JAPANESE RAILWAY HISTORY 2

Expansion of Railway
NetworkEiichi Aoki

Opening of Tokaido Lineand First Railway Mania
The Meiji government was affected
directly by the financial crisis during
the second half of 1870s and the project
to construct the railway between Tokyo
and Osaka/Kobe progressed at a snail'space. The original route was plannedalong a main road called Nakasendo
running through the central highlandsof Honshu, the main island. This route
was chosen in an attempt to stimulate
economic development in the region.
As the government financial reform
program, which started in 1880, tookeffect, the government adopted apolicy of promoting railway construction. Part of the budget was collectedby selling railway bonds to waysideresidents, and the preliminary survey
and construction work began in November 1883.
However, the work revealed that theproposed route would run throughmountain areas, requiring high costs
and long construction times, so theroute was changed in 1886 to a new one
along the Tokaido, another main road
along the Pacific coast. Construction of
the new route started in November
1886 and proceeded without serious difficulty. The entire railway betweenShimbashi and Kobe was inaugurated
on 1 July 1899.
By linking the two largest cities ofTokyo and Kyoto/Osaka, the Tokaido
railway was the first major step in thedevelopment of railways in Japan.
In the meantime, construction of thesection of the Nakasendo railway that34

Japan Railway & Transport Review / June 1994

■ Yotsuya Station on the Kobu Railway in the 1890s,
along the outer moat of the Imperial Palace, Tokyo.

had been under way at the time of theroute change continued, and two sections between Naoetsu and Karuizawa,and Takasaki and Yokogawa started
operation in 1885-88. However, construction of the remaining section between Yokogawa and Karuizawa(11.2 km) was hampered by the rugged
geography. This section was finallycompleted in 1893 using an Abt rackand-pinion system capable of runningon the 1/15 gradient.
The robust Japanese economy createdby the success of Masayoshi Matsukata's
financial reforms, and the success ofNippon Railways, the first private railway, led to the establishment of a numberof private railways after 1885 until the1890 economic recession. The new mainlines included the Sanyo, Kyushu, andKansai railways. In Hokkaido, the government-operated Horonai Railway wasReprinted from RAILWAYS AND ROLLING STOCK IN JAPANprivatised and renamed the Hokkaido
Tanko (Coal Mine) Railway. The above
mentioned railways were called the "BigFive" in private railways. In addition,
many private railways serving shorterroutes were built in the suburbs of Tokyoand Osaka, and in regional cities. Railway
mania had arrived!
In May 1887, the government established the Private Railways Ordinance to ensure uniform standards
for railway construction nationwide.
In July 1889, Japan's railway networks totalled 880 km for government
railways and 840 km for private railways. A ceremony attended by representatives of government and private
railways to celebrate the completionof 1,000 miles (1,610 km) of tracks
was held in Nagoya.

Copyright © 1994 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

Railway Construction Act
In July 1891, Masaru Inoue, Directorof the Railway Board announced two
important proposals of railway policy.
First, he pointed out the need for laws
to ensure the establishment of longterm plans for constructing mainline
networks, and the issuance of publicbonds to obtain funds for constructingrailways. Second, he proposed nationalization of private railways forming
part of the mainline network. Mr. Inoue
was a strong advocate of railway nationalization and reiterated his argument at every occasion. His proposals
pointed to the future of railways in Japan and had an important effect on
Japan's railway history.
Based on Inoue's proposals, the government sent two bills, the Railway
Bond Act and the Railway Nationalization Act to the Imperial Diet. After major amendments, the diet passed theRailway Construction Act in June 1892.
Compared to Inoue's original proposal,
the Act deleted the provisions for nationalization of private railways, butenvisaged much larger railway networks than already planned. It also required Diet approval for major modification of railway construction plans
and commencement of new railway construction. Proposing construction oflarger railway networks than thegovernment's original plan reflectedpublic demand for early railway construction in local communities, which
recognized the value of railways.
The act required the government tosubmit railway construction plans to
the Railway Council for consultation
before the submission to the Diet. The
Railway Council was composed of officials of the Railway Agency, related authorities, the army, the navy, and Dietmembers. It was authorized to amend
the Railway Construction Act, and to
determine railway construction budgets, the licensing and nationalizationof private railways, train operationplans, and railway fares.
The Railway Construction Act established detailed rules for railway
construction in Japan, and allowed local communities to request construction of railways through their electedDiet members. However, the Railway
Construction Act did not apply to

Copyright © 1994 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

Hokkaido, which came under theHokkaido Railway Construction Act
enacted in May 1896.

