -Escapism (Post)tdf

Sig. (2tailed)

0.073 0.556

24

0.584

0.080
0.060
0.060
0.520
-0.1900.340
0.030-0.080

0.684
0.309
0.458
2.564
-1.5272.006
0.277-0.503

24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24

0.501
0.760
0.651
0.017
0.140
0.056
0.784
0.620

-0.160 -0.681

24

0.503

Based on Tables 6 and 7, for the construct of Achievement, participants from the Pre-control
group (mean=3.610) showed lower traits tendencies compared to the Pre-Treatment group(mean=3.671). For the construct of Social, participants from the Pre-control group(mean=3.679) showed a lower tendency than the Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.687).
Participants from the Pre-control group (mean=3.758) showed higher Immersion Player traits
tendencies than the Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.683). This difference was not significant for
all three traits.
Table 6
Mean Analysis from the Treatment Group Pre-Intervention (Control/Treatment) for the Main
Constructs
Main Construct
Achievement
SocialImmersion

Mean Analysis
Group
N
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment

98

28
25
28
25
28
25

Mean
3.610
3.671
3.679
3.687
3.758
3.683

Std. Deviation
0.490
0.476
0.388
0.463
0.442
0.522

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Table 7
Independent Sample test for the pre-intervention (Control/Treatment) for Main Constructs
Main Constructs

Achievement
SocialImmersion

EVA
EVNA
EVA
EVNA
EVA
EVNA

Independent Samples Test
Levene’s Test for
t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of Variances
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2tailed)
0.007
0.933 -0.464
51.0000.644-0.46550.6220.644
1.091
0.301 -0.074
51.0000.941-0.07447.1140.942
1.738
0.193 0.565
51.0000.575
0.559
47.2890.579

Key: EVA: Equal variances assumed; EVNA: Equal variances not assumed

Based on Table 8 and Table 9 below, on average, participants from the Pre-control group(mean=3.839) showed lower Advancement Player traits tendencies than the Pre-Treatmentgroup (mean=3.860). Meanwhile, when it came to Mechanics Player traits, participants fromthe Pre-control group (mean=3.768) showed a higher tendency than the Pre-Treatment group(mean=3.680). For Competition Player traits, participants from the Pre-control group(mean=3.107) showed a lower tendency than the Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.380). Thisdifference was not significant for all the sub construct traits.
For the Socializer player traits, participants from the Pre-control group (mean=3.946) showed
higher traits tendencies than the Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.880). For the Relationshipplayer traits, participants from the Pre-control group (mean=3.321) showed lower traits
tendencies than the Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.573). Meanwhile, participants from the Precontrol group (mean=3.679) showed higher Teamwork Player traits tendencies compared to
the Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.580). This difference was not significant for all the subconstruct traits. Participants from the Pre-control group (mean=3.679) showed lower
Discovery Player traits tendencies compared to Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.850).
Participants from the Pre-control group (mean=3.750) showed a higher Roleplaying Player
traits tendencies compared to Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.740). Participants from the Precontrol group (mean=4.000) showed a higher Customization Player traits tendencies comparedto Pre-Treatment group (mean=3.480). This difference was significant t (51)=2.820, p<.05; andrepresenting a medium-sized effect size of r=0.78. Participants from the Pre-control group(mean=3.631) showed higher Escapism Player trait tendencies compared to the Pre-Treatmentgroup (mean=3.587).
Table 8Mean Analysis from the Treatment Group Pre-Intervention (Control/Treatment) for the SubConstructs
Sub-Construct
Advancement
Mechanics

Mean Analysis
Group
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment

99

N
28
25
28
25

Mean
3.839
3.860
3.768
3.680

Std. Deviation
0.479
0.560
0.531
0.503

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Competition
Socializer
Relationship
Teamwork
Discovery
Roleplaying
Customization
Escapism

Volume 9 – Issue 6 – 2021

Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment
Pre-Control
Pre-Treatment

28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25

3.107
3.380
3.946
3.880
3.321
3.573
3.679
3.580
3.679
3.850
3.750
3.740
4.000
3.480
3.631
3.587

0.837
0.851
0.602
0.733
0.517
0.697
0.518
0.562
0.466
0.505
0.549
0.557
0.660
0.681
0.843
1.164

Table 9
Independent Sample test for the pre-intervention (Control/Treatment) for Sub- Constructs
Independent Samples Test
Sub- Constructs
Levene’s Test for
t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of
Variances
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2tailed)
Advancement
EVA
0.218
0.643 -0.145
51.0000.885
EVNA-0.14447.5380.886
Mechanics
EVA
0.000
0.983 0.616
51.000
0.540
EVNA
0.618
50.8130.539
Competition
EVA
0.171
0.681 -1.175
51.0000.245
EVNA-1.17450.1250.246
Socializer
EVA
1.312
0.257 0.362
51.000
0.719
EVNA
0.358
46.6080.722
Relationship
EVA
0.794
0.377 -1.504
51.0000.139
EVNA-1.47943.9340.146
Teamwork
EVA
0.644
0.426 0.664
51.000
0.509
EVNA
0.661
49.0770.511
Discovery
EVA
0.076
0.783 -1.285
51.0000.204
EVNA-1.27949.1090.207
Roleplaying
EVA
0.053
0.818 0.066
51.000
0.948
EVNA
0.066
50.151
0.948
Customization
EVA
0.562
0.457 2.820
51.000
0.007
EVNA
2.815
49.9340.007
Escapism
EVA
4.335
0.042 0.160
51.000
0.874
EVNA
0.157
43.3050.876
Key: EVA: Equal variances assumed; EVNA: Equal variances not assumed

Based on Table 10 and Table 11, participants from the post-control group (mean=3.712)
showed higher Achievement Player trait tendencies than the post-Treatment group100

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(mean=3.600). Participants from the Post-control group (mean=3.770) showed higher
Immersion Player trait tendencies than the post-Treatment group (mean=3.629); both traits
were not significant. Meanwhile, participants from the post-control group (mean=3.896)
showed higher Social Player traits tendencies than the post-Treatment group (mean=3.593).
This difference was significant t(51)=2.813, p<.05; and a small-effect size of r=0.32.
Table 10
Mean Analysis from the Treatment Group Post-Intervention (Control/Treatment) for the Main
Constructs
Main Construct
Achievement
SocialImmersionGroup
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment

Mean Analysis
N
28
25
28
25
28
25

Mean
3.712
3.600
3.896
3.593
3.770
3.629

Std. Deviation
0.529
0.439
0.391
0.393
0.488
0.429

Table 11
Independent Sample Test for the Post-Intervention (Control/Treatment) for Main Constructs
Main Construct

Achievement
SocialImmersion

EVA
EVNA
EVA
EVNA
EVA
EVNA

Independent Samples Test
Levene’s Test for
t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of Variances
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2tailed)
0.573
0.453
0.831
51.0000.410
0.839
50.754
0.405
0.019
0.891
2.813
51.0000.007
2.813
50.271
0.007
0.681
0.413
1.118
51.0000.269
1.126
50.9920.265

Key: EVA: Equal variances assumed; EVNA: Equal variances not assumed

Based on Table 12 and Table 13, on average, participants from the post-control group(mean=3.935) showed higher Advancement Player traits tendencies than the post-Treatmentgroup (mean=3.787). Participants from the Post-control group (mean=3.134) showed lower
Competition Player traits tendencies than the post-Treatment group (mean=3.320); both traits
were not significant. Meanwhile, participants from the post-control group (mean=3.955)
showed higher Mechanics Player traits tendencies than the post-Treatment group(mean=3.600). This difference was significant t(51)=2.734, p<.05; and a medium-effect sizeof r=0.76.
Participants from the Post-control group (mean=4.223) showed higher Socializer Player traits
tendencies than the post-Treatment group (mean=3.820). This difference was significant
t(51)=2.578, p<.05; it represented a medium-sized effect size of r=0.71. Participants from the
Post-control group (mean=3.560) showed higher Relationship Player traits tendencies than the
post-Treatment group (mean=3.053). This difference was significant t(51)=3.161, p< .05; andrevealed a high-effect size of r=0.87. participants from the post-control group (mean=3.821)

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showed higher Teamwork Player traits tendencies than the post-Treatment group(mean=3.770). This difference was not significant t(41.973)=0.401, p>.05; and a small-effectsize of r=0.11.
Participants from the Post-control group (mean=3.839) showed higher Discovery Player traits
tendencies than the post-Treatment group (mean=3.510). Participants from the Post-control
group (mean=3.813) showed higher Roleplaying Player traits tendencies than the postTreatment group (mean=3.710); neither trait was significant. Participants from the Post-control
group (mean=3.762) showed higher Customization Player traits tendencies than the postTreatment group (mean=3.560). This difference was significant t(51)=1.202, p<.05; and asmall-effect size of r=0.33. Participants from the Post-control group (mean=3.631) showed
lower Escapism Player traits tendencies than the post-Treatment group (mean=3.747). Thisdifference was not significant t(47.266)=-0.497, p>.05; and revealed a small-effect size of
r=0.14.
Table 12Mean Analysis from the Treatment Group Post-Intervention (Control/Treatment) for the SubConstructs
Sub-Construct
Advancement
Mechanics
Competition
Socializer
Relationship
Teamwork
Discovery
Roleplaying
Customization
Escapism

Mean Analysis
Group
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment
Post-Control
Post-Treatment

102

N
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25
28
25

Mean Std. Deviation
3.935
0.702
3.787
0.453
3.955
0.536
3.600
0.389
3.134
0.946
3.320
0.724
4.223
0.542
3.820
0.597
3.560
0.529
3.053
0.636
3.821
0.593
3.770
0.314
3.839
0.537
3.510
0.716
3.813
0.592
3.710
0.488
3.762
0.614
3.560
0.606
3.631
1.008
3.747
0.669

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Table 13
Independent Sample Test for the Post-Intervention (Control/Treatment) for Sub-Constructs
Sub-Construct

Advancement

EVA
EVNA
Mechanics
EVA
EVNA
Competition
EVA
EVNA
Socializer
EVA
EVNA
Relationship
EVA
EVNA
Teamwork
EVA
EVNA
Discovery
EVA
EVNA
Roleplaying
EVA
EVNA
Customization EVA
EVNA
Escapism
EVA
EVNA

Independent Samples Test
Levene’s Test for Equality
t-test for Equality of Meansof Variances
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2tailed)
0.844
0.362
0.899
51.0000.373
0.921
46.635
0.362
1.791
0.187
2.734
51.0000.009
2.783
49.033
0.008
2.283
0.137
-0.79751.0000.429-0.80949.875
0.422
0.001
0.972
2.578
51.0000.013
2.563
48.790
0.014
0.059
0.809
3.161
51.0000.003
3.128
46.921
0.003
5.282
0.026
0.388
51.0000.700
0.40141.973
0.691
0.568
0.455
1.907
51.0000.062
1.876
44.219
0.067
1.518
0.224
0.683
51.0000.498
0.691
50.700
0.493
0.028
0.869
1.202
51.0000.235
1.203
50.468
0.235
5.714
0.021
-0.48651.0000.629-0.49747.266
0.621

Key: EVA: Equal variances assumed; EVNA: Equal variances not assumed

Discussion and Findings
For the Control Group, pre and post-test analysis, all player traits increased except
customization based on the mean value. Meanwhile, based on the repeated measures t-test forthe control group that carried out their lesson using Google classroom, no traits weresignificant. Based on the mean increase for all but one construct, it can be seen that theparticipants who were students aged 13-14 years old from the Gen-z batch seemed to haveshown some form of preference and eagerness towards using the Google classroom platform
to learn (Fister Gale, 2015b; Sparks&Honey, 2014). Any form of diversified learning triggered
their interest. However, when it came to customization construct, a drop in mean value wasevident, because the teacher fully controlled this platform (Finlay et al., 2004), and theparticipants could access the notes or tasks given within the platform. This is vital as students
would like to have at least the opportunity to have some control when it comes to the interactive
platform being used for learning (Javora et al., 2021).
For the treatment group that learned using a gamified platform (Kahoot), the pre and post-test
analysis, based on the mean value, all player traits decreased except teamwork, customization,and escapism. Meanwhile, based on the repeated measures T-test, no main player traits weresignificant, but the sub-construct of the relationship was significant. The findings revealed that103

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all means saw a drop between pre-and post-test, yet an increase was evident in the teamwork,
customization, and escapism part of the learning process. This can be attributed to the
lockdown phase, where access to a fully-fledged game was more prevalent to the students(Alsaad et al., 2021), and when they were introduced to a low-level and gamified/game-basedlearning platform, they were feeling a little detached from the learning ecosystem (An &Oliver, 2021). The teamwork sub-construct player traits saw an increase as the students may
have communicated to face the tasks together as a team or duo to make it easier for them andscore better marks (Misra & Mazelfi, 2021; Subhash & Cudney, 2018). The customization trait
can also be attributed to the fact that the students can access the Kahoot platform separately
and test out the systems for themselves (Javora et al., 2021; Roberts-Mahoney et al., 2016).
Finally, escapism can be attributed to the feeling of escaping the norms of online learning
imposed on them during the pandemic lockdown (Hussain et al., 2021; Labrecque et al., 2011).
Although not the best option, what was available to them allowed them to escape the hold of
online learning.
Based on the results of the independent sample t-test, the pre-intervention condition from bothgroups (Control and Treatment), the Customization sub-construct of the player traits was foundto be statistically significant due to the personal experience of these students when it came toreal-life situations. For instance, under lockdown, a student may be constricted to a specificroutine in the real world, which is fixed. Nevertheless, some students find the most superficial
satisfaction in changing or modifying aspects around them (Javora et al., 2021). For example,
changes in the theme or style of their digital devices may trigger these thoughts among thestudents. Based on the independent sample t-test, the post-intervention condition from bothgroups (Control and Treatment), it is evident that the social main player traits revealed asignificance due to two aspects; 1) the social status needs of Gen-z students (Dewi et al., 2021)
and 2) the interaction invoked by the game-like experience (Eck, 2006). Socializing status is
the need for the students of the current generation to connect and communicate with others(Fister Gale, 2015a; Sparks&Honey, 2014). This further seemed relevant for them under
lockdown conditions due to Covid-19. Besides that, the gaming ecosystem triggered the needto communicate with other players that play by their side (Tondello et al., 2019; Wölfl et al.,2021).
Meanwhile, when it came to the sub-constructs, Mechanics revealed a significant difference
since the gamified platform offered numbers and statistics (Barata et al., 2011; Mekler et al.,2013; Thom et al., 2012) that can be observed based on the tasks carried out by the students,
in comparison to the basic Google classroom. Meanwhile, socialization and relationships were
triggered due to casual chats triggered by the need for the students to communicate and reachout to others to help or get help, thus creating a bond/friendship among their peers (Subhash &Cudney, 2018). Finally, the Discovery sub-construct was significant due to the feeling of tryingout a gamified learning environment, which was unique and different from the usual lesson
that the students were going through (Plass et al., 2015).
Conclusions
From the findings, it is to be noted that although using gamified learning to supplement learning
was effective during the pandemic, diversified ways of learning were the best way to engage
the student’s interest. As such, the use of Google classroom and Kahoot as an add-on tool canhelp encourage the students to learn, since it motivated the students in testing times. However,
one of the distinct traits that were evident in each group was customization. This can be
attributed to the changes in the educational ecosystem seen before the lockdown, where the104

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teachers were merely facilitators and students took charge of their learning needs. Nevertheless,
the Covid-19 lockdown reversed the path of learning, with the teaching and learning process
being fully teacher-orientated sometimes leaving students as mere spectators. This scenario left
the students craving more freedom and control when it came to their learning. The significant
trait changes shown in Socializing, through the teamwork construct revealed a need forresilience among students under lockdown, through communicating and collaborating with
their peers. The discovery, mechanics, and customization traits can contribute to the need-toknow attitude or digital literacy of the young participants who would like to explore what is
put forth in a lesson. The curious findings of escapism, which reveals that the students felt
trapped within the learning system imposed by the covid lockdown. However, the current
situation falls under the emergency remote teaching phase, and it will be replaced slowly onceschools start reopening. Yet, the infusion of education and technology will not recede; instead,
it will be continually used as learning progresses in the new millennia. This may lead to faceto-face learning being one day restricted to certain subjects or topics, while others can be
carried out from the comfort of the home.
Acknowledgment
Acknowledgement to “Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for Fundamental Research
Grant Scheme with Project Code: FRGS/1/2020/SSI0/USM/03/3 and Universiti Sains
Malaysia Short Term Grant, 304 / PMEDIA / 6315350

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Corresponding author: Mageswaran Sanmugam
Email: mageswaran@usm.my111

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Sustaining Language Learning through Social Interaction at a Japanese
National University
Julia Tanabe
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Abstract
The careful use of online learning can achieve a variety of goals in sustainable education, suchas providing access for students, particularly in times of crisis, as well as providing them with
opportunities to study interdependently. Also, it gives them the opportunity to develop thinking
skills and awareness to become active in working towards sustainable societies, ones where theactions of the current society do not damage the abilities of future generations to address theirown needs. In this small-scale study at a Japanese national university, the switch fromclassroom-based teaching to online study in language education is considered in relation toflipped learning. This involved videoconferencing software and the organization of “study
buddy” groups, supported by materials on a learning management system. The effect of thechange has been investigated using a mixed-methods approach with survey data from students
and data from two classroom observations by external observers. The data has been analyzed
and framed in relation to sustainable education goals, produced by Japan’s Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), such as cooperation,interdependence, sense of responsibility, and international awareness. The author of this study
found that the flipped learning approach was successful in building an online community andsocial interaction that provided the framework for achieving education for sustainability. In
conclusion, the author considers how hybrid courses involving both classrooms and online
technology may be the future for English language courses in Japanese universities.
Keywords: English language education, flipped learning, sustainable education, online learning,
study-buddy

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In a period of globalization and climate change, educators must increasingly adapt to
disruptions due to emergencies relating to natural events. In Japan, which is susceptible totyphoons, earthquakes and tsunami, as well as outbreaks of disease, having the capacity tomaintain courses and classes effectively during difficult times is becoming increasingly
important. This is particularly relevant to language teaching and learning, where social
interaction is given high priority, usually requiring students to study while being in physicalproximity with each other so that they can communicate. Furthermore, there is an increasingneed to focus on sustainable education to develop citizens who can contribute to slowing orreversing severe problems emerging due to unsustainable human activity. In this article,
consideration is given to how online learning can contribute to sustainable education in thefield of language learning.
With the COVID-19 crisis in 2020, most Japanese national universities effectively transformed
classroom-based education into online education. This, in effect, created a physical barrier
between teacher and student as well as between the students themselves. For teachers, thechallenge was how to utilize software, and develop online skills and ways of teaching thatdelivered language courses effectively. At the author’s university, the available avenues ofdelivery were the university’s learning management system Blackboard Learn R9.1 (Bb9) andvideoconferencing software, such as Microsoft Teams and Zoom.
The author of this paper specializes in the teaching of productive skills (speaking and writing)in English for first-year students who are required to take a set of English courses as part oftheir general education. A flipped learning approach was used that involved self-study using
Bb9 combined with an online class. During 2020, two different videoconferencing software
packages were used. The first was Microsoft Teams, which was combined with out-of-class“study buddy” groups, where students were placed in small teams and collaborated outside ofclass time to promote learner autonomy, cooperation, and partnership – goals of sustainableeducation. The second software package was Zoom, which at that time had an advantage overTeams because of its breakout room function that allowed “study buddy” interaction to takeplace in online class time.
The aim of this paper is to describe how videoconferencing tools, “study buddy” groups and alearning management system were used in online English language courses for productive
skills and to evaluate the new way of delivering classes in relation to sustainable education.
The use of the technologies described in the study is not only relevant for infection control dueto the COVID-19 pandemic, but it also contributes more broadly to sustainable education goals.
Theoretical Background
Japanese Government Promotion of Sustainable Education
The courses described in this study took place in a Japanese context, and a major source of
influence is the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The
Ministry has emphasized sustainable education, one that promotes a society in which theactions of the current generation do not damage the abilities of future generations to address
their own needs. In a world where there are severe problems such as climate change, resource
depletion, and a biodiversity crisis, the goal of sustainable education is to develop problemsolving skills in order to realize and tackle the problems in the environment. As MEXT (2016,p. 4) suggests: “Think globally, act locally.”
For MEXT (2016), all learners need to acquire the knowledge and skills required to promote

