ISSN 1345-0411

OCCASIONAL PAPERS

No. 53（2013）

No. 53（2013）鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター

南太平洋海域調査研究報告

南太平洋海域調査研究報告
OCCASIONAL PAPERS

No. 53（2013年 ２月）
No. 53（Febｒuary 2013）

Research on the Influence of Globalization and Global
Warming on Life in Chuuk Atoll
Edited by KAWAI Kei　 and KUWAHARA Sueo

鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター
KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

南太平洋海域調査研究報告No.53（2013）●

PUBLISHED BY
KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS
郵便番号 890-8580
Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagosima 890-8580, Japan
鹿児島市郡元一丁目21番24号
Tel. : +81-99-285-7394
電話 099（285）7394
Fax. : +81-99-285-6197
ファックス 099（285）6197
E-mail: shimaken@cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp
平成25年２月25日発行
February 25, 2013www http://cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/index-j.html

鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター

鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター●

KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDSOCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（2013）

KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDSOCCASIONAL PAPERS No. 53 （February 2013）

Research on the Influence of Globalization and Global Warming
on Life in Chuuk Atoll, Federated States Micronesia

Edited by
KAWAI Kei and KUWAHARA Sueo

KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDSKAGOSHIMA, JAPANi

Preface
Globalization and global warming are affecting people’s lives on this planet inmany significant ways. Because of their small size and delicate ecology, islands areespecially affected by these fundamental climate changes taking place globally. For
example, substantial existing scientific evidence predicts a rise in sea levels due toglobal warming. Low-lying lands are particularly vulnerable to a rise in sea level, andatolls in the Pacific are especially at risk because of a total lack of high ground. To be
prepared for possible disasters, it is particularly important to learn the specific detailsof the threat facing a particular island or atoll and the perception of people regarding
their predicament.
We conducted interdisciplinary research in the Weno, Piis, and Romanum Islands,
Federated States of Micronesia, in August 2011. This is a research report thatexamines the possible effects of globalization and global warming on the life and theenvironment on the Chuuk Atoll.
We are grateful to Mr. Meison and to member in governments of the Chuuk
States and the Federated States of Micronesia for their support.
KAWAI KeiKUWAHARA Sueo
Editors
KURCPI

ii

iii

Contents
Preface… ……………………………………………………………………………………

ⅰ

１．The foraminifera of the Chuuk lagoon, and the value as the teaching materials…………………………………………………………………………………………… １
HATTA Akio (Faculty of Education, Kagoshima University)
２．Floristic composition and distribution pattern of coastal vegetation in Chuukisland, Federated States of Micronesia … …………………………………………… ７
KAWANISHI Motohiro (Faculty of Education, Kagoshima University)
３．Shell colour polymorphism of intertidal gastropod in Chuuk state, Federated
States of Micronesia … ………………………………………………………………… 19
KAWAI Kei (Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University)
４．I mproving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk:
Pursuing the progress in public sanitation betterment and the current state ofsocial capital … ………………………………………………………………………… 23
N AGASHIMA Shunsuke (Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima
University)
５．Adoption in the changes of family, kinship, and marriage: A comparative view
based on studies from Micronesia and India. … …………………………………… 51
NAKATANI Sumie (Center for International Planning, Kagoshima University)
６．S ocio-economic influence of overseas Pilipino workers Federal States ofMicronesia … …………………………………………………………………………… 61
N ISHIMURA Satoru (Faculty of Law, Economics, and Humanities, Kagoshima
University)
７．Mosquitoes collected on Weno Island, Romonum Island and Piis Island, Chuuk
State, Federated States of Micronesia (Diptera: Culicidae) … …………………… 71
NODA Shinichi (Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University)
８．Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll,Federated States of Micronesia … …………………………………………………… 77
YAMAMOTO Sota (Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University)

iv

1
The foraminifera
the Chuuk lagoon, and its value as teaching materials
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
No.53（of201３年２月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

The foraminifera of the Chuuk lagoon,and its value as teaching materials
HATTA Akio
Faculty of Education, Kagoshima University
Abstract
Analysis of the recent foraminifera, which is distributed to the Chuuk lagoon in the Federated States ofMicronesia Chuuk state, and its practical use as teaching materials in education were considered.

Keyword: Chuuk lagoon, Recent foraminifera, teaching materials

The outline of investigation
Recent foraminifera in the Chuuk lagoon was studied with the cooperation of staffof the College of Micronesia (COM) in Chuuk. The obtained samples were treated
to distinguish living material from emptiness material with rose bengal, and driedsamples were taken out. The foraminifera was separated and judged at the laboratoryof Kagoshima University.
Track lagoon extraction point
The sample was extracted around three islands, Piis, Romanum, and Ueno Islandof the Chuuk lagoon island. Next, a sampling day, a place, the number of samples, andthe depth of sample are shown.
2011－8－5
One sample from near a guesthouse, near the shore of the northeast
part of Piis Island (1 m depth)
2011－8－6
Northeast of Island (From land to near reef) 1-4 (1 m depth)
2011－8－7
East of Island (From land to near reef) 1-4 (1 m depth)
2011－8－7
To Romanum Island
2011－8－8
From near shore of a guesthouse to near reef 1-3(1 m depth)
2011－8－9In mangrove near a guesthouse 1-2 (1 m depth)
2011－8－10
From near shore to near reef 1-5 (1 m depth)
2011－8－11
To Ueno Island
2011－8－11	From near TrukStop Hotel of Ueno Island 1-5, Depth of No.1 is 2m,
No.5 include much mud
2011－8－12 Beach sand near Blue Lagoon Hotel
Foraminifera
The extracted foraminifers were taken photo with the biological microscope andthe clear pictures of the foraminifera were created by multi-in-focus image processing
technical software. Next, an extraction place and the feature of extracted foraminifera
are shown by photo.

2
HATTA Akio

Figure 1 shows sea grass in shore of Piis Island.
Figure 2 is showing growth of beach rock in Piis Island. The materials of beachrock are dead coral and foraminifers.
Figure 3 shows the foraminifera which can check existence with the naked eye(Amphisorus & Homotorema).
Figure 4-a shows Amphisorus hemprichii with scale of a ball-point pen and its size is
5.5mm.
Figure 4-b shows dry specimen. Figure 4-c is showing lateral side of A. hemprichii.
Amphisorus hemprichii Ehrenberg is showing the double row of drop shaped
apertures and several additional openings in the lateral side.
Figure 5-a, b, and c are showing Baculogypsina sphaerulata, Poroeponides lateralis, andCymbaloporetta squammosa.
Baculogypsina sphaerulata (Parker & Jones) was reported from the tropical Pacificregion. Poroeponides lateralis (Terquem) is very similar to Eponides repandus (Fichtel &Moll), but the distribution of supplementary apertures extends and the primary spiralumbilical canal is less distinct than that of Eponides repandus.
Cymbaloporetta squammosa (d’Orbigny) is characterized in having a vaulted dorsal
apex, in many cases colored purplish brown.
Figure 6-a, b, and c are showing Cymbaloporetta plana, C. Plana with a balloon
chamber, and Quinqueloculina spp.
Cymbaloporetta plana (Cushman) differs in having a longer trochospiral portion andan annular series of fewer chambers per whorl at the immature stage. A balloon
chamber grown at the mature stage of gamont generation.
Figure 7-a, b, and c are showing Peneroplis planatus, Spirolina acicularis, andGaudryina sp.
Peneroplis planatus (Fichtel & Moll) distinguish with the flattened specimens from P.
pertusus.
Spirolina acicularis (Batsch) is completely involute at the early stage and thechambers change from compressed to round in transverse section.
Practical use of the teaching materials in education
I introduce and propose to use foraminifera in biological education andenvironmental education with a clear picture of the foraminifera in this paper.
Moreover, I would like to propose to researchers and the staff of the College ofMicronesia (COM) about the construction of the simple breeding environment of living
foraminifera, and if possible, I would like to propose practice of the environmental
education through breeding and observation of recent foraminifera of the Chuuklagoon in the Federated States of Micronesia.
Acknowledgment
I have to thank the staff of the Research Center for the South Pacific of Kagoshima
University and the cooperation of Ms Yvonne Pangeliean of the Micronesia college(COM) Chuuk state.

3
The foraminifera of the Chuuk lagoon, and its value as teaching materials

Fig. 1. Coast of a Piis island, sea grass stock.

Fig. 2. Formation of a beach lock.

4
HATTA Akioａｂ

Fig. 3. F oraminifera which can check existence with the naked eye (Amphisorus(a)& Homotorema(b)).

a

b

c

a

b

c

Fig. 4. A
 mphisorus hemprichii size=5.5mm (With scale of a ball-point pen (a); Dry
specimen (b); Lateral side(c)).

Fig. 5. B aculogypsina sphaerulata (a), Poroeponides lateralis (b), Cymbaloporetta squammosa (c).

a

b

c

Fig. 6. Cymbaloporetta plana(a), C. Plana with a balloon chamber(b), Quinqueloculina spp.(c).

5
The foraminifera of the Chuuk lagoon, and its value as teaching materials

a

b

c

Fig. 7. Peneroplis planatus(a), Spirolina acicularis(b), Gaudryina sp.(c).

References
HATTA A. and UJIIE Hiroshi (1992): Benthic Foraminifera from Coral Seas between
Ishigaki and Iriomote Islands, Southern Ryukyu Island Arc, Northwestern Pacific.
Bull. College of Science, Univ. Ryukyus, No. 53, p.49-119, No. 54, p.163-287.
HOHENEGGER J. (2011): Large Foraminifera -Greenhouse constructions and gardeners
in the oceanic microcosm. Kagoshima Univ. Museum, Bull. No. 5, 81pp., 257
photographs, 8 figs.

6
HATTA Akio

7
Floristic composition and distributionof coastal vegetation in Chuuk island, Federated States of Micronesia
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
No.53（pattern
201３年２月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

Floristic composition and distribution pattern of coastal vegetationin Chuuk island, Federated States of Micronesia
KAWANISHI Motohiro
Faculty of Education, Kagoshima University
Abstract
The distribution pattern of the coastal vegetation that is closely related to the plant
diversity of the islands was surveyed in Chuuk islands, Micronesia. In consequence of
TWINSPAN, which is the classification method of plant communities, six communities
were classified as 1) Mangrove, 2) Vigna marina - Bidens pilosa var. radiata community, 3)
Scaevola taccada - Heliotropium foertherianum community, 4) Thespesia populnea - Pandanus
community, 5) Hibiscus tiliaceus - Derris trifoliate community, 6) Enhalus acoroides (Seagrass) community. Mangrove forest was mainly established on a salty swamp locatedon the small river mouth or coastline. V. marina - B. pilosa var. radiata community, S.
taccada - H. foertherianum community, and T. populnea - Pandanus. community establishedon the sandy seashore. And, the H. tiliaceus - D. trifoliate community was observed
around the rocky coast. Vegetation patterns on an island differ among three islands.
Mangrove and H. tiliaceus - D. trifoliate community established in Weno and Romanumisland, but not in Piis. This pattern seems to be the effect of the geology of the island, i.e.,base-rock type may relate to habitat formation in the coastal area. On the other hand,
V. marina - B. pilosa var. radiata community that includes many invader plants wasestablished only around the town in Weno island. This community may depend on theindustrial human activity. To recognize the mechanisms of formation of vegetation on
islands, we need to clarify several environment factors related to geology, sociology,
and economy.
Keywords: coastal vegetation, invader species, mangrove, plant community, species
richness

Introduction
The coastal vegetation that is established in the boundary between the sea andland is one of the major elements of island landscape. In general, the growth of manykinds of plants is restricted in the coastal environment i.e. high salinity, poor soil,
wind damage and ground instability. Therefore, the species composition of the coastal
plant community often is very simple. On the other hand, the species compositionand structure of the coastal plant communities vary among the topographical or
geographical conditions. Therefore, the distribution pattern of the coastal vegetation
would be closely related to the plant diversity of the islands.
Muller-Dombois & Fosberg (1998) reported ten categories of vegetation in
Micronesia, 1: Mangrove vegetation, 2: Strand vegetation, 3: Vegetation on the coral

8
KAWANISHI Motohiro

atolls and low coral islands, 4: Vegetation on raised coral or elevated limestone,
5: Vegetation on coastal plains, including swamp forests, 6: Lowland rain forests,
7: Montane rain forests and cloud forest, 8: Dwarf vegetation on open crests, 9:
Vegetation on open crests, 9: Vegetation of rough lava flows, 10:“Savanna,”or
grassland, vegetation.
The general vegetation of the Caroline Islands consists of natural broad-leaved
evergreen trees and planted trees (e.g. coconuts, breadfruits, and mango). Micronesian
Economic surveys in 1946 reported that the coconut (Cocos nucifera) and bread fruits(Artocarpus incisus) were planted broadly on coral islands and coastal strips of volcanicislands (Muller-Dombois & Fosberg 1998). In the Chuuk islands, the forests on the
gentle slope were mostly cut, and coconuts and bread-fruits were planted broadly inthe cultivated site (Kanehira 1933). Like above, there are some reports of vegetationin Micronesia. However, the vegetation pattern of small coral islands or small volcanicislands in one atoll has not been shown. I will compare the species composition of
the coastal plants in the Chuuk islands, and discuss the ecological character and thediversity of the coastal vegetation.
Study site
We surveyed a series of neighboring plant communities along a coastline in Chuukstates, Federated States of Micronesia. The study site was located in the three islands
in Chuuk atoll, i.e. Piis, Romanum and Weno (Fig.1).

Fig. 1 Map of Chuuk atoll and studied island, Weno, Romanum, and Piis.

9
Floristic composition and distribution pattern of coastal vegetation in Chuuk island, Federated States of Micronesia

Weno is the capital and commercial center of Chuuk. This volcanic island has anarea of over 18 km2, and a high mountain (Mt. Tonoken, 370 m a.s.l) in the centerof the island. Coastal habitats on the west side of the island are mostly changed byindustrial activity, because relatively large towns are on the north-west side of theisland (Galbraith et al. 2000). In contrast, Piis is a very small and flat coral island on theatoll. The length of the island is about 1km. Romanum is also a small island of about 1.5
km in length. The terrace-like ground surface with sedimentary rock was observed on
the north-side of the island. On the other hand, the low-land at the south-side of islandis plain of coral sand with swamp.
Methods
In this study, the vegetation on the coast line was comprehended. The habitat
types on the coastline include sandy seashore, rocky coast, and salty swamp, and small
sea wall.
We obtained vegetational data (43 plot) using the phytosociological method (BraunBlanquet 1964), to recognize the species composition of the vascular plants in the
coastal vegetation of the island. The surveys were conducted in August 2011. The
plot area ranged from 20 m2 (2 × 10m) to 100 m2 (10 × 10m) because the study plot
be set to correspond to the width of the habitat. The location of the individual plot
was a typical point of the vegetation type. The community types were classified by
TWINSPAN (two-way indicator analysis) using a computer program PC-ORD ver.5(MjM software design).
To recognize the correspondence among the habitat types and the coastal
vegetation, ground conditions were surveyed at each plot during a vegetation survey.
Micro-landform, sediment (or base rock), and artificial structures were recorded byvisual observation in each quadrat.

Results and discussion
1. Plant community type
TWINSPAN classification (Fig. 2) showed strong divisions forming at the firstlevel (eigenvalues = 1.000), a group B with Enhalus acoroides as an indicator species
containing plots characterized by sea grass species, and another large group A include
the various community types.
At a second level of division (eigenvalues = 0.8069), the plots that have theindicator species Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba (A1) were separated fromthe others (A2) characterized by Vigna marina and Thespesia populnea. The formergroup was composed by the plot of Mangrove forest. On the other hand, the lattergroups include the various seashore vegetation.
At a third level of division (eigenvalues = 0.5869) the plots containing the indicatorspecies of Derris trifoliata (A22) were separated from the others.
At a fourth level of division (eigenvalues = 0.4809), the plots with the indicatorspecies Ipomoea pes-caprae and Leucaena leucocephala (A21-1) were separated fromthe other groups (A21-2) containing two groups derived from the final division,
characterized by Scaevola taccada (A21-21) and Thespesia populnea and Phymatosorus

10
KAWANISHI Motohiro

Fig. 2 T
 WINSPAN classification for 43 plots of coastal vegetation in Chuuk island.
Species name shown in dendrogram is indicator species of each divisionlevel.

scolopendria (A21-22).
In consequence of TWINSPAN as above mentioned, six communities wereclassified and are named as follows:
1) Mangrove (A1)
2) Vigna marina - Bidens pilosa var. radiata community (A21-1)
3) Scaevola taccada - Heliotropium foertherianum community (A21-21)
4) Thespesia populnea - Pandanus community (A21-22)
5) Hibiscus tiliaceus - Derris trifoliate community (A22)6) Enhalus acoroides (Sea grass) community (B)Floristic composition and occurrence of these communities are shown in Table 1 and 2,
respectively.
1) Mangrove
This community is mainly established on the salty swamp located on the small
river mouth or coastline of the large volcanic islands such as Weno and Romanum but
not in Piis island (Fig. 3, Table 2). This community mainly consists of Rhizophoraceae
trees (Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Rhizophora apiculata), and Sonneratiaalba, Excoecaria agallocha (Species group A1, Table 1). Species diversity would be
relatively low because many species such as Avicennia marina, Xylocarpus granatum, andLumnitzera littorea that occur in well-developed Mangrove vegetation in Micronesia(Muller-Dombois & Fosberg 1998) were absent in the study site.
The canopy height of mangrove forest in the study area did not reach 10m high inevery site although mature forests reach the 30-40m high like in the Pohnpei Island(Cole et al. 1999). The mangrove forests on both islands seem affected by strong
human activity.

11
Floristic composition and distribution pattern of coastal vegetation in Chuuk island, Federated States of Micronesia

Table 1 V egetation table of coastal vegetation in Weno, Romanum, and Piis island.
Six community types are derived from TWINSPAN (see Fig. 2). The value ofeach species are frequency of appearance and range of dominance-scalein parentheses.

12
KAWANISHI Motohiro

Table 2 E xistence pattern of costal vegetation in Weno, Romanum, and Piis island.
Community types are derived from TWINSPAN (see Fig. 2). Existence ofthe community type are shown as *.

A2 type communities (A21-1, A21-21, A21-22, and A22) distributed on theterrestrial habitat along the coastline and characterized by Cocos nucifera, Hernandia
nymphaeifolia, Phymatosorus scolopendria and so on. The community type of A21 (A21-1,
A21-21, A21-22) and A22 were characterized by species group A21 (e.g. Vigna marina,
Lepturus repens, Pemphis acidula), and the species group A22 (e.g. Barringtonia asiatica,

13
Floristic composition and distribution pattern of coastal vegetation in Chuuk island, Federated States of Micronesia

Fig. 3 Mangrove forest (Romanum island).

Derris trifoliate, Hibiscus tiliaceus) respectively. The former communities established on
the sandy seashore of three islands. The latter was observed on the rocky coast of
Romanum and Weno Island.
2) Vigna marina - Bidens pilosa var. radiata community
This is occupied by a shrub (e.g. Leucaena leucocephala, Thespesia populnea) and vine
(Vigna marina, Ipomoea pes-caprae) and many herbaceous plants. This community ismainly established on the artificial coast on Weno island (Fig. 4), and includes many
invader species, such as Bidens pilosa var. radiate, Ipomoea littoralis, Panicum maximum,
Polygala paniculata, Senna occidentalis, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Vernonia cinerea,
Cenchrus echinatus (Space et al. 2000).

Fig. 4 Vigna
marina - Bidens pilosa var. radiata community (Weno island). Left:
Leucaena leucocephala and Ipomoea pes-caprae dominated type. Right:
Vigna marina and Panicum maximum dominated type.

14
KAWANISHI Motohiro

3) Scaevola taccada - Heliotropium foertherianum community
This would be one of the natural vegetations on the sandy seashore in Chuuk (Fig.
5). Some shrub species such as Heliotropium foertherianum, Scaevola taccada, Terminalia
samoensis with vines; Canavalia cathartica, Vigna marina, Triumfetta procumbens distributeto the front side of the Cocos plantation. In addition, coastal herbs Chamaesyce atoto,
Thuarea involute, and Crinum sp. were observed in this community characteristically.

Fig. 5 Scaevola taccada - Heliotropium foertherianum community (Piis island).

4) Thespesia populnea - Pandanus community (A21-22)
This community was established on the similar habitat of Scaevola taccada Heliotropium foertherianum community (Fig. 6). Large trees such as Thespesia populnea,
Hernandia nymphaeifolia, Terminalia catappa, and Pandanus sp. dominated and form a
relatively higher canopy than the S. taccada - H. foertherianum community (Table 2).

Fig. 6 Thespesia populnea - Pandanus community (Romanum island).

15
Floristic composition and distribution pattern of coastal vegetation in Chuuk island, Federated States of Micronesia

5) Hibiscus tiliaceus - Derris trifoliate community (A22)
Hibiscus tiliaceus, Barringtonia asiatica, Macaranga carolinensis, and many tree species
comprise this forest community. The richness of forest floor herbs (e.g. Nephrolepis,
Procris pedunculata) and epiphytic plants (e.g. Asplenium) are relatively high. This typewas observed on the rocky coast of Romanum and Weno island.
6) Enhalus acoroides (Sea grass) community (B)This consists of one or some kinds of sea-grass such as Enhalus acoroides. Thisgrass community was established in the shallow sea bottom (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 Enhalus acoroides community: seagrass vegetation (Piis island).

2. Distribution pattern of coastal plant community
Although some endemic species of Chuuk, such as Maniltoa yokotai (Kaneh.) Hosok.,
Garcinia ponapensis var. trukensis (Kaneh.) Fosberg, Mischocarpus guillauminii Kaneh., andSemecarpus kraemeri Lauterb., have been known (Kanehira 1933), especially species inphytogeography, species like these did not occur in coastal vegetation. Many coastal
species observed in the study sites have a broad distribution area around the Pacific.
For example, Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora mucronata in Mangrove, and Scaevola
taccada, Hernandia sonora, Cassytha filiformis, Thespesia populnea, Hibiscus tiliaceus interrestrial coast vegetation reach to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan.
Vegetation pattern on the islands differs among these three islands. The mangroveand Hibiscus tiliaceus - Derris trifoliate community is established on Weno and Romanumislands, but not in Piis (Table 2). This pattern seems to be affected by the geologyof the island, i.e., the base-rock type may relate to soil the condition or habitat
formation in coastal areas. On the other hand, the Vigna marina - Bidens pilosa var.
radiata community was established only on Weno island. The floristic character of thiscommunity is high dominant and rich with invader plants (except for crop plants).
The establishment of this community may depend on human activity, because invader
plants invade the open site that has been created artificially. However, this community

16
KAWANISHI Motohiro

is absent in the coastal habitat on the village side of Piis and Romanum even thoughland-use seems strong and frequent. Therefore, the establishment of this community
may be affected by the activity style of the people (traditionally or industrially?). To
recognize the mechanisms of the formation of vegetation on an island, we need toclarify several environment factors related to geology, sociology, and economy.
References
BRAUN-BLANQUET, J. 1964. Pflanzensoziologie, 3 Aufl. Springer, Wien.
COLE T.G., EWELA K.C., DEVOEA N.N. (1999) Structure of mangrove trees and forests
in Micronesia. Forest Ecology and Management 117: 95-109.
G ALBRAITH K., B ENDURE G., F RIARY N. (2000) Micronesia 4 th ed. Lonely planet
publications, Australia.
KANEHIRA R. (1933) Flora Micronesica. Inoue-shoten, Tokyo.
MULLER-DOMBOIS D., FOSBERG F.R. (1998) Vegetation of the tropical pacific islands.
Springer-Verlag. New York.
SPACE J.C., WATERHOUSE B., DENSLOW J.S., NELSON D., MAZAWA T.R. (2000) Invasiveplant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia. USDA Forest Service,
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 41 pp.