Second Railway Mania andGrowth of Mainline Railway
Networks
Construction of private railways
faced a major setback during the recession around 1890, but became brisk
again in 1893. The second railway mania continued until 1897. Constructionof government railways was also progressing rapidly under the auspices of
the Railway Construction Act.
At the end of March 1893, the total
length of railways in Japan reached3,010 km, divided into 885 km of government railways and 2,125 km ofprivate railways.
By the end of March 1906, immediately before railway nationalization,
government railways covered 2,413 km
with private railways reaching 5,213
km. Although construction of government railways progressed smoothly,
private railways were always built at afaster pace, with the result that, despite
frequent mergers, the number of private railway companies increased from
13 in March 1893 to 37 by the end ofMarch 1906.
Private railway companies in Japan
at that time were relatively large stockcompanies generating large profits.
This favorable business environment
led to the emergence of groups showing
strong investment interest in railways.
They were divided into two maingroups: the zaibatsu or big businessgroup, and commercial capitalists.
Typical zaibatsu were Mitsui andMitsubishi (Iwasaki). They were major
shareholders in early mainline railways such as Hokkaido Tanko Railways, Kansai Railways, Sanyo Railways, Kyushu Railways, and Chikuho
Railway, earning large profits fromrailway management. They promoted
production and distribution in a varietyof industrial fields using railways.
The commercial capitalists werefound in the Tokyo-Yokohama andKyoto-Osaka-Kobe regions and sought
profits from management of railway
businesses. In addition to mainline
railways, they showed great interest in
railways in and around large cities. In

the early 1900s, they invested actively
in electric streetcar systems (trams) inmajor urban areas.
During this period, capitalists in therural regions still played a major financial role, but their financial power waslimited, so that capitalists in large cities acted as a major force in financing
railway construction projects. Even formany railways associated with local industries or railways in regional cities,
capitalists in large cities were indis-

Courtesy: Transportation Museum, Tokyo

Masaru Inoue (1843-1910)
Masaru Inoue was brought up as the son of asamurai belonging to the Choshu fief. At 15, heentered the Nagasaki Naval Academy establishedby the Tokugawa government under the directionof a Dutch naval officer. In the early Meiji era, theacademy produced many prominent persons whoworked as leaders in the military and the government, as well as engineers. In 1863, Inoue andfour friends stowed away on a vessel to the UnitedKingdom. He studied civil engineering and miningat University College in London and returned toJapan in 1868. After working for the government
as a technical officer supervising the mining industry, he was appointed Director of the Railway
Board in 1871. After temporary retirement, Inoue
served as a leader in the government guiding thenascent railway industry until 1893.
During his career, Inoue played a leading role inmany decisions related to railway planning andconstruction, including construction of theNakasendo Railway, selection of the alternativeroute (Tokaido), and the proposals for future
mainline railway networks. Also, as one of a handful of Japanese railway engineers, he often visited
construction sites and directed workers.
After retirement from the government, Inouefounded Kisha Seizo Kaisha, the first locomotive manufacturer in Japan, becoming its firstpresident in 1896. In 1909, he was appointed
President of the Imperial Railways Association.
He became ill and died in London in 1910 during a visit to Europe as an advisor to the Ministry of Railways.

Japan Railway & Transport Review / June 1994

35

JAPANESE RAILWAY HISTORY 2

Railway Network Proposed by Railway Construction Act (1892 and 1896 in Hokkaido)

pensable as major shareholders for financing construction projects.