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sustainable development such as “promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global
citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and culture’s contribution to sustainable
development” (2016, p. 5). Another aim is to ensure “inclusive and equitable quality educationand promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (MEXT, 2016, p. 5).
MEXT (2016) has also emphasized the need for teachers and students to work on issues
concerned with building a sustainable society, involving themes such as diversity,interdependence, limitation, fairness, cooperation, responsibility. Cooperation, responsibility
and interdependence were significant aims of the online course discussed in this article. In
addition, students need to acquire competences necessary to solve problems in order to build asustainable society. These competences include the ability to think critically, plan for the future,
think in multidimensional and integrative ways, communicate, cooperate with others, respect
relations and connections, and participate proactively.
The Relevance of Sustainable Education to Language Courses
When considering sustainable education, MEXT (2013) stresses that it is important to promote“proactive learning, interactive learning, and in-depth learning”. This implies not only the
exploratory learning process, such as appropriate implementation of problem-solving learning,enriching opportunities for proactive learner-centered learning with experiences and activities,
but a thorough examination about which part of the learning process is most efficient and how
to implement it. In other words, the aim should be to organize cooperative learning by
integrating group activities and supporting students so that they can discuss and work together
on various topics in order to undertake activities or give presentations.
The online teaching delivery methods discussed in this article aim to contribute to theseparticular goals of sustainable education. For instance, they create more equal opportunities foreducation since students from a variety of backgrounds can access classes and materials online
regardless of their location. Further, online learning management systems provide flexible
access to content regardless of time; therefore, they are more cost-effective for universities to
distribute course content, avoiding the cost and waste of distribution through paper. Online
methods involving both learning management systems and videoconferencing can extend thelearning experiences for students who cannot attend traditional face-to-face classes by giving
them multiple study opportunities. In addition, the methods applied in online education are
generally much lower in carbon intensity, requiring less commuting, since students can takecourses from the comfort of their home, which is an additional benefit in terms of sustainability.
Previous research (Exter et al., 2009; McInnerney & Roberts, 2004; Tanabe, 2015) suggeststhat online teaching has the potential to improve the quality of learning experience by involving
a varied community of learners. McGuire & Castle (2010) have stated that another benefit of
the online method in terms of sustainable education goals is the nature of asynchronous
discourse, where there is a time lag between responses, allowing responders time to think,examples being the posting of audio recordings (speaking) and blog entries (writing) on alearning management system. In these cases, other students can listen, read, and comment.
Asynchronous discourse often involves deep learning, which involves self-reflection and selfawareness, more so than synchronous discourse, which is more strongly associated with a
traditional classroom setting. Also, students who employ deep learning may identify a greater
satisfaction in self-learning (Warburton, 2003). For these reasons, online teaching can be aneffective tool in achieving sustainable education.

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Teaching English through a Communicative Approach
Sustainable education has a strong link to language learning and teaching, particularly in
relation to international communication and learning through discourse and interaction. The
communicative approach, otherwise known as communicative language teaching (CLT)
highlights the importance of situation and context in understanding language that
communicates meaning. As Nunan (2004, p.7) states, it is about “language that can be thoughtof as a tool for communication”. Williams and Burden (1997) have researched Vygotsky’s
social constructivism, which stresses social interaction for learning, as a psychologicalunderpinning to the approach. In the case of communicative language teaching, both teacherstudent interaction and student-student interaction are considered very important. The courses
described in this article were strongly influenced by Vygotsksy’s psychology, particularly in
relation to social interaction.
Communicative language teaching (CLT) focuses on meaningful communication in the target
language. Based on Littlewood’s (1981) explanation, this approach places emphasis on
interaction in the classroom between peers and between teacher and learners while combining
functional and structural features of language. CLT makes language learning authentic andhelps learners to use language both productively and receptively in order to achievecommunicative ability.
Larsen-Freeman (1986) claims that CLT relates to authentic, communicative events; therefore,
the right circumstances are in place for communicative exchange. Also, the students get
immediate response from their peers or teacher on whether or not their communication was
successful. Moreover, small group work provides more opportunities for practicing
communication and offers learners the chance to share their ideas and opinions. This way ofcommunicative interaction enhances cooperation and negotiation of meaning among learners(Larsen-Freeman, 1986). Jacobs and Hall (2002, p. 53) mention a number of benefits with CLTsuch as “increased student talk, more varied talk, a more relaxed atmosphere, greater
motivation, more negotiation of meaning, and increased amounts of comprehensible input”.
Building a sense of community (SoC) is considered highly important in classes to minimize
student isolation (McMillan & Chavis, 1986). Also, communicative interaction, cooperation,negotiation of meaning among learners, and the need for learning through social interaction are
relevant for the English Communication classes. With a switch to online learning, it was
important to think through how these could be incorporated in the new learning environment.
If students were to build their language through interaction, videoconferencing sessions using
Teams and Zoom seemed to be the best option for the course.
The Flipped Approach
The term “flipped learning” is used by Bergmann and Sams (2012) to describe a new model of
instruction. It is “a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the grouplearning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed
into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they
apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter” (Network, 2014, p. 1). Enokida etal. (2018) state that one advantage of a flipped classroom is flexibility since it allows instructors
to spend more time on covering the materials, answer students’ questions and have group
discussions. In flipped learning, students acquire knowledge prior to class, then use thatknowledge in group activities that foster their productive and creative skills during class time
(Enokida et al. 2018). The course discussed in this study followed the flipped approach.
Students were asked to work on a learning management system, complete assignments, and117

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watch videos to help them prepare for an online class that involved discussions.
MethodCourses Involved in the Study
The focus of this study is on two courses taught to first-year students, one on developing
speaking skills and one on writing skills. For the speaking skills course, self-study materials
were placed on a learning management system (Bb9), students were organized into “study
buddy” groups that arranged their own communication outside of class, and each week students
attended an online Teams class as a whole group. The average class size consisted of 25
students. For the writing skills course, self-study materials were placed on Bb9, and each week
students attended an online Zoom class, and “study buddy” communication took place duringclasses through the use of Zoom’s breakout room function. Zoom’s breakout room featureallows the teacher to split the participants into small groups. The teacher can then join thesegroups and monitor students’ interaction, as Selwood explains (2021).
Participants
The participants were first-year Japanese university students enrolled in the productive skills
courses. They were not at university to study English as a specialism, but were members offaculties such as Education, Engineering, Science and Law; their English communication
courses were mandatory for them to graduate. The questionnaires were administered online to
280 students and 223 students responded and took part in the study.
Research Questions
The study seeks to answer the following research questions:
1. What do the students think about videoconferencing software used in online learning?
2. How do students perceive learning with online “study buddies”?
3. How effective was the online teaching delivery in developing students’ skills and attitudes
related to the goals of sustainable education?
Data Collection and Analysis
In this small-scale case study, data were collected through questionnaires and teacher reflection
notes. Questionnaires were administered twice: in the eighth and sixteenth weeks of teaching(mid-course and end-of-course). The survey contained items on a four-point Likert scale to
avoid neutral responses and also included open-ended items to complement quantitative data.
The questionnaires and students’ responses were in English. The qualitative data in the article
are quoted directly, including students’ grammatical mistakes. Triangulation was used to“increase the internal validity of the study by combining both insider, and outsider aspects ofphenomena” (Duff, 2008, p. 143); the two sets of survey results were triangulated with thenotes of two teachers who observed a class. In addition, the author has reflected on her
experiences of the classes.
Teacher-researcher bias was a potential risk; however, classroom observations helped to reduce
this. Moreover, with interpretative research, the aim is to “create an open and honest narrativethat will resonate well with readers” (Cresswell, 2003, p. 196). The researcher was teaching
the participants; however, it should not be viewed as a danger to validity; Nunan and Bailey(2009) state that the strength of a case study lies in subjectivity, which allows the researcher toelaborate on the investigated phenomenon in depth precisely due to this familiarity. Thus,
establishing an emic approach, in other words insider perspective, helps to gain a deeper

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understanding of the researched phenomenon (Dörnyei, 2007).
For Likert-scale items, data were tabulated quantitatively, using descriptive statistics. For openended questionnaire items, data were analyzed qualitatively, looking for repeated patterns andalso finding emergent themes, which were identified with codes emerging from the dataset(Mackey & Gass, 2005). Labels were assigned to data, guided by the research questions.
Findings and Discussion
RQ1: What Do the Students Think about the Videoconferencing Software used in Online
Learning?
Students’ responses indicated that the Zoom videoconferencing tool was more favored thanTeams (See: Figure 1 & Table 1) and students found it more suitable for the courses. Thispreference was explained by qualitative responses that referred to Zoom’s interactive features,
its online stability, and the lack of need to create an account to join the session, which was also
found by Selwood (2021).
Figure 1
Students’ Videoconferencing Tool Preference for the Speaking Course

Table 1
Average Feedback Scores for Teams and Zoom Sessions: Speaking and Writing Courses
4 (++) 3(+) 2(-) 1(--) (4= Very good, 3= Good, 2= Not so good, 1= Not good)Teams session rating in Term 1 (Speaking)(N= 74)
Zoom session rating in Term 2 (Speaking)(N= 74)
Zoom session rating in Term 2 (Writing)(N= 149)

Mean
3.0

SD.
0.7

3.5

0.5

3.5

0.9

The qualitative results also revealed that the majority of students perceived the online
videoconferencing positively and benefitted from several advantages of this online delivery
method. As one comment from a student illustrates, the breakout room function of Zoom was
ideal for discussions and it was useful for social networking and building a sense of community
with others: “I like the discussions in the discussion room because I made friends with otherstudents.”

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Another advantage was lexical development with an online platform for learning vocabulary(Quizlet Live), which was shared on Zoom during the online class. Students formed teams andworked together in breakout rooms to participate in a vocabulary-building game. Learning
vocabulary online while collaborating with their group members and competing with theirpeers seemed to be effective for students and they found this type of learning enjoyable, as thefollowing comments illustrate:“Online word learning is easier than learning words using a vocabulary book.”“There are a lot of functions that help me, and I was able to learn new words while
having fun.”Students also favored the use of the chat function (communicating through written messages)
in videoconferencing to share their answers in parallel with speaking to peers; less confident
students could participate actively so that “everyone has a chance to answer”. In this way, allstudents were involved in the discussions. In connection with the online speaking course,
students had positive comments about the content and topics. They particularly liked to learn
about other countries and cultures in English. Some students also enjoyed summarizing andpresenting the stories from the materials and giving presentations online. These activities were
aimed at developing students’ acceptance of cultural diversity, intercultural awareness, anddeveloping a positive attitude towards other cultures, which significantly relates to the goals ofsustainable education as the following comment from a learner illustrates: “I can know about
various countries, so I enjoyed it like traveling world.”
Some students reflected on the convenient nature of online learning because they could takethe course from the comfort of their home and this way of learning is more flexible compareda traditional classroom setting: “I can study anywhere, anytime.” However, one student
suggested that face-to-face learning supported by a learning management system would be
more suitable for English communication. This is in relation to the flipped approach in whicha learning management system with backup materials online can support students’ learning, as
the student’s feedback demonstrates: “Basically, I think that online learning is good forstudents. Online system bring us new ways to learn which we could not access ever before, but
I think the best way would be face to face classes and the online system supports that.”
RQ2: How Do Students Perceive Learning with Online “Study Buddies”?
According to the students, the online study buddies were found to be helpful in various ways.
For instance, during the writing course, students could receive more ideas from each otherthrough peer collaboration than writing by themselves. Online study buddies were also usefulfor revision and enhancing student motivation, based on the feedback:“I think it is better to learn with my Online Study Buddies because I can confirm
whether my answer is good or not and teach with each other.”Another student expressed the same idea:“Because we can help each other’s writing, I think it is better to learn with my Online
Buddies.”
These comments refer to cooperation and support, which are necessary skills outlined in thegoals for sustainable education by MEXT (2016). Students need to cooperate and work on

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problems together for a sustainable future.
Online study buddies proved to be useful for building a sense of community and valuingconnections as well as social networking. According to MEXT (2016), education forsustainability focuses on partnerships to build networks and relationships, and improve
communication between people; therefore, online study buddies were ideal, illustrated by thefollowing feedback from a student: “We can communicate and make friends with each other.”
Other students also emphasized support and the importance of being in an online community:“…because we can help each other. I think it is better to learn with my Online Buddies.”
Another learner pointed out the benefit in terms of motivation: “…because we can work hardand encourage each other and cooperating with each other.”Creating online study buddies encouraged students to self-regulate their learning. They had togather weekly and find time to study together. Peers were responsible for their own and theirstudy buddies’ learning. This is a case of interdependence, a sustainable education goal: “It isbetter to learn with buddies because I can work hard with buddies.” Education forsustainability encourages individuals and groups to reflect upon personal experiences,worldviews, and various interpretations as well as ways of engaging with the world (MEXT,
2016). Online study buddies contributed to these critical thinking skills through an interactive
learning aspect: “I think it is better to learn with our Online Buddies because we can get moreideas from them.”
In addition, the majority of students found that online study buddies were not only useful but
enjoyable as well. They expressed their preference towards learning in an online community
instead of learning on their own, for instance in a self-study class. One of the comments
illustrates this point: “I think it is better to learn with my Online Study Buddies because we canstudy happily.”
According to students, there were some negative aspects of online study buddies, related to thesize of the group and time management. Feedback from some students revealed that it waseasier to work together in pairs and they found it difficult to study together in groups of fourwith their online study buddies. Also, some students found it challenging to coordinate the time
to meet with their peers because they belonged to various departments and had different
schedules. It would have been more suitable to ask students to form their own study buddy
groups and choose peers on their own. These drawbacks were expressed in the following
comments: “It is difficult to find time with the buddies so it is better without.” Another student
stated: “I think it would be better to have a study buddy group of about two people.”
RQ3: How Effective was the Online Teaching Delivery in Developing Students’ Skills andAttitudes Related to the Goals of Sustainable Education?
Students’ responses suggest that live vocabulary learning on Zoom was ideal for enhancing
cooperation among students and drawing on interdependence as well as creating a sense of
responsibility among the group members. Online study buddies contributed to minimizing
students’ isolation by creating a sense of community among them. Support and cooperation
were also themes reported by students, thus achieving an important goal of sustainableeducation within the online learning environment. This line of thought is expressed by thefollowing feedback from a student: “Because we can work hard and encourage each other andcooperating with each other.”Through interactive learning, students could share ideas and broaden their understanding,

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which encourages them to be responsible thinkers for a sustainable future: “I think discussing
with my class members was good. I could learn different ideas.” Another student agreed withthis point: “What I liked about this course is that we can know many ideas and views of otherstudents.” The same idea about student interaction was also expressed in a classroom
observation note: “Students were placed in breakout rooms four times during the session,
allowing them the chance to interact with each other and broaden their understanding withboth controlled tasks and freer tasks.”
In addition, online learning helped students to strengthen their cognitive and social presence tofoster the skills necessary for building international partnerships in the future. Based on thecommunity of inquiry (CoI) model (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000), cognitive presence,social presence, and teacher presence are the three important elements of effective online
learning. Cognitive presence refers to a community of learners who are able to constructmeaning through sustained communication. It develops when students cooperate in order toexplore, construct, and confirm their understanding of the content (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007).
This is reflected in some of the comments by students: “…because I've deepened myunderstanding by checking my buddy's answers.” As another student explained: “I think it isbetter to learn with our Online Buddies because we can get more ideas from them.”
Social presence is “the ability of participants in a community of inquiry to project themselvessocially and emotionally as “real” people through the medium of communication being used”(Garrison et al., 2000, p. 94), reflected by the following student comment: “I liked to talk witheveryone and listen to their opinion. By writing and looking at essays and discussion, I could
know everyone's thinking or favorite things.” Interactions between learners contribute to thesocio-emotional connections that create social presence.
Further, teaching presence consists of planning and facilitating the discourse. Also, it cangreatly impact students’ cognitive and social performance as well as shape the community oflearners (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). The following excerpt from a classroom observation note
illustrates this point, related to online interactive learning: “I was also impressed by the way
you responded to the students with questions and/or comments which would expand the topic
or deepen their understanding of the topic.”
Another classroom observation notes highlighted teaching presence that fostered students’intercultural awareness when learning English. The observer stressed the importance of apositive and warm teacher attitude, good classroom management, and an interest in
encouraging thought about different cultures as well as language learning.
Conclusion and Implications
In our globalized world, sustainable development goals are stressed to build a better future andachieve sustainability. To do this, we need to work on global issues while cooperating witheach other and tackle the problems we are facing in the world. The results of this study showthat various benefits and outcomes of online teaching delivery can be linked with sustainability.
These relate to both sustainable education in times of emergency and the broad themes ofsustainable education promoted by MEXT. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic acted as a driverfor innovation, with teachers having to quickly make decisions on how to deliver courses andclasses while being unable to operate in traditional classroom settings. The solution to the
problem was flipped learning. This involved the use of videoconferencing software as a meansof providing the traditional social interaction of the classroom in combination with a learning

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management system that allowed both self-study and the sharing of written and audio work.
In relation to sustaining education in times of emergency, by organizing students into out-ofclass study-buddy groups and through creating small-group work in videoconferencing
sessions, it was possible for students to interact. By doing so they developed connections andfriendships through working on focused tasks such as discussions and vocabulary-development
games. In some ways, videoconferencing gave students more avenues for communication thana traditional classroom. For example, students could communicate with the teacher through achat function. In a period of globalization and climate change, in which there are both theincreasing risk of pandemics and of extreme weather events, the results of the questionnaires
indicate that education can be sustained effectively through videoconferencing and learning
management systems.
In the broader context of sustainable education, three aims of the course were cooperation,
responsibility, and interdependence. The results of the data analysis show that “study buddy”
groups, working within the structured environment of a course, helped to address these aims.
From a Vygotskyan perspective, they provided many opportunities for peer learning, withstudents working together to check answers or learn content from each other, which motivatedthem to study. This was particularly evident in writing classes, in which students were expected
to write for each other. They were able to gain an understanding of how others think as well as
their interests, and this could be deepened by the teacher’s contributions in more collective
discussions. The integration of asynchronous writing tasks on a learning management system
also helped to foster a sense of responsibility and interdependence. In contrast to a more
traditional approach in which students submit work to a teacher for marking and correction,
students knew that they would read and comment on each other’s writing. Therefore, it was
important to meet deadlines in order to contribute to class activity. Consequently, students wereinvolved in both synchronous discourse in planning to write, and asynchronous discourse inwhich they shaped and deepened their ideas through writing for others. This form of deeplearning is promoted by MEXT to achieve the goals of sustainable education. The interweavingof videoconferencing with a learning management system created the environment for bothtypes of discourse.
In terms of cultural awareness, one student noted that the speaking course was like travelingaround the world. While this may relate more to course content, which involved units based on
fictional students traveling in a variety of countries, it can also be explained partly by
discussions in conjunction with the use of presentation software and links to video. The
advantage of using videoconferencing was putting presentations on screen. Although Japanese
universities have very good technology in classrooms, setting up presentations is often more
complex, involving lowering screens, closing blinds, and dimming lights. There was muchgreater immediacy to presenting online. This could be supplemented by the careful selectionof video links to YouTube on the learning management system that provided footage of settings
used in the presentations and online content.
Regarding implications for the future, a number of possibilities emerge. These relate to therange of courses universities may offer and the use of technologies for sustainable education.
The current situation of the COVID-19 pandemic has accultured many teachers and students
to the use of technologies for online learning. This acculturation is likely to be used in several
ways in the future: as a resource in times of emergency or disruption; for courses involving
students in different locations; and for new hybrid models.

