EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM& PRACTICE IN JAPAN

February 2006
Center for Research on International Cooperation in Educational Development
University of Tsukuba(CRICED)Japanese Educational System and Practice(A Core Center of the Cooperation Bases System Building Project forInternational Cooperation in Educational Development Promoted by MEXT)「Project to Organize Information on Educational Experiences from Japan− Forcusing on Educational Management and Teachersʼ Training −」February 2006
Center for Research on International Cooperationin Educational Development(CRICED)
University of Tsukuba, JAPAN〒 305-8572 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-kenTel: 029-853-7287 Fax: 029-853-7288
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and concerns heree-mail: criced-adm@human.tsukuba.ac.jp

List of Writers
Ⅰ

Outline of Japanese School Education

Tsutomu HORIUCHI

Ⅱ

Japanese Educational Administration and FinanceShinji KUBOTA

Ⅲ

Japanese Social Education

Akitoshi TEUCHIⅣ

Organization and Implementation of Curriculum

Ⅴ

Classroom Management and Guidance

Hirohumi HAMADA

Ⅵ

School Management

Hiromichi OJIMAⅦ

Cooperation between School and Local Community

Ⅷ

Teacherʼs Qualiﬁcations・Training

Hiromichi OJIMAⅨJapanese School Culture & Life

Yokuo MURATA

Noriko KIMURA-IIDA

Noriaki MIZUMOTO/Ryoichi KAMADAi

ii

List of Writers
Contents

Contentsi

iii

Part 1
Ⅰ

Outline of Japanese School System 3

ⅡJapanese Educational Administration and Finance 29

Ⅲ

Japanese Social Education

77

Part 2
Ⅳ

Organization and Implementation of Curriculum 105

Ⅴ

Classroom Management and GuidanceⅥ

School Management 173

Ⅶ

Cooperation between School and Local Community

Ⅷ

Teacherʼs Qualiﬁcations・Training 235

Part 3
Ⅸ

Japanese School life and Culture

Research Fellows

301

Editorial Board

303

261

iii

147
193

Part 1Ⅰ Outline of Japanese School
SystemⅡ Japanese Educational Administration
and Finance

Ⅲ Japanese Social Education

1

The School System in Japan

1 The System of Law

1

2

Pre-School Education

2 Fundamental Law of Education

2

3

Elementary Schools

3

4

Lower Secondary Schools5

Six-year secondary Schools

3 Reform Movements in Educational
Administration (1)4 Reform Movements in Educational
Administration (2)5 The Board of Education

6 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT)
7 Colleges of Technology
7 Guidance Administration by MEXT
8 University System (Colleges, 8 Educational Finance and Responsibility
Graduate Schools)
Structure
9 Schools for the Handicapped 9 Schools Covered by the School
Education Law
10 Specialized Training Colleges 10 Establishment and Management ofand Miscellaneous Schools
Schools
11 Modernization of Japan and 11 Criteria for School Facilities and Class
the Public Education System
Size
12 Enrollment and Non-Attendance
13 Self-Evaluation / Third Party Evaluations
14 Disclosure of Educational Information
15 School Councilor System
16 Textbooks and Supplementary Materials
17 Disciplinary Action Against Children
and Students
6

Upper Secondary Schools

4

Social Education Facilities 1(Citizen's Public Halls )Social Education Facilities 2(Libraries)
Social Education Facilities 3(Museums)
Supervisors for Social Education

5

Houses for Youths and Children's
Natural Houses

6

Social Educational Organizations

7
8

Social Correspondence Education
Social Physical Education andLife-long Sports
Cultural Centers（Private Proﬁt
Social Education Businesses）

9

18 Specially Supported Education System
19 Students of the Permitted Enrollment
System20 Education of Children in Isolated Areas
21 Evening Lower Secnondary School
22 Lower Secondary Equivalency
Examination

Part 2
Ⅳ Organization and
Ⅴ Classroom Management and Guidance
Implementation ofCurriculum
1. Outline
1 Total Structure of Curriculum 1 Classroom Management Plans

Ⅵ School Management

Ⅶ

Cooperation between
School and Local
Community

Ⅷ Teacherʼs
Qualiﬁcations・Training

1

School Management

1

PTA

2

Process of Curriculum
Development
2. Organaization ofCurriculums

2 Class Objective

2

School Management Plans

2

Visits to Childrenʼs Homes

3 Class Activities, Group Activities, Day
Duty

3

Educational Goals of School

3Open Class Days

Educational Objectives andCurriculum
Curriculums and Courses ofStudy
3. Implementation ofCurriculums