17
Floristic composition and distribution pattern of coastal vegetation in Chuuk island, Federated States of Micronesia＜要約＞
ミクロネシア，チューク諸島において，島の植生の分布パターンと多様性を明らかにすることを目的とし，ウエノ（Weno）島，ロマヌム島（Romanum），ピース島（Piis）
において海岸植生の調査を行った。海岸植生は，1)マングローブ，2)ハマアズキ（Vigna marina）－オオバナノセンダングサ（Bidens pilosa var. radiata）群落，3)クサトベラ（Scaevola taccada）－モンパノキ（Heliotropium foertherianum）群落，4)サキ
シマハマボウ（Thespesia populnea）－パンダヌス（Pandanus）群落，5)オオハマボウ（Hibiscus tiliaceus）－シイノキカズラ（Derris trifoliate）群落，6)ウミショウブ（Enhalus
acoroides）群落の6群落に区分された。マングローブは主に小河川の河口や海岸の塩生湿地に成立していた。一方，ハマアズキ－オオバナノセンダングサ群落，クサトベラ－
モンパノキ群落，サキシマハマボウ－パンダヌス群落は砂浜に，オオハマボウ－シイノ
キカズラ群落は主に岩石海岸に成立していた。ウミショウブ群落は浅い海底に成立していた。このような分布パターンは各島の地質，地形的要因と関連していると考えられた。
また，砂浜に成立している群落のうち，外来種を多く含むハマアズキ－オオバナノセン
ダングサ群落は，都市の発達したウエノ島のみで確認されたことから，人間活動も海岸
植生の種組成に大きく影響を及ぼしていることが予想された。島の植生の形成メカニズ
ムを理解するためには，地質・地形的要因および人間活動に関する要因が植生に及ぼす影響を明らかにする必要がある。

Chuukの海岸植生。ココヤシとともに様々な樹木，草本が海岸植生を形成している。
写真はRomanum島のサキシマハマボウ－パンダヌス群落

18
KAWANISHI Motohiro

19
Shell-color polymorphism
of intertidal
gastropods in Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
No.53（201３年２月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

Shell-color polymorphism of intertidal gastropods in Chuuk State,Federated States of Micronesia
KAWAI Kei
Research Center for the Pacific Island, Kagoshima University
Abstract
I investigated the relationship between shell color of Nerita plicata gastropods
and habitat background color in Piis and Romanum Islands, Chuuk State, Federated
States of Micronesia. The brightness of habitat background color ranged from 10 to80, whereas the brightness of shell color varied from 40 to 98. The shell color wasusually brighter than the habitat background color, suggesting that N. plicata inhabits
backgrounds that are darker than its shell color. Only snails with brighter shell colors
inhabited brighter backgrounds. By contrast, darker backgrounds were inhabited bysnails with several types of shell color. My findings indicate that N. plicata may adapt
to different environments by means of shell-color polymorphism.
Keyword: background, polymorphism, shell color

Introduction
Color and color-pattern polymorphism within animal species may be attributed
to different modes of selection, such as selection for crypsis (e.g., BYERS 1990), sexual
selection (e.g., ENDLER 1983), climatic selection (e.g., MIURA et al. 2007), or frequencydependent selection (e.g., O LENDORF et al. 2006). Intertidal gastropods live undervariable temperature and salinity regimes, and face changing wave action, habitat
type, prey type, desiccation and predation risks, and other environmental factors(HUGHES 1986; LITTLE and KITCHING 1996). Nerita plicata is a gastropod distributed
within the reef region of the upper intertidal zone of the Indo-Pacific Ocean, and it is
known to exhibit shell-color polymorphism (ABBOTT and DANCE 1985; NEVILLE 2003).
High intertidal neritid species, including N. plicata, are known to be better temperature
regulators than low intertidal species (VERMEIJ 1971a). In addition, N. plicata changes
the direction of its shell to face the sun at the time of emersion (WARBURTON 1973).
These behaviors may help N. plicata adapt to changing temperatures in the upperintertidal zone. On the other hand, visual selection by predators may underlie shellcolor polymorphism in N. plicata (BYERS 1990; McKILLUP and McKILLUP 2002).
The species inhabits substrates of varying background color, including basalt rocks,
limestone, and beach rocks, in the upper intertidal regions of the tropical Pacific Ocean(VERMEIJ 1971b).
In the present study, I investigated the relationship between shell color of N. plicata
and habitat background color in Piis and Romanum Islands, Chuuk State, Federated
States of Micronesia.

20
KAWAI Kei

Materials and Methods
This study was conducted in August 2011, in Piis and Romanum Islands, Chuuk
State, Federated States of Micronesia.
The shell color and habitat background color of each snail were recorded using a
digital camera. The shell color and habitat background color varied according to time
and weather conditions. Therefore, to adjust the quality of the photographs, standard
colors (black and white substratum) were also photographed on each occasion. The
colored photographs were adjusted to monochrome color using Photo Shop. For eachshell area and habitat background area, the brightness of 3 points was calculated by
Photoshop, and each value was adjusted using following formula:
Adjusted value = (sample brightness - standard black brightness) / (standard whitebrightness - standard black brightness) × 100
A value of 0 indicated that the color was fully black; a value of 100 indicated thatthe color was fully white.
Results
The brightness of habitat background color ranged from 10 to 80, whereas thebrightness of shell color varied from 40 to 98 (Fig. 1). The shell color was usuallybrighter than the habitat background color. Only snails with brighter shells inhabitedbrighter backgrounds. By contrast, darker backgrounds were inhabited by snails withseveral types of shell color.

Fig. 1 R elationship between brightness of shell color and brightness of habitat
background. A value of 0 indicates that the color is fully black; a value of 100
indicates that the color is fully white.

21
Shell-color polymorphism of intertidal gastropods in Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia

Discussion
In the present study, only snails with brighter shells inhabited brighter
backgrounds. By contrast, darker backgrounds were inhabited by snails withseveral types of shell color. This finding indicates that N. plicata exhibits shell-color
polymorphism, and that this polymorphism is strongly related to habitat backgroundcolor.
Temperature can greatly affect the metabolism of gastropods (e.g., HUGHES
1986). Metabolic activities may be accelerated if the body temperature increases
within a range that does not impede normal physiology. The difference in bodytemperature between N. plicata individuals living in beach rock (white-colored background)and basalt rock (dark-colored background) environments was 1-2 ℃ (Kawai, personalcommunication). Similar differences in body temperature have been recorded
between banded and unbanded morphs in Cepaea and other snail species (JONES 1973;
RICHARDSON 1974; HEATH 1975). When the body temperature of the land snail C.
hortensis was increased from 25 ℃ to 26 ℃ , oxygen consumption increased from 2.6%
to 4.5% (STEIGEN 1979). This finding indicates that a small temperature increase may
have a relatively small effect on physiology in the short term. However, a long-term
temperature differential may significantly influence rates of growth, reproduction,mortality, and other physiological conditions.
Many other environmental factors affect the frequencies of shell-color morphs
in gastropods. Juveniles of a muricid snail, Concholepas concholepas, exhibit shellcolor plasticity depending on the coloration of prey species (M ANRÍQUEZ et al. 2009).
Frequencies of shell-color morph may depend on parasites and predation (BYERS
1990; MCKILLUP and MCKILLUP 2002), with environmental gradients in temperature,salinity, and wave action frequently affecting the evolution of color polymorphisms(ETTER 1988; SOKOLOVA and BERGER 2000; MIURA et al. 2007). Shell-color polymorphism
in some gastropods results from complex interactions between selective forces (JONES
et al. 1977); the observed shell-color polymorphism of N. plicata may be derived fromcomplex interactions between several such selective forces.
N. plicata is thought to have a comparatively long, free-swimming larval stage(KANO 2006), suggesting that the genetic differentiation underlying the observed shell
variation in proximate populations is not large. In the present study, I observed similar
trends in the frequency distribution of shell-color morphs between Piis and Romanumislands (Figure 2). However, the frequency of shell color variation differed according
to habitat background brightness. This finding implies that genetic differentiation may
contribute to shell-color polymorphism in N. plicata populations. To elucidate suchgenetic influences, I intend to conduct further detailed analyses using microsatellite
DNA markers.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Mike and the staff of the Chuuk State Government for theirkind support.
References
ABBOTT R.T. and DANCE S.P. (1985) Compendium of seashells (Japanese Edition).

22
KAWAI Kei

Heibonsha Limited, Tokyo.
BYERS B. (1990) Shell colour polymorphism associated with substrate colour in theintertidal snail Littorina saxatilis Olivi (Prosobranchia: Littorinidae). Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society 40, 3-10.
ENDLER J.A. (1983) Natural selection on color patterns in poeciliid fishes. Environmental
Biology of Fishes 9, 1573-5133.
HEATH D.J. (1975) Colour, sunlight and internal temperatures in the land-snail Cepaea
nemoralis (L.). Oecologia 19, 29-38.
HUGHES R.N. (1986) A Functional Biology of Marine Gastropods. Croom Helm, London& Sydney.
JONES J.S. (1973) Ecological genetics and natural selection in molluscs. Science 182, 546552.
JONES J.S., LEITH B.H. & RAWLINGS P. (1977) Polymorphism in Cepaea: a problem withtoo many solutions? Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic 8: 109-143.
KANO Y. (2006) Usefulness of the opercular nucleus for inferring early development in
Neritimorph gastropods. Journal of Morphology 267, 1120-1136.
LITTLE C. and KITCHING J.A. (1996) The biology of rocky shores. Oxford University
Press. Oxford New York Tokyo.
MANRÍQUEZ P.H., LAGOS N.A., JARA M.E. and CASTILLA J.C. (2009) Adaptive shellcolour plasticity during the early ontogeny of an intertidal keystone snail.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, 16298-16303.
MIURA O., NISHI S. and CHIBA S. (2007) Temperature-related diversity of shell colour inthe intertidal gastropod Batillaria. Journal of Molluscan Studies 73, 235-240.
McKILLUP S.C. and MCKILLUP R.V. (2002) Flies that attack polymorphic snails on
coloured backgrounds: selection for crypsis by a sarcophagid parasitoid of
Littoraria filosa. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 77, 367-377.
N EVILLE C. (2003) 2002 Sea Shells: Catalogue of Indo-Pacific Mollusca. Neville
Coleman’s Underwater Geographic Pty Ltd, Australia.
OLENDORF R., RODD F., PUNZALAN D., HOUDE A., HURT C., REZNICK D. and HUGHES K.
(2006) Frequency-dependent survival in natural guppy populations. Nature 441, 633636.
RICHARDSON A.M.M. (1974) Differential climatic selection in natural population of landsnail Cepaea nemoralis. Nature 247, 572-573.
S TEIGEN A.L. (1979) Temperature effects on energy metabolism in banded andunbanded morphs of the snail Cepaea hortensis Müll. Oecologia 141, 163-173.
VERMEIJ G.J. (1971a) Temperature relationships of some tropical Pacific intertidal
gastropods. Marine Biology 10, 308-314.
VERMEIJ G.J. (1971b) Substratum relationships of some tropical Pacific intertidal
gastropods. Marine Biology 10, 315-320.
WARBURTON K. (1973) Solar orientation in the snail Nerita plicata (prosobranchia:
neritacea) on a beach near Watamu, Kenya. Marine Biology 23, 93-100.

23
ImprovingNo.53（
the foundationof the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk
南太平洋海域調査研究報告201３年２月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in
Chuuk: Pursuing the progress in public sanitation betterment and thecurrent state of social capital
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke
Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University
Introduction
Chuuk has been combating serious environmental problems since 1980s to improvetheir immediate surroundings, especially those pertaining to work in the sea andon land, and beginning with the waste problem. The beginning of 1980s saw thesuccessful deployment of public-private initiatives, especially WHO and the traditional
chief system working together to fight cholera. Improvement efforts have beensuccessively put into practice thereafter, and case studies have been carried out tofollow-up interviews with the state government and small island Piis on their successstories and in the later years the reasons behind the declining performance. We also
investigated the current situation on the matters relating to boosting the life andeconomic foundation, and their supporting infrastructure and social capital. As a result,
we found that the changes in the structure of social roles could not be bound only tothe changes in tradition to modernism, and each role required functional cooperation.
The public sector, especially the state government, should actively ask for collectiveengineer support, and reaching overseas should strive to raise the base technicalskills fit for the next generation. At local government level, it will be more effective toemploy quasi-public servants MIRAB (Migration, Remittance, Aid and Bureaucracy),
whose main duties will be to improve/maintain environmental sanitation (cleaning
local areas, proper waste disposal, etc.). Although the NPO and NGO organizational
standard has not reached the level of its neighbouring country Palau, there isevidence that the germinating organizations are sprouting and strengthening. We
have confirmed the base for human resources, so along with overseas cooperative
funds and actively recruiting trainees, we can look forward to a significant result.
The development and the expansion of Chuuk Women’s Association is a leading effort
and even outshines to those of neighbouring countries, and it can be a precedent
to the whole of Micronesia. We expect its advance. In addition, tackling them willundoubtedly bring remarkable improvements to the MPA (Marine Protected Area)
management approach and waste management. The pending problems of roadconditions are rapidly progressing for its preparation. These remarkable changes
would no doubt bring initiatives based on successful experience to the Chuukeesesociety. The next challenge will be to use these as new social capital and organicallybring it together. By overlaying the pressing concern of dengue fever with improving
public sanitation (let us not forget the majority of disastrous cholera victims were
the women who did the fishery activities within the lagoon), we hope to help in its

24
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

deployment.
Research outline

1) Research aim and overall structureThis is a case study of securing, maintaining, and improving the favourable living
environment, especially the quality of public sanitation, by boosting the entire societal
infrastructure and raising living standards within the small islands and the island
regions. Living standards can be raised through wide-ranging building blocks that
affect the living environment; these elements are:
1.　 materialistic and economical (hard-ware)
2.　 imperceptible and institutional (soft-ware)
3.　 emotional and spiritual (spiritual-ware)
4.　 human interaction and relationships (human-ware), and finally
5.　 ecological and natural environmental (ecological-ware).
Each of these components mutually interact together to form fundamental
foundations, and the malfunction of any one of these risk deterioration of quality
improvement. Acknowledgment of this, therefore, becomes a necessary prerequisite increating and executing strategies to improve the quality of life.
The solutions proposed by co-governance (whereby the residents within an area
are subjects themselves) are in need of a new development phase. It is important to
supplement them with a voice from an influential third party. These together will be
the social capital. The current state will be assessed and investigated underpinningsocial capital as such and as a means of raising the societal infrastructure and humanrelationships. The principal relationships between the elements pertaining to qualityof life as well as their mutual relationships need organizing as part of a crucial step
towards the development.
Drawing from our previous research, several issues emerge pertaining to publicsanitation. The first is poor waste management, which also affects the management of
the marine environment. Another problem relates to nutrition, health, and infectious
diseases. Lastly, there are stresses upon household finances as the base for subsistence
economy em-brittles and the rapid penetration of a weakening commodity economy.
They are all connected and have been a persistent setback since globalization became
problematic in the 1980s. This is especially true in Chuuk, where it remains to be oneof the most serious problems. Naturally,Chuuk also faces problems unique to hugereef areas, but it is a shared common burden with the other island regions. Their
underpinning problems lie parallel to global warming. The concrete truth behind thepicture was gathered covering these ranges.
2) Research Result Outline
1 In order to ascertain information on the current improvements made on people’s
lives in Chuukese small islands and island regions, past accounts of cholera canbe used as an important verification source. We aimed to understand how thesociety as a whole tackled the condition. Fortunately we were able to interview
the person in command during the very first outbreak.
2 Further research was carried out in Piis to delve into how a specific region

25
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

3

4

5

6

7

managed the situation. Luckily, a healthcare assistant who knew detailed accountsof the then circumstances was back in Piis from the hospital under treatment.
We were also able to corroborate the functions and the achievements of the
traditional societal leader as well as the post-operational life improvements.
W e were able to find examples of their successful efforts in dietary andnutritional improvements via vegetable growing, etc. However, there have also
been cases where it was discontinued. There were similar circumstances within
the governmental level as well. The political leaders have acknowledged that the
failure was partially due to social structure.
Marine environment management is a crucial prerequisite for island life. Its
quality, degradation and long-term resource management are manifestingin serious forms within the recent years: we have previously indicated theincreased water level especially tidal surge, coral reef bleaching due to local highatmospheric pressure and elevated water temperature, increased frequencies
and strengths of disastrous devastations such as large typhoons. Here, we bringour attention to the tradition and direction of marine protected area (MPA)
management and its new outlook, with Palau as leading example of furtheringdevelopment. Chuuk has a world-wide rare tradition whereby the women work
as fisherwomen within the lagoon. They have been harmed and injured due tosanitation problems in the past. We can expect for women to take the role of theleadership.
Compatibility of resource preservation and development of a cash economy isalso an important prerequisite for sustainability. Investigation of fisheries has
been already conducted; the results need to be recorded. As the foundation of
population maintenance lies with fisheries, especially in small island Piis, it isnecessary to provide suggestions for their future industrial development.
The severity of the waste problem is not only getting bigger, but it is also
showing signs that it is steadily improving. But there is world class problem
within the atoll relating to drifting oceanic waste. The solution to this problem
also relates to management problems inland, providing education for residents,
and creating resources to clean the beaches. Investigation was carried out toglean the current situation of treatment and management of inside the bay/gulf, inhabited islands, uninhabited islands, and beach in the capital. We will set
down the issues drawing comparisons against Palau which leads cooperative
improvement to elucidate the truth behind the current situation.
Interpersonal and organizational networks may create a new breakthrough to
the limiting solution to the aforementioned problem. Despite the leaders being
highly educated and have high intellectual standards, there have been issues withsecuring their own engineering groups, and there are empowerment tasks related
to them. However, there are positive prospects from NPO/NGO, especially fromthe Women’s Council. We expect their involvement in improving sanitation willbring positive changes.

26
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

Full detailed account of cholera in Chuuk
1) Problem solving through chief reciprocity
Head Chief Susumu Aizawa, a Japanese descendent, left an impression during atalk back in 1984 - he stated that the proposition by the Head Chief for each chief
to monitor the complete abolition of ocean toilets on other islands and for the chiefs
to take in turn to provide as a thorough measure against the outbreak of cholera.
He mentioned that since chiefs are approachable and are relied upon like a parent,
they may unintentionally be inclined to approve exceptions. He further shared the
difficulties in completely collecting the debt of small businesses (small goods, Yamaha
repair shop, etc), and says that chiefs are not suited to act as intermediaries inbusinesses. On the other hand, they excel at using reciprocity as a method for problem
solving, which is an extension of the traditional process.
The current picture portrays that of a system rapidly weakening and becoming
hollow, but under that a chief is required to undertake responsibility as a mayor andas a political leader. But the original principle is different. The modern principles are
based on: ① not for personal profits or gains but ② securing equality, justice, andtransparency. Furthermore, it is important to ③ coordinate and cooperates withexternal organizations (including state governments, countries, and foreign aid), ④
meeting the needs of cooperation and collaboration, and ⑤ ensuring the effectivenessof business outcome.
However, the rapid change especially ① has not been easy and after much time
it is in current state. It is one in which the chiefs who are close to the mayor or
island chief agonize over. The‘responsibility like a parent’is, even in its distinctive
meaning, a social relation capital.
2) Disaster ranking - Disease
We had an interview with Mr. Wilfred S. Robert, the Chief of DisasterCommunication who was also a victim of cholera. He was responsible for a wide rangeof disasters, including disasters caused by human neglect. There are 11 different
types and are ranked according to the weighting and are listed in descending order:① typhoon ② mead/grassland slide ③ disease outbreak ④ flood ⑤ drought ⑥tide surge ⑦fire ⑧ oil spill ⑨ plane crash ⑩ sea craft crash ⑪ drear due boats(small sea craft lost at sea). The outbreak of infectious disease comes third and itlies heavily on society. There have been cases of landslide which is a characteristic
devastation for flat islands with heavy rain. Its destruction is comparatively large, andthe staff member in charge was even surprised by the scale on his first assignment.
Considering the disease outbreak occurs infrequently, we can understand it to havethe second biggest social effect after typhoons.
The subject of sea surge on Mortlock atoll we saw at the Japanese Embassy
became an adopted projected by the FEMA (Federal Emergency Management
Agency), was granted a recovery relief fund, and the evaluative report submitted. Thiscase has been discussed on a number of occasions with DCO and related departments,
but as it continuously remains specific to Ta Island, the conclusion is that the disasteris not related to‘global warming.’