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In the COVID-19 pandemic, videoconferencing software was used as a substitute for theclassroom environment. The data indicate that online courses can be delivered successfully
through good teacher management of students in conjunction with videoconferencing softwareand learning management systems. For courses that are primarily taught in classrooms thisoffers a resource for disruptions due to weather events or more individual problems.
Rescheduled classes can be taught online, especially where this involves a weekend, freeing
students and teachers from the necessity of travelling to a classroom.
Although the main form of classroom delivery for the future will be classroom-based, somecourses may be offered online through videoconferencing and learning management systems,
particularly where international students are involved. From the perspective of global
citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity, English language courses benefit from theparticipation of students from differing backgrounds. Due to travel restrictions, some students
have been unable to travel from their home countries, but have been able to participate inclasses online. Videoconferencing technologies and learning management systems now offer
a much greater opportunity for international student exchange. Because students from various
countries can participate in joint projects, discussions, and problem solving, intercultural
discussion will contribute to the government’s idea of “Think globally, act locally” (MEXT,
2016, p. 4), and improve the quality of learning.
With the return to classrooms, an important question is how technology will be combined withsocial interaction in the future. The most likely result is a model in which some of theinnovations that emerged in the time of the pandemic become integrated into classroom-based
courses. In this article the focus has been primarily on social interaction throughvideoconferencing, but this has been supported by carefully constructed materials on a learning
management system, which is complementary software for either classroom-based learning or
learning through videoconferencing. Particularly in Japan, where ownership of smartphones isvery extensive, students all have Internet access in the classroom through these devices.
Another possibility is a hybrid model which combines on-site learning with videoconferencing
to create an inclusive intercultural classroom. In terms of sustainability, it can be extended
beyond a course to a whole study-abroad program, and so offers the possibility for a university
to broaden its connections with other institutions of tertiary education across the world.
Although, there might be challenges such as the time difference between the local students andinternational students, they can have access to and take part in education more easily. Suchinternationally joint hybrid classes can create more intercultural classrooms which contributeto international cooperation in our globalized world.
Finally, this article has had a focus on the importance of social interaction in the learning
process, particularly through peer interaction, and the development of communication skills in
English through writing and speaking. What has emerged from the data is that current
technologies can be used to augment such learning, creating an environment where skills aredeveloped through tasks and interaction that is focused on meaningful exchange, and so aid inachieving the aims of sustainable education.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Walter Davies for proofreading this article. I am deeply grateful for his
valuable feedback on the draft.

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Corresponding author: Julia Tanabe
Email: jtanabe@hiroshima-u.ac.jp

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“Where am I?” A Critical Discourse Analysis of Religious Representationin Indonesia
Maretha Dellarosa
The Ohio State University, USA

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Abstract
The Indonesian Ministry of Education has re-examined the Indonesian curriculum to address
the present challenges, including how to promote tolerance in students who live in a
multicultural country. Textbooks and characters presented in Indonesian elementary textbooks,
Buku Siswa, are part of continuous revision. However, there is insufficient consideration
placed in the characters presented, including which characters are included and excluded. In
fact, understanding which characters are presented means that people learn how to constructphenomenon. As a country with diverse beliefs, the Indonesian education system inserts
religion as a mandatory subject, aiming to promote the values of diversity. Nevertheless, thegoal of such implementation does not always meet the outcomes since there are conflicts that
occur due to religious beliefs. The study aims to examine power relationships and theideological nature of discourse that is represented by seven characters in Buku Siswa by
utilizing Critical Discourse Analysis. Buku Siswa is a series of elementary school textbooks
that has different levels and themes. Findings reveal that characters that represent minority
religious groups are missing from learning materials, which presents them unequally compared
to characters that presents the majority of religious groups. The study argues that representation
is a way of respecting people.
Keywords: critical discourse analysis, Indonesian elementary textbooks; religious
representation

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Even though Indonesian curriculum has continuously been revised to meet the current needs(Wahyuni, 2015), there is limited attention paid to the relevance of characters presented inIndonesian elementary textbooks taught across school age levels. The majority of elementary
textbooks provide imaginary characters. For instance, there was only one group of children
presented in textbooks published in the 1990’s (Alim, 1996) without any significant connection
to the students’ identity such as religious or personal identity. Textbook producers’ goals forelementary students’ learning largely consists of questions geared toward reading for rotememorization (Apple, 2004). Students were rarely given an opportunity to position themselves
within an “as if” storyworld and start interpreting “as if” characters’ lives in connection
between themselves and others’ everyday lives (Enciso and Davilla, n.d). To put it anotherway, students are not challenged to analyze the characters presented in textbooks. In fact,reading is a matter of studying the real world in which students are living inside of, as thehistory has been perpetuated (Freire, 1985).
Moreno-Fernández et al. (2019) emphasize, “The significance of textbooks’ representation of
the society as, in most cases, they lay the foundations for the way lessons are developed andare the guiding materials for the daily routines in the classroom” (p. 81). Representation is a
way to formulate a phenomenon presented by establishing a relation between two objects
through symbolic communication (Mitchell, 1990). It also means that people’s presence isacknowledged (Bartz & Bartz, 2018). The present study focuses upon representation of religion
in Indonesian elementary student textbooks. In particular, the study illuminates religious
representation of characters, through examining the ideological treatment of their identity, as
diverse human beings who live on Earth. I argue that any form of representation is a matter ofrespecting people, regardless of their identity, as human beings who live on Earth because
people will feel more accepted when their religion is presented in textbooks.
In the published 2013 curriculum, the publishers and the Indonesian Ministry of Educationconsidered presenting diverse characters in Indonesian elementary textbooks, Buku Siswa. In
the Buku Siswa there are seven main characters with various skin tones and hairstyles. Someof them have light skin color and one character has dark skin color. Additionally, the publishers
and the Indonesian Ministry of Education emphasize religious representation among the sevencharacters. One of the characters, named Siti, wears a hijab as part of her religious enactment
as a Muslim. In Indonesia, Muslim is the largest religious population (Ministry of Religious
Affairs Public Relations, Data and Information Bureau, 2017). People who are part of a majorreligious group gain more social power (Van Djik, 1993) than people from a minor religious
group.
Those with power control the hegemonic ideas and worldviews of a society (van Dijk, 1993).
As such it is imperative to critically examine the Indonesian Ministry of Education’s
representation of religion for reproduction of ideological dominance. This raises two questions:
1) What knowledge about religious representations are constructed in Buku Siswa? 2) Whose
perspectives are valued in the process of scaffolding knowledge presented in Buku Siswa? Assuch this study analyzes a series of Buku Siswa taught in second grade level.
The (Religious) Diversity of Indonesia: Social Context
Indonesia is a multicultural country with 1331 ethnic categories, 719 local languages, six
religions, and other beliefs. The six religions are Islam (87.2%), Protestant/Christian (7,0%),Catholic (2.9%), Hindu (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), Confucian (0.05%), and others (0.5%)(Badan Pusat Statistik, 2015, data reflective of 1991 to 2017). Others belief systems are defined129

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as aliran Kebatinan that are not recognized by any official religions. Aliran Kebatinan isdefined as "mysticism, the penetration and the knowledge of the universe with the purpose of
establishing a direct relationship between the individual and the sphere of That-Which-IsAlmighty" (Mulder, 1970, p. 105). The percentage of combined belief systems and religions
was updated in 2010 following a census that is conducted every 10 years.
In an educational context, presenting religion as a subject was contested. Suhadi et al. (2015)
explained that soon after independence, in 1945, the Indonesian government established theMinistry of Education, Instruction and Culture to bring "religious instruction" (the term usedat the time) to the government’s attention. They described one of the articles in the firstIndonesian Education Law as stating that religious instruction was a choice and not yet amandatory subject in the era of "guided democracy" (Demokrasi Terpimpin) which lasted from1959 to 1965. Nevertheless, religion was a mandatory subject (from elementary to university
level for the first time) in the rise of Suharto’s era, also called the New Order era in 1965. Since
presenting religious education was a new policy, there was criticism that introducing religion
to children should be parents’ responsibility (Suhadi et al., 2015). Suhadi et al. added that thedebate of presenting religion emerged from 1973 when religious education was proposed to be
an optional subject again at the People’s Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan
Rakyat) until early 2000s. However, religious education remains a mandatory subject in publicschools even today and people rarely hear any criticism to eliminate it in public schools.
Even though debates of inserting religion as a subject in public school have ended, theimplementation of religious education that aims to promote reflection and internalization ofdiverse values (Suhadi et al., 2015) seems far away in the Indonesian pluralistic society. Suhadi
et al. argue that although religion became a mandatory subject, the implementation on how tovalue differences is weak because the curriculum consists of too much content about doctrine
and there is lack of reflection on valuing diversity. There has been numerous religious conflict(Nurhidayah et al., 2018) across the nation in which dominant religious groups use their power
to oppress minority religious groups.
For instance, there was a Christian – Muslim conflict in the 1950s, in which several churches
were burned in Singkil, Aceh, Indonesia (Jones, 1976). In 2012, the same conflict happened in
the same province, Aceh (Ahnaf et al., 2015). The majority of people in Aceh claim themselves
as Muslim. The percentage of Muslims (98%) is bigger compared to Christians (1%) (Ministryof Religious Affairs Public Relations, Data and Information Bureau, 2017). Moreover, Aceh isthe only province in Indonesia that enforces Syariat Islam (Islamic law). The conflict about
religion in Aceh happened because some radical groups in Aceh believed that Christians
obtained illegal permission to build a church. As a consequence, some conservative and radicalgroups viewed all activities done by Christians as illegal activities. Moreover, any type ofactivities done by the Christians could be a source of conflict for radical groups, such as Front
Pembela Islam (FPI). Too often, this sensitive issue was used to justify discriminative action.
Another religious conflict occurred in Tolikara, Papua, Indonesia. Unlike Aceh, Papua is oneof provinces in Indonesia with the largest population of Christians. The percentage ofChristians (65%) is larger compared to Muslims (15%) (Ministry of Religious Affairs Public
Relations, Data and Information Bureau, 2017). The conflict occurred on July 17, 2015 when
Christians attacked Muslims, who were in Eid prayers, and burnt the mosque as the follow up
action (Nurhidayah et al., 2018). The reason that the Christians gave for buring the mosque
was because on July 13–19, 2015 they had wanted to organize an international seminar. The
Christians argued that they did not want any other religious celebration on that day. Even

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though these examples cannot be used to generalize religious problems in Indonesia, what
happened in Aceh and Papua exemplify that dominant religious groups have more power thanminor religious groups and the dominance perpetuates social inequality. Arguably, religious
knowledge presented in schools fails to emphasize the value of diversity.
As such, there is a need to critically examine the knowledge depicted in textbooks and school
curricula. We need to examine what and whose knowledge has been normalized (Foucault,1980) and less valued by social institutions. As Sensoy (2014) argues, “our capacity to simply
imagine the range of mundane life experiences of various groups is in part determined by the
scripts and characters that we have been most socialized, through repetition, to see as normal”(p. 303).
Literature Review
There have been a number of studies about Indonesian textbook analysis across grade levels.
The study of Fitriyani (2013) investigates how the Indonesian English textbook used forseventh grade is relevant to achieve the goals of the present curriculum. Fitriyani conducts atextbook analysis and thematic coding. One of the findings reveals that there is repetition of
the content of the textbook. Additionally, Parlindungan et al. (2018) examined Indonesian
cultural diversity and whose cultures are represented in middle school English textbook titled“When English Rings a Bell”. Using a semiotic approach to analyze textual and non-textual
representations of cultures, the study’s finding revealed that the 2013 English textbooks forgrades seven and eight permeated Indonesian cultural diversity. Moreover, the authors suggest
the importance of inclusive representation of the richness of Indonesian local culture in a moresalient manner, especially to the minority groups.
In elementary levels, first through sixth grade, two studies were found analyzing the Indonesianelementary textbooks for second graders according to the thematic approach.
Kusumawardani’s study (2017) aims to describe the interconnection of the textbook in thesecond semester. The findings of this study demonstrate that the textbook for second graders
has been combined among three or four subjects. Additionally, there were dominantinterconnected models such as model webbed, threaded, and integrated in which several
indicators are not fulfilled. Likewise, using quantitative methodology, the study of Jannah(2015) investigated the Indonesian elementary textbook for second graders (theme one, subtheme Hidup Rukun di Rumah) to examine four points:••••

to what extent the indicators of materials are relevant to the learning activities
to know the relevance between learning activities and integrated approach
to know the relevancy between learning activities and scientific approach
to know the relevancy between the assessment in textbook and assessment in 2013
curriculum.

Research has found that there is a need to analyze the representation of characters presented inIndonesian elementary textbooks for second grade. Though the analysis of the study conductedby Parlindungan et al (2018) is about textual and non-textual representations of Indonesian
cultures in middle school’s textbook, this study does not analyze to what extent the portion ofmajority or minority groups are presented in English textbooks. Thus, my research aims tocontribute to the body of literature through the examination of the characters presented insecond grade textbooks by using critical discourse analysis perspective.

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Theoretical Framing
This study draws upon Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a theoretical framework. CDA
focuses on the reproduction of social power and dominance (van Dijk, 1993). Chu (2015)
argues that dominant groups who have more access to the public domains gain more control toapply and validate their discourse in social institutions, including schools. The dominant groups
within society are able to maintain power because other groups have limitations to acquire anduse resources such as language, knowledge, and money for social mobility (Yosso, 2005). The
dominant discourse then becomes a common rule when there is no significant link to a specificgroup from which it originates (Fairclough, 1989).
Van Djik (1993) explains the theory of power and dominance that can be measured by theircontrol over (access to) discourse. “Control over certain discourses can lead to the acquisitionof social goods (money, power, status) in a society” (Gee, 1989, p. 19). When a religion ispositioned as dominant, it automatically has social power (Van Djik). Van Djik argues, “Social
power is based on privileged access to socially valued resources, such as wealth, income,position, status, force, group membership, education or knowledge (p. 254). In the present
study, an example of gaining access to socially valued resources (education) is the opportunity
for several religions not only to be presented but also portrayed as main characters in textbooks.
By analyzing textbooks from the critical perspective, teachers and students are expected to
examine how knowledge is constructed through the characters that are presented in textbooks.
Having such understanding guides them to understand how power operates in society. As
Enciso and Davilla (n.d) argue, “Understanding social equality means delving into the histories
and frameworks that help us understand how ordinary people have exercised power and agency
to produce social change and equality (p. 3)”. Furthermore, students are engaged in the processof doing critical analysis that guides them to understand how they perceive social issues frommultiple perspectives (Chu, 2018). My role as a critical discourse analyst specifically in thisstudy and more generally in society is to make a significant contribution in order to obtain moreinsight into the essential role of discourse in the reproduction of dominance and inequality (vanDijk, 1993).
Elementary Textbooks in Indonesia
The main books taught in elementary level are Buku Guru and Buku Siswa. Thesebooks are written and composed by authors, working together with a specific team under thecoordination of the Ministry of Education. Buku Guru is a guided book for teachers that consistof several explanations on how to teach materials through a topic covered in each semester.
Also, there are indicators of success for each subject. Similarly, Buku Siswa contains guidance,
short imagined series of stories, and activities for students to engage in the learning process.
The stories are the authors’ imaginations that may not all students would have experienced intheir own lives. Furthermore, “Buku Siswa is designed to stimulate students’ imagination andinterest by having full of pictures and colors” (Buku Siswa, 2017, p. iv).
This study analysis a series of eight textbooks (second edition, published in 2017), taught forsecond graders. These textbooks are connected in terms of characters and themes. To make it
clear, there are seven characters presented in second grade’s textbooks (Picture 1). The
students’ characters are named Meli, Udin, Beni, Dayu, Lani, Siti, and Edo. Besides characters,
the textbooks are also connected in terms of themes. Each textbook’s themes are: Live inHarmony, Play in My Community, My Daily Duties, Live in A Clean and Healthy132

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Environment, My Experience, Take Care of Animals and Plants, Togetherness, and Safety at
Home and During Travel.
Methodology
To examine what knowledge about religious representations are constructed in Buku Siswa
and whose perspectives are valued in the process of scaffolding knowledge presented in Buku
Siswa, I use case study research to iteratively construct and analyze data. This method allows
me to investigate data carefully. I bound my case with religious representation as main analysis
and the seven characters presented in textbooks as substance of analysis (Thomas, 2015).
I downloaded the eight textbooks from the Buku Sekolah Digital’s (BSD) website. BSD is an
online application to download the e-books for free. This online application is an official
program provided by the Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian Departmentof National Education), which aims to fulfill the need of digital books from elementary to highschool level (Koleksi 2500 Buku Sekolah Digital (Buku BSE), Koleksi Buku KTSP 2006,
Kurikulum 2013 dan Kurikulum Nasional, n.d.). BSD provides 2500 digital books including
financial books, elementary textbooks, anti-corruption comics, educational comics, and many
more. For the purpose of this study my focus of analysis is the digital textbooks.
I selected textbooks for second graders as a specific case because it was part of the early
elementary levels (from first, seven years old, to third grade, nine years old). Furthermore,
textbooks for second graders provide applicable examples of the values of Pancasila, as theofficial philosophical foundation of the nation. Pancasila consists of five principles presented
through five different symbols for each principle in which people learn the values of social
justice. Meanwhile, textbooks for first grades provide basic lessons about the symbols ofPancasila.
To unpack the values behind the images in second grade Indonesian elementary textbooks, I
utilize a semiotic approach to religious representation (Kress & Van Leeuwen’s, 2010).
Drawing upon social semiotic theory of representation, the key point about semiotics is the"sign" (Kress & Van Leeuwen). In conducting the analysis of images, there are components("signifiers" such as color, perspectives, line, and how these components are used to realize
meanings or "signifieds") that contribute to the process of sign-making (Kress & Van Leeuwen,2010). As social semioticians, Kress and Van Leeuwen (2010) provide three metafunctions as
a key heuristic: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual. The ideational metafunction isrealized through the investigation of image structure, which describes objects, events,
participants, and other relevant circumstances. The interpersonal metafunction is visual
resources that can represent specific social relation between the producer, the viewer, and theobject represented. The textual metafunction is the compositional arrangement of images.
Central to this study is ideational metafunction in which the aim is to represent the world
around and inside us.
Data Analysis
I analyzed the textbooks based on the aforementioned critical discourse perspectives. Critical
discourse approach examines power relationships, the ideological nature of discourse and howsocial roles are acquired, enacted, transformed on discourse’s role in power production andreproduction (Fairclough, 1992; Gee, 1989; van Dijk 1993). Critical discourse scholarshiptakes an explicitly political stance and highlights social inequality and injustice (Lazar, 2007).