Debut of Electric Railways
In May 1890, Tokyo Electric Light
Co. (the first electric company in Japan,incorporated in 1884) laid a 500-m
track at the Third Internal Industrial
Exposition held in Ueno Park, Tokyo,
and operated two Spragne electric
tramcars imported from Brill & Co. ofthe USA. This was the first time electric
trams operated in Japan.
Blueprints of electric railways
boomed in various cities, but many
were just speculative projects lacking
sound technical resources and backup.
The first commercial operation wasstarted by Kyoto Electric Railways on 1
February 1895 running on a 6.9-km
route connecting Kyoto station andFushimi along the Yodo River. The line
was later extended to the inner city.

36

Japan Railway & Transport Review / June 1994

Many railways quickly followed suit:
Nagoya Electric Railways (1898),
Daishi Electric Railways (Kawasaki,1899), Odawara Electric Railways(Kozu-Odawara-Hakone Yumoto,1990), and Hoshu Electric Railways(Oita-Beppu, 1900).
In Tokyo, the Tokyo Horse Railway,
which operated a horse railway service
from 1882, switched to electric rail cars
and became Tokyo Electric Tram Railway. Tokyo Street Railway was inaugurated in the same year, and TokyoElectric Railway in 1904. The threecompanies operated electric trams inTokyo and merged into Tokyo Railway
in 1906 and become the electric railway
company with the largest network in
the country.
In Osaka, the municipal government
entered the electric railway businessand inaugurated the first route in 1903.
It was extended side-by-side with urban development projects, including

construction of new roads, widening ofexisting roads, and construction ofbridges. The railway served as a major
source of finances for the city to carryout its plans, and marked the first electric railway operated by a municipality.
With expansion of tram networks,electric railways became an essential
means of transport for urbanites. In
fact, electric rail services became so important that their management policy
affected citizens' daily lives directly andelicited their quick responses. Fare increases often met with passenger protests, escalating into riots in somecases. More-and-more people opposed
profiteering by private rail companies
in cities, and the need for municipal
management was often discussed. In
the 1910s, electric railways in large cities that had started as private businesses were gradually taken over by
the municipalities. In Tokyo, Tokyo
Railway was handed over to the Elec-Copyright © 1994 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

■ The Usui Viaduct under construction at a 1:15 grade between Yokokawa and Karuizawa. The track useda rack-and-pinion system. The viaduct is now preserved as a historic monument and has been replacedby an alternative route.

tricity Department of Tokyo Municipal
Government in 1911.
Meanwhile, electric railways were extended beyond city administrative limits and started being used for inter-citytransport. The first example wasHanshin Electric Railways whichstarted commercial operation between
Osaka and Kobe in 1905. In the suburbs, railways were constructed on
their own land, instead of public roads,
allowing high-speed operation. As a result, electric railways began competingwith steam railways. Soon, electric services took many passengers from steamwhich couldn't provide frequent services. Steam railway companies suffered large losses and were soon forced
to change their operations to provide
electric railway services in and between
cities.

commodities in inland areas, was hit
hard by railway development. Riverlevels in Japan vary greatly with season; many rivers could only carrybarge loads of just a few tons. Thelack of mass transport on many rivers
made barge transport vulnerable tocompetition from railways.
However, large river systems (theTone River in Kanto and the Yodo
River flowing from Kyoto to Osaka)
offered advantages of stable flows, aswell as large demand for freighttransport. With modernization by introduction of steamers and canals,
river transport continued thriving until 1910. Some railways even became

Reprinted from RAILWAYS AND ROLLING STOCK IN JAPANfinancially viable by connection toriver transport services.
■Eiichl Aoki
After graduating from the Faculty of Science at Chiba University in 1957, Mr. Aoki received a doctorate
in science from the Tokyo University of Education (now called Tsukuba University). After serving at

River Transport and Rail

Tsuru City University and Tokyo Gakugei University as an assistant professor, he became a professor atRiver transport, which had been themost important distribution route forJapanese scholar of the history of railways and marine transportation.

Copyright © 1994 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

Tokyo Gakugei University in 1978. He specialises in transportation geography and is also a leading
Mr. Aoki is now president of the Japan Railway History Society. His publications include WorldHistory of Sea Power and Japanese Railway – Its Rise and Development.

Japan Railway & Transport Review / June 199437