27
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

3) The reality behind the spread of cholera
Despite requesting resources such as statistical data from the Head of Department
of Health and their staff pertaining to cholera in 1980s, they withheld the information.
However, Mr Wilfred S. Robert was a victim himself and he had vivid memories of
it. According to him, in year 1982, 60 people died, a few died in 1986, and none since.
Even if there was an outbreak, there won’t be any deaths. It says“Repeated outbreaks
in past”on various written inquiries (Izumi Kobayashi etc.), the 1982 incident was not
only a sudden occurrence but also consequently had many deaths.
Many people endured the illness and had not reported it. The cause of the illness
puzzled people initially and only when it became unbearable that that they reported
it. The first victim was from outer island northern atoll Fallap and was carrying
another victim. Mr. Robert contracted the disease in a similar manner. It is the firstcase even for this country. Time was also lost when sending samples to Manila, Guam,and Hawaii and waiting for the results. During this time, the disease spread to thewhole area. Unaware of the cause, people endured using only adjusted salt water.
Some victims could not stomach that and refused to drink it - only when it was mixed
with coconut that the sweetness masked the salt and they drank it. Coming in directcontact and carrying patients with exposed contaminated discharge also spread theinfection. Mr Robert had himself been given a few dozen intravenous shots, and thepierce marks still remain. 3-5 people died on Fallap. There are memories of young
children, men, and women. Since he left the island because of the illness, he did notknow any detailed accounts of the aftermaths on the island.
4) Nursing staff awareness and preventability via social capital
There were also many victims on Piis Island. According to the healthcare assistant
Mr.Fabiano Kosmes, 28 people aged 11-50s, mainly women, contracted the disease in
1982. There was only one death - a male in his 50s. He could not be reached and thetreatment came too late. This was due to the conventional way of life whereby one
doesn’t go to a dispensary even if one is very ill. That resulted unfortunately too late.
This case has been used to teach others.
Not so long afterwards, specialists from Manila etc. were introduced and became
an international undertaking. There was emergency dispatch from WHO with thestaff of federal government lasting one year and there were study groups at hospitals.
“Benjo”(a local term used from Japanese reign) education was deployed under US
support. The complete abolition of ocean toilets was thoroughly implemented. It
was organized as a community activity and they burned the toilets and buried themunderground. New toilets were created and they accepted donations from foreign
aid. Hospital staffs and chiefs went to supervise and inspect. Since then there haven’t
been any ocean toilets. There were zero incidents in 1986. Even work in the whole of
Chuuk only lasted a few days.
This complete transformation brought changes to the traditional housing structure,and the abolition of ocean toilets was a success. Was the resolution in 1980s in truth
led by chiefs? As a part of the whole activities that took place, they complementarily
exhibited the old compelling power. One can even say that without borrowing thatpower, the project may not have had the thoroughness that it did then. They did

28
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

not allow any exceptions afterwards, which helped creating preventive measures.
Therefore, this case can be summarized as an example of“preventive force of social
capital.”Public hygiene and sanitation
1) Establishment of public hygiene principles: post-cholera social development
Ms Cathy Mori Asor, the Head of Division of Sanitation, Department of Health,stated that the tribulation of cholera had initiated social development in publicsanitation and its principles have not been shaken since. However she admits theshortcomings. The basic strategy for rural society sanitation is: good toilet, goodwater, and education. It pillars on 5 programs: ① food supply program, ② school
sanitation program, ③ country hygiene program, ④ vector control port, and ⑤ healtheducation. The preventative measures against epidemics such as dengue or filarial is
not flawless, and they are continuing to request aid and accept training.
It is important to incorporate the community to spread effective preventativeand improvement measures, and it has been expanding with introduced US funds.
However, the funds stopped flowing when the funds did not reach to the level ofthe citizens. With that followed the cessation of campaigns to improve hygiene andsanitation. That means this became truncated due to circumstances within the socialorganization despite accomplishing grass-roots expansion. This can be seen as reboundback to the revival of conventional distribution of social capital principles. It also
demonstrates a case of“an obstruction of grassroots support system by social capital.”
However, there are not all examples of failure.
To note, the Head is a granddaughter of Koben Mori, one of the first immigrants
who fathered 6 boys and 5 girls. She is a daughter of Sanro and is a member of Moritribe consisting 2000 people. Her cousin is President Immanuel“Manny”Mori and hernephew is a lawyer. Therefore she is in a position to know and understand the deep
truth of the political reality. She also possesses opinions about the running of social
capital through modern principles.
2) Sanitation surveillance carried out bycitizens
There is one lady of Japanese descendent, Nancy Aizawa, who is the youngest
daughter of former Chief of Tol (Suiyo) Island Susumu Aizawa, he carried throughwith the business and was working in the metropolitan. However, with the deathof her father, the agency of Yamaha moved to another store, and substantial
management shrunk except shipping to outer islands. She specialized in computerscience in a Hawaiian college and during this time she had written hygiene andsanitation reports for schools and restaurants. There were further demands of thesereports, and she was employed by the Department of Health as a civil servant.
We met during her first year there. She already possessed technical opinions. Thisis a case whereby monitoring of civilian activities was evaluated, but in MIRAB(Migration, Remittance, Aid and Bureaucracy) economic society, this is a conceivable
form of employment. This case is related to proposition of Piis Island environment
management which will be considered later. Her capability to be involved in societal
matters is also related to Tol Island. The frequent occurrence of cholera amongst

29
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

women is associated with their active role in fisheries, which is a rare traditional
gender role constituent. Women fish outside the mangrove within the lagoon in Tol,and men catch bonito and tuna using trolling. Nobody on the island possesses trailers
or cars, and even now they only have wheelbarrows as transport on land. Living ina condition where opportunities to buy goods are limited, fisherwomen are still an
important part of their lives. In addition to eliminating ocean toilets for sanitation, likethe other islands, pigsties are located more than 15 feet away from the house as ameasure to tackle leptospiros is. September is known as Sanitation Month, and there
are a number of opportunities for campaigning for improved sanitation and hygiene.
3) Campaign against malnutrition: 1987-1988-1989- Lessons from its success and its discontinuation The undertaking by a healthcare assistant (then) from Piis was an importantarchetypal grassroots sanitary and health movement. He organized and self-funded acampaign to combat malnutrition after noticing one undernourished child. Every twomonths, measurements such as weight and height and basic tests of the children weretaken and were released- this brought a competitive edge to parents and guardians.
This was an effective method as this small island society operated under a deep
understanding of one another and their functions. Using tact, which makes use ofcommunality and constructive participation, as well as tapping into people’s ambition
to want the best for their families, are some of the elements of social capital.
This project extended to submitting monthly reports to hospitals and the state. Itthen advanced to gaining approval from the country and received inspections. Twoyears later, they received subsidies from overseas to support gardening projects.
They grew vegetables such as egg plants, Chinese cabbage, cucumbers, cabbages,
and watermelons. Almost all the households in Piis have started growing vegetables
at home (side note: currently Pingelap and Kosrae are near deployment stage).
Furthermore, nutrition education campaigns for women were developed. This wastruly a striking case of a remarkable change brought forward from a small island, andit seemed to head to sustainability; however, due to the aforementioned circumstances,foreign aid was withdrawn even to a point where they could not buy seeds. The locals
knew the health benefits of continuing to produce crops in the garden, but the project
stopped due to problems securing funds.
A lesson can be learned from this-that education and enlighten mental one are notenough to maintain the efforts to improve living. They need to secure MIRAB support
or to create independent purchasing power. In other words, improvements must
extend to the core base of private and social life. The indication of the latter is thevegetable patch, where a shop owner grows green leaves to cook. There are vestiges
of a very few households who are continuing to grow vegetables on a small scale.
There is a small amount of cash flow in Piis households, and its network of relatives(internal social capital) through income from fishery and associate public services. As
the problem of malnutrition itself was recovered, it affected preparations for otherprogress. This also affects collaborating external driving forces and lacking outersocial capital.

30
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

4) Compliance effects of prohibition act- its successful development and reality
As stated by David Hanlon (1988, Remaking Micronesia: discourses overdevelopment in a Pacific territory, University of Hawaii Press,pp.154-157), prohibition
law of alcoholic drinking was established in Chuuk in 1977. This is an illustration
representing the strong political power of the women. Since the beginning of the
1980s, there has been extensive coverage and many reports of its compliance andspecial exclusions from compliance in Weno, the state capital. It is still legally effective
after 35 years. This problem parallels that of illegal drugs, especially ganja (marijuana),
and social problems are both rooted in common grounds. This is also an importantpart of the public hygiene problem.
However, the reality is that of alcohol sales, which shows no signs of prohibition.
Alcohol is sold generally, and public drinking is seldom reproached. The visits during
the 1980s saw strictness, and private whisky-related gifts were much appreciated.
As a way of saying thanks in early the 2000s, a Christian dignitary recommended
against giving his counter parta gift as he knows his habits after drinking. On theroads, large quantities of empty beer cans are squashed by cars and found scattered.
Some say it has been true since the 1970s, but there are heaps of empty cans andbottles on uninhabited islands, and even during this investigation there were many
discarded in cardboard boxes. Due to certain circumstances drinks previously limited
to restaurants and foreigners broke down in1990s. However, this is a Christian society
with constructive reciprocated participation, and within this complex social capitalsociety they are creating prohibition compliance groups. Additionally, female splay
a role in the society and its moral culture, and there are only a limited number ofwomen who drink. It used to be absolute, but currently it is more relative. What might
be highly praised of the present state is the effective control of excessive drinking,especially by families and associates, and it functions as a preventive social regulationas part of social capital control.
Furthermore, quickly brewed alcohol made from sugar using yeast (they call it
flour) was seen in the shoreline forests located on the outer edge of the communities
in Pingelap Island, Pohnpei. Also, recreational activities undertaken by youths during
weekends and religious holidays are over looked as there is little alcoholic consumption
and they do not cause problems apart from hygiene and sanitation. Similar observation
was made within an outlying uninhabited island in Chuuk atoll with the presence ofempty bags.
5) Illegal drugs, prohibition, and the reactions
Marijuana use has been indicated as a social problem since the 1990s. It is also
related to high school dropouts. The latter is a by-product of declining social capital
control as there are students from remote islands who live in relatives’homes to
go to school, but it is accompanied by long-continued problems with social principles
that cannot stop drug dependence. Last year, there was a murder on a dark publicroad near Weno airport in which drug use was implicated. Drug users, many ofwhom are in their 20s and 30s, can be occasionally seen on urban public roads day ornight, unsteadily swaying with a hollow gaze or uttering strange sounds. Passers-by’s surround them at a distance and look worried, but they’re only keeping distance.

31
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

The problem of drugs persists even under social capital monitoring, and it exists inremote islands as long as there is the difference in living standards. The regional
police (who are not like civil servants, but lie close to volunteer firemen in Japan insocial positioning), as well as island leaders’turn a blind eye to drugs. However, it is
not socially acknowledged or recognized.
We have asked about the drug problems at various social levels. Levying is thought
to be the most effective for alcohol and tobacco, but everywhere there is a cultivating
environment for home-grown drugs, and it is not the public transactions (Goto, Shinpei
officially imposed heavy taxes in Taiwan), and there are no specific scenes identified.
There is no alternative but to enforce regulations such as compulsory punishment
and custodial compliance. There have been a number of opinions supporting the needto pass laws to arrest, punish, and fine the offenders, but many add that it depends
on the discretions of leaders especially politicians. Within the social structure where
there is reciprocal containment, some say there is no other way of breakthrough otherthan publicly elected leaders. As one of the solutions, there are many who support
the possibility of women legislating as they did with the prohibition act. President
Mori’s sister is an avid anti-drug specialist and is expected to exhibit leadership andinitiatives of the Women’s Council. However, we are still anticipating.
Amongst those involved, it was considered as a decisive step. Radical improvement
measures that target problems such as murder cases linked to drugs need acollaborative structure by the judicature, legislation, and administration, and we hope
the complex matter to be handled properly. This again is connected to the publichygiene problem.
6) Dispensaries
Let’s look at the current condition of Piis dispensary and then the case of small
remote island with hygiene, sanitation, and health problems. The original system forthe dispensary constituted two healthcare staff. The male staff underwent a treatment
for an illness, but he returned to the island straight after his recovery. He is a younger
brother of the Head of the Elementary and Middle School. The female staff only
managed drugs, and the dispensary (of which the building is closed) has been semiclosed for the past two years.
We have summarized the interview results. The other remote island regions are ina similar position.
a.The facilities of the initial dispensaries were funded by FEMA.
b.Medications were covered by state budget and the order of priority
was 1 antibiotics, 2 pain killers, 3 uacire, and 4 anti-worm medications.
c.The emergency unit is not equipped with resuscitation or oxygen
inhalation devices.
d.External injury (severed abdomen) inflicted by engine trouble wastreated reading first aid papers. He lost his private parts but survived.
He was not sent to a hospital.
e.The underlying demand is the restoration of the pharmacy building
whatever the size.
f.Solar-powered low-temperature medicine storage is needed.

32
NAGASHIMA Shunsukeg.E xpectant mothers, especially for the first birth, are strongly
encouraged to go to the hospital in the capital Weno as there is nobody
who can administer intravenous medication. There was a time when
3-5 mothers gave birth on the island. 10% of all births are on islands.
From 5 years ago, 100% all first births are given outside of the island,
which resulted in lower infant and maternal mortality rate. Surveys
conducted on pregnant women are conducted annually and they arereported to health authorities.
h.Three children on the island suffer from blindness, hard of hearing,and strabismus. There are no other illnesses.
i.There were active family planning campaigns.
j.At present no fisherwomen suffer from disabilities with their health.
Waste problem
1) Four waste problems and technocrats
Waste problems in Chuuk can be largely divided into four: ① serious refuse
problem that continues to persist since 1980s, ② sewage problem, ③ oil spillage, and④ garbage drifting into Chuuk atoll.
According to a veter an tour guide of diving originally from Tsushima, who has
been diving in and around a sunken ship since taking up permanent residence from
June 1978, he has noticed a clear change in the quality and transparency of the water.
In recent years there has been ①a decrease in water transparency and increased
incidences of muddiness/impurities found, ②lasting for a longer period, and ③ isnotably characterized by irregularities that are not due to the tidal currents. He adds
that 4 opaqueness and muddiness of the coast is very poor.
Chuuk aimed to have its atoll registered as a UNESCO site of world natural
heritage, but it was rejected with one of the reasons being the oil pollution fromsunken ships. Even before this assessment, oil contaminated water brought a senseof threat, and there have been social campaigns against the unstoppable oil spillfrom specific pre-war sunken ships, even starting to spread to foreign lands. We
have directly received digital resources and materials from the said diver. From thepoint of view of“polluter pays principle,”both Japan and USA are implicated in the
responsibility.
The construction of the sewage pipes under the road of the capital island of Weno
is still incomplete. The pavement has many potholes and the roads are becoming
bumpier year after year. Drainage seems impossible as the road is like a river. Thishas been the case for a few years, and islanders are disgruntled saying it may takeanother 10 years before it is restored. However, according to the person in charge ofthe project, sewage repair and complete tap water supply have been a long-runningchallenge, but the repair work is nearing its end. A New Zealand manager from
Chuuk Public Utility Corporation had explicitly outlined the dates and processes of
future plans. There was a contract in the background. A public tender and competitive
bidding happened, and a USA businessman living in Majuro, Marshall Islands, cameas an independent public utility contractor. Many labourers came from the Philippinesand genuine work commenced. It is almost possible to see the finish line including the

33
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuukroad paving. ①Sewage network planning is not just at the stage in progress but it isdue to be completed next year. ②As for serviceable water, there is a need to increase
the size of storage tank. There needs to be surplus room to counteract the instability
as it is heavily reliant on rainwater as well as the supply water for the sewage. ③
There are plans to build more power generators. This is thought to help during power
cuts or time constraints. As for the plans for solar power, it has reached at a stageof implementation planning for installation of a large one on Getsuyo (Udot) Island,and others will be installed on Tatsu (Tonous) Island and the outer island of Ylul. The
presence of foreign technocrats is encouraging especially since the FSM government
suffered from technocrat shortages.
2) Refuse disposal
There have been some new developments with refuse disposal from Japanese
JICA specialists and volunteers. As the JICA group is managed closely, we canpredict that in the near future they will apply strategies learned from experiences
and successes in the advanced and neighbouring Palau technical systems. The refusehas been a continuing problem in Weno (Haru) Island for more than 3 decades. This
problem has been printed in English overseas technical travel books.
Garbage has been collected using two 20 year old machines received as a
grassroots gift from Japan (recorded as Osaka City: South 144). Only the one has
been used publically as the other one is exclusive to hospital use. It deals with anisland population of 10,000 people, which is one third of the state, and it has been
scrupulously and repeatedly repaired using readily available materials such as wood.
It also has an added workload of a large number of commuters from remote islands,
and its already suffering effectiveness in collecting refuse and is hampered by badroad conditions. Before long, one from Hachiooji’m Tokyo and another from anotherpart of the country are expected to arrive. Landfill has reached its capacity. They are
expecting to install new facilities with technologies that also target the rancid smell
by ventilating air (JICA specialist is in charge of Palau, Yap, and Chuuk, and anotherperson is in charge of Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Marshall Islands). Palau/Koror Model isa new ODA and JICA technical system uniting disposal site, collection, ventilation(combating foul smell), and systematic recycling processes are charged on a deposit
basis. There is already a supporting unit for this in Palau and in addition has MPA
established and put into practice; indeed it is an integral and combined environmental
education.
The reality is for nearly 10 years it has been very difficult to use access roads as
they were buried under heaps of rubbish, and a bulldozer was introduced to clear
the road but suffered from frequent failures. Bolts needed for repair were on order.
For a long time, it has been close to residential areas and has had children, dogs, andbirds come and go. There are implications in some health problems. There were cases
where garbage collection workers were paid in low level salary or in arrears. It isnecessary to raise social awareness level.

34
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

3) Recycling
It was only in April that the proprietor of an iron (and iron-related) factory, aChinese businessman, withdrew his business. The challenge was in the separate
collection and establishing a compact disposal system. There are remains from Chinese
businesses left, but additional measures are needed such as isolating aluminium,
cleaning treatment, and shredders. After the investigation we visited Palau, and there
was evidence of support from JICA etc and was fulfilling its potential especially on
Koror Island.
There is also a task of securing foreign transactions. There is a plan for a joint
business with Guangzhou, China, in October. They are also requesting for cooperative
measures regarding unloaded cargo returned as a way of reducing transportation
costs. Having a separation system will be especially important.
The deposit system whereby each empty can is awarded 5 cents has started, butthere have been questions raised in meetings about its usage; exploring transparency
should be welcomed in public debates. Currently, systematic checks run by local
contacts are being organized.
The scrap body of motor vehicle swith out the useful scrap parts have been
accumulating on empty land between the shore and the mountain. This has createda public difficulty with dust management. The problem with recycling faces thelimit with civilian responses, and it is a problem that is spread to the whole of the
Pacific island region. There is a strong need for international collaborative measures
including from Guam. There is a limit to subsidies given for transportation costs forremote islands within the country, as political strategy; there needs to be an additional
concentrated disposal unit within the region.
4) Composting
There is a regional characteristic whereby there is little kitchen waste that could
be composted due to having dogs and raising domestic animals such as pigs. It is not
as if they are stock breeding livestock. The Community Resource and Environment
Project, headed by a Pilipino college teaching staff (College of Micronesia, Chuuk
campus), was awarded $20,000 from WHO. They are currently developing a plan forcomposting in line with the project, but they struggle to overcome the lack of raw
greens. Moreover, vegetable or ornamental gardening is not an established componentof their lives. Therefore, the state Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
been reviewing the proposal of promoting“Go Local”which aims to cultivate local
produce by encouraging agricultural farms and dietary improvement, establishing a
discretionary system, and linking that with environmental education.
Understanding the refuse problem is an indispensable part of environmental
education. Associating garbage with the environment will lead to their self-awarenessof contributing to environmental pollution. It is part of lesson 101 and is a basic
principle of environmental practice. This will lead to their understanding of social
responsibility and environmental responsibility as consumers. It is the practicalcognition of Global + Local = Glocal Citizenship. The new compost proposal is apractical example of conservation of mass; its principle lies on reducing, reusing,and therefore taking part in ecological recycling. In other words, it supports their

35
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuukunderstanding of the ecological cycle, which comprises of organic decomposition,organic production, and organic consumption. Their understanding of naturalregeneration may radically shift their perception of mother earth and mother sea andthereby improving the quality of their surrounding environment. This can be linked
with produce growing, and thus widening the possibility of a sustainable subsistence
economy. The education for their own local regeneration and its implementations are
the most fundamental element of all basics in improving the foundation for living.
5) Cleaning the rubbish off road
Civilians are becoming actively involved with the problem of road and roadsiderubbish. It is spreading to local women’s councils, youth groups, and environmentalgroups. They are taking part in cleaning the roads of the capital one weekend a month(mostly polymers), and grass is maintained and compostable garden waste is collected
on Mondays by the Department of Agriculture. However, the state unkemptness
unfortunately returns even after a week. Nevertheless, improvements are startingto take effect in improving the situation. One of pressing tasks has been targetingtrashing aluminium cans on roads; improvements made to collect littered aluminium
cans on roads may be accelerated with the backing of a system (on Himejima Island
in Ooita, Japan, littering ceased with the introduction of deposit system with the effectof a deposit system and have advanced to become beautiful, still effective and active
now).
There is large yellow metal shelving for garbage, which is donated by private
individuals of whose names are inscribed on the gifts, and it is placed all around
Weno Island and will have complete coverage including hill sides. This is not a
problem unique to the capital, but its various maintenance and spread will needdrastic measures. To name a few, the state of shore waste yard, increased amountof garbage drifting into the lagoon (of which is one of the largest in the world andis a paradise for divers wanting to explore the WWII shipwrecks), worsening watertransparency of the bay, and reduced water quality in the coastal area. Because of thevast varieties of work on water, this should be worked on together with terrestrial
improvement projects. By having people as part of the solution, it will help enhancetheir awareness and at the same time educating them about the environment. This
hands-on approach will help to bestow civilian responsibility, and observing andexperiencing the successful changes will hopefully encourage them further to lookafter the environment.
6) Rubbish in ocean and drifting garbage-the current situation and measures⑴ Measures against garbage on shoreline and promoting MPA opportunities
The shoreline of the capital island Weno seems to be in a constant state as adumping ground for garbage and this is clearly polluting the ocean of a world classatoll. It has been a clear challenge even before registering for World Natural Heritage(similar to Fuji Mountain).The rubbish is not only a problem within the city. Moving
away from the city, one can see more sights as if the sea is dumping ground. Pollution
stands out on the whole of the ocean surface. There were also accumulated garbage
sites deep in the mangrove on the coast. This is an unsightly comparison to the36
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

Palau mangrove, which is environmentally similar, but no matter how deep one goes,rubbish is rare.
The manifestation of the environmental management (quality management as wellas problems caused by global warming) and waste management to be the faces ofthe same coin is an indication that it has reached a critical state. New developments
must take place which can help residents learn from previous achievements. For
example, positive measures like an educational campaign taking an active part incoastal rubbish elimination (not of the drifted garbage but of the dumping ground)of Palau-type specified MPA is effective in that the results are seen right in front of
their eyes. However, for a broader change it will take time. Children having positive
hands-on experience with cleaning will help to continue that. It is advisable to involve
Japanese specialist teams to contribute with procedural scientific management ofbeach cleaning, targeting the root cause and the branches. The waste management
problems concerned are to be especially targeted for improvements so it is the best
time to promote this.
⑵ Coastal garbage within small island Piis
In principle, garbage is the responsibility of the individuals, including the roads andcoastal areas reaching to shoreline which are in close proximity to one’s house. Those
neglecting their duties will be given warnings or orders from the mayor. However,beach cleaning has never been done collectively as a village (as a side note, Japaneseremote islands do this on average at least twice a year), and the mayor himself, has
not directly issued orders. We have spent three days consecutively to inspect thewhole island.
1.The worst area was area facing Weno to area near the mayoral house,
especially near ice making facilities
2.large quantities of foreign drink bottles, drink cans, and lunch
packaging that have drifted ashore
3.a lot of plastics that have been there a long time that seaweed andalgae have stuck themselves
4.a number of clothes, nappies, gas cylinders, empty ramen packets,
rice bags, and even empty beer cans which is prohibited (they clearlyoriginated from the islands)
5.Considering all of these, 70% -80% of the disposed items came from thehouses near shoreline, and if including drifted garbage from within theisland, more than 90% was the result of their own doing.
The measures needing in place are clear from this.
⑶ Garbage problems on uninhabited islands
One can glean the seriousness of ocean pollution just by looking at the debris
drifting on the water. They are easily visible everywhere even from moving vessels,
especially the plastic bottles, shopping bags, flip flips, empty cans and bottles, anddrink packs. This is a familiar sight, but it is getting worse and worse.
The six islands on eastern side of Piisareterrible:・Pisemweu Island (Kojima in Japanese, hidden watch station of Navy):
possibly due to fast currents but there are less than habited area. Some
scattered near fishermen’s camp37
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

・Onaf Island (Ushijima, also known as the name of Military ship Islandby glrape): semi-residential island used for fishing. 1-2 houses occupied.
Scatters of household goods present, however they keep comparatively
clean around. Digging hole for dumping and water.
・Tewenik Island: scatters of drifted materials
・Eparit Island: little clusters of garbage from fishing camping grounds anddrifted materials
・F onochu Island: small clusters of drifted materials and used yeast
packets
・Sopwerii Island: mixed rubbish from fishing camps and drifted waste.
There are big items that have drifted- even polystyrene packaging thatwas used for the ice making facilities which was given by JICA as a
gift to Piss. The damage to the facilities caused by typhoons was a few
years ago. We of course brought it back but it is a sign that there is aconsiderable amount of drifting rubbish gets circulated within Chuukatoll.
・It is bad every where is but 3 islands lying to the east are especiallyappalling. It may be affected by ocean tides.
Two islands west of Piis:
・Pisininin Island: very little but there is a barbeque site
・Pissamwe Island (aka Paradise Island): very little but some small floats
The reason behind the uneven distribution of drifts is due to a large flow of thenorthern waterway that passes the centre of the two regions, and it goes out to theopen sea. On top of this, the direct cause is the interaction between the current within
the lagoon and sandbank that catches it. On the east side, the debris that drifts onto
the shore are both relatively recent household goods and those that have been driftingin the bay, but it is rare to see either of these on the western side. There is also a
man-made origin that contributes to the difference between the two. Whereas theeast is an active fishing area, the west is chief clan own the control and has a feel ofsanctuary. It is a stunning place to the point that they named it‘Paradise’and theyremain true to the psychological testament to preserve something that is beautiful.
Fenangat Island is an island located near centre point between Piis and Weno
which lies south. It is not possible to see from the sea. But there is a lot of drifted
debris. There are loads in the forest. There is quite a bit of trash from picnics that has
accumulated throughout the island.
Pisiras Island was the worst of all. It is a relatively popular place for picnicking,and it has been used during weekends for drinking since 1970s (there were no visible
old beer bottles, but they may possibly be present if dug out from the ground).There
were concentrated cans and bottles trashed in and around new cardboard boxes ingreat quantities. Plastic bags contained remnants of food consumed during picnic. It is
as if uninhabited island is a garbage dump. There was considerable amount of driftedmaterials also.
Ordering the level of severity, from worst to least, it is Weno’s unofficial dump,
Pisiras Island, Pis (Fanangat) Island, eastern islands to Pis, and the western islands
especially Paradise Island.