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Moreover, critical approaches to discourse allow people to understand that discourses speak
through individuals (Gee, 1989). The problem considered in this study is unequal religious
representation of seven characters in second grade Indonesian textbooks. Critical discourse
scholars argue that discourse is socially shaped and socially shaping (Fairclough, 1992). The
data, eight textbooks, chosen for the analysis in this study are examples of how discourse served
as a means of communicating the distribution of power and hierarchical structure of society(Gee, 1989).
Fairclough (1992) presents a specific method in using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) sothat critical discourse analysts interpret, describe, and explain. He puts forth the process of
CDA, “from interpretation of the discourse practice (processes of text production andconsumption), to description of the text, to interpretation of both of these in the light of thesocial practice in which the discourse is embedded” (p. 231). The analysis provided in thisstudy performs in a similar way.
My design consists of analysis of eight textbooks. I generated data by skimming the eighttextbooks and looking for cruces points in which I found an unequal religious representation.
I searched for the main character presented in each textbook by carefully reading pages that
contained information about the characters. I chose focal points where discourse seemed to be
in conversation. From there, I found that there is one character presented in each textbook, as
the main character, followed by the rest of the other six characters as supplemental characters.
Next, I searched for each religious character’s background by analyzing their physicalappearance, religious artifacts, and activities found in specific pages across the eight textbooks.
I then related to macro (group or institutional power and dominance, social inequality) andmicro (text, talk or communicative interaction) or vice versa (van Dijk, 1993). It is essential tonote that the characters can be found in Indonesian textbooks across school levels, including
elementary and middle school. However, I only analyzed the characters’ religious backgrounds
according to information available in the eight textbooks in second grade level. As additional
information, there was no explicit information provided by the publisher or the writer about
each character’s background. I explained each character’s background based on appearance
and other visual information (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2010) provided in specific pages oftextbooks. The following pictures are the screenshot of specific pages about characters’
religious background that served as the corpus of data.
Figure 1
Depiction of characters in Buku Siswa (Textbook theme, 1 p. v)

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Get to Know Me: Hello, My Name Is …
Meli: (the most left student, Figure 1) who has pigtails hairstyle, light skin tone, and a roundface with single-folded eyelids represents a Chinese descendant. It can be seen from picture 2,
the right-bottom picture, that she is holding a joss stick and praying in front of a Confucian
statue. In Confucian, joss sticks are one of artefacts used to pray. Thus, it can be interpreted
that Meli represents Confucian.
Figure 2
Religious Traditions (Textbook Theme 1, p. 14)

Udin: (second student from left, Figure 1) is a character who wears glasses. It can be seen from
Figure 3 (below) that his mother wears a hijab. Figure 4 shows that Udin is praying with hisfamily in Islamic liturgy. It can be interpreted that Udin grows up in a Muslim family andidentifies himself as a Muslim student.
Figure 3
Udin’s Family (Textbook Theme 1, p. 2)

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Figure 4
Islamic Prayer (Textbook Theme 8, p. 48)

Beni: (third student from left, Figure 1) has light skin and straight hair. From Figure 5 (below)
bottom-middle picture, it can be seen that there is a boy who has light skin and straight hair ispraying in Buddhism liturgy. From Figure 6 number 6 it can be seen that the boy with lightskin and straight hair, is participating in Bible reading. Thus, there is unclear information
whether Beni is Buddhist or Christian.
Figure 5
Religious traditions (Textbook Theme 1, p. 14)

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Figure 6
Daily activities (Textbook Theme 5, p. 81)

Dayu: has straight hair and wears a headband (middle student, Figure 1). According to how
Balinese depict nicknames in general, Dayu is a short name of “Ida Ayu”. In Bali, people may
notice from the name whether they are male or female. Additionally, according to the Ministryof Religious Affairs (2017), Bali is one of many provinces in Indonesia with the largest Hindu
population (83.4%). In this province, the name represents the caste system. For instance,
females who are from the Brahmin caste use the name of Ida Ayu as their initial name. It canbe interpreted from the name that Dayu represents a girl student from Bali who identifies
herself as a Hindu. It can be seen from figure 7, number 4 that a girl who wears a headband
was praying in a Mandir / Pura / Candi (temple).
Figure 7
Daily activities (Textbook theme 5, p. 17)

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Lani: (third student from right, Figure 1) has the lightest skin among other characters, a roundface without a double eyelid, and a pink hair accessory. Lani represents a Chinese descendant.
From Figure 8, the top-right picture, it can be seen that she goes to church with her family. She
may represent Catholic or Christian.
Figure 8
Religious traditions (Textbook Theme 1, p. 14)

Siti: (second-right student, Figure 1) as it can be seen from the students’ appearance on the
Figure 1, Siti represents a Muslim girl who wears a hijab. From the religious artefact worn by
Siti and her mother, it can be interpreted that Siti is raised in a Muslim family (Figure 9) andidentifies herself as a Muslim.
Figure 9
Siti and her family (Textbook 3, p.3)

Edo: (the far right student, Figure 1) has darker skin and curly hair. Figure 10 reveals that Edo
tells his friend to go to church. It is not clear whether he wants to go to Christian Church or
Catholic Church. Thus, it is also unclear whether Edo is Christian or Catholic.

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Figure 10
Edo’s Conversation with his Friends (Textbook theme 1, p. 66)

Table 1 (below) summarizes the names and religious main characters presented in eachtextbook. When they serve as the main characters, it means that their daily narratives dominate
the textbooks.
Table 1
Summary of the Names and Religious Main Characters

Name of themain characters
Characters’
religious
backgroundTextbook
Theme 1Udin

Textbook
Theme 2Beni

Textbook
Theme 3
Siti

Textbook
Theme 4
Dayu

Textbook
Theme 5Beni

Textbook
Theme 6
Lani

Textbook
Theme 7
Siti

Textbook
Theme 8Udin

MuslimChristian/
Buddhist

MuslimHindu

Christian/
Buddhist

Christian/Catholic

MuslimMuslimWhere am I?
It can be seen from the table that there was an unequal representation of characters among eighttextbooks. There were 5 characters (Udin, Beni, Siti, Dayu, and Lani) presented in eighttextbooks. Udin was presented in textbook theme 1 and theme 8. Beni was presented in
textbook theme 2 and theme 5. Siti was presented in textbook theme 3 and 7. Dayu waspresented in textbook theme 4. Lani was presented in textbook theme 6. The characters of Meli
(Confucian) and Edo (Christian or Catholic) were missing or not presented as the main
characters in any textbooks. As there were only 5 characters (Udin, Beni, Siti, Dayu, and Lani)

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represented as main characters in the second-grade textbooks, there is woeful misrepresentationof religious diversity of Indonesia. According to the Ministry of Religious Affairs (2017), there
are six religions and other beliefs acknowledged by the Indonesian governments. Udin and Siti
are characters that represent Muslim, Dayu is a character that represents Hindu, and Beni is acharacter that may represent Christian or Buddhist. As such, the representation of Confucian
and other beliefs is absent. The seven characters should have represented the religious diversityof Indonesia. However, since there are eight textbooks, the authors have doubled therepresentation of three characters (Beni, Udin, and Siti) without providing obvious reasons ofdoubling the representation. For students, examining which characters are presented doubled,
allows them to engage in critical analysis of how certain religions have exercised power(Enciso & Davilla. n.d).
Indeed, the characters Muslim, Christian, Catholic, and Buddhism were presented as main
characters while the rest (Confucian) was presented as additional subordinate characters. Table
1 shows that Udin, Beni, Siti, Dayu, and Lani are the main characters presented in eachtextbook. For instance, Lani (Christian or Catholic) was presented as the main character in
textbook theme 6. Others were presented as Lani’s friends who accompanied her playing or
studying. From theme 6, Lani’s daily activities were presented more frequently than the
additional characters. This finding speaks to the issue of unequal power among religious
groups. Also, they should engage students in critical discussion about how certain religions
gain privilege when presented as the primary characters.
Lastly, the representation of Muslims dominates the eight textbooks. The table demonstrated
that there was a repetition of two Muslim characters (Udin and Siti) presented in textbooks as
the main characters. The character of Udin was repeated in textbooks theme 1 and theme 8.
Similarly, the Muslim character Siti was repeated in themes 3 and 7. As such, the Muslim
characters were presented four times in second grade textbooks. This particular finding
suggests that people who believe in the dominant religion are accorded more social power andprivilege (Van Djik, 1993) in social institutions including education, than those who practiceminority religions.
Discussions
The study’s finding suggests that in using textbooks, teachers need to pay more attention to thecharacters presented. Teachers may engage students in critical examinations of how semiotic
modes (such as images) are used to convey control and social position (Kress & Leeuwen,2010). Furthermore, since the characters are presented across school levels, teachers, educators,
authors, publishers and caregiver of students would do well to introduce critical thinking skills,
question stereotypical representations of minority groups, and challenge the knowledge intextbooks and other curricular materials (Chu, 2015). Critical thinking guides students tounderstand how their world is read through words, texts, and images (Freire, 1985). As Enciso
and Davilla (n.d.) argue, “Classrooms are social and political spaces where social narratives
and histories of knowing, being, and acting are integrated into ellipsis literature selection” (p.
16). Thus, students and teachers can gain understanding about the importance of curricularmaterials, as school is a place to not only reinforce social justice but also to plant and nurturethe seeds of social transformation (Sensoy, 2014).
As a native Indonesian scholar who believes in respecting all people and their belief systems
for the purposes of social justice, I have tried to show how minoritized religious groups are
missing from educational materials. When people acknowledge the importance of religious

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diversity, they honor all people’s lives and presence. Drawing on a bigger scale, I have foundthat hegemonic groups control the school curriculum in Indonesia. I have also demonstrated
that it is crucial for children to feel represented in the literature.
Suggestions
The present study examines the religious representation in Indonesian elementary textbooks bylooking at what knowledge about religious representations are constructed and whose
perspectives are valued in the process of scaffolding knowledge presented. Through thisanalysis, I hope Indonesian elementary students learn respect and tolerance in a meaningful
way so that they can value the diversity and richness of the narratives in Indonesian culture
from both dominant and minority groups. Textbooks, like Buku Siswa, contribute significantly
to students’ understanding of current phenomenon. Thus, there is a need to scrutinize andunpack learning materials used in schools globally as a way to challenge dominant narratives(Chu, 2018). Future research should also consider examining the learning materials from all
grade levels, especially when there is a continuum topic or characters presented. This includes
the analysis of race, gender, and other dimensions of differences.
Acknowledgement
I would like to extend my appreciation to the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education(LPDP) for supporting my doctoral study at the Ohio State University, U.S.A. I completed thisarticle during my study.
Note
There are multiple authors for the series of Indonesian elementary textbooks, Buku Siswa.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Buku Sekolah
Digital.com at https://bsd.pendidikan.id/bsd.html.

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Corresponding author: Maretha Dellarosa
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No Campus Life for Us:
Personal Reflections of First-Year Students at a Malaysian University
Ireena Nasiha Ibnu
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Wan Hartini Wan Zainodin
Universiti Teknologi MARA,Malaysia
Faizah Din
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

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Abstract
The purpose of this qualitative study was to look into the online learning experiences of firstyear communication and media students. The study was conducted by gathering 45 written
reflection papers from first-year undergraduate students covering their opinions, challenges,
and feelings about online learning. NVivo 12 was used to analyse the contents of thesereflection papers. The findings of this reflective narrative study offer valuable insights into how
first-year communication and media students perceive online learning classes in higher
education, the challenges of working with new virtual classmates, the adjustment and role asstudent and daughters at home, as well as their mental health and emotional feelings towards
online learning. Students learned vital lessons about time management, environmental
awareness and independence as a result of these experiences. Students experienced anxiety andwere demotivated as a result of the lack of face-to-face interaction and effective selfintroduction with new peers. Most importantly, they were dissatisfied because they had lostout on the experiences of living on campus during their first year of study. Furthermore, thisresearch looked into another component of the qualitative technique, which is a reflective
method to study the first-year students’ experiences with online learning in a Malaysian public
university, an insight that can be useful for both lecturers and students.
Keywords: COVID-19, higher education, learning adjustment, online learning experience,
qualitative research

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On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that Coronavirus disease2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic. According to WHO, the term pandemic can be understoodas the “global spread of a new disease”. The official declaration by WHO was a turning point
for most governments around the world to shut down some of their industries including the
education sectors. The COVID-19 crisis resulted in major disruption in the operation of schools
and universities, particularly those affecting students’ learning and assessments. The decision
was implemented as a preventive measure to combat the spread of the virus. In response to thispandemic, online learning has been the first alternative to embrace the new ways of learning.
Many universities around the world positioned online learning or E-Learning as a form of
distance learning or distance education based on the use of digital technologies to accesseducational materials via email, chat, audio and video conferencing; delivered over computer
networks to enable or facilitate the learning process (Nguyen, 2015; Aparicio et al., 2016).
According to Rodrigues et al., (2015), the main goal of e-learning is to provide interactive
learning and a supportive environment for students with personalized, learner-centred, open
and enjoyable learning processes. With online learning, physical attendance at a university or
school is no longer needed, but both educators and students must have a computer or
technological device to maintain the learning process. Besides, the technological device,technological competencies among students and teachers and internet connection are among
matters that needed to be emphasized when virtual classes were implemented (Almusharraf &Khahro, 2020). In Malaysia, the closure of universities and the emergence of online learning
during the pandemic created a new gap or digital divide between privileged andunderprivileged students. Privileged students here refer to those who have stable and better
access to an internet connection to pursue their online classes, while the underprivileged
students may refer to those who experienced a lack of internet access in their area ortechnological devices due to the poor family economic status.
Literature Review
During the first phase of the movement control order (MCO) in Malaysia, there was acontroversial issue about how online learning could be a great disruption to underprivileged
students like Veveonah Mosibin. In June 2020, Veveonah Mosibin, an 18-year-old, public
university student who lives in a remote part of the eastern state of Sabah shared her experienceon Youtube, as she had to sit for her examination on a tree to ensure a strong connection (TseYin Lee, 2020). The aspirational story of Veveonah’s experience went viral and has beenviewed hundreds of thousand times by netizens. This has reflected how internet connectivity
is a problem for many students living in some rural areas in Malaysia. Unlike those indeveloped countries, the education system in Malaysia is still adapting to this method oflearning (Bartley & Golek, 2004; El Said, 2021). During the early phase of the pandemic, mosthighly affected countries such as China, South Korea, Italy, and Iran have already adopted
online learning platforms to ensure the continuous learning process (Tam & El-Azar, 2020). It
involves many levels of education from pre-schools, primary schools, secondary schools tohigher education institutions.
As a result of this turn in events, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to much research on online
learning experiences which focus on the effectiveness and satisfaction of online learning,
online assessments as well as students’ perceptions and the challenges of those that range fromprimary schools to higher education institutions (Almusharraf & Khahro, 2020; Nguyen, 2015;
Valverde-Berrocoso et al., 2020). However, there is another interesting aspect of the online

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learning experiences which will be explored in this study, the experiences of first-year
undergraduate students.
Entering the university is one of the biggest life transitions for many school and college leavers.
Traditionally, new students or “freshies” will have the induction or orientation week tofamiliarize themselves with the campus activities, library, courses and surroundings (Collins& Dodsworth, 2011). The orientation week serves as a welcome week which is usuallyconducted a week before the semester starts. The activities during the orientation week are
crucial to assist new students in their transition or adjustment into campus life and which could
lead to a positive impact on academic performance (Georgina et al., 2014). At the same time,
students also have fun and get to know their course-mates who potentially will be their friends
who help them to settle in as university students.
There are limited studies focusing on these students’ online learning experiences during
COVID-19. The most recent work in this area centres around the Nursing Students’ Perceptions
and Experiences while studying during the global pandemic. The study used qualitative
inductive content analysis, and the data was collected using an online form. Findings from 33
reports of undergraduate students showed that as much as students are aware of their
responsibility to the community, they are also satisfied with and supported the faculty decision
on distance learning which includes the suspension of clinical activities (Lovrić et al., 2020).
In the same vein, a qualitative survey conducted by Hasan and Khan (2020) on online teachinglearning during COVID-19 pandemic has proven that students enjoy the flexibility of online
learning. The study also suggested that multiple media presentations and different activities
could improve the students’ interaction during online learning. However, like many studies,
this study also agreed that the most common barriers or disadvantages of online learning aretechnical problems, poor internet connectivity, the lack of interaction and deficits in educators’basic computer skills (El Said, 2021; Khalil et al., 2020; Nguyen, 2015; Zalat et al., 2021).
Another crucial aspect of the experience pointed out by many scholars is the emotional state ofstudents in an online learning environment such as stress, anger and embarrassment(Cleveland-Innes & Campbell, 2012; Faria et al., 2015; Zembylas, 2018; Brookfield, 2006;
Lehman, 2006). Furthermore, a recent study found that multiple assignments and long online
classes every day contributed to anxiety, insurmountable stress and health issues to the students(Sundarasen et al., 2020).
In the light of these findings, this research attempts to fill the gap by focusing on the perspective
and personal reflection of first-year undergraduate students toward online learning during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, this study aims to explore the first-year Communicationand Media students into online learning experiences which cover their opinions, challenges
and feelings during the pandemic situation. The outcome of this research has significant
implications for teaching and learning strategies and emotional support for first-year students
in higher education.
Methodology
This qualitative study employed narrative analysis as an approach to analyse the reflection
papers of the first-year media and communication students. According to Riesman (2008),
narrative analysis is used to understand how research participants construct stories andnarratives from their personal experiences. This approach involved a dual-layer of148

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interpretation that consists of firstly, the interpretation of participants own stories and secondly,
the researcher’s interpretation of the structure of participants’ narratives.
As elucidated by Loseke (2021), narratives can be derived from journals, letters, conversations,
autobiographies as well as transcripts. In this study data collection, forty-five undergraduate
students participated. First-year communication and media students were assigned to write an
open-ended reflection paper using the Google Classroom platform. They were asked toconstruct their reflections to include their opinions, problems and feelings towards the online
learning experience during the pandemic.
Before the students wrote their reflections, they were given three links to online news articles,
one from an international newspaper and two from local newspapers. The headlines of the news
were related to the online lessons’ issues experienced by students during a pandemic. Afterreading the news articles, students must reflect on their own experiences by writing theirreflections online and then submit the report on Google Classroom. The open-ended written
questions style of analysis directly influenced the depth of research and determined the
manifest approach.
Table 1The News Headlines from Selected Newspapers
New Straits Time
25 November 2020
The Guardian
3 April 2020
The Star
16 December 2020

Embracing online teaching during the
pandemic
Forget freshies’ week: universities prepare toteach new first-years online
Online lessons are challenging, say students
Capturing the Narrative Data

As postulated by Sharp et al., (2018) narrative analysis displays the complexities of humanexperience and reveals comprehension of how people make sense of their lives in the contexts
of social, cultural, and historical contexts. The narrative approach entails inquiry concernedwith human experience narratives or inquiry that yields data in narrative form. It is also
includes the compilation of narratives (stories) from persons or small groups (Butina, 2015).
It can be applied to any forms such as documents or written texts, and observations.
Furthermore, this form of analysis greatly adds to a better understanding of human perceptions
and experiences.
Figure 1
Process of Narrative Analysis

Dual

Narrative
approach

1) Participants2) Researchers

Narrative
Anaysis1) Categorizing2) Commenting
3) Look forpattern149

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Data was collected during mid-April, 2021 when all higher education institutions of Malaysia
had switched to online mode of teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers
found that this method allowed the participants to fully convey their internal narratives.
Therefore, the inductive methods of narrative analysis were chosen to keep the individual
narratives intact. The narratives were then split into smaller pieces and clustered by the themewith other participants statements and were coded by using NVivo 12 software.
Findings
There are three main themes in this narrative analysis. These main themes are 1) student’s
opinions about online learning classes, 2) the problems faced during online learning and 3)
their feelings towards online learning. Under the first theme, besides online learning, anothersub-theme that emerged, particularly the home surrounding opposite to the physical class.
Opinion on Online Learning Classes in Higher Education
The media and communication students in this study found that online learning provided
several benefits to both the students and lecturers. Students enjoy the online classes because it
makes them more efficient in managing their daily tasks and schedule. This new norm has
shaped them to be independent and disciplined, allowing them to enjoy self-paced learning.
Besides, without having physical attendance, online classes encouraged some students who
have low self-esteem to become more confident during the presentation and express theiropinion behind the camera.
In my opinion, I do like online learning due to many reasons and one form several
is such a way of teaching a student to be independent and discipline. With no one
around us physically, we tend to schedule our tasks more efficiently rather thanhaving a friend by our side to keep on reminding us of tasks to be done. – Nurul
In my opinion, online class far better suits my situation even though at first, I was
prepared for my things as I thought I am going to UITM. This is because online
class allows me to be more confident during the presentation, asking questions
and express my opinion rather than a physical class where I do not have selfassurance – Anis
Apart from the elaboration provided, students have other reasons as to why they enjoy online
classes, namely because it is cost-efficient, saves time and is environmentally friendly. For
Husna, as a student, online learning minimized her financial expenditure in many ways, suchas printing costs and buying hardcopy books. At the same time, this paperless effort had apositive impact on the environment. For Khairul, besides the reason above, attending the online
class also saves student’s time. He did not have to spend more time to get prepared for classes,
particularly in terms of travel time to the class. Instead, he could use the time to study before
the class, simultaneously without the worry of being late.
Other than giving benefits to the students and lecturer, the Earth also gets benefits
which we can save more trees! It is a really good thing for me as a student because
I can save up more money. We now have e-books, submitting everything throughonline platforms and the good thing is I do not have to spend money to print out
the assignment! – Husna