38
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

MPA1) Chuuk State MPA and personal rights adjustments
We were unable to find a map of Chuuk with clear and explicit lines drawing
the boundaries in August 2011. A MPA schematic diagram of Weno/Moen Island
was hung on a wall surface, but a detailed figure could only make out a blurredcentral part and its periphery. Environmental Protection Agency officer said there
is no intention to release it to the public- a problem that could arise from making
it public is that if the MPA adapted area and non-adapted area become clear, thenfishermen will unashamedly come in to the privately owned part of the adapted area.
He showed us the detailed diagram on the basis that it will not be made public as
it is in process of making it formal. This problem is also associated with the daily
lives of the fisherwomen working within the lagoon. Fishing activities carried out by
women can be only seen in Japan and Korea, but women working in shallow sea isa unique traditional custom particular to Chuuk which has at times brought healthproblems including contracting cholera. The efforts and the chief/social response of
the Japanese descendant head chief Susumu Aizawa has been introduced previouslyin (Nagashima 1986). The development, its details, and the surrounding circumstances
are mentioned above. Chuukese society is considerably complex as matriarchal social
principles penetrate through the transfer and the use of land ownership even today
and it overlaps with fishing activities.

Figs. 1
 The officially displayed Chuuk MPA map on the wall in EPA (with the logo ofWorld Wildlife Fund).

Traditionally, MPA has originally been existing and has been controlled throughuse restrictions of areas owned by clans and taboos, but with growing awarenessof personal rights and for business interests, even maintaining an order for fishingmethods (mainly spear fishing), it is all at once giving birth to situations that could
result in social changes. On the cost of the small island, women dive and fish and they
process sea cucumbers on uninhabited islands while the men fish every day outside ofsmall islands and on uninhabited islands. They pack them in ice purchased from state
capital (ice maker given by JICA has been left untouched since it broke down), shipthem every day, and are replaced next morning.

39
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

Comparing Chuuk and Palau MPA research, we conversely felt the lowness
of commercial pacevitality in Palau. It may seem paradoxical that there are morecommercially competitive Chuukese fishermen than Palau, but there is a highpossibility of actualizing resource preservation and environment quality management
through their systematic‘wise use.’‘Wise use’is inherently sustainable resourceuse, and per ISISA motto in Mauritius, one needs to learn from the intelligence ofethno-biodiversity order.
2) MPA as traditional societal custom
The funeral of an important clansman/woman is accompanied by sanctuary
management on the remote island Piis located on outer periphery of Chuuk lagoon.
This is known as mechen, which is a conceptual taboo termoriginating within the
Pacific Islands. This area, which stretches 2 miles from the reef including islands
and the terrestrial areas, is owned by the clan, and because they prohibit not only
fishing and harvesting but also limit its usage, entry and becomes‘closed’during thisperiod. The oldest clan member has the final say, but in his death his oldest biologicalnephew makes the decision and publicly declares it. When the mourning is over,they dine and the area becomes‘open’. Funeral aside, the period during its closure
enables resources to restore and can pass on a recovered and better state for the
next generation. The period varies from 30 days to 3 months, and it has been getting
shorter recently. The harvest restriction on territorial resources has declined and israre. The area on sea is also a limited area for clan relatives. However, the practicestill exists as a regulation.
The custom is still practiced on Ramanung Island (NichiyoTou) where after thedeath of an important person the funeral the sacred area is declared (in recent years
lasting for about one month) and is circulated to other places. There was a funeral of
an influential person within the chief class near Weno Island (HaruShima) Salamen
just before the research period, and the region between there and Dublon Island(NatsuShima) was specified as no fishing and no swimming area.
The ownership and exercising personal rights is by nature complex, and the above
was an example of usage within Chuuk lagoon prominent island, but the fragmentationis advancing.
MPA related to the use of owned land depends on the aforementioned clanterrestrial management, but it is different from Yap’s‘ridge to reef’but it does
not necessarily target watershed management. This is becoming more complex andfragmented because of recent cash economy transactions. Therefore, there is an acuteneed to establish MPA that combines appropriate territorial and marine management
based on re-researched state of traditional plant uses. However MPA itself is specified
as an individual’s owned area and the public has difficulty implementing specificactions. Overcoming this biggest challenge will need the present personal rights to be
adjusted and with that are associated costs. It is essential to have procedures in place
to cover complex and wide-ranging procedures even through facilitation of reasoning.
In the current state of enforcement under traditional system (which is already fading)
and with limited legislative measures or expenditure allowances, one could say thatthey are at a stage doing their best.

40
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

3) Fishing ban concerns and measures
One aspect of work JICA senior volunteers do is to introduce and spread the useof fishing nets to discourage fishermen from dynamite fishing. Some say that they
are made in the black markets from construction sites and others make explosives
by removing the fuse from sunken ships. It is a crime to take what is on a ship, butthey seem to have a different conscience when it comes to bullets. Newly demolishedareas are easily identifiable by a professional, so they are immediately inspected bya specialist from Palau International Coral Reef Centre (PICRC) and were reported.
There are others who acquire dynamite through quarry black markets or stolen
container fuses. Piis is the only island that does not use dynamite for fishing. Finelymeshed fishnets are also another problem along with resource management, andtherefore Chuuk needs effective MPA.
However, there have been reports by overseas research groups, especially in theUS, who claim the corals to be of good quality in MPA. It is necessary for them to see
the picture outside of the area. The coral themselves are getting weaker. The mass
breakout of crown-of-thorns starfish, they had to be killed by injections. It is a method
different to Okinawa where mass of people is required to bring ashore, but there areassociated costs involved.
As dynamite fishing itself is prohibited, there must be compliance, surveillance
and appropriate punishments in place, but according to JICA senior staff, fishing usingfishing nets along with its benefits of as uperior haul and understanding resource
preservation are encouraged as a preventative measure. He has worked in the fishnet
division of Y Company for a long time and has been instructing to create handmade
nets. He is actively engaged in the abolition of destructive fishing through instructing
people to dodemersaldeep fishing around atoll which uses unused resources (OFCF
has been spreading throughout Micronesia since 1980s after researching theresources) and reserving funds for the purchase of the nets. Deep water fishing is
not only encouraged as it uses unused resources but also because fishing methods
are becoming more proficient with technological support and are easier to fish. Eventhe successors are requesting for the dispatch of an expert in the same field with theknowledge (there already is an informal consent made with an applicant).
4) NGO for Marine resources and environmental conservation
Chuuk Conservation Society is a new NGO (established 2010) specializing in marine
resources and environmental conservation. It was founded by Mr Wisney Nakayama,a son (age 36, born in Tochigi Prefecture) of the first President of FSM Mr Tosiwo
Nakayama (born on Piharar Island, an outlaying island off Lucunor in Chuuk State;graduated from college at age 23 and was employed by East West Centre; sincethen he has been climbing up the success ladder; former Research Centre for the
Pacific Islands visiting professor, Professor Hunlon, from Hawaii University ResearchCentre for the South Pacific Islands has been planning to do biographical research
since his term at Kagoshima University. The Society was funded by the MicronesianConservation Trust, Micronesian Challenge, and various other world conservationgroups. It currently employs two permanent staff and one intern. He is maternallyrelated to the Piis village chief. There have been three occasions conducting research41
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuukon socioeconomic and fishery resources since 2008. He has profound experience inmarine research and has expansive knowledge of the seas, island conditions, andterrestrial ecology. The Society has been prioritizing the preservation and protectionof biodiversity. He has been involved in generating summaries of the diversity ofcorals, invertebrates, echinoderms, and the fishes. He was surprised by the fact that
Kasiwajima Island has approximately 1000 species of fishes. Watersheds are used forlarge islands enclosed in lagoons. He is aware of the difficulties in the open seas which
are fundamentally of different nature. However, this is a specialized subject different
to his own thus expressing his desires for training opportunities in Japan.
They have assigned Ruklechic Islands (uninhabited island belonging to northwestern island groups) as MPA last year because it acts as a sanctuary for turtles,
tortoises and birds; we were appointed to investigate on its marine source. They were
excited at starting the new community-based project next week on Peren Island. Thisis a collaborative project between various government agencies and the local council
as part of Locally Managed Marine Environment; this is a typical Chuukese style.
The state government involvement varies accordingly. In Kosrae and Pohnpei,
the government is responsible for areas outside of the mangrove, but this is not
the case in Yap and Chuuk. Watersheds are structurally identical as Yap, but theboundaries of the areas managed are different. The locally managed marine area in
Yap not only covers the sea but also extends 300m beyond the reef; fishing is strictly
prohibited within this region and despite its relative decline the chief is involved.
On the other hand, Chuuk’s boundary is in principle limited to the area within thereef. Piis is an exception and it covers 1-2 miles outside the reef. There is an area
designated for aquaculture but is not as large as those on Marshall Islands. There are
big and small giant clam farms in Pohnpei; as it had been 15 years ago as the author
found, there are still cases of theft. This may be due to difference in the fundamental
awareness relating to the commons where in effect introduce and share resource uses
opportunities.
The difference with Palau is that there are no incentives financially or with its
national policy.
Yap authorities undergo deliberation during budgeting processes, and to thetestament they are rarely in the red. The budget system has just changed fromproject-based budgeting to performance-based budgeting, making successful
performance vital. The jobs with heavy responsibilities have increased and their duties
heavier. Once can hope this organizational enrichment to also plant international andcollaborator significance.
5) Development and protection of marine resources and research institutions
The Korea South Pacific Ocean Research Centre of Korea Ocean Research
Development Institute is located on eastern edge of Weno. They bought what was aresort hotel and refurbished into a facility. Such a department does not exist at Collegeof Micronesia and its state branches. There is only one other research institution withthis department, and it is University of Micronesia which does not host students with
U.S. Land Grant Program in Pohnpei. This aquaculture development division has been
having remarkable results with pearl oyster farming project and has advanced to42
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

product development, commercial and marketing phase.
Their recent research has been to transport cultivatedlapu-lapu, a variety ofgrouper, and flatfish, in its dormancy. They were tested based on survival rate after
48 hours when placed in sponges between 17℃ and 29℃ , and they found that 4 out of
8 survived at 22℃ and started swimming again.
These two institutions have high level of expertise, but they still have yet toappoint a marine environment conservation specialist.
6) Challenges facing Chuuk MPA
The challenges facing Chuuk MPA can be summarized into 10 points:
1.MPA setup linked to personal rights and any small gap in the area
becomes target for illegal fishing
2.Continuation of dynamite fishing
3.Oil leakage from sunken ship specified but not budgeted
4.Decreased water transparency
5.Corals weakening. Killed through injections during mass breakout ofcrown-of-thorns starfish, a method different to Okinawa where mass ofpeople is required to bring ashore
6.Shoreline garbage and drifting pollutants worsening
7.Limited research institution collaborations
8.Need for organizational and functional expansion and staff enrichment
for NGOs/NPOs that have recently been established9.No presence of Palau-like incentives
10.Not enough activities to promote understanding and education for all
residents.
Socioeconomics and Improving Coastal Environment on Piis Island
1) Civil servants on small island Piis
The whole area of Micronesia has a MIRAB structured society. It is important tounderstand the structure on which the society is based on and of its current state, butthere isn’t much understanding of the individual condition. We interviewed its state on
small island Piis. It has been misconceived as being a heaven for civil servants but thereality is far different, and we have learned the hardships of island management.
There are supposed to be 700-800 residents but there are 648 people registered.
The actual number of people living inside the island is 500 of whom 200 are children,and 300 live outside.
It receives around $2000 per year from the state to cover the community municipal
maintenance fee, but its expense reaches $2245 per year. Those who receive payment
are the Mayor, deputy mayor, traditional chief, and 12 councilmen, 8 police of whom
6 are from each clan and 2 are appointed by the Mayor. Even 100 $/year per eachmember will be $2300; it’s like glorified volunteer work.
Training costs for policemen are covered, and they receive training on the job
through undertaking various duties within the state. In 2000, the training period
lasted only 2 months. Any administrative communications to each policemen or new
information go through the village mayor.

43
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

The Mayor himself has been at the post since the independence in 1992. Hereached his retirement age in 2003 and had been in the office for 21 years. He spent
three years studying sciences at the College of Micronesia and graduated in 1983. Hegained teaching qualification for primary school. From 1980s he worked in Weno andmoved to a new appointment in Piis where he became the Principle of the school. It isfrom there that he came to the position of trust.
Civil servants paid by the state are 3 primary school teachers (grades 1-6),
a dispenser assistant at pharmacy (there are 2 regular staffs but one is taking
temporary leave of absence), 2 kindergarten teachers (one in charge of school lunch
became redundant after they stopped lunch service). Their salary covers 52-weekperiod. There are other state civil servants who work at tourist boards in Weno.
The teachers receive unexpectedly low wages. Principle aged 57 receives $240/2
weeks. A teacher (49) who became a teacher after graduating from high school andhas an additional qualification receives $200/2 weeks. There is another teacher who is
38 years old. When asked in person, transportation costs $25 each leg of the journey toand from Weno, and they say that $100/week is not enough to cover the educationalcosts for their children. In the city washing dishes pays $500- $600/2 weeks. The answer
to the question was that life on the island is not easy.
We also enquired about the school life. It is separated into morning session (8:30,
9:30, 10:30, 11:30) for grades 1-2 and 3-4, followed by afternoon session (13:00-15:30) for
grades 5-6 and 7-8. The Principal is directly responsible for only grades 7-8. There are
no classes for children with special needs. Academic year starts in August/September.
Currently there are 90 children in total (Grade 1=18, Grade 2=13, Grade 3=9, Grade
4=11, Grade 5=14, Grade 6=20, Grade 7=8, Grade 8=8-9). Those progressing onto highschool and therefore need to make preparations tend to spend more time out of theisland. 20% tend to drop out mostly due to marijuana and alcohol use; this remains asocial problem.
2) Overseas funds and state financial support to Piis
[FEMA]The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has been toinvestigate Chuuk State on four different occasions- typhoon, ElNiño, heavy rainfall,and big waves. They communicate directly via phone once they arrive on scene.
They may be stabilizing system from disaster social damages, as if social capital byoverseas.
2002 July 12- 50 died due to heavy rain. Biggest damage seen on Tonous=Dublon
Island (Natsushima), Fefen, Udot, Weno, Uman, and Toll. The Mayor was in Weno
when this happened and recalls the severe damage. Luckily, Piis was not directly
affected.
2003 December: attacked by big waves. Similar to when violent typhoon hit in
1970s, although not to same extent. There were some houses that were swept away
and flood reached above floor. As it is a low-lying island taro-patches etc. received
damage. They received compensation of $200- $2000 depending on valuation of eachhouse. This is when the dispensary in Piis was built (the building itself which iscurrently inactive need to be repaired or rebuilt).
2004 summer- local ElNiño

44
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

2006 April: sea surge at Ta Island, etc.
[Plans for support and aid]Recent aid ( $200,000) was donated by Turkey for drinking
water network service construction. It uses solar power to pump up the water,
enabling supplying using stored energy during night time. This was a petition madeby the Mayor himself. In primary school wireless network will be equipped, fundedmajority by state but also through donations from overseas support compact funds;
this will improve electronic communications and correspondences. Two computers are
due to arrive. Primary school toilets will be revamped. Kindergarten will re-open in
September. The dispensary will return to its 2-people operation.
[Funding requests] Talking with the Mayor regarding the garbage found on
the road within Piis island as well as on the shoreline, we have shared a collective
understanding of the situation. As a persuasive reference, we introduced him to thecase on outlaying island Pingelap in Pohnpei State whereby two people were placed
as cleaners who have revamped the cleanliness of the island and maintained it. As
current administrative budget for Piis is limited, he has requested for support in
employing 2 permanent beach and street cleaners, the proposal of which will go todrafting state government budget.
3) Piis income structure
The most stable income for the island is social security. The largest source ofincome is the fishing industry.
[Driedsea-cucumber] Recent sea-cucumbers have been good- there are two regular
Korean merchants who transferred their business from Republic of Kiribati 3 years
ago. These merchants tend to buy in bulk and move from place to place. In previous
years it even attracted Japanese merchants. It nearly became prohibited as there wasa fear of the resources drying out, but they have made successive appearances. Palau
was hit badly and not only did Korol State prohibit harvesting the sea cucumbers forbusiness but even private consumption nor was possession prohibited. However, there
have been some Taiwanese descendants have privately harvested and dried themin an inconspicuous place; its demand is very strong and is becoming a boom. As arecord, we will write the current selling value but the price itself varies according to
its quality: penimwrang, pineapple = $25/kg (can even drop to $14 or $20 depending
on quality), potato asia, penifu, women leg, penikapach = $15/kg, sea-cucumber = $4/
kg.On an island belonging to Piis, they were being boiled and dried using a camp. Lots
were packed in many bags. The recovery of resources needs long durations.
[Fresh fish] 3-4 ice boxes are shipped between 3 families. They fish every morning
between 8-9am apart from Sundays, and for late-night fishing they go out when themoon is not bright. The catch is shipped next morning 7-8am to Weno. The families
split the profit after subtracting that with the cost of a box full of ice chunks that are
priced at $20 and fuel prices each way $5. They don’t take the extra charge of thecarrier, and in all their taking is roughly $25 per person. They usually come back withsome shopping and relatives. Generally the fishes are sold to market vendors at $1/
pound, and in Weno they are sold in markets for $1.5. Because bonitos are large they
are cheaper per pound (75¢ ), and as troc as shellfish is heavy it is priced relatively
cheaply at $1/1kg (25¢ /pound). Lobsters are $2. Oysters (Pachang) which are locallyharvested solely by women are packed in pet bottles and priced at $2.25 and sold in45
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuukmarkets as $2.5. They are usually boiled in brine, garlic, or coconut milk and are amongst
the popular items at the market. Currently, this is the only processed marine productproduced within the island.
4) Fisheries in Piis
Fisheries in Piis have been undergoing the most active developments within Chuukatoll. JICA has even gifted them with fishing boat and equipped them with ice maker.
The ice maker was installed around 1997-1998 and was in operation for roughly 6
years. Since it broke the mechanism could not be maintained and fuel charges soared.
It became irreversibly damaged after the typhoon. The fishing boat was even named‘Saraw’meaning barracuda, but it went down after the big waves hit. It is still left
abandoned near bya broken embankment.
The main fishing method used is rubber spear gun. They use fins and snorkel tofish. They tend to use nets only for driving them into the net. These rules may be
included as a kind of local MPA.
The foreshore within Piis lagoon is the fishing ground for women and they catch
octopus, oyster, and fishes. Octopus catching is a family secret passed down frommothers to daughters for generations, instructing them the know how of a good catch.
They usually work 7-8 hours 6 days a week. On the day of investigation, two women
wearing one lens goggle (aged 49 and 37-38) were catching oysters near Pachangrock. An older woman aged 65 used to work as they have until recently but she has
reduced her workload to 5-6 hours each day, 3-4 days per week. This is for household
consumption, but it is also a precious opportunity for cash income.
There were also a few islanders constructing new stone tidal weir which alreadyhad caught a fairly large fish. It looked like a family unit working. They can draw theimage without any map.
[Fishing ground] Islands lying to the eastern side of Piis are superb fishing ground.
Especially between Pisemweu and Onafit is perfect for hurling fish. They were fishing

Fig. 2 Fish trap by stone fence.

46
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

as a family unit as well as catching sea-cucumber.
Social Contributions by Regional Groups
1) Chuuk Women’s Council (CWC)
CWC truly has been developing and expanding numerous ways of contributing
back to the society. They have handicraft studios in Dublon and Fefen and havea shop selling traditional goods in Weno. Men also work as well but they do moreheavy-duty work and sculpting. At the shop there were stacks of books and printed
materials (there are many in Chuukese as well) relating to activities they are involved
in. They bring cooperative force to blood donation campaigns. They actively take theinitiative to bring other organization to help cleaning roads. Their presence is vital for
health, nutrition, and public hygiene developments.
They have long had the idea to create a museum for cultural preservation, but
after tribulations it finally was completed on November 25th: it was assisted by ahotel owner (a former US Peace Corps member) and his wife who is the present
CWC chairperson (her mother involved in launching CWC and a is direct descendentof Koben Mori) who supported financing and land, and they started building it withJapanese ODA. Amongst many there were high ranking governmental officials
such as Vice President of FSM and Japanese Ambassador and had reached a totalof 400 attended in the biggest ever large scale opening ceremony in Chuuk. In thefollowing year, their first campaign took action to support“Multipurpose Facility toPromote Women’s Independence and Local Populations’Health,”funded by Japan’s Grassroots Human Security Grant Aid scheme, calling attention to health. Locallythis centre is referred to as“SMPoll Memorial Centre”after the mother of CWC
chairperson.
The basis of its social structure is matriarchal, and Chuukese women are at thecore of all activities; in Yap patriarchal structure has been more predominant and thewomen fought, but things are changing with the help with overseas NGO involvement
including Japan. As their involvement stretches beyond Weno to islands in atoll orouter islands, they are in need of machine that can create and print out their own
materials in Chuukese language. Ordering them from overseas or receiving ones using
English can delay the processes, may incur more cost and is too reliant on others;
these factors create too many opportunities for things to go wrong. Having their own
devices will help them be autonomous and affordable in the long run. This concern
was acknowledged by executive leaders.
2) Youth NGO
The youth program has been more critical in comparison. There may beorganizations like NGO that exist, but its activities are limited. Leaders to an extent
have participated in leadership workshop program which was supported externallyand has been passive. Its main plan is at most organizing and running small scale
entertainment and sports.
Considering the seriousness of the youth problems, there is very little targeting of
the issues. For example, of the adolescents and young adults who came from remoteislands or outer islands to attend middle school, high school, or collage, roughly 20%

47
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuukdrop out. In majority of the cases, they have no one to turn to and even the foster
parents or home staying hosts themselves become helpless and not be involved in
the programmes that help youths to reintegrate back into the society and rebuild
their lives. Such social care is imperative for bringing quality personnel in future. It
is important to have national policy to encourage youths to climb up the social ladderand be empowered, but the roles played by fellow civilians and NGO will reach out far
and thin to provide beneficial treatment on individual basis, together with cooperativeand collaborative efforts with the country, state, and the educational institutions.
There is no evidence of meetings discussing development and revitalization of thelocal community. However, they showed interest in success stories of children on
Marshall Island who faced similar problems; the programme was aimed at youths,
including school dropouts, to be‘rehabilitated’and proactively engaging in social
activities through music and making friends. They were also interested in Japanese
Neyako system, an established and longstanding tradition found on Toushi Island.
It is a youth camp system for boys above 15 with the aim to gain qualifications, bedisciplined, partake in youth activities, and creates long-lasting relationships with
their foster family and other enrolled boys (usually 5-7 people); this is an empoweringsystem.
The level of developments required to bring changes cannot be only local a trialand-error approach, but is in need of a well-experienced professional who can act
as a supporter to build up achievements over the years. To bring forth cooperative
developments for a social structure where the society raises its regional children, it
is necessary to join forces with international NGOs and dispatch senior volunteers
especially as it is the most fundamental task facing Chuuk, which is in the midst of a
traditional social structure reformation.
3) Japanese Involvement and Overseas Groups
1.Overseas support and cooperation (Japan)
Japanese support groups are not lavishly but are contributing significant
achievements. Japanese involvement is drastically changing in the midst ofgenerational change and declining ex-servicemen’s club meetings. Here are somecases.
Tokyo Rotary Club has been joining forces with its Chuukese counterpart andhas been reaching its support to outer islands as well. Recently, 5 solar-poweredsalt extractors, which allow sea water to convert to both drinking water and salt,
were donated and were received in the community with high praise and success.
The remote islands off Chuuk lagoon each received about five machines. Theseouter islands are: Halls region, Nommn Ruo, One, Ululu Onan, Onoun, Pathw region,
Tamatam, Polowat, Houk, and Pollap. They have also donated towards Terakoya-style(i.e. those organized by the local residents) educational facilities, enriching them withboth hard-ware and soft-ware. The Rotary Club gifted them with machineries such as
computers and a New Zealander is involved providing tutorial support. We were able
to visit the facility at the opening ceremony during the research period. The facility
was named“Akoikoi”which is name of a bird. Opening Ceremony was held by Japan(rice cake or candy throwing as if ridgepole-raising ceremony) and Christian mix style.

48
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

There were many local residents and children present. It is located in a region where
it received attention because of a problematic public order and shoreline garbage, but
amidst problematic inclination introducing this new advanced system targeting thefuture generation will enrich and deepen the living foundation.
On a separate note regarding local rotary club activities, when we introduced
donations made by Pohnpei Rotary Club, they donated handcars and welfare
equipment. significance is deeper than foreign aid in that they know the ins andouts of the island and its former member is involved in creating a large-scale settledcommunity since immigrating 100 years ago to Sohkes, and 55 years ago to Mand,
Pohnpei. A local providing support for their fellow locals in itself is an aid from thesocial capital network.
A group from Hiroshima has been actively donating educational materials, sports
goods, stationeries, etc.
The Kanagawa Prefecture Medical Association has been involved in a deep andmeaningful exchange. Currently, the relative of the former traditional chief Susumu
Aizawa is the chairman of the group. The benefactors have been actively supporting
medical consultations and donating simple but useful medical equipment. During the
research period, there were two doctors present.
Other people such as the tea ceremony group are also contributing to andsupporting the development of FSM. It was started by a Kansai person who likes
islands and has further aims to investigate difference between tea and kava (yangona)
cultures, breeding piperaceae (pepper family) crops and providing plantation support(a plantation operated by a Japanese in Pohnpei is facing difficulties in continuingbusiness due to aging) and be involved in its fair trade import. The supporter has
started to visit Chuuk more frequently.
2.Quasi-Japanese society space and the significance of the interchange
It has been estimated that at most 40% Chuukese have Japanese ancestry on somelevel. This is not a strict number but even its important leaders show a strong trace.
This strong ancestral link is one of the reasons for an active civilian support. It was
relatively easy to find Japanese descendants in Piis, for example a farmer named
Romeo Harfmann. His grandfather on the maternal side was Japanese (who passed
away in Piis on 2002 October 21; born and raised on Suiyo Tol Island with Japanesemother and German father) and the paternal grandmother was Toshiko (Japanesefather, Sakayama).
For a few years there have been emerging pictures of buildinga Japan-Chuuk
Exchange Centre on the land owned by former village chief Susumu Aizawa. The
FSM Ambassador to Japan and Chief of State Tourist Board are amongst those
involved. This is the land where pioneers starting with Koben Mori had a familywith a local and started becoming involved even before Japanese reign started. It
soon approaches 100th anniversary of Japanese reign. It has been an important placefor dried bonito production, and it was a combined fleet anchorage and received
concentrated damage.
The recent economic link has dwindled to receiving periodical shipments ofimported goods. On Dublon Island (Natsushima), FSM government built an ice making
facility with ￥2 billion loan from Japanese government, but the facility started deteriorating

49
Improving the foundation of the environment, resources, and life in Chuuk

to a point when it needed a replacement, but due to lack of funds it had to make doby carrying out patches of repair work where possible, and the facility was scaled
down. Its biggest user is the Chinese fishing group (120 vessels including 12 longliners), but it has no employees locally. This merely reaches 4 % of Japanese fishing.
Overseas Fishery Cooperation Fund (OFCF) FSM operation manager is Kagoshima
University Fishery Department alumnus, but when asked 15 years ago about its
business evaluation project, it had developed its use of fishing baits, and an Okinawan
fisherman was instructing stick-held dip net fishing. The most important points of theformer Japanese reign was working hard together, learning together, and experiencing
achievements together. These exchanges including technical instructions are as faceto-face undertakings connecting to nurturing future generation, and also in having thissucceeded, promote desirable friendship.
There is a requirement to further the solidification of base for academic exchange
and having research partnerships with KORDI branch, college, and enriching museum
contents. There is a suitable environmental condition in place for Japanese researchers
for the academic endeavour.
References
NAGASHIMA S, (1986) Hygiene, Health Management, and Lifestyle ImprovementsLessons from Truk Island etc, Kateika Kyoiku, 60:13, pp.79-83.

50
NAGASHIMA Shunsuke

51
Adoption in the changes of family,
kinship,
and marriage:　 A comparative view based on studies from Micronesia and India
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
No.53（201３年２月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

Adoption in the changes of family, kinship, and marriage:
A comparative view based on studies from Micronesia and India
NAKATANI Sumie
Center for International Planning, Kagoshima University
Abstract
Adoption was widespread in Oceania and has been a subject of manyanthropological studies. Reviewing previous studies, first I point out that adoption
customs in Micronesia can be broadly differentiated into two; one is a transfer of rightover a child among the same kin and the other is that between kin and affine. The
former functions as a mechanism for acquiring heirs to continue a vertical line, while
the later for compensating labour lost in marriage exchange.
Second, I consider the recent decline of adoption on Romonum. I suggest that the
adoption between kin and affine might have decreased, while the marriage transaction
which exchanges siblings between two families has increased. It is assumed that along term exchange of labour between lineages (marriage followed by adoption) is
replaced by an immediate exchange between families (sibling-exchange in marriage).
Describing a peasant society in India, it is shown that both adoption and marriage
are systems which are structured by the ways how land, labour and fertility arecontrolled in the society.
As for concluding remarks, I argue to see a link between adoption and marriage
and to understand a change of the ways in controlling resources (land, labour, andfertility) as household politics over them. This perspective enables us not only tounderstand a recent change of adoption in Micronesia but to discuss it cross-culturally.
Key Words: Adoption, Sibling-exchange, Politics over household resources, Micronesia.

Introduction
This is a comparative study on adoption in the changes of family, kinship andmarriage. I had a chance to visit Romonum, an island of Chuuk in Micronesia for the
first time in 2011. During the interviews, I was impressed by attitudes of the people
to step-relations, adoption and fosterage. After returning to my country, I cameto know that adoption was widespread in Oceania and had been a subject of manyanthropological studies (cf. CARROLL 1970, BRADY 1976).
In the following I will review those previous articles on adoption in Micronesia. A
series of discussions have been made, but I think there are confusions about different
types of adoptions motivated by different factors. Adoption customs in Micronesia
can be broadly differentiated into two; one is a transfer of right over a child among
the same kin and the other is that between kin and affine. The former functions
as a mechanism for acquiring heirs to continue a vertical line, while the later for

52
NAKATANI Sumie

compensating labour lost in marriage exchange.
Then, I will consider recent changes of adoption in Romonum island, withreference to those in a peasant society of India where I had studied for a long time(cf. NAKATANI: 2008). Giving an example from a peasant society in India, I suggestthat transformation of marriage and adoption, institutions which transfer productive
resources such as land and labour among different groups, will be caused by thechanges of the way how productive resources are controlled in the society.
This paper, in which I try to explain adoption in terms of resource control system(land inheritance, labour organization, and marriage exchange etc.), is inspired by a
GOODY’s paper titled“Adoption in cross-cultural perspective”(GOODY 1969). His paper
has not been discussed so much by students of Oceanic adoption, partly because his
definition of adoption seems not to fit into cases in Oceania and partly because mostof the studies in Oceania have engaged the solidarity or sterility debate over a factor
of adoption. However, I believe that control and access over productive resources areimportant factors, based on which a system of family and kinship is structured.
Before examining adoption studies in Micronesia, I will give a summary of GOODY’s
paper. In the paper he enquired into the reasons why adoption was quite common in
major Eurasia such as China and India, while it was less found in Africa. Liking theuneven distribution of adoption with other broad differences of those societies, hespecified the functions of adoption. His conclusion is very suggestive in the point thatthe institution of adoption, he says, is related to the system of inheritance.
In a society where property is transmitted from one generation to the next byvertical inheritance, adoption is often used to provide an heir for a man’s property
in the shape of a direct descendant, who can continue a man’s name and often his
worship. In Africa where the productive system makes less intensive use of land andthere is less to leave in terms of restricted resources, property is less problematicand may pass through brothers or nephews; meanwhile personal continuity is often
maintained through begetting sons rather than adopting. When one’s wife is barren, he
may get wives by polygamy, levirate, or widow inheritance. Under these conditions,the institution of adoption has not developed, while fostering (which involves nopermanent change of identity) is common to take care of orphans. He differentiatedadoption from fosterage and argued that the need for heirs (and for adoption) is
diminished in Africa.
Previous studies on adoption in Micronesia
Studies of adoption have ramifications that lead scholars to explore aspects ofkinship, land tenure, social stratification, legal systems, and genetics. The main
discussions in Micronesia, however, evolved around the relative importance of kinshipand demography as variables influencing rates of adoptions. WECKLER published thefirst article on adoption in 1953 and pointed out that adoption practices are particularlycommon in the Pacific. Based on the data in Mokil island, he suggested the foremost
motive for adoption is childlessness (WECKLER 1953). Following this observation,
literature over reasons for adoption developed a quarter of a century later. In order tounderstand the context in which adoption was discussed, I will review some of thosestudies in different islands of Micronesia (Fig.1).

53
Adoption in the changes of family, kinship, and marriage:　 A comparative view based on studies from Micronesia and India

Fig. 1. Location of islands discussed in the paper.

Ruth GOODENOUGH attributed a high adoption rate on Romonum to“unevenly
reduced fertility in women, most notably as a result of venereal infection, and she
predicted that the rate of adoption declines in the face of more balanced fertility(GOODENOUGH 1970:337). By contrast, Marshall reported an even higher adoption rate
for the Namoluk atoll, despite a more favourable fertility picture. He argued thatthe high rate of adoption and fosterage represent part of a larger pattern of sharing
among relatives (MARSHALL 1976:47).
Looking for a single reason of adoption, some studies emphasized the sterility,
while others the solidarity of kin. Little attention has been paid to the family,
kinship, and marriage which are structured by the system of control and access overproductive resources. Exceptionally SUDO’s paper (1977), which is written in Japaneseand has not been referred so much, discusses the validity of a GOODY’s cross-cultural
perspective for understanding adoptions in Oceania (Table 1).
Comparing seven islands mainly of Micronesia, S UDO concludes that adoption
for the purpose of acquiring an heir (or heiress) is more important in the society
where the size of a corporate group is smaller and lands are also privately owned
by individuals. There are some societies (Ponape, Mokil, Kapigamarangi) in which
adoption works as a mechanism for acquiring heirs, while in the other society(Romonum), where a corporate group is consisted of two to four generations of amatrilineage members and productive resources are collectively controlled, acquiring

Patrilineage

Patrilineage
Siblings
Matrilineage
Matrilineage

Weckler(1953)

Lingenfelter(1975).
Sehneider(1962)

Emory(1965)

Spoehr(1949).
Mason(1954)

Force and Force(1972)Mokil

Yap

Kapingamarangi

MarshallPalau＜Ｔａｂｌｅ１＞Ｄｒａwn by the Author based on Sudo (1977)

Matrilineage

Fisher(1970)

PonapeLine ofInheritance

R.G.Goodenogh(1970) Matrilineage

Researchers

Romonum

IslandVirilocal

Matrilocal

Uxolilocal

Patrilocal

Patrilocal

Virilocal

Matrilocal

Residence

Adoption

Adoption involve a change of clan
membership and land inheritance.

A boy is prefered for adoption. Adoption
is closely related with land inheritance andpracticed（within a patrilineal cohsanguine.）
within a patrilineal consanguine.

Adoption does not involve land inheritanceand change of lineage membership.
Adoption is a mean of contiution of a lineage.
Adoption unites distant kins.

Matrilineage
Extended family of
matrilineal brothers

Sibling set of two or Adoption is based on a need to have a crossthree generation
sex sibling.

Extended family

Extended family

Nuclear family

Adopotion is related to land inheritance. A firstborn boy is preferred. There is a special typeof adoption which plans a cohesion ofdifferent matirilineages.

There found no adoption for the purpose of
Matrilineage of two
acquiring a heir. Adoption never changes
or three generations
clan membership.

Cooperate Group(Land ownership)

Table 1. Comparisons of seven islands in Micronesia based on SUDO (1977).

54
NAKATANI Sumie

55
Adoption in the changes of family, kinship, and marriage:　 A comparative view based on studies from Micronesia and India

heirs is not problematic. In the latter society the adoption has a different purpose
which cannot be explained by the descent theory (SUDO 1977: 264).
S UDO further describes the adoption custom observed in Ulul island as an
example of the latter society. A first child of a couple is customarily adopted by alineage corporate group out of which the husband married. The child is adopted incompensation for his father. He argues that this type of adoption intensifies the role ofa father’s lineage in a matrilineal society and that it is closely related with the systemof ritual exchange between kin and affine (SUDO 1977: 278).
Recently RITTER also mentioned the two categories of adoption which need to bedifferentiated. He addresses himself to the diachronic aspects of adoption and argues
that adoption agreements are distinguished from adoption outcomes. In Kosrae there
are many cases of unrealized adoption agreements. Some adopted babies do not adjust
well to new environment and return to the parents. When growing old, some make adecision to return to their natural parents for several reasons. Kosraens often says“upto them”in regard to the child’s role in the termination or continuation of adoption
relationship (RITTER 1981: 53).
When an adoption agreement is initiated, no one knows that the adoption relation
will be successful in fulfilling the expected ideas such as using the male adopter’s
name, inheriting his land and acting as son or daughter in his family. Thus, adoption
in Kosrae does not function as a mechanism for acquiring heirs. He points outthat the analytical term adoption is used in different ways. It might refer to either
adoption agreements, adoption outcomes, or current adoption relationships (many ofwhich will eventually terminate as unsuccessful adoption). The problem of carefully
defining what is meant by the term adoption is extremely important if comparisons
between societies are to be meaningful. One theory might deal with the occurrence
and frequency of adoption agreements, as found in the Pacific society. Another theory
would be necessary to explain the frequency of adoption involving land inheritance,
more complete incorporation of adoptees into the new kin identity, and permanent
residence change (RITTER 1981: 59).
The distinction of adoptions suggested by Ritter resembles the different types ofadoptions discussed by SUDO. According to him, the former is adoption explained byexchange theory and the latter by descent theory. These distinctions are, however,analytical categories and do not fit into a local idea. I propose to differentiate an
adoption among the same kin from that between kin and affine. The former is mainly
for acquiring heirs and the latter for exchanging labours. Both are concerned withhow to share, exchange, and distribute productive resource (land, labour, and fertility).
The previous studies have debated the factor of adoption, but most of them haveassumed that the state of childlessness is a primary condition for recipients and thedonors have economic difficulties with many children. This proposition also needs tobe reconsidered in the case of adoption between kin and affine. DAMES analysed the
motive for giving children in adoption and argues against the notion that adoption acts
as a balancing mechanism to level differences in family size in response to economic
needs (DAMES 1983).
His Pingelap data show that one-third of the donor families gave up theirfirstborns, and that over two-thirds of the children adopted came from families with

56
NAKATANI Sumie

no other child or only one child. In a patrilineal society of Pingelap, the dominant formof adoption is one by maternal grandparent. Asked about the preference for giving
children in adoption to maternal rather than paternal grandparents, a chief informantof Dames tells that the daughter’s husband may be asked to pay for the work of hiswife by donating a child to the maternal grandparent１. Also, in many cases unwed
mothers live with their parents and divorced women return with their children to
their parents. Upon marriage or remarriage, these women tend to leave their children
behind to be formally adopted by the grandparents. In reviewing the role of kinshipin Pingelapese adoption, Dames argues that the importance of bilaterality is evident(DAMES 1983: 338).
This type of adoption found in Pingelap is an oppositely directed transfer of a childwhich is observed by SUDO in matrilineal Ulul society. In both cases the purpose of
adopting a child is to compensate for lost labour. The adopted child moves in anotherdirection that his/her father in matrilocal residence or mother in patrilocal residence
moved. The same type of adoption between kin and affine was observed in Romonum,
too. GOODENOGH (1970) counted 18 cases out of 57, while 28 cases are adoptions amonga kin. She did not recognize a functional difference of the two because she considereda high rate of sterility among women at that time as a main cause of adoption in
Romonum. However, the people of Romonum most probably knew the different
function played by two types of adoption.
Recently overall rates of adoption have declined in Oceania. According to DAMEs,
the rate of adoption among a kin seriously declined on Pingelap to the extent thatsuch a sample is meaningless in its small size. What does happen with the other typeof adoption to compensate for labour of a person who married out? In the next section,
I will make an assumption about the change of adoption in Romonum, based on acomparison with a peasant society in India.
Changes of adoption caused by the change in controlling productive resources
I interviewed to some families in Romonum about their kinship and affinal relations.
Though it was a sample survey to just a dozen of families, I was surprised to find out
four cases of marriage transaction which exchange siblings directly (Fig. 2).
The direct exchange of siblings is found in recent marriages after the1990s not

○

△

○

△

ｂ

A

ａ

Ｂ

Fig. 2. Direct exchange of siblings in marriage.
１

Ｔｈｅ　ｓａｍｅ　ｔｙｐｅ　ｏｆ　ａｄｏｐｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄ　ｂｙ　Ｒｉｔｔｅｒ，　 ｔｏｏ　ｆｒｏｍ　Ｋｏｓｒａｅ　ｗｈｅｒｅ　ｍａｔｅｒｎａｌ　ｇｒａｎｄｐａｒｅｎｔｓ　ａｒｅ　ｍｏｒｅ
　ｌｉｋｅｌｙ　ｔｏ　ａｄｏｐｔ　ｔｈａｎ　ｐａｔｅｒｎａｌ　ｇｒａｎｄｐａｒｅｎｔｓ，　 ａ　ｐｈｅｎｏｍｅｎｏｎ　ＷＩＬＳＯＮ　（１９７６：　８４）　ｆｏｕｎｄ　ｉｎ　Ｌｅｌｕ　ｖｉｌｌａｇｅ　ｉｎ　１９６４．
Ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ　ｔｏ　Ｒｉｔｔｅｒ　ｓｏｍｅ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｔｅｒｎａｌ　ｇｒａｎｄｐａｒｅｎｔｓ　ｓｈｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ｇｉｖｅｎ　ａ　ｃｈｉｌｄ　ｔｏ　ｃｏｍｐｅｎｓａｔｅ　ｆｏｒ ｌｏｓｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅｉｒ　ｄａｕｇｈｔｅｒ（ＲＩＴＴＥＲ　１９８１： ５２）．

57
Adoption in the changes of family, kinship, and marriage:　 A comparative view based on studies from Micronesia and India

in old marriages. The increase of the sibling exchange in marriage seems to berelated with the change of ways in controlling productive and reproductive resources(labour, land, and fertility of woman), because marriage transactions are a means inwhich households attempt to adjust labour needs, transfer property and reproduce
themselves.２ The adoption between kin and affine might have decreased in Romonum,
while the marriage transaction which exchanges siblings between two families has
increased. It is assumed that a long term exchange between lineages is replaced by an
immediate exchange between families.
These changes, I guess, happened in a recent situation where a linage solidarity
and interdependence of different lineages are getting weak under the influence ofmodernisation. Compensating a lost labour of a man by adopting a child takes a longtime until the child grows up. It is not sure that the adopted child will stay withthe adoptees in the future and work for them. On the other hand, the direct siblingexchange results in a total equivalence at a shorter period between what is given andwhat is received. People must have preferred a short term exchange which seems to
be more assured.
The discussion I proposed here cannot be attested with a lack of the empirical data
which tell a present situation of adoption in Romonum. Instead, I will describe a casefrom a peasant society in India to show that adoption and marriage will change inaccordance with changes of social systems which control productive and reproductive
resources (labour, land, and fertility of woman). It helps to explain the causal link ofthose changes.
In a peasant society in Rajasthan, north-western part of India, the marriage ofbride-service which is followed by matrilocal residence was common before the land
reform in the1950s３. Bride-service refers to the transfer of labour from the groom tothe bride’s family. At that time, most of land in Rajasthan was controlled by the state
directly or by the feudal lords (holders of the estate given by the state). The peasantfamily held tenancy rights over a certain piece of land and inherited it from generation
to generation. Since land was plentiful, if infertile, the most important productive
resource was labour.
In getting married, a boy used to work for the girl’s family for a certain period.
During the pre-marital service to his in-laws, he was sometimes given a tenancy
right by the girl’s family or by the landlord in her village if he worked hard andwas favoured by them. Then, he continued to stay in his wife’s natal village after
completing his service. In those days, peasants easily shifted to any village where
they could get a tenancy right and daughters used to play a key role to deliver it toher husband. Thus, I found several cases of bride-service marriage with matrilocal
residence among men beyond age 70 when I interviewed in 2003. However, I did not
２