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I like how I do not have to wake up early every morning just to get prepared to go
to class. I think it did save me some time and I can use that time to brief the lecture
before the class start. – Khairul
Problems Faced During Online Learninga) Challenges of working with new virtual classmates. This theme focuses on the challenges
experienced by students during online learning. From the analysis, three sub-themes emerged.
Since this research focuses on the first-year degree students, it was found that many students
stated that working with new classmates is a challenging experience. This situation faced was
different from those who were in the second and third semesters, as the former have just entered
university life virtually. They did not know each other, as they are from different demographic
backgrounds. Thus, it is became difficult for them to work with each other as classmates,
without having proper ice-breaking sessions like the conventional semester.
The biggest challenge among all is making new friends through online learning.
I believe me and my classmates were strangers before and having the fact that wehave to be working together is a little difficult due to the reason that we don’tknow each other. – Maria
We just entered the university but did not have a chance to get to know each otherand suddenly during the first class, the lecturer just asks us to make a group for
assignment. So, we had to randomly ask people to be in the group based on thefirst impression that we got seeing their faces during an online class. – Suhana
Besides, the students also stated that the lack of physical interaction forced them to feel
uncomfortable with each other, particularly during a group discussion. The group discussion
session can be difficult because they experienced awkwardness, since they were strangers withthe others. Another reason is that some students fail to give full commitment as group members.
Another notable problem would be that it is very hard to be comfortable aroundclassmates or even groupmates because we lack the experience of seeing eachother face-to-face, the awkwardness is comparable to when talking to a stranger
online. – Danial
The problem that I got from online classes is when we got groupmates that does
not want to give cooperate in the group. Sometimes, when we want to do a group
discussion we need to wait for that person, or even sometimes they cannot join the
online classes so they might miss the lecture. – Azaliab) Internet connection problem. The second problem faced by most students during online
learning was internet connectivity. Previous studies have shown that many students faced
internet connection problems during online classes. The participants in this study are also not
exempted from this problem. Although this problem may be perceived as a common problem,
it is important to see how it impacts student’s emotions and motivation towards online learning.
Online classes can be draining and tiring as a student can’t get the idea of what
lecturers teach because of their internet disruption, environment or even thelecturers’ connection. Due to this, some of them have to study by themselves, butdoes what they understand based on their studies is the same as what theirlecturers taught them? - Adam151

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As someone who experienced and was affected by this implementation, I always
had hard times with my Internet connection which at times could be annoying as
I got kicked out all of a sudden from my online class on Google Meet because myInternet went down for a few minutes.- Farhan
However, there are also times where the internet connection is not tolerating fromthe other side. The lecturer had to end the class early and postpone it to next week.
– AliaFrom these findings, it was evident that it was not only the students who experienced internet
connection problems during the class, but the lecturers who teach the subject were similarly
affected. Thus, the former had to be prepared to expect the consequences that they might facesuch as unexpected interruptions to the online class. Consequently, they had to be ready to
study the subject independently, in case they missed the class or if the class had to be
postponed. These situations created a challenge for the students’ learning outcome since they
did not have a smooth learning experience nor full input about the course from the lecturer. As
a result, students experienced mental exhaustion and tiredness due to the internet disruption.
c) Role of gender. Another interesting sub-theme that emerged from this study is the role ofgender. From the analysis, it was found that many female students related their struggles with
online learning in terms of their role as a daughter or a sister at home. For instance, female
students confessed that they had to juggle the role of a student and a daughter. These students
have to compromise their daily routine and duty at home by helping their parents with housechores. At the same time, they were also expected to attend and invest their time in the online
classes.
I also face a problem with my surroundings, carrying responsibility as a daughter
and a sister. As time passed, I tried to adapt to the situation, which is hard for me
to accept. – Husna
Online classes become more issue when you have to be a daughter and a student
at the same time. We could not resist if our mom is calling us for help they need,right? This will make some of the students lose their focus and being left behindon their studies. – Amira
The other problem is the chores. I have a feeling that the girls might relate to thisa lot, as our chores are doubled. This is because online learning is done at home,
so we need to get the assignments given by the lectures done as well as the housechores. Some parents might be understanding, but some are not. – Eva
I have many responsibilities at home, such as cooking meals, cleaning up after
them, doing housework, and so on. The environment at home is different from theclass university. – Izzah
This study found that the female students needed to adapt themselves at home as a student andas a daughter. Having these roles at the same time could be challenging since they needed tobalance their responsibilities when studying online from home. It is challenging for them tofocus during class or even to do the assignments, since they have to help their parents with thehouse chores. For Izzah, this situation will be different if she is living on the campus and forsome students like Eva, Husna and Amira, this situation is unavoidable, since not all parents152

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understand what the students feel, such as losing their focus and completing the task given by
the lecturers on time.
Feelings Towards Online Learning
The final theme that emerged was the discovery of the students’ feelings towards online
learning. After several weeks of online learning, the findings seemed to suggest that students
relayed negative feelings such as being demotivated and sad.
a) Demotivated. Many students in this study considered online learning as a new experience.
Thus, this required them to adjust themselves since they had no experience in online learning.
At the same time, they needed to adapt to the new routine, friends, lecturers and theenvironment. The pandemic affected their mental and physical health.
Online classes have affected me personally because, during this time, I found myself
get easily distracted and less focused. It was because I had no energy andmotivation to study. After all, this is new for me. I felt lost without a routine schedule– FarhanNo doubt, sometimes I feel stress and despair. Online learning makes me feel lostin learning, give up and so on probably because I couldn’t communicate directlyor face to face like before – Nurul
The online class gave students mixed feelings. Personally, feeling easily
demotivated is the main feeling I have as this pandemic affects me mentally andphysically. – Adam
The above findings indicate that students easily feel demotivated to study because they were
not able to cope with the new ways of learning. They needed time to adapt to the new routine
and the environment. Moreover, a lack of face-to-face communication with lecturers andclassmates seemed to lead them to give up on online learning.
b) Sad. Besides feeling demotivated, these students also expressed their feelings of being
unhappy as they were not able to attend the university physically. As first-year undergraduate
students, they hoped to have a wonderful experience when entering university life.
I’m feeling a bit sad since I thought that I can finally feel like a university student
after so long staying at home. It feels really different since usually we need toregister our accommodation in college but we still at home and can’t get to know
our roommate and classmates. – Alia
This is quite sad for us because we as a student wants to enjoy our study life in
the campus and have a face-to-face lecture. We also want to go and have fun with
our fun because university life, is the only time we have when we are studying
together because once we enter our work life, it will definitely be different. Thereis no campus life for us. – Anis
My feeling with this situation is not very happy because I cannot catch up more
about what I learn. This is because most people need a friend for studies and when
we were at home, we must study all alone. I just hope that next semester, I get to153

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attend class physically. I don’t wanna waste my degree’s years by sitting in myroom and not knowing my classmates and lecturers properly. – Suhana
Essentially many of these students feel sad for a range of reasons. Firstly, being freshies, theyfailed to have the opportunity to experience the physical registration and induction on campus.
Secondly, they feel sad as they are unable to get to know their classmates face-to-face, hence,
they missed the diverse activities and learning experiences of being physically on campus.
Discussion
This paper presents the reflections of online learning experiences of the first-year Media andCommunication students during the COVID-19 pandemic. What makes this paper interestingis that it represents the voices of the first batch of first-year undergraduate students whose
university adjustments and learning experiences have been affected due to COVID-19
pandemic. The focus of this group of students has received less attention from many scholars.
Based on the findings above, it has been discovered that many reasons shaped these students
experiences towards online learning. While many western countries have been practising
online learning for the past few decades, Malaysia still has a long way to go. Other countries
reported to have invested substantially in e-learning include the United States, the United
Kingdom, Côte d’Ivoire, South Korea, China, and India (Dos Santos, 2019). To ensure that thelearning process is not disrupted, open and distance learning or e-learning is implemented as
an immediate solution.
In working out the opinion of these students on this issue, the findings of this study show that
although most of the students stated that they were a bit upset about not being able to enter theuniversity physically for their first year of study; they still enjoyed the benefits of the online
classes. For some students, online learning is cost-effective, saves time and is environmentallyfriendly. It is cost-effective because they do not have to spend money to print their assignmentsor reports which have been a custom for many years. Students only needed to submit their tasks
online according to the deadline and an online platform such as Google classroom as instructedby the lecturers. By having online classes and going completely to a paperless environment,
the students and the university contributed to the sustainable development goals (SDG) 12
which is ‘to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.’ This is important as itsupports that online learning can be associated with environmentally-friendly andsustainability (Md Harizan, Hilmi, & Atan, 2016; 2017; 2019).
Besides, the students in this study also stated that the online learning environment has
encouraged them to be more disciplined and to work independently when completing theirtasks and assignments with minimal supervision from the lecturers or instructors. Due to theirflexibility, independence, and adaptation to ever-changing demands; it is expected that thesetalents from online learning would prepare them for the labour market, to be more creative inwriting, and help them achieve good academic achievements (Nielsen, 2012; Mohammed
Omer Alamin, 2018; Al & Liu, 2020).
Despite experiencing the benefits of online learning, the students also emphasized how thephysical surroundings could affect their online learning adjustments. Learning from home canbe a blessing for students who have a comfortable and supportive environment. However, it
can also be a calamity for those may be experiencing other disadvantages. Our findings showthat some students suffered from these conditions such as noisy environments, houserenovation and no designated space for studying, all of which left them less focused during the154

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class. Loh Sau Cheong, an expert in Educational Psychology pointed out that a conducive
environment is perceived as important for students for learning as it affects students’ academic
performance. In contrast, it may lead to negative behaviour, low motivation to learn and a lackof interest in learning (Lee Chonghui, 2020).
The second main theme in this study explores the challenges faced by students during online
learning. It is of interest to know what the challenges are that they face to be a university freshie
during this COVID-19 pandemic. Under this theme, the specific focus was on their experience
as a first-year undergraduate student. From the reflection papers, students were found toconfess the challenges they faced when working with new virtual classmates. It is believed that
this finding is crucial considering the situation as a freshie in higher education.
The ice-breakers session in a traditional on-campus setting is helpful as it involves face-to-faceinteraction, breaks down social barriers and creates a beneficial environment (McGrath et al.,2014). Unfortunately, this situation was not the experience of the students in this study. The
challenges faced by these students in this research were different compared to students in manyother studies. It is because they did not undergo common ice breakers during induction or
freshie week. These students had to start their friendships online which left them feelingawkward and uneasy toward one another. This new approach left them feeling uncomfortableworking together as a group. Besides, it seems that the limited experience from the university
and lecturers in handling the session may also affect these students’ online learning
adjustments.
Just like other research, the main findings of this study also pointed out that the internet
connection problem affected these students’ online learning experiences (Teoh, Lin & Belaja,
2014; Almusharraf, 2020; Al & Liu, 2020). In this study, students confessed that internet
disruption left them emotionally exhausted, and the situation became worse when the lecturer
who taught the class was facing the same problem. Finally, another interesting theme thatappeared in this study was gender which was a challenging factor in online learning. From thecontent analysis, several female students found that their role at home was a distraction to their
online learning adjustment. At home, these female students have to commit themselves asdaughters by doing the household chores as expected by their family. At the same time, theyalso hoped that their parents, particularly mothers, may understand the former’s role as a
student may require them to complete their assignments and tasks given by the lecturers.
In the final theme of this study, understanding the feelings or emotions of the students, seemed
to emerge. The findings demonstrated that students felt demotivated and sad having to be
involved in online learning. This was mainly related to their current status as first-year students.
For them, entering university was one of the important events in their life transition. Thus,
there were many expectations when discussing going to the university. Many of them felt sadbecause this pandemic deprived them of their university memories such as excitement and fun
experiences when meeting new friends, registering for the course and being in new
accommodation.
Another reason that they felt demotivated towards online learning was that they lose the funpart of getting to know their classmates. They also needed time to adjust to the different waysof learning, as opposed to their traditional way of learning. Moreover, as first-year students,
they also needed full support, supervision and guidance from lecturers and senior students,
which could be difficult to do with the online learning environment. Thus, sudden transition

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and adoption of the online learning adjustment has impacted students’ negative emotions andmotivation (Al-Kumaim et al., 2021).
Conclusion
To summarize, this paper argued that online learning provides complex experiences to thecommunication and media first-year undergraduate students’ adjustment. They reflected thatonline learning fashioned them with positive characteristics such as independence, selfdisciplined and sustainable behaviours. For some introverted students, the online learning
environment was like a blessing in disguise, as it enabled them to ask questions during class,hence, it boosted their confidence in presentation. Meanwhile, the drawback of online learning
experiences obtained from these reflection papers study is that, not all students are privileged
with a good internet connection and a proper study environment at home. Besides, the female
students in this research also faced a dilemma to perform their duties, between being obliging
daughters and diligent students when they study from home.
It is hoped that the negative feelings and challenges experienced by these students in this study
will help the university and educators to improvise the effectiveness of online learning andvirtual friendship-making. This is crucial in order that students could feel more comfortableand excited to get to know their new classmates. Proper planning by the university requires afocus on students’ educational achievement, while remaining flexible according to the crisisand situations (Bynander & Nohrstedt, 2020; Carver, 2020; Lemoine & Richardson, 2020). In
this case, it was crucial for their learning adjustments and educational achievements since thesestudents will work in the group throughout their undergraduate years. Universities should takethis issue seriously since it is predicted that after the pandemic, learning may be disrupted foranother six months to five years (Dennis, 2020).

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Corresponding author: Wan Hartini Wan Zainodin
Email: wanhartini@uitm.edu.my

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Teacher’s Working Condition and Hybrid Teaching Environment – A Narrative
Case Study
Neha Anand
University of Houston, USA
Abbey Bachmann
Texas A & M University, USA

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Abstract
Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the entire system of education around the world
is living each day under rapid experimentation to grapple with unforeseen challenges. The
event of the COVID-19 pandemic has not only impacted a student’s track of learning but also
disrupted the everyday functioning of schools. In the case of the United States, since thebeginning of March 2020, when schools were pushed into remote learning options, mostteachers had minimal training and resources to teach online. Teachers faced technologicalchallenges and suffered a severe lack of pedagogical knowledge to engage students in an online
platform. The overnight switch of face-to-face to remote teaching has added to existing teacher
workloads, including accommodating student learning and engagement on the virtual platform.
The narrative study considers the experiences of Ally, a veteran teacher, who experienced
doubts about her sense of confidence as a teacher with the overnight change of instructional
formats. Qualitative analysis was conducted from two interviews, 12 written reflections, andobservation notes. Following a review of relevant literature, we report the narrative account of
this teacher’s lived experiences. Next, we present suggestions and implications for researchand practice while addressing the following research question: What were the lived experiencesof a veteran teacher while pursuing a hybrid teaching instruction format, in both the traditionaland online delivery format?
Keywords: Pandemic, hybrid teaching, narrative case study, teacher’s working conditions

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Since the onset of COVID-19 pandemic the entire system of education around the world isliving each day under rapid experimentation in order to grapple with unforeseen challenges.
The event of the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted not only a student’s track of learning but
also disrupted the everyday functioning of schools (Darling-Hammond & Hyler, 2020;
Solórzano, 2020). In the case of the U.S. since the beginning of March 2020, when schools
were pushed to remote learning options, most teachers had minimal training and resources toteach online. Teachers not only faced technological challenges but also suffered a severe lackof pedagogical knowledge to engage students in an online platform. The overnight switch fromface-to-face to remote teaching has added to existing teacher workloads, including
accommodating student learning and engagement on the virtual platform. Kraft et al. (2020)
suggested, “this sudden and total change in how teachers delivered instruction, combined withthe health threats and economic consequences of the pandemic, created a uniquely stressful
and demanding context for teachers’ work “(p.9). With teachers’ having to deal with new setof challenges, the rate of teacher attrition continues to soar throughout the nation (Coffin &Meghjani, 2020; Kraft et al., 2020; Kuhfeld et al., 2020).
According to the Economic Policy Institute (2020), more K–12 public education jobs were lost
this past April than during the Great Recession (Darling-Hammond & Hyler; 2020, Leachman
2019; Johnson et al., 2020). By the summer of 2020, several states faced massive budget cuts
for schools resulting in colossal resignations and retirements adding to plethora of pre-existing
challenges of the system itself (Bailey and Schurz 2020; Darling-Hammond & Hyler, 2020;
Page 2020; Will 2020). The Center for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention has
recommended that even now when school buildings reopen, all staff wear masks, andclassroom desks be spaced six feet apart, facing in the same direction—a far cry from thecollaborative classrooms that are often seen in schools. Hands-on instruction is also
discouraged with desks separated at an appropriate distance and all facing in one direction(Taylor, 2021).
In the past, researchers have shed some light on how pandemic has impacted (a) teacher
preparation (Choate et al. 2021, Delamarter & Ewart, 2020; Slay et al., 2020); (b) academic
achievement of students (Kuhfeld et al., 2020); (c) experiences of faculty and administrators(Hamilton et al., 2020; Hodges et al., 2020; Kim, 2020; Johnson et al., 2020; Rapanta et al.,2020); (d) teacher well-being (Allen et al. 2020) and last but not least teachers’ experiences
about remote teaching (Kraft et al. 2020; Marek et al. 2021; Reich et al., 2020). However, forthis study, we examine and report the lived experiences of the working conditions of apracticing teacher during Fall 2020 when many schools adopted the hybrid teaching option.
Undergoing change has continued to impact teachers’ sense of success, student achievement
and increased teacher attrition (Kuhfeld et al., 2020). The narrative presented here describes
how Ally’s (pseudonym) journey of being a veteran, passionate teacher raised doubts on her
sense of confidence as a teacher with overnight change of instructional formats. The study
enfolds varied challenges that highlight a myriad of issues such as adopting hybrid technology,
student engagement and motivation, and self-efficacy. Following a review of relevant
literature, we report the narrative account of a teacher’s lived experiences. Next, we present
suggestions and implications for research and practice, while addressing the following researchquestion: What were the lived experiences of a veteran teacher while pursuing a hybrid
teaching instruction format? The data was collected primarily by two one and a half hour semistructured interviews: one in September when schools were beginning to experiment withhybrid teaching and one before the winter break of the same year. These interviews weremainly to capture Ally’s experiences and her narrative of hybrid teaching? The interviews wereguided by questions such as:

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“What did a hybrid classroom look like?”“What were your experiences and perceptions about hybrid teaching?”“How prepared were you to adapt your curriculum for a hybrid platform?”“What were the perceived struggles and challenges with hybrid teaching?”“What was the perceived level of student engagement and motivation in a hybrid
setting?”“What was the perceived level of support from school administration?”“How successful or stressful has your experience been around hybrid teaching?”“How the prevailing work conditions affect your desire to teach in the future?”Interviews were conducted utilizing a video conferencing tool and recorded on a local hard
drive for further transcription and analysis. The other sources of data used were Ally’s weekly
written reflections that were used to record Ally’s discussions with other teacher colleagues.
The third data source was researcher’s observation and field notes.
Literature Review
Despite rapidly changing educational policies, teachers in the United States continue to workin a structured and static schooling system. Often introducing a change in traditional classroom
setting is a challenging task and calls for crossing numerous hurdles. Such a routine has forcedteachers to continue to pursue the monotony of the daily tasks that ultimately focused on highstake testing. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic seeks for upending traditional school
approaches, forcing schools to adopt online instructions with minimal time and resources inhand. Schools having to grapple with numerous issues on top of the existing ones clearly
showcased how unprepared public-school systems are to face the challenge that comes withthe pandemic (Darling-Hammond & Hyler, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). The upcoming review
of literature is tied to relevance of school environment, leadership support, and a teacher’scharacteristics during the transition of mode of instructions and its impact on teacher’s senseof success.
Leadership Support
Leadership roles are the most crucial factor that impact teachers’ working conditions daily,
especially in urban schools (Hamilton et al., 2020). During the time of crucial changes such asa natural disaster or such, extensive support from schools is seen as a crucial indication ofteachers’ motivation (Kraft et al. 2020). Bryk et al. (2010) reported that school leadership is
critical during transitions to ensure the smooth functioning of the school. Inefficiency in a
principal’s role and responsibility in providing adequate support to teachers is a prime reason
why the teachers opt out of their career (Darling-Hammond, 1997; Ingersoll, 2002). It isevident from the past research, that if a school principal continuously works to provide a
healthy work environment, a teacher will stick to a school longer vis-à-vis when there is a lackof support from the top management (Boyd et al., 2011). Teachers expect to get extended
support from school leaders and administration, especially during the beginning years of theirprofession to acclimate to the school environment.
A principal has expertise to offer a variety of solutions that can provide extended support tothe teachers who lack the motivation to work in the profession. For instance, offering effective
mentoring and induction programs can act as an essential support mechanism for beginningteachers (Darling- Hammond & Hyler, 2020). This strategy can be beneficial to the teachers at
an urban school with concerns about working with English language learners (ELLs) andculturally and linguistically diverse student populations. A study conducted by Brown & Wynn

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(2009) highlighted that principals should provide support mechanisms to the teachers andencourage teacher participation in the decision-making process on substantive issues to model
leadership roles at large (Brown & Wynn, 2009). Similarly, Mizrav & Weber (2020) suggested,teacher’s input is relevant for student outcomes, if school leaders are not making use of suchcollaboration, it can have long term effect on a teacher’s practice. In other words, school leaders
should provide teachers with an equal opportunity to participate in the decision-making process
to voice their concerns and provide valuable feedback and suggestions (Brown & Wynn, 2009;
Chetty et al., 2020; Ingersoll, 2002). Recently, Viano et al., (2020) through their study,
suggested that consistent administration support acts as a crucial factor in a sustained teacher’s
career. Besides, from a policy perspective, a principal plays an essential role in reducing thefactors that contribute to teacher attrition. Beginning teachers look upon principals as rolemodels to provide direction and valid judgments while making critical classroom decisions.
Thus, when teachers feel supported from principals, teachers tend to have greater involvementin everyday activities. Such role models contribute to lower teacher migration and teacher
attrition of those schools.
Additionally, during the pandemic, teachers and other school staff have reported about
inadequate coping strategies to pursue persistent instruction in a remote setting (Hamilton etal., 2020; Kraft et al., 2020). Under the given circumstances, teachers, both new and existing,count on extensive support from the top management regarding resources being made available
for them to offer the best support to their students.
School Environment
A school environment comprises aspects such as working conditions, staff relations, student
behaviors, school facilities, job salary, safety issues, and so forth, that can contribute to teachers
leaving or continuing to stay in that school. Of these, relations with administrators, students,and other teachers play an essential role in a teacher’s everyday work (Ingersoll, 2001; Darling
Hammond, 1997). Cordial relations among staff and teachers can contribute to a healthy work
environment or lead to teachers leaving their profession. In their study, Johnson, Kraft andPapay (2012), analyzed the data from Massachusetts Teaching, Learning, and Leading(MassTeLLs) and concluded that a teacher’s satisfaction and academic achievement is related
to a school’s working environment. Teachers should be prepared for collaborative work notjust with their mentors but also with other teachers that help reduce workload stress.
Additionally, teachers tend to share and learn from each other massively, helping them draw
connections within different content areas (Smethem, 2007; Sass, Seal, and Martin, 2011).
With the pandemic being in effect, the collective school environment across the nation has
experienced disconnection and mental stressors. In no time, the school environment transferred
into collective chaos with schools looking for solutions to insurmountable problems. Taylor(2021) suggested that the nation’s 13,000 districts have largely come up with their own
standards without little support from the federal government. At the same time, school
authorities are worried about lack of teacher preparedness for the virtual environment andequally for their students’ ability to understand and access virtual learning tools. Kraft et al.
(2020) reported that essentially a teacher’s working conditions impact their sense of successwith students.
Teacher Characteristics
Teacher characteristics that relate to sustain to continued service in the profession encompass
several components such as teacher efficacy, teacher motivation, and teacher working
experience. Ingersoll (2001) argued that teachers of either younger age or older age happen to165

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leave the profession due to several reasons, for instance, childcare needs, higher stress levels,
job dissatisfaction, health concerns, and early retirements resulting in a U-shaped depressionof age as a characteristic (Ingersoll, 2001; Olsen & Anderson, 2007). Similarly, teacher
experience in a classroom speaks about his/her willingness to continue in the profession. The
teacher attrition rate is higher during the first five years in the profession. Novice teachers are
expected to leave the profession within the first three years due to job dissatisfaction, classroom
environment, and student behavior, whereas teachers who stick to the profession for at least
five years or more successfully learn to overcome these challenges due to the experience gained
over the years (Cochran-Smith, 2004; Smethen, 2007).
On the other hand, teacher efficacy can be understood as a teacher’s self-belief and selfawareness to impact student engagement and positively affect students’ achievement.
Bandura’s (1986), self-efficacy construct explains that individuals approach situations where
they feel competent to manage the situation successfully while avoiding situations where theylack preparedness. A teacher’s self-efficacy can be referred to as an internal construct that
affects a teacher’s motivation while working as a part of the education community Teacher
efficacies are believed to play a vital role in teacher behavior and student outcomes. For
instance, teachers with higher self-efficacy will adopt positive behaviors to promote student
engagement and a well-planned classroom management technique. Simultaneously teachers
having low self-efficacy will lack the motivation to produce positive student outcomes.
Additionally, they also tend to have more grievances and greater job dissatisfaction (Ingersoll,
2002; Perrachione et al., 2008; Mertler, 2016). In their review of literature, Tschannen-Moranet al., (1998), reported a strong relation between a teacher’s self-efficacy and student
achievement, and hence teachers are more resilient when posed with greater challenges.
These unprecedented times have even made experienced teachers question their ability tocreate a work-life balance. Teachers’ ability to motivate and build student confidence has madethem worried about their emotional and social well-being (Allen et al. 2020). Regardless ofteacher’s characteristics and teacher’s work experiences, they have pondered questions such as
Will we ever get to see the same students in person? How will hybrid learning affect theiracademic growth? What will the dropout rate look like? What about student engagement? Morethan anything, teachers have described remote learning as exhausting and mentally stressful
for students, parents, guardians, and themselves. Teachers are not only experiences
uncertainties in terms of curriculum planning but the economic fallout has result in a wave oflayoffs for teachers, staff, teachers’ aides, and instructional coaches (Mizrav & Weber, 2020)
Similarly, Education Week survey data has shown that teacher morale has continued to
decline over the past couple of months (Data: Students Are Getting Less Instruction Time
During Coronavirus, 2020).
Teacher’s Experiences and “Emergency Remote Teaching”
With widespread of Covid-19 in the U.S., the schools adopted to the mode of remote teachingwith no preparation time. Hodges et al. (2020) stated that there was a clear difference between
online teaching where courses are prepared well in advance by faculty who have expertise
adapting teaching online versus “emergency remote teaching” in the case of many publicschools and the pandemic. It called for most teachers to now adapt to a teaching strategy witha lack of curriculum materials and pedagogical training. In their nationwide study, Kraft et al.
(2020), reported that work life balance was a concern for 51% of mid-career, while 39% of
early-career teachers and 35% late-career teachers reported similar concerns. Veteran teachersreported a severe lack of preparedness to handling technology-based tools. “Teachers struggled
to find a balance between their professional and personal responsibilities. They scrambled to166

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master new technology. And …. remained disengaged in remote learning – due, in part, to theircontinued lack of access to technology” (Kraft et al., 2020, p.28). Educators for Excellence(2020) reported that only 51% of their students participated on remote instruction impacting
their sense of success and motivation. In other words, in their findings they recorded a large
drop in teachers’ sense of success, and they face enormous challenges during this time (Johnsonet.al. 2020; Mareck et al., 2021).
However, with transitioning from “emergency remote teaching” (Hodges et al., 2020) to
schools offering hybrid instruction with beginning of Fall 2020, little research is conducted on
yet another challenge of teachers having to adapt to a new instructional format. We build on
from the existing literature of teacher’s working conditions to capture the lived experiences ofa practicing teacher under a hybrid instruction format to explore on the effect on teacher’s
working conditions (Kraft et al., 2020).
MethodResearch Design and Data Collection
A narrative inquiry under the umbrella of qualitative research design was used to gather data
for this study. Narrative inquiry is a recommended tool that allows researchers to record lived
experiences. Connelly & Clandinin (1995) suggested that teacher narratives allow researchers
to examine their lived experiences. Utilising this method, synchronous Zoom interviews wererecorded with Ally (pseudonym). The first interview focused to understand her everyday
teaching experiences in a hybrid format. Ally shared her stories about how her workdays lookdifferent from previous years while the second interview was to gain additional data andsupport inquiry that was developed during data analysis. The second interview also captured
her experiences of now being in a hybrid setting over the period of four months. The secondsource of data was Ally’s written reflection about her experiences about her previous week atwork. The purpose of this data was capture Ally’s experiences in the story format, that could
inform her experiences over the coming weeks. Data was also supplemented through fieldnotes, and observation notes. (Crozier et al., 1994; Rushton, 2001).
Participant
Ally is a high school English teacher with ten years of teaching experience within the same
district. She is also a full-time doctoral student in Curriculum and Instruction at a University
in Southern Texas. At the time the pandemic occurred, she was in her third year in the PhD
program. The interviews took place at the start of her fourth year in the program and eleventh
year teaching public school. Ally was selected as a sample for this research study because ofher unique position as a full-time teacher and full-time PhD student. The intersectionality ofthese two identities allowed Ally to provide a unique story to add to the depth of researchpresented in this study.
For this study, the hybrid teaching approach that Ally references was one where she was asked
to teach face-to-face and via Zoom each class period every day. She was teaching from her
computer each day to ensure that students online could hear and receive quality instruction as
well.
Data Analysis
Data sources were analyzed using a comparative process. Each interview was transcribed andthen coded. Patterns were noted, and common themes were identified and highlighted basedon frequency and level of importance. Themes from the observation notes served to167

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substantiate the found themes and coding patterns in the interview transcription analysis. Data
sets were reviewed inductively, simultaneously, and repeatedly during the data collection phaseto analyze essential connections among factors of influence among the core categories. The
prominent themes emerging from the combined data analysis of interviews and observation
notes are sectioned into virtual learning, engagement, achievement, and support.
Findings and Discussion
The interviews combined with other data sources reflected that Ally faced a myriad ofchallenges regularly. Ally experienced additional pressure from both schools and parents,
especially when monitoring the growth and learning of individual students in the parallel
environment. Her workload has increased manifolds as she must adapt her instruction for a
hybrid platform, ensuring that no student falls behind. Additionally, such working conditions
had adverse effects on her mental and physical well-being. Regardless of a supportive school
environment, Ally stated that there has been no real change to a teacher’s work expectations.
The data consistently highlighted the challenges faced by the teachers and is categorized into
the following themes: virtual learning, engagement, achievement, and empathy and support.
Virtual Learning Environment
Both interviews and observation notes consistently reflected Ally’s experience with students
in an online platform. Thus, the data was analyzed to underscore her experiences that occurred
during the transition from emergency remote instruction to a hybrid teaching format. During
her interview Ally mentioned:
The training and professional development provided for teacher roles were
hurried, rushed, and focused exclusively on technical aspects of teaching online.
Few resources were shared to help in the classroom and when we were provided
with materials, they were often vague and unclear, so we were left with our own
interpretation. Most of the time, this meant not implementing t hem in theclassroom at all as we had so many other things on our plates. (Interviewee
Response, Session 1, September 2020)
Ally discussed the shortcomings of limited teacher and administration training before
the beginning of the classes for teachers, especially in the K-12 school setting. In her weekly
written reflection, she mentioned, “the teacher training topics included platforms fordeveloping asynchronous lesson plans and what those tools would look like. Increased number
of webinars were promptly made available to the teachers on the internet within teacher realms
during the semester. However, the implementation of planned resources for teachers was aconcern, including delayed availability of tools to develop effective online lesson plans andinstructions”.
The interview data and reflections made it evident that online learning can be a concern for theteachers and parents while addressing the needs of K-12 students. As a part of the hybrid
learning environment, related sub-themes emerged from the data sources categorized as: lackof training and experience, and lack of teacher autonomy. These sub-themes also impact thebroader themes of engagement and achievement, which will be discussed in their subsequent
sections.
Lack of training and experience regarding an online platform. Teachers in K-12 school
systems have had limited exposure to navigating online tools to develop effective lesson plans

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and curriculum that scaffolds student learning and success through the online platform(Solórzano, 2020). With the onset of the pandemic, the school systems across the country
started intensive planning to maneuver several challenges for the smooth functioning of theschool system and how it will look like for the parents, students, teachers, and administration.
While no one had the right answer and school leaders were still weighing in on the best options,teacher preparation and development took a sideline (Darling-Hammond & Hyler, 2020).
During her interview, Ally mentioned:
As the school year started, we learned that we would have limited or no teacher
subs available. This has severely impacted our class planning time. We also could
not take any days off because there were no subs available to cover our class. Eachday we had more questions than answers, and the tension quickly came to head.
Frustration with administration was the first sign, and although my campus has agreat administration; their hands were tied by the district. They, too, could only
do so much. Many of my colleagues have planned to leave their jobs just because
they feel unprepared for the new challenges. I was really shocked to see that mylong-time mentor decided to quit her job because she was not able to take any
more stress related to the new nature of work. She had planned to retire in the next
year or so, but this made her decision easier to retire early. Such a scenario has
challenged me to think if I would want to stay in the classroom for a long time: atfirst, I always thought I’d be okay staying in the classroom after earning my PhD
while looking for a full-time job in higher education; however, I’m actively
looking for jobs for next school year. I can’t do another year of this. (Interviewee
Response, Session 2, December 2020)
Several districts offered limited teacher training before the beginning of the school year whichleft a profound impact on not only their curriculum and instruction planning but switchinggears to full-fledged online instruction left several students confused with no motivation to
pursue their classes online at a full-time mode. During her encounter with her students during
online teaching, one of Ally’s students mentioned, “I am not sure how to upload this picturefrom my computer, can you please help me.” Confusing and chaotic situations were now morecommon to occur while teachers deliver content due to the hybrid class format. Such situations
create panic for teachers and students, primarily when they depend on their teachers the most.
Lack of teacher’s autonomy. While online learning technology may provide essential
resources for teachers to build and execute lesson plans to cover relevant curriculum, they onlyoffer a limited teacher autonomy. For instance, helping students in a real-time scenario can bea concern for teachers to keep students engaged and motivated (Solórzano, 2020). Additionally,other factors such as limited internet services and other forms of technology available to thestudents are beyond the teacher’s control (Kuhfled, 2020). Ally noted that “many teachers arewilling to take district scripted lessons this year when they would have never done so before.
There’s too much on our plates to be creative and engaging with our lessons this year.” (Written
reflection)
Engagement
Student engagement is another pressing concern that is consistently mentioned throughout
Ally’s interviews. The curriculum and instruction offered in the public-school system in the
United States have constantly pitched hands-on exposure and peer collaboration as a key forstudent success (Kim 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). However, an online platform limits teacher
to engage in more in-depth conversations with their students and offer limited peer

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collaboration (Choate et al., 2020). Ally expressed concern for school districts and teacher
preparation programs to provide extensive information about addressing student engagement
when teaching online. Even though a pandemic situation is known to have a temporary
existence, it has caused extensive harm to the students, especially to those who belong to urban
school districts. It has raised questions for a more extensive education community to address,
such as in what ways can education continue to address societal inequities? Is it ethical andrealistic to only hold teachers accountable for student success, especially when everyone is hit
equally hard by the pandemic? (Chetty et al., 2020; Darling-Hammond & Hyler,2020; Kraft etal., 2020)
Lack of training and experience. With the beginning of a new normal, teachers werechallenged to adapt their courses for online platforms as well as for face-to-face instruction.
Nevertheless, teachers were not provided with extensive training and support to address theconcern of student engagement. Ally mentioned:
Our district offered us limited training right before the school year began. These
pieces of training were superficial that left teachers to figure out several things forthemselves. Also, I had several concerns while preparing our work for online
students that no one had answers to. I had no person to look up to for support andguidance because no one had done this before, no one had the answers. This leftme struggling each day with students. I pride myself on being a great teacher witheffective and engaging lessons; however, I felt like a new teacher all over again.
It’s hard to feel good about what you do day to day when you know you can’t give
your best. This also greatly impacted my social-emotional well-being because I
love teaching, but now with each day of struggle I know that I can’t continue todo this next year. (Interview Response, December 2020).
When asked about the potential effects that this could have on teacher retention, Ally agreed
that trying to teach disengaged students is a large source of teacher frustration, potentiallyleading to teachers choosing to pursue other professional opportunities in the immediate future(Hamilton et al., 2020). Ally’s role as PhD student allowed her to empathize with the role ofstudents as well. She knew what it was like to be on the other end of virtual learning as a
student. Her observation notes included “It’s clear that being successful as an online student
isn’t for everyone. I know I can do it as a grad student because I’m 33 and self-motivated. I
can’t expect the same level of effort from 14-year-olds who don’t have a say in the matter.”(Observation Notes, 10-05-2020)
Lack of teacher’s autonomy. A teacher only has limited control over engaging her students
in a virtual platform while covering the course content. Online resources can be limited towatching videos, manipulating simulations, interactive read aloud or sharing steps withstudents to execute some hands-on projects. However, a teacher’s contribution to enhancing
the degree of student motivation and engagement may not come out as planned.
It is hard to remind students to keep their camera on while you are trying to teachthem. Even after repetitive warning some students do not turn on their cameras:
they either blame it on the technology or they probably aren’t even at their
computers. I can only do so much. I can’t reach through the screen and tap on theirdesk and monitor their level of focus as would when they are sitting in myclassroom. It’s the most discouraging feeling I’ve ever experienced as a teacher.
(Observation Notes, 11-02-2020).