ＳＣＨＬＥＧＥＬ　ａｎｄ　ＥＬＯＵＬ　ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｉｎｇ　ｆａｃｔｏｒｓ　ｉｎ　ｍａｒｒｉａｇｅ　ｔｒａｎｓａｃｔｉｏｎｓ　ｌｉｅ　ｗｉｔｈｉｎ　ｈｏｕｓｅｈｏｌｄ　ｏｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎ　ｓｉｎｃｅ　ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｈｏｕｓｅｈｏｌｄｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｇｉｖｅ　ａｎｄ　ｒｅｃｅｉｖｅ　ｐａｒｔｎｅｒｓ　ｉｎ　ｍａｒｒｉａｇｅ．Ｔｈｅ　ｍａｒｒｉａｇｅ　ｔｒａｎｓａｃｔｉｏｎｓ　ａｒｅｗａｙｓ　ｉｎ　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｈｏｕｓｅｈｏｌｄｓ　ａｔｔｅｍｐｔ　ｔｏ　ａｄｊｕｓｔ　ｌａｂｏｕｒ　ｎｅｅｄｓ，ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒ　ｐｒｏｐｅｒｔｙ，ａｎｄ　ｒｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅ　ｔｈｅｉｒ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｓｔａｔｕｓ　（ＳＣＨＬＥＧＥＬ　ａｎｄ　 ＥＬＯＵＬ　１９８８）．
３
Ｔｈｅ　ｄａｔａ　ｏｆ　ｍａｒｒｉａｇｅ　ａｌｌｉａｎｃｅ　ａｍｏｎｇ　ａ　ｐｅａｓａｎｔ　ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ　ｗａｓ　ｍａｉｎｌｙ　ｃｏｌｌｅｃｔｅｄ　ｉｎ　２００３　ｉｎ　ａ　Ｒａｊａｓｔｈａｎ　ｖｉｌｌａｇｅ（ＮＡＫＡＴＡＮＩ　２００８）．

58
NAKATANI Sumiefind even a case of it among men under age 50 who got married after the land reform.
When a peasant family got a private ownership of land, the land was registeredby a name of a household head and inherited by sons not by daughters. Living in thevillage of his wife became considered to be dishonourable, because he does not have
any right over land in her village. Patrilocal residence was enforced in the peasantsociety. The marriage of bride-service became also unfavourable, since it does not
involve a transfer of right over land.
Today, a boy marries either paying money to a girl’s family (bride-price) or giving
his sister instead of cash to his brother in-law (sister-exchange). The new system ofadopting a son in-law as an heir has appeared for those who have no son. In this way
the systems of marriage and adoption have changed. This change was mainly causedby land reform which gave private ownership of the land to its male cultivators, but
at the same time, it deprived peasant women (daughters) of rights to inherit tenancy
and of the chance to live in their natal places. The system of marriage and adoption
had changed in a close relation with change in the way of controlling land and labour.
Concluding Remarks
In this paper, I discussed a link between a recent change of adoption and that ofmarriage. Describing a peasant society in India, I argued that adoption and marriage
are systems which are structured by the ways how land, labour and fertility havebeen controlled in the society, and in which a household as a cooperate unit deals
with issues of labour needs, of property inheritance, and of social and biologicalreproduction.
In the traditional societies in Micronesia, main productive resources of land andpeople were collectively controlled by each linage cooperate. Marriage was a system
to transfer human resource between lineages for reproduction and an adopted child
who moves to affine was a compensation for the resource lost in marriage. The
transfer of resources in adoption was not only conducted between lineages, but within
a lineage. The former consolidated a tie between different lineages, while the latterconsolidated solidarity of a lineage.
Recently in Micronesia, private property is getting more and more important. Evenin the matrilineal society of Romonum, for example, the amount of property which isinherited from a father and owned by an individual or siblings has been increasing,while some of compounds and houses are still collectively owned by a matrilineage
group. There has been a tendency in which a unit of controlling resources is getting
smaller. It resulted in an increase of sibling exchange in marriage and a decreasingof adoption in Romonum. Adoption, a long term exchange of labour between lineages
is replaced by sibling exchange in marriage, a short term direct exchange of labour
becween families.
A reviewing of previous studies made clear firstly that there are two types ofadoptions in Micronesia; one is adoption among a kin for acquiring heirs and the otheris adoption between kin and affine for exchanging labour. Secondly it was discussed
that the former type of adoption is explained by a descent theory and the latter bya system of exchange and distribution. However, both types of adoptions and theirchanges, I argue, can be understood by a perspective which sees them as politics of59
Adoption in the changes of family, kinship, and marriage:　 A comparative view based on studies from Micronesia and India

household over resources. Adoption among a kin is a mean for controlling recourse
vertically while adoption between kin and affine and marriage of sibling exchange
are both means for controlling resources horizontally. Empirical analysis on changesof adoption custom and on household politics over resources in Romonum will be a
research subject in the future.
Bibliography
BRADY I. 1976 (ed.) Transactions in Kinship: Adoption and Fosterage in Oceania. ASAO
Monograph No.4. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.
CARROLL V. 1970 (ed.) Adoption in Eastern Oceania. ASAO Monograph No.1. Honolulu:
University Press of Hawaii.
DAMAS D. 1983“Demography and Kinship as Variables of Adoption in the Carolines,”
American Ethnologist, 10(2): 328-344.
GOODENOUGH R. G. 1970“Adoption on Romonum, Truk”In Carroll (ed.) Adoption in
Eastern Oceania. ASAO Monograph No.1. pp.314-40. Honolulu: University Press of
Hawaii.
GOODENOUGH W. H. 1974“Changing Social Organization on Romonum, Truk, 19471965.”In ROBERT J. S. (eds), Social Organization and the Applications of Anthropology.
Cornell University Press.
GOODY J. 1969“Adoption in Cross-Cultural Perspective”Comparative Studies in Societyand History, 11(1): 55-78.
MARSHALL M. 1976“Solidarity or Sterility? Adoption and Fosterage on Namoluk
Atoll.”In Ivan Brady (ed.) Transactions in Kinship: Adoption and Fosterage in Oceania.
ASAO Monograph No.4. pp.28-50. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.
NAKATANI S. 2008 “Politics of women’s labour and reproductive power”In Negotiating
Social Changes: Ethnography of a Rajasthan Village (in Japanese), Ph.D dissertation
submitted to Kanazawa University,
RITTER P. L. 1981“Adoption on Kosrae Island: Solidarity and Sterility,”Ethnology, 20:
45-62.
SCHLEGEL A. and ROHNE. 1988“Marriage Transactions; Labor, Property, and Status,”
American Anthropologist, 90(2): 291-309.
SUDO K. 1977“Adoption Customs in Micronesia”(in Japanese), Bulletin of the National
Museum of Ethnology, 2(2): 245-81. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
WECKLER J. E. 1953“Adoption on Mokil,”American Anthropologist, 55(4): 558-568.

60
NAKATANI Sumie

61
Socio-economic influence
overseas Filipino workers in the Federal States of Micronesia
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
No.53（of201３年２月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

Socio-economic influence of overseas Filipino workers
in the Federal States of Micronesia
NISHIMURA Satoru
Faculty of Law, Economics, and Humanities, Kagoshima University
Abstract
The economy of the Philippines heavily depends on overseas workers. The major
destinations and dominance of simple labor has not changed in the last 30 years.
However, the destinations have been more diversified. And the professional jobs
are more dominant in some countries. The paper discusses a case by illustrating
the situation in the Federal States of Micronesia. The economy of this country iscalled MIRAB, which means the economy depending on migration, remittance andbureaucracy. The paper shows that the result of this economy has not brought aroundthe development of the private sector but, rather, frustration. The paper concludes
that the increasing number of Filipino workers will heighten the stressful nature of
the society.
Keywords: FSM, Philippines, overseas workers

Introduction
Globalization of goods, capital and labor is taking place among developing countries
as well as among advanced countries. This paper focuses the growing presence of
the Philippines in the Federal States of Micronesia (FSM). It shows the trend withstatistical data of the government, and it also tries to figure out the socio-economic
influence of this relatively new phenomena.
Growing presence of the Philippines in the FSM economy
Overseas workers as a national policy
The Philippine government has been promoting the increase of overseas workers
as a policy in order to get more foreign currency since 1982 when it launched thePhilippine Overseas Employment Authority (POEA). POEA is aimed to protect thehuman rights of the Filipino overseas workers as well as accelerate the numbers of
the workers abroad. According to the government statistics, the number of Filipino
overseas workers in 2008 was 8, 19 million, which was nearly 10 % of the total
population. The POEA statistics in 2010 shows the characteristics of the Filipino
overseas workers. The main destinations are Saudi Arabia, UAE, Hong Kong and
Qatar. The popular kinds of jobs are different between men and women. While maids,
caretakers and cleaners are dominant for women, cleaners and construction workers
are leading for men. This trend of main destinations and popular kinds of jobs has notbasically changed since the 1980’s up to now. However, there are also several new

62
NISHIMURA Satoru

phenomena taking place. Firstly, the destinations are becoming more diversified toall over the world, such as Oceania and Africa. Secondly, some of the destinations aredeveloping countries where the average wage level is as low as the Philippines. The
paper discusses the case of FSM as this new trend of overseas Filipino workers. It
tries to analyze the impact of it on the FSM as well as on the Philippines.
Overseas workers and trade of the Philippines in FSM
According to POEA, the number of Pilipino workers has increased recently since2006 to 2010 (Fig. 1). The same trend can be read off from the FSM government
data (Fig 2). It shows the total estimated number of Filipino workers, which are nontourists visitors to the FSM. Filipinos are the second largest number of workers to
Americans. Table 1 shows the kind of jobs of the 135 Pilipino workers based on POEA
statistics. It is noteworthy that there are no maids and cleaners which are morecommon in other countries. On the other hand there are many professional workers
such as foremen in construction sites (6), technicians (4), and accountants (4).
Imports from the Philippines to the FSM are also increasing. Figure 3 shows thegrowth rate of imports from the main countries between 2000 and 2006. It showsthat imports from the USA, Japan and Guam stayed at almost the same level, butthat from the Philippines is growing rapidly, as well as Singapore. More detailed
statistical analysis is necessary in order to understand this trade structure, but theauthor found that the importance of products in the FSM markets were of great
importance by simple field research. Table 2 shows the origin of the 89 items soldin a FSM supermarket. It indicates that the USA (45) and Japan (11) were more
dominant, but the Philippines (7) was ranked close to them. One of the accountants ofthe supermarket was a Filipino. We can infer that the increasing number of Filipino
workers will promote the importion of Filipino products.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

2006

2007

2008

2009

Source: POFA

Fig. 1 Philipino overseas workers in FSM.

2010

63
Socio-economic influence of overseas Filipino workers in the Federal States of Micronesia

5000
USA
4000
3000
Philippines
2000
Paciﬁc Islands
1000

Japan
Austraralia

0

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Source: FSM Goverment
Fig. 2. Non-tourists visitors to FSM.
Table 1 Philipino overseas workers in FSM by skills.
skill
Production and related workers transport
equipment operations and laborers
Carpenters, joiners and parquetry workers
Bricklayers, stonemasons and tile setters
Supervisor production and general foremen
OthersProfessional technical and related workers
Engineers civil
Accountants
Architects and town planners
Pharmacists
OthersClerical and related workers
Maschine operators automatic/ electronic data
Clerks stock
OthersSales workers
Managers (whole sale and retail trade)
Supervisors sales
Salesmen technical and service advisors
Administrative and managerial workers
Manager general
Service workers
Cooks and related workers
Total
Source: POEA

number
99
20
14
5
60
19

7

5

2
3
135

4
4
2
2
7
2
2
3

2
2
1
2
3

2006

64
NISHIMURA Satoru

1000
Singapore

800
600
Japan
400

Philippines

200

USA

0

Guam
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Source: FSM Goverment
Fig. 3 Growth rate of export to FSM by main countries (year 2000 = 100).
Table 2 O rigin of items sold in a supermarket (weno city, Chuuk state, FSM, 2011
August 3).
items (89)rank canned foods

59 rankseasonings

items(89)9 ranksweats

21

rank

total

89

1

USA

39

1

Japan

4

1

China

6

1

USA

45

2

Australia

62Philippines

2

2

USA

4

2

Japan

11

3

Philippines

4

3

USA

2

3

Japan

3

3

Philippines

7

3

Japan

4

4

China

1

4

Taiwan

2

3

China

7

5

Thailand2

5

Canada2

5Australia

6

6

Korea

1

6

Indonesia

2

6

Taiwan3

6

Taiwan1

7Philippines

1

7

Canada2

6

Poland18Hong Kong

1

7

Indonesia

2

6

Malaysia

1

7

Thailand

2

10

Korea

1

10

Hong Kong

1

10Poland1

10

Malaysia165
Socio-economic influence of overseas Filipino workers in the Federal States of Micronesia

FSM economy: MIRAB economy and stress of men
FSM consists of four states, or Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae. The population isaround 110 thousand. It used to be a UN Trust Territory and it became independent
in 1979. It has a strong relationship with the USA through the Compact of Free
Association. While it allows the USA free access to its territory, it is receiving a hugeamount of the compact ground. The present compact grant is scheduled to continue
to 2023. Figure 4 shows that 43% of the government revenue depended on compact
grant in 2006. This bloated public sector is contributing a lot to infrastructure,
education, community development in the islands and so on. However, the provisionof basic education does not necessarily lead to the development of the public sector. It
has just enlarged the inefficient public sector. Figure 4 illustrates the unemployment
rate and percentage of labor force in subsistence economy in 1994 and 2000. The
unemployment rate has increased from 16.3% to 22% , and the subsistence economy
has augmented from 22.6% to 28.4% . It can be said that more than 50% percent of
the working population were not employed in 2000, which means the country is goingback to the non-market economy from the viewpoints of its labor market.
This crooked economic system is sometimes called the MIRAB economy. It meansthat the economy heavily depends on Migrants’ Remittance and Aids from the USA
and other countries, and consequently the public sector or Bureaucracy is extremely
enlarged while the private sector stays undeveloped. Regarding the MIRAB economy,
there are both positive and negative views among researchers. Brazys (2010) insiststhat influx of the compact grant increased the relative price in FSM and it entails thepotential of export competitiveness. He resembles the situation as‘Dutch disease,’
which was brought around by export of newly discovered oil in the country in the
1980’s. Holland had a difficult time to export its industrial products because of its own
strong currency caused by oil money. Cassels (2006) claims that the rapid growthof foreign currencies led to the import of processed food, and eventually the local

Others8%

Tax
21%

Other grants
16%

Fishing access fee
10%Compact grants
45%

Fig. 4 Composition of revenue (2006). Source: FSM government.

66
NISHIMURA Satoru

Table 3 Unemployment rate and subsistence economy ratein FSM (1994 and 2000) (% ).
1994

2000

Unemployment rate

16.3

22.0

Percent of labor force in　 subsistence

22.3

28.4

Source: FSM government

diet was changed to unhealthy market food, which was one of the reasons for theincreasing number of people with obesity and other adult diseases. On the other hand,Ware (2005) maintains that the freer access to the US labor market contributed a
lot to lessen the dispute over the land and thus minimized the social tension. Naylor(2002) sees the role of imported processed food. He appreciates its role as a buffer tothe vulnerable eco-system based on the mangrove forests. The view of Cook (1998)
contrasts to that of Brazys. He claimed that there was no statistical evidence that the
public sector had crowded out the private sector. He inferred that the reasons for the
undeveloped public sector should be explored in other contexts.
Influence of growing Filipino presence on the FSM socio-economy
If the whole structure of the present situation continues, a more negative scenario
will be put into place. The decline of the MIRAB economy caused by the compact
grant cut will force to scale down the bloated bureaucracy. The people in the FSM
will have a more difficult time to find jobs in the public sector. Moreover, the influxof Filipino workers will reduce the chances of the local people to the job market inprivate sector. Especially, males in the FSM will have more frustration mixed with thetraditional female dominant family structure. Figure 5 illustrates the unemployment
rate of men and female in 1994 and 2000. While the rate of men increased rapidly from
10.7% to 20.7% , that of women slightly dropped from 26.9% to 23.6% . It is likely thatthe spread of public education has contributed a lot to lessen the gap between males
and females in job hunting. However, it also means that the stress of men has been
amplified. The stress has led to a different kind of social problem of men, such as highsuicide rate (Hazel 1991), violence and crimes (Oneisom 1991a), mental disease (Hezel
and Lightfoot 2005) and abuse of illegal drugs such as marijuana (Oneisom 1991b).
When we conducted research on a small island in Chuuk, we observed a lot ofsocial problems to prove the negative scenario. Many houses and public buildings
were broken partially or totally. Some houses were covered with graffiti painted withspray cans. Figures 6 and 7 show how much the islanders are frustrated. The ice cube
plant was built by JICA (Japan International Cooperation) planning to provide ice forthe fishermen who carry the fish to sell by boat in the market. We are not sure forthe reason, but for some reason the building was targeted by the frustrated islanders.
The walls were broken and the inside was painted with graffiti with a spray can. It
is safe to say that some islanders are stressed and small or big social problems easily
lead to violence. We have also observed that some young men who smoke marijuana
in the middle of the day. We felt like we were in a global city full of crime. Essentially,

67
Socio-economic influence of overseas Filipino workers in the Federal States of Micronesia

Male

Female

26.9
23.8
20.7

10.7

2000

1994
Source: FSM Goverment

Fig. 5 Unemployment of male and female (1994, 2000).

Fig. 6 A broken JICA ice plant.

68
NISHIMURA Satoru

Fig. 7 A broken JICA ice plant (inside the plant).

it is a small pacific island with only a few hundred people.
If the FSM is not capable of increasing the number of overseas workers or thepeople are not willing to work abroad, it needs to launch a kind of inward economy
strengthening policies which accompanies the tighter migrant regulation. It is easy to
say but difficult to carry out.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deep gratitude to the people in Chuuk state who are
truly supportive to our field research. I would also thank Research Center for the
Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University which has funded my research and provided
me the basic information and viewpoints. Without the help of them, it would be moredifficult to carry out this study.
References
BRAZYS S. (2010) Dutch Disease in the Western Pacific: an overview of the FSM
economy under the Amended Compact of Free Association, PACIFICECONOMIC BULLETIN, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 24-39.
CASSELS S. (2006) Overweight in the Pacific: links between foreign dependence, global
food trade, and obesity in the Federated States of Micronesia, GLOBALIZATION
AND HEALTH, 2:10.
COOK P. and KIRKPATRICK C. (1998) Labor market adjustment in small open economies:
The case of Micronesia, WORLD DEVELOPMENT, vol. 26, no, 5, pp. 845-855.

69
Socio-economic influence of overseas Filipino workers in the Federal States of Micronesia

HEZEL F. X. S.J. (1991) What Can We Do to Prevent Suicide? Micronesian Counselor.
HEZEL F. X. S.J. and LIGHTFOOT C. (2005) The Myths of Economic Development in the
FSM, Micronesian Counselor.
ONEISOM I. I. (1991a) Chuuk’s Violence: Then and Now, Micronesian Counselor.
ONEISOM I. I. (1991b) Marijuana in Chuuk Micronesian Counselor.
NAYLOR R. L., BONINE K.M., EWEL K.C. and WAGUK E. (2002) Migration, markets, andmangrove resource use on Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia, AMBIO, vol.
31. no. 4, pp. 340-350.
WARE H. (2005) Demography, migration and conflict in the Pacific, JOURNAL OF
PEACE RESEARCH, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 435-454.
Statistics
2005 FSM Statistical Yearbook, FSM National Government.
Household Income and Expenditure Survey Analysis Report FSM 2005, FSM.
International Trade Publication FSM 2004, FSM National Government.
Web pages
CIA (USA) http://www.doi.gov/oia/Islandpages/fsmpage.htm
Division of Statistics, FSM http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/
POEA (2010) Overseas Employment Statistics 2010 http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/2010_
Stats.pdf

70
NISHIMURA Satoru

71
Mosquitoes collected on Weno Island,No.53（
Romonum
Island and Piis Island, Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia (Diptera: Culicidae)
南太平洋海域調査研究報告201３年２月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

Mosquitoes collected on Weno Island, Romonum Island and Piis Island,
Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia (Diptera: Culicidae)
NODA Shinichi
Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University
Abstract
Mosquito larval surveys were carried out on Weno Island, Romonum Island andPiis Island in August 2011. Larvae were collected from 133 natural and artificial
habitats. A total of 1,761 larvae belonging to nine species including one unidentified
species were collected. On Weno Island, eight species, Aedes hensilli， Ae. albopictus，Ae. lamelliferus, Aedes sp.， Culex quinquefasciatus， Cx. carolinensis， Cx. annulirostris andLutzia vorax, were collected. On Romonum Island，　 four species, Ae. scutoscriptus， Ae.
hensilli，　 Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. carolinensis were collected. On Piis Island, six
species, Ae. scutoscriptus， Ae. hensilli， Aedes sp.， Cx. quinquefasciatus， Cx. carolinensis andCx. annilirostris, were collected. Distributions of Ae. hensilli and Ae. albopictus wereconfirmed in this survey. To prevent the outbreak of dengue fever, environmental
management should focus on the destruction, alternation, disposal or recycling ofcontainers that produce the greater number of adult Aedes mosquitoes.
Key words: Aedes hensilli, Aedes albopictus, mosquito fauna, Chuuk State, Federated
States of Micronesia

Introduction
It is a well-known fact that major vectors for dengue fever and dengue
hemorrhagic fever are Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus in urban areas of Southeast
Asia and in the Western Pacific Region (WHO, 1995). SAVAGE et al. (1998) reported adengue fever outbreak in Yap State between June and July 1995 caused by denguetype-4 virus. After this outbreak of dengue fever, it was also reported in 2004, 2007
and 2011 in Yap State. Entomological investigations implicated the native mosquito
species, Ae. hensilli, as vector of dengue virus (SAVAGE et al., 1998; NODA et al., 2005).
There is a possibility of outbreak of denguefever in other states of Federated Statesof Micronesia. However, there is a little information for vector mosquito species. To
know the geographical distribution of vector mosquitoes, entomological surveillance
was carried out on Weno Island, Romonum Island and Piis Island, Chuuk State,Federated States of Micronesia. This report describes a survey of mosquito fauna andbreeding sites of mosquitoes.
Materials and Methods
Mosquito larval surveys were carried out on Weno Island, Romonum Island andPiis Island in August 2011, Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia (Fig. 1). Weno

72
NODA Shinichi

Island is the capital and commercial center of Chuuk. At just over 18km 2, it is thesecond largest island in the lagoon. Tropical forests make up much of the interior,with the highest point, the 370m Mt. Tonoken, nearly in the center. Romonum Islandis also located in the lagoon, and it is less than 1 km2. Piis island is located on the atoll
ring reef, and it is also less than 1 km2.
Larval collections were made at 133 habitats in Weno Island (86 habitats),
Romonum Island (21 habitats) and Piis Island (26 habitats). The habitats are composedof coconut shells, rock pits, tree hole, banana stumps, wells, puddles, taro fields
and artificial containers such as concrete puddles, plastic water barrels as well as
discarded drink cans, glass containers, plastic containers, rubber containers, metal
containers, buckets, plastic bags, pans, tires, freezer, washing machine and trackloading platform, and the collections were made with a pipet and dipper. Collectedlarvae were preserved in 70% ethanol, and some larvae were reared to the adult stage.
Identification of the larvae and adults was made by using the keys and descriptionsof BOHART (1957) and BOHART and INGRAM (1946). And, the classification of the species
belonging to the genera Lutzia follows that of TANAKA (2003).

Fig. 1 M ap of Chuuk Atoll. Mosquito larval surveys were carried out on Weno Island, Romonum
Island and Piis Island.

Results
On Weno Island, a total of 1,180 larvae belonging to eight species including one
unidentified species were collected at 86 natural and artificial habitats. They wereidentified as Aedes hensilli， Ae. albopictus， Ae. lamelliferus, Aedes sp., Culex quinquefasciatus,
Cx. carolinensis, Cx. annulirostris and Lutzia vorax (Table 1). Among them, Cx. carolinensis
was the most predominant species collected (656 larvae, 41 habitats) followed by Ae.
hensilli (318 larvae, 44 habitats). Ae. albopictus was collected from discarded containers
along the main road.
On Romonum Island, a total of 204 larvae belonging to four species were collected
at 21 natural and artificial habitats. They were identified as Ae. scutoscriptus， Ae. hensilli，
Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. carolinensis (Table 2). Among them, Ae. scutoscriptus was themost predominant species collected (99 larvae, 11 habitats).

73
Mosquitoes collected on Weno Island, Romonum Island and Piis Island, Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia (Diptera: Culicidae)

Table 1. N umbers of mosquitoes and their habitat types collected in Weno Island, Chuuk State,Federated States of Micronesia.
Nunbercollectted

Number ofhabitat ＊Habitato types (No. of habitat)

Aedes hensilli

318

44

Coconut shells (14), Drink cans (9), Glass containers (4)Plastic bag (1), Plastic containers (9), Metal container (1)Bucket (1), Tires (3), Freezer (1), Plastic water barrel (1)Aedes albopictus

41

10

Coconut shells (2), Drink cans (5), Plastic container (1)Rubber container (1), Tire (1)Aedes lamelliferus

11

1

Coconut shell (1)Aedes sp.

1

1

Coconut shell (1)Culex quinquefasciatus

72

6

Coconut shells (3), Pan (1), Tire (1), Washing machine (1)Culex carolinensis

656

41

Coconut shells (18), Drink cans (7), Plastic containers (6)Rubber container (1), Bucket (1), Tires (8)Culex annulirostris

80

6

Drink can (1), Glass container (1), Bucket (1)Concrete puddle (1), Track loading platform (1),Taro field (1)Lutzia vorax

1

1

Drink can (1)＊Total number of habitat is 86.

Table 2. N umbers of mosquitoes and their habitat types collected in Romonum Island, Chuuk
State, Federated States of Micronesia.
Nunbercollectted

Number ofhabitat ＊Aedes hensilli

23

4

Coconut shell (1), Drink can (1), Rock pits (2)Aedes scutoscriptus

99

11

Coconut shells (2), Banana stumps (2), Drink can (1)Glass container (1), Rock pits (2), Plastic containers (3)Culex quinquefasciatus

16

3

Coconut shell (1), Glass container (1), Well (1)Culex carolinensis

66

4

Coconut shell (1), Glass container (1) Pan (1)Plastic water barrel (1)＊Total number of habitat is 21.

Habitato types (No. of habitat)

74
NODA Shinichi

Table 3. N umbers of mosquitoes and their habitat types collected in Piis Island, Chuuk State,Federated States of Micronesia.
Nunbercollectted

Number ofhabitat ＊Aedes hensilli

82

8

Coconut shells (4), Drink cans (3), Pan (1)Aedes scutoscriptus

65

10Coconut shells (5), Drink can (1), Banana stump (1)Tree hole (1), Plastic containers (2)Aedes sp.

17

2

Well (1), Taro field (1)Culex quinquefasciatus

59

3

Tree hole (1), Concrete puddle (1), Puddle (1)Culex carolinensis

105

7

Coconut shells (4), Drink can (1), Taro fields (2)Culex annulirostris

49

3

Puddle (1), Taro fields (2)＊Habitato types (No. of habitat)

Total number of habitat is 26.

On Piis Island, a total of 377 larvae belonging to six species including one
unidentified species were collected at 26 natural and artificial habitats. They wereidentified as Ae. scutoscriptus, Ae. hensilli， Aedes sp., Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. carolinensis
and Cx. annilirostris (Table 3). Among them, Cx. carolinensis was the most predominant
species collected (105 larvae, 7 habitats) followed by Ae. hensilli (82 larvae, 8 habitats).
Discussion
In this survey, a total of 1,761 larvae belonging to nine species including one
unidentified species were collected at 133 natural and artificial habitats. Five Aedes
species were collected and Ae. hesilli was most abundant Aedes species in Weno Island
and Piis Island, and also distributed in Romanom Island. Ae. hesilli is a main vector
of dengue fever in Yap State (SAVAGE et al., 1998; NODA et al., 2005). In Weno Island,
Ae. albopictus, which is a one of the major vectors of dengue fever, was also collected.
Therefore, these islands seem to be highly dengue-sensitive areas. The exact houseindex (No. of houses positive for vector species / No. of houses inspected x 100% ) was
not examined in this survey. The house index may be more than 50. Mosquito surveys
were carried out only on three islands of Chuuk lagoon. The mosquito distribution anddensity seem to be the same situation in other islands of Chuuk lagoon.
Aedes species lay eggs in practically all types of man-made containers, and also
in some natural containers. Fig. 2 shows typical habitats for Ae. hensilli. Generally,
the Aedes adults will be found around 50 meters from the breeding sources with amaximum flight distance of around 200 meters. To prevent the outbreak of dengue
fever, environmental management should focus on the destruction, alternation, disposal
or recycling of containers that produce the greater number of adult Aedes mosquitoes.
Weno Island is the main island, and the district center, government offices and75
Mosquitoes collected on Weno Island, Romonum Island and Piis Island, Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia (Diptera: Culicidae)

A

C

E

Ｂ

D

F

Fig. 2 T ypical habitats for Aedes hensilli and Aedes albopictus (A: Coconut shell, B: Drink can, C:
Glass container, D: Plastic container, E. Metal container, F: Tire).

airport are on the northwest side. Many people visit Weno Island from other islands
for work, trade, shopping and other purposes. The northwest side of Weno Island is avery busy place. Fig. 3 shows the lump of the throw-away dust along the main streetof Weno Island. Aedes larvae were often collected from artificial containers of throwaway dust. Unfortunately, the northwest area is highly dengue-sensitive. A patient
infected with the dengue virus will arrive at this site from other states or countries,
and may become the source of outbreak of dengue fever. As there was an outbreakof dengue fever in Palau, Yap and Majuro in 2011, an approach should be employed toreduce the potential for Aedes mosquitoes to breed in this area.

76
NODA ShinichiFig. 3 The lump of the thrown-away dust along main street of Weno Island.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (ProjectNo. 22510271)
References
ASHFORD D. A., SAVAGE H. M., HAJJEH R. A., McREADY J., BSRTHOLOMEW D. M.,
SPIEGEL R. A., VORNDAM V., CLARK G. G. and GUBLER D. G. 2003. Outbreak ofdengue fever in Palau, Western Pacific: risk factors of infection. Am. J. Trop. Med.
Hyg., 69: 135-140.
BOHART R. M. 1957. Insect of Micronesia Diptera: Culicidae. Bernice P. Bishop Musium,
Insect of Micronesia, 1956 (12): 1-85.
BOHART R. M. and INGRAM R. L. 1946. Mosquitoes of Okinawa and Islands in theCentral Pacific. U. S. Navmed., 1055: 1-110.
NODA S., GILMATAM J., OGINO K., TOMA T. and MIYAGI I. 2005. Mosquitoes collectedon Yap Islangs and Ulithi Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia (Diptera:
Culicidae). Med. Entomil. Zool., 56: 349-353.
SAVEGE H. M., FRITS C. L., RUTSTEIN D., YOLWA A., VORNDAM V. and GULBLER D. J.
1998. Epidemic of Dengue-4 virus in Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia,
and implication of Aedes hensilli as an epidemic vector. Am.J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 59:
519-524.
TANAKA K., 2003. Studies of the pupal mosquitoes of Japan (9)}. Genus Lutzia, withestablishment of two new subgenera, Metalutzia and Insulalutzia (Diptera,
Culicidae). Jpn. J. Syst. Entomol., 9: 159-169.
WHO 1995. Guidelines for Dengue Surveillance and Mosquito Control. 104 pp., World
Health Organization, Geneva.
WHO 1997. Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever; Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention andControl, 84 pp., World Health Organization, Geneva.

77
Use of Capsicum frutescens in
Weno, 201３年２月）
Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
No.53（OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（February 2013）

Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands,
Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia
YAMAMOTO Sota
Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University
Abstract
The local nomenclature and usage of Capsicum in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands,
Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), were surveyed to investigate
the relationship between people and Capsicum with a focus on dispersal routes,
ethnobotany, and food security. Two species of Capsicum, C. annuum and C. frutescens,are cultivated in Chuuk Atoll, but C. frutescens, especially the green type, is a common
seasoning in the daily diet of locals and has become an important and indispensablecondiment. Capsicum peppers are called“mwik (mwiik)”in Chuuk Atoll, which is of
unknown origin. People used C. frutescens in various ways: as a condiment (fresh fruits
and fruits soaked in the water of mature coconuts), vegetable (leaves), and medicine(fruits and/or seed for treating toothaches, fruits for eliminating the stomach parasite
known as“nikanipwun”, roots for an ointment to treat skin wounds, fruits for treatingsick domestic fowl, and fruits for boosting energy of gamecocks after fighting).
However, with modernization, residents of Chuuk Atoll have been eating fewer C.
frutescens leaves in recent years. The FSM has faced serious public health problems
due to a new diet and other lifestyle changes especially from the 1980s, and thegovernment, non-governmental organizations, and many researchers have attempted
to promote a return to local foods because of their higher carotenoid and vitamincontents compared to modern foods. On small islands and atolls, imported foods andmedicines may not arrive for more than a month if a typhoon or an oil crisis occurs.
Therefore, for food security, it is imperative to re-discover plants already naturalizedon each island. From this perspective, an important candidate plant is C. frutescens,which can serve not only as a spice but also as a vegetable rich in carotenoids andvitamins. Capsicum frutescens has long been naturalized in these regions; therefore, itdoes not need to be cultivated and its fruits and leaves can be harvested throughout
the year. To improve public health on Pacific islands, there should be renewed focus
on plants that are already naturalized on each island.
Keywords: dispersal routes, ethnobotany, leaves as vegetable, local food, medicinal use,
naturalized plants

Introduction
Capsicum peppers, consisting of approximately 25 species belonging to the
Solanaceae family, are native to both tropical and temperate regions of the Americas(ESHBAUGH 1993). Capsicum frutescens is a semi-domesticated species characterized by

78
YAMAMOTO Sota

seed dormancy, small fruit size, deciduous fruit, and the inhibition of flowering under
prolonged illumination (YAMAMOTO and NAWATA 2006, 2009b, YAMAMOTO et al. 2007,2008). It is widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of theworld.
Capsicum was introduced to Europe from the New World in 1493 by Columbus(BOSWELL 1949). After spreading through European countries in the early sixteenth
century, Capsicum was introduced to Asia in the late sixteenth century (ANDREWS
1995, KUMAZAWA et al. 1954, STURTEVANT 1885) and into Oceania during the early
European era (W HISTLER 1992a). However, its detailed dispersal routes remain
unknown. Many varieties of Capsicum annuum have been produced and distributed
around the world, making it difficult to reconstruct its dispersal routes, whereas
numerous local varieties of C. frutescens still exist in Asia and Oceania. YAMAMOTO andNAWATA (2004, 2005, 2009a) and YAMAMOTO et al. (2011) studied the distribution anddispersal routes of C. frutescens in Southeast and East Asia and found that accessions
from the Ryukyu Islands in Japan have a rare isozyme pattern, known as shikimate
dehydrogenase phenotype B (ShDH-B), and that this phenotype is distributed
throughout Taiwan, the Batanes Islands in the Philippines, Indonesia, Vanuatu, andEcuador, but not in continental Southeast Asia. The authors postulated that thisphenotype was introduced to the Philippines from the Americas via Oceania by the
Manila galleons (Spanish trading ships) in the mid-sixteenth century through to theearly nineteenth century, and thereafter dispersed into insular regions of Southeast
and East Asia. To further elucidate the dispersal and distribution of C. frutescens, it isnecessary to survey the distribution of the ShDH-B phenotype in Oceania. However,very few accessions of Capsicum have been collected from Oceania partly due to its
geography, which makes it difficult to access.
The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) consists of four states (Yap, Chuuk,
Pohnpei, and Kosrae, from west to east) composed of approximately 600 small islands,
which amounts to only approximately 700 km 2. However, the FSM is spread overmore than 2,600,000 km2 of the Pacific Ocean and spans approximately 2,500 km fromeast to west. The FSM is considered to be one of the best regions for studying the
hypothetical dispersal routes of C. frutescens, from the Americas via Oceania to Asia,
because it lies along one of the routes used by the Manila galleons and spans manydegrees of longitude between Southeast Asia and the Americas. However, there isvery little information on Capsicum in the FSM, except for that published in a recent
study conducted in Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011).
In the 1950s, people in the FSM still ate a“traditional”diet (M URAI 1954), but
this began to be replaced by a modern diet rich in rice, flour, sugar, fatty foods, andother imported, processed foods after the United States Department of Agriculture
started its supplementary feeding program in the 1960s (ENGLBERGER et al. 2003). Thisphenomenon accelerated after a Compact of Free Association was signed between
FSM and the United States in 1986 (HEZEL 2004). Since then, FSM has faced serious
public health problems due to this new diet and other lifestyle changes, and thegovernment, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and many researchers haveattempted to promote a return to local foods because of their higher carotenoid andvitamin contents compared to modern foods (e.g., ENGLBERGER et al. 2008, 2009). Even

79
Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia

though Capsicum did not originate in the FSM, it has been cultivated and consumed
there for about 400 years and thus it is reasonable to consider it a traditional local
food. Although the fruits and especially leaves of Capsicum are rich in carotenoids andvitamins (RESOURCES COUNCIL OF THE SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY AGENCY 2001),
the importance of this plant as a nutritious local food in this region has been largely
overlooked.
In the present study, the local nomenclature, usage, and distribution of Capsicumin Chuuk Atoll were surveyed to investigate the relationship between people andCapsicum with a focus on dispersal routes, ethnobotany, and food security.
Study Site and Data Collection
Fieldwork was conducted over a month-long period in July and August 2011 on
the islands of Weno, Romanum, and Piis in Chuuk Atoll, Chuuk State, FSM. The work
consisted of interviewing locals and documenting local knowledge, use, and dispersalof Capsicum species. Figure 1 shows the study sites. A total of 76 people (34 males
and 42 females, including 38 from Weno, 19 from Romanum, and 19 from Piis) wereinterviewed regarding the local nomenclature and use of the genus Capsicum. These
interviews sought to capture taste perception of pungent Capsicum; knowledge of
weed forms of C. frutescens and bird behavior toward fruits of Capsicum; usage as acondiment, vegetable, and/or medicine; and popular beliefs, agricultural rituals, andtaboos related to this genus. The interviewees were aged 20 to 75 years old, with a
median age of 46. Chuukese words are given following GOODENOUGH and SUGITA (1990).
Results and Discussion
Local nomenclature for Capsicum and perception of pungent Capsicum in Chuuk Atoll
Two species of Capsicum are cultivated in Chuuk Atoll: C. annuum (two pungent
types, one with a long fruit and another with a round fruit; Fig. 1A) and C. frutescens(several pungent types of various sizes with a green or greenish-yellow color whenimmature; Fig. 1B). People on Weno Island who cultivate the C. annuum cultivars
reported that they bought seeds or seedlings at an agricultural institute. Sweet
peppers (paprika) and dried fruits of C. annuum, some of which were confirmed to beimported from the United States, are also sold in small stores, but this species seems
to be rarely cultivated on the three islands studied. In contrast, C. frutescens, especiallythe green type, is a common seasoning in the daily diet of locals and has become an
important and indispensable condiment in Chuuk Atoll.
Capsicum peppers are called“mwik (mwiik)”in Chuuk Atoll. Other regional names
include“t’eebil”in Yap State (JENSEN 1977) and“meringel”in Palau (JOSEPHS 1990),
both located to the west of Chuuk State, and all of these names are of unknown origin.
YAMAMOTO (2011) reported that local names for Capsicum in Pohnpei State, locatedto the east of Chuuk State, include“sele”and“jeli”, possibly derived from“chile”inSpanish or English. Local names such as“pwepuh”in Kosrae State (LEE 1976) and“peybah”or“pepah”in Marshall (ABO et al. 1976), both to the east of Pohnpei State,seem to be related to“pepper”in English or other languages. Further linguistic studies
in Micronesia may serve to elucidate the dispersal routes of Capsicum.
Among the 76 interviewees, 30 recognized only one kind of pungent Capsicum (Table

80
YAMAMOTO Sota

Federated
States ofMicronesia

Chuuk
Atoll

C
B

A

20km

A: Weno
●
●

●

●
●
●

●

●●
●
●
●

●
●

●

●
●
●

●

●
●

●
●
● ●

● ●

●

●
●

●

●

●

C: Piis

●
●

●

500m

●

●●

●
●
●

●● ●
● ●

●
●

●
●
●
●

B: Romanum

●
●

2km

●
●
●

●

●
● ●●
●

●
●

●
●

●

●

300m

Fig. 1 S
 tudy sites (◦) on Weno (A), Romanum (B), and Piis (C) islands, Chuuk Atoll,
Chuuk
State,
StatesMicronesia.
Fig. 1 StudysitesFederated(●) on Weno
(A),ofRomanum(B), and Piis (C) islands, Chuuk

Atoll, was
Chuuk
State, Federated
Statesof Micronesia.
1), whicha cultivarof C. frutescenswithsmall green fruits (Fig. 2B-1). The other46 interviewees recognized more than two types of pungent Capsicum with the highest
number being five types, although they did not have any specific names for each type.
Many people thought that the C. frutescens cultivar with small green fruits was native
to their region and that the other Capsicum peppers were introduced from the outside
after World War II, although YAMAMOTO (2011) revealed that at least two kinds ofC. frutescens, including that with greenish-yellow fruits, were found in Oceania before
1945 during a specimen survey at the Bishop Museum, Hawai’i. These results may
imply that people in Chuuk Atoll are more attached to the small fruits of C. frutescensin their local culture.
The 46 people who recognized more than two types of pungent Capsicum wereasked to comment on each pepper’s spiciness and smell, and which pepper they
preferred. Table 1 presents the results. Forty-three people considered C. frutescens to81
Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia

A－１

Ａ－２

Ｂ－１

Ｂ－２

Ｅ－１

Ｅ－２

Ｃ－１

Ｃ－２

Ｄ－１

Ｄ－２

Ｄ－３

Ｄ－４

Ｅ－３

Fig. 2 Use of Capsicum peppers on Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll.
A long fruit (A-1) and a round fruit (A-2) cultivar of C. annuum. A green immature fruit color
type (B-1) and a greenish-yellow type (B-2) of C. frutescens. A weed plant of C. frutescens
found growing in an abandoned car (C-1) and seedlings of C. frutescens in a small cup (C-2).
“Setifat”on Weno and“unuken”on Romanum (water, salt, and fruits of C. frutescens) (D-1),
raw fish mixed with a sauce made of C. frutescens, soy sauce, and lime juice (D-2), and using
the peppers as a stimulant (D-3: C. frutescens and salt; D-4: C. frutescens, salt, and lime
juice). Water of mature coconuts placed in the sun for fermentation (E-1) and C. frutescens
fruits soaked in such water, occasionally with garlic, also placed in the sun (E-2 and E-3).

13

5

30

Romanum

Piis

Total

21

5

5

11

2

25

9

1

15

76

19

19

38

more Total＊3

43 [GR:43, GY:0]

14 [GR:14, GY:0]

6 [GR: 6, GY:0]

23 [GR:23, GY:0]

C. f. ＊ 2

2

0

0

2

C. a. ＊ 2

Which fruits are hotter?

1

0

0

1

S＊2

31 [GR:30, GY:1]

11 [GR:11, GY:0]

2 [GR: 2, GY:0]

18 [GR:17, GY:1]

C. f.

9

2

2

5

C. a.

6

1

2

3

S

Which fruits smell better?

28 [GR:28, GY:0]

6 [GR: 6, GY:0]

4 [GR: 4, GY:0]

18 [GR:18, GY:0]

C. f.

11

3

2

6

S

15

69

Piis

Total

＊2

7

4

0

3

No

66

17

18

31

Yes

10

2

1

7

No

Do you know birds eat its
fruits?

46

7

15

24

Yes

30

12

4

14

No

Do you have its plants inyour home garden?

: questions for 46 people who had C. frutescens plants in their home garden.
: including transplantation from weedy forms in home garden or village.

19

Romanum

＊1

35

Weno

Yes

Do you know weedy formsof C. frutescens?

14

4

1

9

Seeds or plants fromvillagers

32

3

14

15

Weedy forms ＊ 2

How did you get the plants? ＊ 1

Table 2 Perception of weedy forms of C. frutescens and bird behavior toward fruits on Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands,
Chuuk Atoll.

＊2

7

5

0

2

C. a.

Which fruits do you prefer to eat?

Questions for 46 interviewees who knew several kinds of pungent Capsicum: people know only C. frutescens (small fruits of which immature fruit color was green).
: C.f.: C. frutescens, C.a.: C. annuum, and S: Same.
[] ＊ 3: GR: small fruits of which immature fruit color was green, GY: fruits of which immature fruit color was greenish yellow.

＊1

12

Weno

1＊1

How many kinds ofpungent Capsicum do
you know?

Table 1 Perception of pungent Capsicum on Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll.

82
YAMAMOTO Sota

83
Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia

be hotter, and all of these people reported that the small, green fruit type (GR) was
hotter than the greenish-yellow type (GY). Of the remaining three respondents, twosaid that C. annuum was hotter, and one reported that C. frutescens and C. annuum wereequally hot. Many people remarked that smaller fruits were much hotter. Regarding
smell, 31 people thought C. frutescens smelled better (GR: 30, GY: 1), nine thoughtthat C. annuum smelled better, and six thought there was no difference between thetwo species. As for preference, 28 people preferred to eat C. frutescens (GR: 28, GY:0), seven preferred C. annuum, and 11 had no preference. Those who preferred spicy
flavors tended to prefer C. frutescens, whereas others tended to prefer C. annuum or
GY type C. frutescens.
Weed forms of C. frutescens and bird behavior toward fruits
Weed forms of C. frutescens were found along forest edges and the roadside in
Chuuk Atoll (Fig. 2C-1). More than 85 % of interviewees had seen weed forms of C.
frutescens (Table 2) and knew of or had seen birds eating fruits of C. frutescens. Thesebirds included a species known as“anga”on Weno and Romanum or“mwii”on Piis
(Aplonis opaca subspp.), as well as the“chuko”(common domestic fowl) on three islands
and“nikeitopar”(Myzomela cardinalis subspp.) on Weno (the scientific names of thesebirds are taken from ENGBRING et al. (1990); Table 3). A common domestic fowl andbirds belonging to the genus Zosterops are known to disseminate seeds of C. frutescensin Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011), Japan (YAMAMOTO 2010a), Taiwan (YAMAMOTO
2009), the Batanes Islands, the Philippines (Y AMAMOTO 2010b), and Cambodia(YAMAMOTO and MATSUMOTO 2008).
Table 3 L ocal names for birds that eat fruits of C. frutescens on Weno,
Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll
Local name
Weno

Romanum

Piis＊

Peopleansweredanga (: Aplonis opaca subspp.) ＊23

chuko (: common domestic fowl)

17

nikeitopar (: Myzomela cardinalis subspp.) ＊4anga (: Aplonis opaca subspp) ＊18

chuko (: common domestic fowl)

8mwii (: Aplonis opaca subspp) ＊17

chuko (: common domestic fowl)

5referred to Engbring et al. (1990).