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Achievement
The most significant advantage that Ally shared about virtual and hybrid learning wasincreasing student achievement when implemented in an organized fashion with students who
were engaged regularly. Ally mentioned the ability to differentiate instruction and build instudent choice was a key to helping students be successful during this time. “I think this could
allow for great differentiation and a way to increase student engagement.” The ability todifferentiate instruction was something that, when given students who are willing to learn,teachers could use to leverage the higher order thinking skills that they are hoping to implementwith their students. Ally indicated:
Self-motivation is a key for students, especially high school students. Some of mystudents who are in the online environment and engaged are the ones who keep
me going. Students need to be disciplined to pursue their work, and that’s a real
struggle for 9th graders. My students who are not passing are exclusively online
students. I have seen a constant decrease in my student’s level of participation justbecause I am trying to teach students in both environments at the same time, whichbecomes disengaging for students in either platform. There is also considerable
lack of submission of assignments from my students who are attending classes
virtually. As a teacher I understand that it is a very different experience for mystudents and they are still in the learning process, I always keep reminding themthat I am here to support them, but honestly, I am concerned about their learning
as well as their well-being. (Interviewee Response, December 2020)
In the given situation, student achievement had become a cause of concern primarily because
accessing schoolwork through an online platform requires strict discipline from a student’s end(Darling-Hammond, 2020; Kuhfeld, 2020).
“Lower-income kids, kids of color, kids with unique needs like those who have a disability orother challenges – the numbers look very, very bad,” said Robin Lake, the director of the Center
on Reinventing Public Education, a research and policy organization based at the Universityof Washington Bothell (as mentioned in 13,000 school districts, 13,000 Approaches to
Teaching During Covid by Taylor, K).
Lack of training and experience. Regardless of their teaching experience, most teachers are
finding it challenging to enhance student achievement on an online platform. Taylor (2021)
reported that in Houston, 42 percent of students received at least one F in the first grading
period in the fall, as compared to that 26 percent in the previous fall. Ally shared, “that limited
teacher training on the use of online technology for adapting curriculum for virtualenvironments had made their work challenging, and ultimately this affected students as well.
When there are technical issues, they are much more likely to check out of learning entirely.”(Written reflection)
Lack of teachers’ autonomy. With limited control to engage and motivate students online,
teachers are already experiencing the impact of limitation of virtual environment on student
achievement (Kuhfeld, 2020). Ally shared that many of her students who are struggling withgetting passing grades are online, and it is not possible to order these students to come back toschool even if it’s in their best interest. Ally stated:

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Often, as teachers, we are not aware what kind of guidance students need while
attempting their assignments at their own pace and cannot seek for clarifications
simultaneously as they are working at home. This just creates an unwanted gap intheir learning and understanding. My online students either end up figuring out
the work themselves or with the help of a parent or guardian as I had a sense thatthey were disengaged while classes were in session. To be honest, most of thetime they just didn’t do it at all. What can I do about that? (Interview Response,
December 2020).
Empathy and Support
Lack of teachers’ experiences and autonomy calls for empathy and support by the schoolleaders. While district superintendents and school principals are making constant efforts tokeep a safe and healthy school environment both for teachers and students, they can only
support teachers in a limited way when it comes to actual class planning and execution (Kraft
et al., 2020). Ally mentioned:
Teachers like me are unable to take off days to cope with the monotony of every
documentation and paperwork on top of teaching in a hybrid platform that alreadyrequires in-depth planning. I can see that the effect of pandemic is here to stay as
I feel a high level of resentment towards my district and those in charge. Schoolleaders should support teachers in improving the quality of the hybrid instructions
rather than holding them accountable for increased level of work and catering
exclusively to parent demands. (Interview Response, December 2020)
In the given scenario, one of the best strategies is to equip teachers by providing them tools forcontinued student learning and engagement instead of deviating them with meticulous
paperwork and report submissions. In her written reflection Ally wrote, “several students who
belong to low-income family groups already lack resources and, in such situations, schools
should prioritize the learning gap by making equal efforts to provide learning resources to theirstudents by contacting families to inquire about the support they are seeking at this time.” Also,at the same time, teacher education programs should continue to offer extended support to thepre-service and in-service teachers to share online resources that can improve their quality ofteaching, keeping in mind that schools need to address varied learning styles (Written
Reflection, October 2020). Ally mentioned that she didn’t feel like the PhD program was
helping her to prepare to return to a world of teaching online. “My classes haven’t changed
much. Professors have altered their instruction but have made no mention of how I shouldchange what I’m doing in the classroom.” (Written reflection)
Discussion
Ally’s narrative allows us to understand her lived experience as a practicing teacher who has
been in classroom for several years as well as her role and experience as PhD student. She
described how her each workday looked under a new setting. Even though she struggled eachday, she made it a point to talk to her friends and colleagues. She promised herself to be resilient
and be there for her students each day, despite having the thoughts of quitting her work. Her
experiences are powerful and did highlight that teaching under sudden change of mode can be
extremely challenging especially when we already have existing loads of issues. Based on ourcurrent state of education, there is an urgent need for teacher education programs to address
the issues that surfaced with sudden hit of pandemic. University faculty, educators, and school
personnel should offer coursework or professional development that should provide

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technological and pedagogical training for our teacher to operate under an alternative teachingenvironment such as hybrid or virtual learning. Creating a rigorous and engaging online
learning space can be mainly challenging if the teacher preparation programs do not offer
relevant and coursework for preparing teachers to engage students in virtual environments that
also attends to the different needs of learners.
While teachers are essentially preparing lessons for different platforms, the time allotted duringa 45-minute planning period is not enough for the teachers to accomplish the necessary tasks
to teach multiple formats successfully. Allowing teachers extra time, either through additional
planning time, or designated asynchronous learning days for all the students call allow teachers
to feel a small reprieve from the constant pressure of completing two jobs in the time that has
been allotted for completing one. Administrators and district support staff should be preparedand trained to handle the specific teacher issues and concerns that have arisen due the natureof teaching during a global pandemic (Will, 2020).
Additionally, ensuring that teacher concerns are taken seriously and addressed is crucial. Whentensions and anxiety levels are high for students, parents, and teachers alike, teachers must feela sense of support from their administration. Allen et al. (2020) reported, “head teachers
experienced particularly large increases in anxiety and reported that they were more likely toleave the profession because of the experience. Head teachers showed particularly pronounced
increases in anxiety” (p.4). When teachers are forced to reckon with parental concerns or
students refusing to follow safety protocols, administrative teams and individuals should be
willing and prepared to provide teachers with the support to ensure these protocols arefollowing and that teacher decisions are supported in parent conferences or phone calls. While
we all may have varied perspective and approaches to deal with the present situation, it isrecommended that teacher education programs, schools, and stakeholders at large should cometogether to ensure that teachers across the platform are thoroughly trained and educated tomaximize student learning and engagement (Solórzano, 2020).
Future research may be carried out to explore the impact of hybrid teaching on a teacher’s
sense of success and well-being that may incorporates inputs from several teachers. The
questions that arise from this study are, “What were student’s experiences with hybrid platform
especially when we are living in uncertain time?”; “How well prepared are the school districts
to offer hybrid learning options to address the health and safety of students and staff?”; “Whatare parents’ perceptions about continuing to hybrid learning options, especially when the healthand safety of their children is of paramount importance?”. Improving teacher confidence andquality is the key to providing our students with the best education especially in these desperate
time (Reich et al., 2020; Tucker & Stronge, 2005). Ally’s story was just one account thatsuggests us that even though pandemic has forced us out of our comfort zone, and many haveadapted well, the damage it has done will keep surfacing for several years to come.

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References
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affect teacher wellbeing. Centre for Education Policy and Equalising Opportunities(CEPEO) Working Paper, (20-15), 20–15.
Bailey, J. P., and J. Schurz. 2020. COVID-19 is creating a school personnel crisis.
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Education Week. 2020. Data: Students Are Getting Less Instruction Time During
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Reich, J., Buttimer, C. J., Coleman, D., Colwell, R. D., Faruqi, F., & Larke, L. R. (2020).
What's lost, what's left, what's next: Lessons learned from the lived experiences ofteachers during the 2020 novel coronavirus pandemic.
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Taylor, K. (2021, January 21). 13,000 School Districts, 13,000 Approaches to Teaching
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Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A. W., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning andmeasure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202–248.
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Viano, S., Pham, L. D., Henry, G. T., Kho, A., & Zimmer, R. (2020). What teachers want:
School factors predicting teachers’ decisions to work in low-performing schools.
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https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831220930199
Will, M. 2020. “Teachers at higher risk of COVID-19 wonder: Should I even go back?”
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Corresponding author: Neha Anand
Email: neha.a.ohrie@gmail.com

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Critical Perspective Analysis of Higher Education Studies in the Online Mode –Emerging Challenges and Solutions
Harshil Sathwara
G. H. Patel College of Engineering and Technology
Archie Joshi
Pandit Deendayal Energy University
Geetali Saha
G. H. Patel College of Engineering and Technology

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Abstract
Many academic institutions that had previously hesitated to modify their old pedagogicalmethod had to opt for completely online modules due to the COVID-19 global pandemic. This
paper provides insight into the perception of students of higher education concerning the online
mode of learning. Data was collected from 310 students pursuing different courses. A
questionnaire, divided into 7 sections was administered including: general information of
students, time management, understanding of course content, view of students on assignments
and submissions, ease and comfort of study, skill development and motivation, and course
satisfaction. The data was analyzed quantitative analysis. Results showed that 72.4% of
students do not prefer the online platform for learning and this view is contributed byparameters like net connectivity, time, overall development of the candidate and evaluation of
the course outcomes. Various parameters such as internet connectivity, parallel data users,
unwanted anxiety, extra time, comfort, understanding of the concepts, interaction, information
absorption and retainment, course evaluation and assignments, expense comparison, skill
development, lecture participation and extracurricular growth were mentioned. It is suggested
that an alternative to classroom learning must be used to maintain one's academic progress.
Keywords: academic crisis, higher education, Online learning, SARS-Cov-2, student’s
perception

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On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a Global Pandemic(COVID-19) (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). As a result, various lockdowns were introduced inIndia after 22nd March 2019 (Soni, 2021). As a result, education institutions were forced toremain closed until the situation was normalized. Therefore, it is no longer a question ofwhether online education can deliver excellent university learning and if universities canrapidly and efficiently include online study. Education in India is estimated to run into billionsof dollars, there are overall 39,913 colleges and 993 universities in India respectively in FY19,
having 37.4 million students enrolled in higher education (Education & Training Sector in
India: Education System, Growth & Market Size | IBEF, n.d.). Hence, students are one of themost valuable resources of India, and their education cannot be stopped because of the COVID19 pandemic. In contrast, overseas institutions like the Massachusetts Technology Institute(MIT), Harvard University and Yale University Students Free Yale Open Classes prefer a rangeof different platforms for online courses, including edX.org. According to the Indian Private
Equity and Venture Capital Association (IVCA) and PGA laboratory, Indian start-ups havemade a total investment of $2.22 billion in 2020 compared to $553 million in 2019 (Indian
Edtech Startups See Investment of $2.22 Bn in 2020, Shows Data | Business Standard News,n.d.). These online platforms have now become the new normal for most. Also, India is one of
the 8 countries leading in online providing education via online platforms (8 Countries Leading
the Way in Online Education - ICEF Monitor - Market Intelligence for International Student
Recruitment, n.d.). The online learning method has its challenges and strengths, but they keep
education going.
Literature Review
The Government of India also undertook other efforts, such as the National Open Educational
Resources Department (NROER), which exposes students to e-libraries, e-books, electronic
courses and statistical other online events. In addition, the Department of Human Resources
Development offers a DIKSHA portal, and an e-Pathshala website for students to accessnumerous study resources online. The SWAYAM Portal, a Government of India project
coordinated with AICTE, NCERT, IGNOU, UGC, NPTEL, NIOS, IIMB, NITTR and CEC,
delivers latest and high-quality content (Government Facilitates E-Learning Platforms forStudents amid COVID-19 Outbreak | Digital Learning Platforms, n.d.). This allows students
several preferences such as asynchronous and synchronous learning techniques (Malik et al.,2017). The analyses of data of 45 students from three schools in Shah Alam, Selangor
demonstrate that e-learning provides more flexibility to teacher-led and student-self-study
courses (Luaran et al., 2014). Experimental design has been performed to research the successof 10th-grade physics students in online and face-to-face (F2F) education. The study showsthat the success of students who have been taught F2F has been considered poor because thelearning process is confined to co-operation and resource sharing in classrooms, but online
education allows better interaction (Baig, 2011). Furthermore, research in higher educational
institutions illustrates how the methods of measurement and implementation used will affectonline curriculum performance and the advantages and constraints faced through e-learning(Xu, 2007). Also, research including 127 students enrolled in the Bilgi University eMBA
Master's degree, examined interactions between personality and academic accomplishments oflearners in a web-based world and web-based education attitudes with positive findings
revealing that behavioural characteristics reflect roughly 53.2% of academic achievement and
52.7% of web-based education attitudes (Bayram et al., 2008). The study revealed that theresults of online courses have increased positively for students who engaged in interactive
learning methods, and was structured to promote the development of the learner population.
(Benbunan-Fich & Hiltz, 2003). Another study established four broad e-learning categories:(1) the supply and delivery through electronic means of an educational, training and education

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curriculum; (2) communication-oriented - interactive resource and content learning requiring
interaction through online contact with the learner and the teacher; (3) technologically-based technical use of training and learning services technology; and (4) pedagogical - informationand communication technologies to assist students in developing their education (Albert
Sangra et al., 2012). Conversely, a study conducted on exploring how students enrolled in a
professional writing class in two web-based portions are rated relative to students enrolled in a
traditional class edition showed no substantial difference in student success (Mehlenbacher etal., 2000).
Methodology
Primary data was collected from 310 students with experience of online learning. A survey was
designed and divided into various sections. Section A comprised 8 questions with general
student knowledge, Section B comprised 6 time management questions, Section C contained 6questions to understand the substance of the course, Section D contained 6 tasks based andsubmission questions; Section E comprised 5 study-oriented questions; Section F comprised 6
skill growth and motivation-oriented questions, and Section G contained 5 questions based on
the satisfaction and conclusion of the course. The questionnaire was circulated via Google
forms and the responses were later analyzed. The period of analysis and questionnaire
formation was March 2021. The respondents were given information regarding the purpose of
the survey while collecting the data. Data mining is a new way of analyzing data, especiallyfor very large datasets. Data mining can also be done with the help of Microsoft Excel (Hewen,2008). Various aspects of statistics such as the measure of spread and measure of central
tendency were analyzed using Microsoft Excel (Divisi et al., 2017). Static indices applied to
the first four moments of the distribution summarize the most critical frequency distribution
features such as mean; variance; skewness; and Kurtosis which is sometimes used incorrectly
to represent "peakedness," which actually reflects deviations from the standard curve (Hopkins& Weeks, 1990). The mean is given as a central trend measure and the variance or standard
deviation as a variability measure in traditional study reporting. Hence, such quantitative
statistical analysis has been provided, apart from data representation as well as data analysis
and interpretation into the results section.

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Figure 1
Different Aspects of Online Learning and its Critical Evaluation

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Results and Discussion
Section A: General Information
Question 1: Please enter our University/College/Institute name.
Table 1
Details of the Number of Respondents from each University/College/Institute
University
Anand Agricultural University
Gujarat Technological University
Universiti Malaysia Perlis
Georgian College
Chittagong University
Pandit Deendayal Energy University
Erbil Polytechnic University
Ludwig Maximilian University
Gujarat University
University of Amsterdam
SRM University
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya
Visvesvaraya Technological University
Maharaja Sayajirao University (MSU)
Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya
Ternopil National Medical University
Vellore Institute of Technology
University of Tehran
Tribhuwan University
Charotar University of Science and Technology
Dharmsinh Desai University
Ahmedabad University
University of Copenhagen
Banda University of Agriculture and Technology
Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and
Sciences
Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya
University of York
University of Derby
University of Business and Economics
Rajasthan University
Kishinchand Chellaram College
American International University
National Institutes of Technology, Rourkela
Shahjalal University of Science & Technology
International Islamic University Chittagong
Marwadi University
Catholic University of the Sacred Heart
University of California
Total

182

Respondent
238
52
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Percentage
67.81
14.81
1.71
1.42
1.14
1.14
0.85
0.85
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
351

0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
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Question 2: Please select your country, dependency, or territory.
Table 2
Details of Respondent’s Nationality
Country
India
Bangladesh
Malaysia
CanadaIraq
Germany
Netherlands
Bhutan
Nepal
United Kingdom
Denmark
Iran
Italy
Philippines
Slovakia
UkraineAfghanistan
Total

Respondents Percentage
310
88.32
11
3.13
6
1.71
3
0.85
3
0.85
3
0.85
2
0.57
2
0.57
2
0.57
2
0.57
1
0.28
1
0.28
1
0.28
1
0.28
1
0.28
1
0.28
1
0.28
351
100

As per the survey, 88.32% of students were Indians and the rest 11.68% were international
students as shown in table 2.

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Question 3: Please share which degree are you pursuing at present?
Table 3
Details of Degree/Course Pursued by the Respondent
Education
DegreeEngineering
Bachelor of
Science
DiplomaEngineering
Arts
Masters of Science
Commerce
PhD
MedicalMaster of Arts
Total

Respondents

Percentage

190

54.13

101

28.77

22
12
10
7
4
3
2
351

6.27
3.42
2.85
1.99
1.14
0.85
0.57
100

Question 4: How do you attend the online sessions?
The study also highlights the way students engage in these online learning processes, whichplay a significant role in the experiences. A total of 74.9% of students accessed classes fromthe smartphone, 21.4% of students attended it from the laptop, 2.8% from tablet and only 0.9%of students accessed it from laptops. Mobile usage can increase distractions that can be avoidedusing tablets otherwise.
Question 5: Which app is used by your Institute to deliver contents/online sessions?
Table 4
Details of the App Used to Access the Content
App
Google Meet
Microsoft Teams
Zoom
Cisco Web-Ex
Impartus
Sky RoomBlackboard
Collaborate
Depends on theteacher
Total

Respondents
276
46
20
4
2
1
1

Percentage
78.63
13.11
5.70
1.14
0.57
0.28
0.28

1

0.28

351

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As per the survey, as shown in table 4, the most used platform for online learning is Google
Meet followed by MS Teams, Zoom, Cisco WebX and other mediums. Google Meet, a freeplatform is the choice of many. whereas Zoom, also being a free platform, was prey to privacy
invasion and other controversial matters, hence being avoided by many. MS Teams on the other
hand was closely followed by Google Meets for a secure experience.
Question 6: Are you aware of online platforms that already existed before this situation, like
Coursera, edX, Udemy, Swayam, and so forth?
While the COVID-19 pandemic has been the key driver for the increase of online learning, it
is crucial to analyze if online curriculum platforms existed before the pandemic, and/or how
COVID-19 has affected its popularity. An analysis of the survey results reveal that 42.2% of
students were not aware of these online educational programs before the pandemic, 33.9% ofthem were aware but they never enrolled in the courses provided, 17.7% were aware and haveactively participated in the online learning programs and 6.3% are gaining awareness anddeveloping interest to join the online learning courses. Hence, the rise in various online learning
platforms during the pandemic is evident.
Question 7: Do you feel you are having a smooth internet connection always?
Figure 2
Internet Connection GraphCount of response

60

56

51

50
40

40

39

36

30

49

29
23

20
10

2 8

3

5

6

7

8

1

4

9

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

20
10

10

0

Response
Response
Do you feel you are having a smooth internet connection always?

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Table 5Internet Connectivity Scenario
Do you feel you are having a smooth internet
connection always?
MeanStandard Error
MedianModeStandard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness

5.62
0.13
6.00
5.00
2.52
6.35
-0.76
-0.22

Figure 2 and Table 5 provide graphical and statistical analysis respectively of internet
connectivity of various respondents. India, with over 687 million internet users in January, isthe second biggest online market in the world, ranking only below China and the rate of internet
penetration was about 50% in 2020, despite the huge base of internet subscribers (Internet
Usage in India - Statistics & Facts | Statista, n.d.).
Question 8: Do you have more parallel data users on the same network? (Like siblings studying
from home or parents working from home)?
Analysis showed that around 59.3% of respondents have their data in sharing while theremaining 40.7% did not.
Section B: Time Management
Question 1: How long do your official online sessions last?
Analysis shows that sessions last for about 4-5 hours in 32.8% cases, 5-6 hours in 27.4% cases,
2-3 hours in 21.7% cases and 4-5 hours in 18.2% cases. The majority of the student workload
is text-based, and there is a lack of practical learning experience. It is said that the maximum
concentration ability of a student while learning is 45-50 minutes. Online classes being
continuous gives fewer breaks. Hence it is quite possible that your active learning pace will bedecreased and you will develop partial listening resulting in slipping out some importantdetails.