84
YAMAMOTO Sota

Use of C. frutescens on Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll
Fresh or dried fruits
Locals who preferred spicy flavors reported eating fresh C. frutescens fruits raw,
adding them to soups and canned meats or fish, and using them to make a dipping
sauce (a mix of fruits, salt, soy sauce, and lime juice, occasionally with garlic, onion,
and/or black pepper) for fish (Fig. 2D). Some people put only the fruits of Capsicum into
un-boiled water with salt (a dish called“setifat”on Weno or“unuken”on Romanum)and used it as a soup and/or dipping sauce (Fig. 2D-1). Several females noted eating
the peppers raw with salt and/or lime juice as a stimulant (Fig. 2D-3,4). People
throughout Chuuk Atoll appeared to use dried fruits only rarely, similar to people in
Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011) and the Batanes Islands (YAMAMOTO 2010b). Thisis likely because the relatively warm temperatures and generally plentiful rainfall
throughout the year in Chuuk Atoll enable people to collect fresh C. frutescens fruits
year-round.
Processed or preserved fruits
People in Chuuk Atoll soak Capsicum fruits, especially those of C. frutescens, in thewater of mature coconuts (Cocos nucifera). These are placed in the sun for several
days, and allowed to ferment and then sour (Fig. 2E), creating a spicy-sour condimentcalled“manakini”, which is then added to fresh fish, soup, and other dishes. People
in Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011) and Fiji (unpublished data) do this, suggestingthat this technique may be common throughout Oceania. People also soak fruits into
lime juice, but they thought it would be a recent technique in Chuuk Atoll, as sameas in Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011). On the Batanes Islands,“bagun”is madeby soaking C. frutescens peppers in“silam”(a sour vinegar made from sugarcane;
Y AMAMOTO and NAWATA 2009a), while in Cambodia one of the most importantelements of soaking fruits in liquid seems to be the sour taste (YAMAMOTO et al. 2011).
As noted by YAMAMOTO (2010b), it is unknown whether people in Southeast and East
Asia developed this spicy-sour flavor themselves or had widely adopted it after its
introduction from Europe. The same phenomenon was observed in Chuuk Atoll.
Use of leaves of C. frutescens
The leaves of Capsicum, especially C. frutescens, are used in soups and in mixes ofvegetables in Chuuk Atoll; in contrast, no one interviewed reported eating the roots
as a spice or vegetable. On Romanum and Piis islands, 15 of 19 people indicated thatthey still use Capsicum leaves for food (although this was not observed during thestudy period). On Weno, 19 of 38 people reported that they had not recently eaten theleaves (Table 4). The frequency of using leaves did not differ among the three islands(Table 4). YAMAMOTO (2011) reported that, in Pohnpei State, the frequency of using
the leaves is much higher in remote atolls, such as Mokil and Pingelap, than on themain island, Pohnpei Island. It is known that the lifestyle on Pohnpei Island was more
modernized than that on Mokil and Pingelap atolls (KAWAI et al. 2010), which seems tohave affected the use of C. frutescens leaves. In Chuuk Atoll, Weno is the main islandand is also more modernized, which may explain the decreased usage of leaves onthat island. YAMAMOTO (2009) reported that indigenous peoples of Taiwan used to add

85
Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia

Table 4 U
 se of leaves of C. frutescens on Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk
Atoll.
Use of leaves of C. frutescens
as vegetable

Frequency of use of leaves of C. frutescens per ＊ 2
Week

Month

Year

Yes

No

Total

Several
times

One
time

Several
times

One
time

Several
times

Weno

19 [SO:18, FR:4]

19

38

0

7

5

4

3

Romanum

15 [SO:15, FR:0]

4

19

0

1

2

4

8

Piis

15 [SO:13, FR:2]

4

19

0

4

1

7

4

Total

49 [SO:46, FR:6]

27

76

0

12

8

15

15

[]

＊1

: they used leaves for SO: soup and FR: fried vegetables. Results from multiple answer.
: questions for 49 people who eat leaves of C. frutescens.

＊2

C. frutescens leaves to gruel made of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) or maize (Zea mays),or to soup as a vegetable, but that today they seem to rarely use the leaves because
they can buy other vegetables at markets. These results suggest that the leaves of C.
frutescens may be used less in modern society.
Medicinal uses of Capsicum
When asked about medicinal uses of Capsicum, three people answered that thepeppers are used to treat toothaches. In other regions of Oceania, the fruits, seeds,
and leaves are used to treat various ailments: fruits for painful joints in Pohnpei
State (YAMAMOTO 2011); fruits for back pain (UHE 1974) and leaves and/or fruits forother pains (WHISTLER 1996) in Samoa; seeds for aching muscles and body pains in
Hawai’i (WHISTLER 1992a); fruits for sore throats in the Cook Islands (HOLDSWORTH
1990); fresh leaves for aching muscles and rheumatism in Vanuatu (BRADACS 2008);
red pepper juice as an analgesic for body pains and aches on the Admiralty Islands(HOLDSWORTH and WAMOI 1982); and fruits for aches and pains, especially chest pains,on New Britain Island (HOLDSWORTH 1992). Modern medical researchers have foundthat capsaicin, the pungent ingredient in hot peppers, has a long-lasting suppressive
effect on sensory neuron activity, and this compound is used to relieve pain caused byarthritis and pruritus in modern medicines (CRAFT and PORRECA 1992).
Some have claimed that eating Capsicum fruits eliminates the stomach parasite
known as“nikanipwun”, as previously reported for Pohnpei (Y AMAMOTO 2011).
Capsicum fruits are also used to treat stomach problems in Samoa (UHE 1974), Taiwan,
the Batanes Islands (YAMAMOTO and NAWATA 2009a), and Cambodia (YAMAMOTO etal. 2011).
Four people said that eating fruits or leaves is good for eyesight, as in Pohnpei
State (YAMAMOTO 2011). One person reported learning this information at a local
workshop. People in seventeenth-century Spain reportedly ate two roasted Capsicum
peppers after every meal to improve poor eyesight (NAJ 1992). However, indigenous
peoples in Taiwan and the Batanes Islands claim that consumption of too many

86
YAMAMOTO Sota

Capsicum fruits, apart from C. frutescens, could cause poor eyesight, which may berelated to a concept in Han Chinese traditional medicine (YAMAMOTO and NAWATA
2009a).
The leaves of Capsicum are often applied to boils or wounds in Tonga (WHISTER
1992b), Samoa (UHE 1974, COX 1993), the Cook Islands, Tahiti (WHISTER 1992a), andFiji (unpublished data). Although this remedy was not observed in Chuuk Atoll in thepresent study, the locals did report drying the roots of Capsicum and mixing them withcoconut oil to prepare an ointment for treating skin wounds. There is little informationon the medicinal use of Capsicum roots, but people in Cambodia and Taiwan use themas medicine (YAMAMOTO and MATSUMOTO 2008, YAMAMOTO 2009).
Other uses of Capsicum
People in Chuuk Atoll also give Capsicum fruits to gamecocks after fighting toboost their energy. A man in Weno also mentioned that a gamecock will perform
well if juice from the Capsicum pepper is placed on its spur. The use of Capsicum on
gamecocks has also been confirmed in Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011), the Batanes
Islands (YAMAMOTO 2010b), and Cambodia (YAMAMOTO and MATSUMOTO 2008). Someinterviewees reported that the fruits are also used to treat sick domestic fowl. Similar
practices have been reported in Pohnpei State, Taiwan, the Batanes Islands, and Japan(YAMAMOTO and NAWATA 2009a, YAMAMOTO 2010b, YAMAMOTO 2011).
Capsicum peppers have been found to play a role in popular beliefs, agriculturalrituals, and taboos in many areas of Southeast and East Asia (YAMAMOTO 2009, 2010a,
YAMAMOTO and MATSUMOTO 2008), and they are also used to produce rice malt andin rituals related to rice malt production (YAMAMOTO and MATSUMOTO 2008, YOSHIDA
1993). However, in the present survey, there was no evidence of any of these uses in
Chuuk Atoll.
Conclusion
Capsicum frutescens remains a very important spice, vegetable, medicine, andcultural resource in Chuuk Atoll. However, the present study suggests that its use
as a medicine is more limited in Chuuk Atoll than on other small and remote Pacificislands, such as Pohnpei (YAMAMOTO 2011) and the Batanes Islands (YAMAMOTO 2010).
Moreover, people in Chuuk Atoll have been eating less C. frutescens leaves in recent
years. In the FSM, the government and NGOs have encouraged people to cultivate
vegetables such as squash, cucumber, lettuce, tomato, and eggplant to improve publichealth, but the outlook for this project is bleak, partly due to local inexperience incultivating such crops. On small islands and atolls, imported foods and medicines may
not arrive for more than a month if a typhoon or an oil crisis occurs. Therefore, forfood security, it is imperative to re-discover plants already naturalized on each island.
From this perspective, an important candidate plant is C. frutescens, which can serve
not only as a spice but also as a vegetable rich in carotenoids and vitamins. Capsicum
frutescens has long been naturalized in these regions; therefore, it does not need to be
cultivated and its fruits and leaves can be harvested throughout the year. To improve
public health on Pacific islands, there should be renewed focus on plants that are
already naturalized on each island.

87
Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia

Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to all of the interviewees from Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands
for their great hospitality, kindness, and openness. I am also grateful to Mason Fritz,
Director of Chuuk Visitors Bureau, who helped me conduct research in Chuuk Atoll. I
wish to thank the following people for arranging my surveys in Chuuk Atoll: Neterik(Sally Poll) on Weno Island, Tomisian Tan on Romanum Island, and Benito Nereo
and Julian Kinoch on Piis Island. I could not have made efficient surveys without
their warmhearted and persevering help. This work was partly supported by theInternational Program of Collaborative Research, Center for Southeast Asian Studies,
Kyoto University.
References
A BO T., B ENDER , B. W., C APELLE A. and D EB RUM T. 1976. Marshallese-English
Dictionary, pp. 236, 240, University of Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, USA.
A NDREWS J. 1995. Peppers - the Domesticated Capsicums. New edition, 274pp.,
University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, USA.
BOSWELL V. R. 1949. Garden Pepper, both a Vegetable and a Condiment. In Our
Vegetable Travelers. The National Geographer, 96: 145-217.
BRADACS G. 2008. Ethnobotanical Survey and Biological Screening of Medicinal Plantsfrom Vanuatu. Ph D dissertationder Universitat, pp. 74, 96, Regensburg, Frankfurt,
Germany.
COX P. A. 1993. Saving the Ethnopharmacological Heritage of Samoa. Journal of
Ethnopharmacolog, 38: 181-188.
CRAFT R. M. and PORRECA F. 1992. Treatment Parameters of Desensitization to
Capsaicin. Life Sciences, 51: 1767-1775.
ENGBRING J., RAMSEY F. L. and WILDMAN V. J. 1990. Micronesian Forest Bird Surveys,
the Federated States: Pohnpei, Kosrae, Chuuk, and Yap, pp. 168, 175, 181, 186, 201,
209, 217, Department of Interior, Washington, D. C., USA.
E NGLBERGER L, MARKS G. C. and FITZGERALD M. H. 2003. Insights on Food andNutrition in the Federated States of Micronesia: A review of the literature. Public
Health Nutrition, 61: 5-17.
ENGLBERGER L., SCHIERLE J., KRAEMER K., AALBERSBERG W., DOLODOLOTAWAKE U.,
HUMPHRIES J., GRAHAM R., REID A. P., LORENS A., ALBERTA K., LEVENDUSKY A.,
JOHNSON E., PAUL Y. and SENGEBAU F. 2008. Carotenoid and Mineral Content
of Micronesian Giant Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma) Cultivars. Journal of Food
Composition and Analysis, 21: 93-106.
E NGLBERGER L., S CHIERLE J., H OFMANN P., L ORENS A., A LBERT K., L EVENDUSKY
A., PAUL Y., LICKANETH E., ELYMORE A., MADDISON A., DEBRUM I., NEMRA J.,
ALFRED J., VANDER VELDE, N. and KRAEMER K. 2009. Carotenoid and Vitamin
Content of Micronesian Atoll Foods: Pandanus (Pandanus tectorius) and Garlic Pear
(Crataeva speciosa) Fruit. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 22: 1-8.
ESHBAUGH W. H. 1993. Peppers: History and exploitation of a serendipitous new crop
discovery. In: New Crops (Eds. JANICK, J. and SIMON, J. E.), 132-139, Wiley, New
York, USA.
GOODENOUGH W. H. and SUGITA H. 1990. Trukese-English Dictionary. Supp vol: English

88
YAMAMOTO Sota

Trukese and Index of Trukese Word Roots, 560 pp., American PhilosophicalSociety, Philadelphia, USA.
HEZEL F. X. 2004. Health in Micronesia: Over the Years. Micronesian Counselor Issue
53, 15 pp., Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei, FSM.
HOLDSWORTH D. K. 1990. Traditional Medicinal Plants of Rarotonga, Cook Islands Part I.
International Journal of Crude Drug Research, 28: 209-218.
HOLDSWORTH D. 1992. Medicinal Plants of the Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain Island,
Papua New Guinea. Part I. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 30: 185-190.
HOLDSWORTH D. and WAMOI B. 1982. Medicinal Plants of the Admiralty Islands, Papua
New Guinea Part I. International Journal of Crude Drug Research, 20: 169-181.
JENSEN R. D. 1977. Yapese-English Dictionary, p. 71, University of Hawai‘i Press,
Honolulu, Hawai‘i, USA.
JOSEPHS L. S. 1990. New Palauan-English Dictionary, p. 192, University of Hawai‘i
Press, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, USA.
K AWAI K., K UWAHARA S., O NJO M., N ODA S., N ISHIMURA A., T OMINAGA S. and
NAGASHIMA S. 2010. The Influence of Environmental Changes on the Micronesian
Area: A Case Study of Islands in Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia.
South Pacific Studies, 30(2): 23-43.
KUMAZAWA S., OHARA T. and NIIUCHI K. 1954. The differentiation of Varieties ofPeppers in Japan. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 23:
152-158 (in Japanese).
LEE K. D. 1976. Kusaiean-English Dictionary, p. 107, University of Hawai‘i Press,
Honolulu, Hawai‘i, USA.
MURAI M. 1954. Nutrition Study in Micronesia. Atoll Research Bulletin, 27: 1-239.
NAJ A. 1992. Peppers: A Story of Hot Pursuits, 245 pp., Vintage Books, New York,USA.
RESOURCES COUNCIL OF THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AGENCY (eds.) 2001. Standard
Tables of Food Composition in Japan. Kagawa Nutrition University Press, Tokyo,
Japan.
STURTEVANT E. L. 1885. Kitchen Garden Esculents of American Origin. II. Peppers.
The American Naturalist, 19: 542-553.
UHE G. 1974. Medicinal Plants of Samoa: A Preliminary Survey of the Use of Plants for
Medicinal Purposes in the Samoan Islands. Economic Botany, 28: 1-30.
WHISTLER W. A. 1992a. Polynesian Herbal Medicine, pp. 82, 98, 112, 131, 132, National
Tropical Botanical Garden, Kauai, Hawai‘i, USA.
WHISTLER W. A. 1992b. Tongan Herbal Medicine, pp. 91-92, University of Hawai‘i
Press, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, USA.
WHISTLER W. A. 1996. Samoan Herbal Medicine. p. 87, Isle Botanica, Honolulu, Hawai‘i,
USA.
YAMAMOTO S. 2009. Use of Capsicum Frutescens by the Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan.
Studies on Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan, 13: 39-75 (in Japanese).
YAMAMOTO S. 2010a. Nihon no togarashi hinshu [Japanese cultivars of Capsicum peppers].
In: Togarashi sanka [Chili Hymn]. (Ed. YAMAMOTO, N.), 247-255, Yasakashobo,
Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese).
YAMAMOTO S. 2010b. Use of Capsicum Peppers in the Batanes Islands, the Philippines.

89
Use of Capsicum frutescens in Weno, Romanum, and Piis islands, Chuuk Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia

South Pacific Studies, 31: 43-56.
YAMAMOTO S. 2011. Use of Capsicum Frutescens on Pohnpei Island, Mokil Atoll, andPingelap Atoll, Federated States of Micronesia. People and Culture in Oceania, 27:
87-104.
Y AMAMOTO S. and N AWATA E. 2004. Morphological Characters and NumericalTaxonomic Study of Capsicum Frutescens in Southeast and East Asia. Tropics, 14:111-121.
YAMAMOTO S. and NAWATA E. 2005. Capsicum Frutescens L. in Southeast and East
Asia, and Its Dispersal Routes into Japan. Economic Botany, 59: 18-28.
YAMAMOTO S. and NAWATA E. 2006. The Germination Characteristics of Capsicum
Frutescens L. on the Ryukyu Islands and the Domestication Stages of C. Frutescens L.
in Southeast Asia. Japanese Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 50: 142-153.
YAMAMOTO S. and NAWATA E. 2009a. Use of Capsicum Frutescens L. by the Indigenous
Peoples of Taiwan and the Batanes Islands. Economic Botany, 63: 43-59.
YAMAMOTO S. and NAWATA E. 2009b. Effect of Root Zone on Flower Bud Formation
and Flowering of Genus Capsicum. Tropical Agriculture and Development, 53: 5558.
YAMAMOTO S., MISUMI M. and NAWATA E. 2007. Effects of Various Photoperiods on
Flowering in Capsicum Frutescens and C. Annuum. Environment Control in Biology,
45: 133-142.
YAMAMOTO S., MISUMI M. and NAWATA E. 2008. Effects of Photoperiod on Vegetative
Growth, Flowering and Fruiting of Capsicum Frutescens L. and C. Annuum L. in
Japan. Environment Control in Biology, 46: 39-47.
YAMAMOTO S. and MATSUMOTO T. 2008. Use of Capsicum by Khmer and Other Ethnic
Groups in Cambodia. Udaya, Journal of Khmer Studies, 9: 29-61.
YAMAMOTO S., MATSUMOTO T. and NAWATA E. 2011. Capsicum Use in Cambodia: The
Continental Region of Southeast Asia Is Not Related to the Dispersal Route of C.
Frutescens in the Ryukyu Islands. Economic Botany, 65: 27-43.
YOSHIDA S. 1993. Toho Asia no sake no kigen [Origin of rice wine in East Asia], 349 pp.,
Domesu, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese).

90
YAMAMOTO Sota

No.２１ The Progress Report of the １９９０ Survey of the
Research Project,“Man and the Environment in Papua
New Guinea”（English）
No. ２２ Islam in Southeast Asia: Education, Agriculturaland Seafaring Peoples (Japanese)
No. ２３ The Progress Report of the １９９１ Survey of the
Research Project,“Man and the Environment in Papua
New Guinea”(English)
No. ２４ People’s Lives and History in the South PacificRegion. Reprinted with permission. (Japanese)
No. ２５ Decompression Sickness in Divers (English)
No. ２６ The Progress Report of the １９９４ Survey of
the Research Project,“Man and the Environment in
Micronesia”(English)
No. ２７ Studies of Nautilus Belauensis in Palau (English)
No. ２８ Tropical Fisheries (Japanese)
No. ２９ Modern Japan's“Nanpo Kan’yo”(Participation
towards the South) (Japanese)
No. ３０ The Progress Report of the １９９５ Survey of
the Research Project,“Man and the Environment in
Micronesia”(English)
No. ３１ Invitation to the South Pacific: Selected Lecture
Notes from the Kagoshima University Research Centerfor the South Pacific Public Lecture Series １９９４-１９９７(Japanese)
No. ３２ Foraminifera as Indicators of Marine Environmentsin the Present and Past (Japanese)
No. ３３ Islands and Information Society (Japanese/
English)No. ３４ The Progress report of the １９９９ Survay of the
Research Project“Social Homeostasis of Small Islands
in an Island-Zone”yap Proper, Micronesia and Islands
in Southern Japan (Japanese/English)
No. ３５“The Power of Place”of the Areas at the
Boundary between Land and Sea - the Viewpoint fromSouthern Kyushu and the Southerly Islands (Japanese)
No. ３６ Health and Medical Issues in Island Areas(Japanese/English)
No. ３７ Researching Eruption Clouds of Volcanic Island
Chains (Japanese/English)

鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター●

KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARFCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDSOCCASIONAL PAPERS（BACK NUMBER）

南太平洋海域調査研究報告 （ バックナンバー）
No. ３８ The Progress Report of the ２０００ and ２００１
Survey of the Research Project“Social Homeostasisof Small Island in an Island-Zone”Islands in Southern
Japan (Japanese/English)
No. ３９ The Progress Report of the ２０００ and ２００１
Survey of the Research Project“Social Homeostasis of
Small Island in an Island-Zone”Yap Proper and Ulithi
Atoll, Micronesia (English)
No. ４０ Institutions in the making: an interdisciplinary
study on social life and economy of the Philippine local(Japanese)
No. ４１“Symbiosis”of Human being and Nature in theSouth Pacific Islands
No. ４２ The Progress Report of the ２００２-２００４ Surveyof the Research Project“Social Homeostasis of Small
Island in an Island-Zone”: interdisciplinary Approach
to Satsunan Islands Focussing on Yoron Island(Japanese/English)
No. ４３ Islam in Contemporary Southeast Asia (Japanese)
No. ４４ The Future of Shimauta (Japanese)
No. ４５. Innovation of Education in Remote Islands toAffect a Request of the Present Age (Japanese)
No. ４６ A Research Project for sensor Zone Setting
on Kagoshima Chain Islands from South to North for
Cultural & Environmental Transition (Japanese)
No. ４７ Global Warming and Pacific islands (English/
Japanese)
No. ４８ Climate Changes and Globalization -Environment
and People’s Life in the Pacific Islands- (English)
No. ４９ Strategy on the Asian-Pacific islands andKagoshima -Center-Periphery, Interdisciplinary andInternational Contribution (Japanese)
No. ５０ Re-opening as“The Center for Island Studies
Education and Research”, Symposium:“Nesia
empowerment”Developing Island Futures（Japanese/
English）
No. ５1 Interdisciplinary Research in the Small Islands,
Subtropical Zone（Japanese）
No. ５2 The Development Towards Affluent and Homeostatic（Japanese）

ISSN 1345-0411

OCCASIONAL PAPERS

No. 53（2013）

No. 53（2013）鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター

南太平洋海域調査研究報告

南太平洋海域調査研究報告
OCCASIONAL PAPERS

No. 53（2013年 ２月）
No. 53（Febｒuary 2013）

Research on the Influence of Globalization and Global
Warming on Life in Chuuk Atoll
Edited by KAWAI Kei　 and KUWAHARA Sueo

鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター
KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

南太平洋海域調査研究報告No.53（2013）●

PUBLISHED BY
KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS
郵便番号 890-8580
Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagosima 890-8580, Japan
鹿児島市郡元一丁目21番24号
Tel. : +81-99-285-7394
電話 099（285）7394
Fax. : +81-99-285-6197
ファックス 099（285）6197
E-mail: shimaken@cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp
平成25年２月25日発行
February 25, 2013www http://cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/index-j.html

鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター

鹿児島大学国際島嶼教育研究センター●

KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDSOCCASIONAL PAPERS No.53（2013）