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Question 2: Does the online mode of study create unwanted stress?
Figure 3
Graph of Unwanted Stress Levels Observed in Students
8075Count of response

70
60
51

50
34

30
20
10

47

42

40

19

31

20

18

1

2

3

1

2

3

14

5

6

7

8

9

10

4
4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0

Response
Response

Does the online mode of study create unwanted stress?

Table 6
Information Regarding Stress
Does the online mode of study create unwanted stress?
Mean
Standard Error
MedianModeStandard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness

6.86
0.15
7.00
10.00
2.73
7.46
-0.64
-0.64

Figure 3 and Table 6, as shown, provide details about unwanted stress due to online learning.
COVID-19 may have several psychological effects on university students, which can convey
anxiety. This stress may have adverse effects on a student's academic and psychological wellbeing, maybe more than anxiety and tension, the rapid online transformation to remoteeducation has revealed much about higher education sector shortcomings and maybe a lot about
what needs to be changed in universities. If a student is anxious or frustrated, it affects theirmental acuity in class or while learning. Stress can lead to students dropping out of school or
avoiding classes.

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Question 3: Do you believe you have extra time now due to online studies?
The study found that about 54.7% of students agreed with the question which might beassociated with the time saved during commuting from campus to home, reduction in lecture
hours by the faculties, considering the pandemic situation and psychological stress while aremaining 45.3% omitted a response. It is suggested that there will be less time for recreational
activities. This can lead to the procrastination of studies and regular academic tasks. It is humannature and behaviour to withdraw for a certain period. It will take more effort and determination
to fill the gap of your lacking knowledge on the subject matter. If time management is handled,
it leads to more productive use of the hours in a day.
Question 4: In this additional time that you have been able to obtain, did you attend any extra
courses?
The study showed that about 70.4% of students did not attend any extra course, which might
be due to various psychological stresses and other household problems, whereas 29.6% of
students learnt new things apart from their regular studies. It is evident that recreation time also
leads to productivity by helping the brain function better. If apart from learning, online classes
have provided something better, then this has been linked to freedom and flexibility. Hence it
may happen that the time one thought one would have spent learning some extra course might
have gone into procrastination or distraction or mastering some hobby.
Question 5: Did this allow you to participate in any additional Webinars, Competitions,Learning Sessions, and so forth?
Results revealed that 65.8% of students participated in various webinars, competitions, learning
sessions, and so on. whereas the remaining 34.2% did not. Extracurricular events are optional
activities that stimulate physical or mental structures. The webinars, conferences and learning
sessions not only boost the motivational drive-in academic study but also helped students indeveloping a more professional attitude. The competition may students understand where theystand and how they can improvise their skill sets. Online classes are easily adaptable andaccessible.
Question 6: Do you believe that the online mode is far more comfortable than the offline
mode?
From the study, 76.9% of students reported that online is not more comfortable than the offlinemode of learning. This could be on account of poor ergonomics: students are not bound topractice positive ergonomics at home, as opposed to schools. One of the most common causes
for the recent increase in back pain or fibromyalgia are online courses in beds and sofas.
Additionally, online dependence on screens may cause eye-related problems too.
Whereas 23.1% of students found online learning to be more comfortable than offline due togeographic flexibility, the comfort of home, self-paced learning options, learning flexibility,
and so on. The environment provided for academics still may lack the feel of the learning
experience. Students may feel detached not only from the curriculum but from the institution
in general.

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Section C: Understanding of the Course Content
Figure 4
Graphical Analysis of Section C: Understanding of the Course Content

Table 7
Mathematical Analysis of Section C: Understanding of the Course Content
Question Mean Standard
Error
1
4.38
0.14
2
5.30
0.14
3
5.10
0.14
4
5.47
0.15
5
7.44
0.12

Median

Mode

4.00
5.00
5.00
6.00
8.00

1.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
10.00

Standard
deviation
2.71
2.69
2.70
2.78
2.32

Sample Kurtosis
variance
7.33
-0.85
7.24
-0.96
7.29
-0.97
7.75
-1.02
5.37
0.09

Skewness
0.36
0.06
0.05
-0.07
-0.84

Question 1: Are you able to understand the mathematical derivations or concept via an online
platform?
Figure 4 and table 7 gives graphical and mathematical explanations respectively on students'
understanding of various concepts and mathematical proofs via the online platform of learning.
This suggests that this is the maximum that students are unable to understand mathematicalderivations or concepts. This is because of the lack of writing practice. Studies show thatstudents are directly wired to enhanced performance and good grades via practice (Beesley,
Andrea D., Ed.; Apthorp, Helen S., 2010). It reflects the encoding properties of visual-motor
information as repeated writing has enhanced the free recall of the text (Arbuthnott, 2005).

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Question 2: In case of a doubt that you may have, are you able to clarify the same using theonline mode of teaching?
Figure 4 and Table 7 provides data on the participation of students in the teaching-learning
process. The study indicates that a particular community dominates the online dialogue and somanipulates newcomers (Piccoli et al., 2001).
Question 3: Are teachers able to deliver the contents as effectively as in the offline mode?
Figure 4 and Table 7 provide graphical and mathematical analysis respectively of theeffectiveness of content delivery by teachers in the online mode as compared with the offline
mode. Teachers are expected to enhance the learning process of reluctant students and engage
them using motivational skills. There may be achievement gaps in students’ academic records
and hence constructive criticism can be provided in case the curriculum is poorly delivered.
Question 4: Are you able to absorb and retain the same amount of information as before or are
you distracted by other online options like news, chats, games, and so forth?
Figure 4 and Table 7 provides graphical and mathematical analysis respectively regarding
information absorbed or retained by students. Studying the focus habits and learnings of online
learners using eye motion technologies have been carried out for an observational review of
online learning processes (Mu et al., 2019). In face-to-face environments, professors usuallydepend on their concentration to perceive and react openly to student behaviours whereas
teachers can only view the head and shoulders of a pupil in an online environment, which
restricts available detail. However, students may be distracted from online studies and tend toopen the notifications popping up in their devices, usually from social media.
Question 5: Do you require extra/additional video, presentation slides, support materials apartfrom what is distributed by your subject teacher for sufficient understanding of the content
delivered?
Figure 4 and Table 7 provides graphical and mathematical analysis respectively on the needfor extra sources to understand the topic properly.
Question 6: Does the lack of face-to-face interaction create a roadblock in the online learningmode?
The study reveals how students perceived interaction with their faculties. Around 75.5% of
students faced difficulty and considered this as a roadblock whereas the remaining 24.5% of
students did not face any difficulty. Interaction enabled people to exchange ideas, gain input
and assess success more easily. Timely input and contact with the teacher can help students
feel appreciated and provide the knowledge they need more quickly. Lack of immediate
responses to the questions was also found to be a problem in online learning.
Section D: Assignments and Submissions
Question 1: Does the online mode of teaching create ease with completing assignments?

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Figure 5
Graphical Analysis of Section D: Assignments and Submissions

Table 8Mathematical Analysis of Section D: Assignments and Submissions
Question Mean Standard
Error
1
5.72
0.16
2
3.56
0.15
3
5.39
0.13
4
6.33
0.14
5
6.06
0.15
6
6.81
0.14

Median

Mode

6.00
3.00
6.00
7.00
6.00
7.00

1.00
1.00
5.00
10.00
6.00
10.00

Standard
deviation
2.95
2.73
2.53
2.70
2.78
2.66

Samplevariance
8.71
7.48
6.39
7.29
7.73
7.10

Kurtosis

Skewness

-1.15
-0.32
-0.79
-0.67
-0.90
-0.55

-0.21
0.89
-0.10
-0.43
-0.31
-0.55

Figure 5 and Table 8 gives graphical and mathematical analysis respectively on ease of solving
assignments. There are mixed opinions from the student’s side. The reason for the negative
response might be due to a rise in the count of assignments in the online mode as compared tothe offline mode by the teachers. Hence increased assignments result in writing, and solving
more challenges that require more researching of things. On a positive note, students found it
satisfactory to complete assignments, as this made them learn concepts more deeply and regularassessment made them pick up and improve their mistakes.
Question 2: Do you equally enjoy the quality time that you shared with your peers while
making notes in the online mode just like the offline mode?
Figure 5 and Table 8 provide graphical and mathematical analysis respectively, which reveals
that students lacked or did not enjoy quality time during the online mode of study. Students
must use technology to help these peer-related relationships and social presence to learn

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effectively. Education researchers have argued that social participation is essential to facilitate
the development of a common educational atmosphere.
Question 3: How easily are you able to address tasks like drawing diagrams, inserting tables
or texts or statistical representations while completing online assignments?
Figure 5 and Table 8 gives graphical and mathematical analysis respectively, giving
information about the ease with which students can address tasks like making diagrams,
inserting tables or texts or statistical representations while making online assignments.
Question 4: Most of the online submissions are linked to notifications and updates. How often
do you depend on this kind of tool to provide reminders for completing your tasks on time?
Figure 5 and Table 8 provides graphical and mathematical analysis respectively about student’s
dependency on various reminding apps or software or app notification for completing theirtasks.
Question 5: Do you believe that online assignments provide you with the challenge of pursuing
some new concept or is it a passive activity?
Figure 5 and Table 8 gives graphical and mathematical analysis respectively which shows theactual effectiveness of assignments in their studies. Analysis shows how students feel about
assignments provided to them i.e. whether they are helping them build up concepts and provide
a challenge to them to learn new things or is it just copying tasks from the internet. Students
appear to copy material from available sources, leading to a decrease in their creativity. The
assignments, when provided in form of application-based questions, require greater higherorder thinking. When a given assignment challenges a student, they appear interested andmotivated to pursue these on their own. This can help in exploring the new direction inacademic study and provide a sense of achievement.
Question 6: Does the final course evaluation depend on the mode of communication- Online
or Offline?
Figure 5 and Table 8 gives graphical and mathematical analysis respectively giving information
about the final course analysis.
Section E: Ease and Comfort of Study
Question 1: Do you have the option to access your session contents at your convenience?
The study reveals that 53.9% did not have access to session content later on. Students fail toutilize the technology in general cases and when they do not, the aptness of technology to gain
access is overpowered by the non-fulfilment of the purpose for which it was originallydesigned, whereas 40.7% of students had access to the content as per the convenience. Online
videos provide easy access to the content of the courses in support of the online distribution
system and are flexible to check content multiple times as required.
Question 2: Do you believe that the course contents delivered via online mode are far moreorganized and streamlined as compared to the offline mode of teaching?

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The study considered whether student’s perceived that course content delivery was moreorganized and streamlined in the online platform, as compared to offline. A total of 67.5% of
students did not find that online learning was the more organized form for content delivery
since the connectivity may be lacking, the students and faculty were not in proper contact,
unable to get the proper link to join the session whereas the others (32.5%) found online to bebetter in these terms, who might be those who were able to access and join the content or
session properly or would may have received the session joining information in a better way.
Question 3: Do you believe that online courses are more expensive in terms of money, energy
and effort as compared to offline courses?
A total of 51.3% found online platforms a better choice comparatively since money could besaved by avoiding transportation facilities, and rental facilities. The remaining 48.7% foundoffline platforms better as they felt more money was required to be invested to attend online
sessions as fast internet connections are required to access them.
Question 4: In case you get a chance to decide which mode is to be used for further
communication, would you opt for an online mode of study?
This aspect shows the choice of students to prefer a further learning process after the pandemic
passes with 72.4% of students preferring to avoid the online platform and 27.6% wishing tocontinue.
Question 5: Do you believe that the online mode of study has brought about a paradigm shift
in the way people visualize the effectiveness of online tools in delivering content?
The sudden transformation from traditional learning to virtual learning has dramatically altered
the student approach. A total of 64.1% agreed with the statement whereas the remaining 35.9%
disagreed.
Section F: Skill Development and Motivation
Question 1: Do you support the fact that online learning has enhanced your computer andInternet-related skills to a large level?
This question considers whether students were able to develop computer and internet related
skills due to this shift of learning platform. A total of 71.5% of students agreed and were able
to develop their skills whereas the remaining 28.5% did not. Online learning is vital for theexperience and comprehension of a student in the world of the internet. Individuals experiences
and advanced technical capabilities lead to the development of reasoning skills. It further
consists of patterns of intellectual thought process which are important factors in the progressof students in an informatics world.
Question 2: Do you agree that online learning has led to a drastic reduction in the developmentof interpersonal skills amongst individuals?
This question provides information about student opinions on the reduction in the developmentof interpersonal skills due to participation in the online mode of learning. In the context of this,
74.9% agreed that they were not able to effectively develop interpersonal skills. Reduced
physical activities, community collaborations and organizational skills caused social isolation.

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Whereas 25.1% disagreed with this which might be due to the student’s involvement in various
extracurricular activities including online competitions, MOOC courses, webinars, and so on.
Question 3: Do you believe skipping sessions is more prevalent in the online modecomparatively?
This question provides comparative data on how many students skipped sessions in the online
mode. A total of 66.7% opted to skip the sessions whereas 33.3% did not skip them. The reason
behind skipping could be barriers like unequal level of infrastructure, lack of internet
connectivity, lack of devices for attending sessions, flagging motivation and adult monitoringin particular. Thus, their motivational drive was reduced with regard to attending classes.
Excuses build up from challenges of physical and mental wellbeing to the lagging and poor
network connection.
Figure 6
Graphical Analysis of Section F: Skill Development and Motivation

Table 9Mathematical Analysis of Section F: Skill Development and Motivation
Question

Mean

4
5
6

6.19
5.79
7.59

Standard
Error
0.14
0.14
0.14

MedianModeStandard
deviation

Samplevariance

Kurtosis

Skewness

6.00
6.00
8.00

6.00
7.00
10.00

2.61
2.69
2.54

6.83
7.24
6.45

-0.81
-0.83
0.20

-0.32
-0.34
-1.02

Question 4: How would you rate your participation in the online sessions?
Figure 6 and Table 9 provide graphical and mathematical analysis respectively on student’s
participation in online learning sessions. The participatory habits for learners online areaffected by technology and interface features, subject field knowledge, student roles and194

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assignments, and an overload of details. The participation of learners is an integral factor for
active and comprehensive preparation.
Question 5: Does someone else’s motive to answer inspire you to actively participate during
an online session?
Figure 6 and Table 9 provides graphical and mathematical analysis respectively with regard tocollected responses.
Question 6: Does a technical glitch result in frustration, demotivation and/or confusion in
online mode?
Figure 6 and Table 9 provide graphical and mathematical analysis respectively on student
responses to technical glitches. Users may encounter several technological problems that
impede and delay the process of teaching.
Section G: Course Satisfaction and Conclusion
Figure 7
Graphical Analysis of Section G: Course Satisfaction and Conclusion

Table 10Mathematical Analysis of Section G: Course Satisfaction and Conclusion
Question

Mean

1
2
3
4
5

4.41
6.61
6.62
5.58
3.93

Standard
Error
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.14
0.15

Median

Mode

4.00
7.00
7.00
6.00
3.00

1.00
10.00
8.00
5.00
1.00

195

Standard
deviation
2.56
2.46
2.40
2.56
2.76

Samplevariance
6.53
6.06
5.77
6.55
7.60

Kurtosis

Skewness

-0.77
-0.61
-0.46
-0.72
-0.60

0.37
-0.34
-0.48
-0.22
0.68

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

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Question: How would you rate your satisfaction with interactions with classmates andinstructors in the online mode of learning?
Figure 7 and Table 10 provides graphical and mathematical analysis respectively on student’s
satisfaction with interaction with classmates and instructors in the online mode of learning.
Interactions and mediation with peers and the teacher can be quite burdensome in an online
learning setting. Due to a lack of face-to-face interactions, the institutions and organizations
are inclined towards the fresh technologies, which enhance communication and makes
functioning efficient. As a result, there have been reports of significant contact frequency
during online courses.
Question: Do you believe that the learning content delivered via the online mode was
acceptable?
Figure 7 and Table 10 provides graphical and mathematical analysis respectively on student
opinions on content delivered during the online session. An efficient online class, therefore,
relies on the organized content of the course.
Question: How inconvenient have been your interactions when you need to balance some ofthe on-time household demands with the schedule of your online sessions?
Figure 7 and Table 10 provides graphical and mathematical analysis respectively on student
opinions regarding their interactions when they need to balance some of their on-timehousehold demands with the schedule of their online sessions.
Question: Would you rate the completion of the course to an acceptable limit via an online
mode of teaching?
Figure 7 and Table 10 provides graphical and mathematical analysis on course completion via
the online platform.
Question 5: Has online teaching been more advantageous as compared to offline teaching?
What according to you are the most important factors that contribute towards this choice?
Some of the advantages collected from the respondents included:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

Convenient to attend
Timing is flexible
Commuting/Transportation time saved
Can access material and recorded lectures (if provided) in case of doubt.
High affordability and accessibility
Extra time for recreational activities
Self-paced/ self- dependency approach
Ensures safe and secure environment during the pandemic
Reduction in cost
Time management skills improved.
Saves the energy of students.
Improved self-discipline

Likewise, the disadvantages collected from respondents are:196

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

Volume 9 – Issue 6 – 2021

Partial understanding of the topics/concepts.
Lack of focus/concentration/seriousness and sincerity.
Minimum or no motivational drive for academic study.
Losing interest in the online sessions.
COVID-19 pandemic situation adds to the pressure and stress level of students.
High levels of anxiety.
Lack of participation, interaction, skill development.
Not comfortable or used to the online learning approach.
Posture related issues/eye strain
No practical skill development.
Poor audio/video quality leads to missing out on important concepts.
House chores demand/disturbance/distraction.
Delay in responses.
Lack of sense of belonging or feelings of isolation.
Virtual presence only or lack of social presence.
Conclusion

The existing system disparities and the need for free and low-cost Internet access for education
have been highlighted by COVID-19. It is likely that content delivery methods should be
improved through the streamlining of technology platforms. Even courses in various languages
should be planned to expand their coverage for rural Indian youth and opportunities. Novelways should be established to improve online learners' social skills. Several studies show thatteacher contact with students has a major effect on student experiences of online study. Factors
such as coherence in the design, the opportunity to interact in critical thought and information
processing with course instructors, interactivity score on the online environment, opportunities
for online learning for mentors and peers, academic self-concept as well as competencies
necessary for technology use to keep up with curricula, universities and organizations switch
to online sites. It was found that online learning was beneficial, as it provided students withaccessibility and comfort. Students prefer organized material of videos that were posted to thewebsites of the institution. However, many students indicated that because of technicallimitations, delayed input and failure of the instructor's handling of information andcommunication technologies, online classes could be more challenging than conventionalclassrooms. Thus, during an online course to allow the learner to be more efficient andprofitable, these considerations should be borne in mind. Once the pandemic has ended, thegrowth of educational programs across online study support systems is likely but the preference
remains for traditional courses. This report will also help to trigger innovation in higher
education with regard to online components.

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Corresponding author: Geetali Saha
Email: geetalisaha@gcet.ac.in

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Reviewers: Volume 8 – Issue 6
The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to thepeer review for this issue of the journal. Their dedication and assistance are greatly appreciated.
Huda Alkubaisi
Blessing BizzleNguyễn Hữu Cương
Heloisa Koch Delgado
William Frick
Sainbayar Gundsambuu
Habsah Hussin
Andrew Leichsenring
Thelma Manansala
Ivy Chia Sook May
Doris McEwen
Leonardo Munalim
Ifeoma Jacinta Obidile
Queen Ogbomo
Anemona Peres
Elena Raevskikh
Mirela Ramacciotti
Akihiro Saito
Ruben A. Sanchez
Ana Smiles
Maria Staton
Randy A. Tudy
Stephanie Wendt
Mukesh Yadav
Joyce Yang200

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journal of education

ISSN: 2187-0594