4 "Class Newsletters"

4

Curriculum Management

4

Parent-Teacher Meetings

1 Teachers' Professionality
and Qualiﬁcations
2 Pre-service Training of
Teachers
3 Equivalency
Examination for Teacher
Qualiﬁcations
4 Personnel of Teachers

5 Group Activities for Children ofDiffering Ages
6 Non-attendance at School (Absenteeism)

5

Teachers' Meeting

5

Report Cards

5 In-service Training

6

Principals' Duties andCompetence

6

Communication Notebooks 6 In-service Training
between Teachers andwithin one's own School
Parents

5

Organization of Units andStudy Materials

7 Measures for Dealing with Nonattendance at school

7

Appointment of Citizens as
Principals

7

7 Training of Schoolleaders

6
7

Lesson Plans
Evaluation of Study

8 Visits to Children's Homes
9 The School Counselor and theCounselor of Education for Sound
Mental Development

89School Management Duties
Chief-teacher System

89School Newsletters,
Grade Newsletters, Class
Newsletters
School Home Pages
Human Resources ofCommunities

8

Class and Curriculum
Evaluations
Forms of Guidance

10 Teacher Guidance Meetings

10 School Assessments

10Work Experiences

11 Class fees

11 Evaluation of Teachers

11

Community Learning

4. Examples of Curriculum
Activities

12 School Risk Management

12

School Councilor System

10 Nurturing of Young
Teachers
11 Nurturing of Middle
Teachers
12 Nurturing of Principals
and Role of Graduate
School

10 Subjects in Elementary
Schools
11 Moral Education
12 Special Activities 1 (Class
Activities)
13 Special Activities 2 (Students
Council)
14 Special Activities 3 (Club
Activities)
15 The Period of Integrated
Study
16 Club Activities

13 School Choice System

13

14 Capacity of School
15 School Management Reform in
Japan

14
15

Opening Schools to the
PublicSchool Complex Facilities
Kodomo-kai (Children's
Gathering)
Local Education Liaison
Councils
110 Home for Children

3
4

9

16
17
18

iv

Educational Costs Paid byParents

8 Teachers' Salaries
9 Punishment for Teachers

Part 3
Ⅸ
1
2
3

Japanese School life and Culture
School Events(Items List)
Entrance Ceremonies
Opening Ceremonies

16
17
18

The Typical Day of a Teacher(Items List)
Morning meetings
Preparation for Class

29
30
31

The Typical Day of a Student(Items List)
Going to School in a Group
Morning Meetings

44
45
46

4
5
6
7
8

Morning Assemblies
School Excursions ("Ensoku")
Sports Day 1
Sports Day 2
Marathon Races

19
20
21
22
23

Teaching Classes
Skills to Teach
Recesses
School Lunch 1
School Lunch 2

32
33
34
35
36

Class-based Activities
Before ClassClass Hour
Recesses 1
Recesses 2

47
48
49
50
51

9

Cleaning Time

37

Recesses 3

52

10Overnight Trips Involving Outdoor 24
Study
School Excursions ("Shugaku-Ryoko") 25

Japanese School Life
(Items List)
Greetings
Collective Discipline (Lineup)Name, Name Card
Preparing and Clearing Up
School Lunch Bags
Keeping Records
Collective Discipline(Indoor Shoes)
Lunch Time

Meeting before Going Back Home

38

Playing

53

Cooperative Work during

11
12

Medical Check-ups
Disaster Drills

26
27

Teachers' Rooms
Teacher's Desks in Classrooms

39
40

Before and After Lunch
Teachers' Room

54
55

13
14

Music Festivals
Closing Ceremonies

28

Instructions to Students

41
42

Meeting before Going Back Home
Getting out of School

56
57

15

Graduation Ceremonies

43

After School

58
59
60
61
62

School Lunch Periods
School Lunch Menus
Cooperative Work for
Cleaning
Places Needing Cleaning
Keeping Animals, Growing
Plants
Notices and Posters 1
Notices and Posters 2
Notices and Posters 3
Nurse's Ofﬁces
Co-education

63
64

Health Education
Students' Preferencesv

Part 1

Ⅰ

Outline of Japanese School Education

Ⅱ

Educational Administration and FinanceⅢ

Outline of Japanese Social Education

2

Ⅰ

Outline of Japanese School Education

1

The School System in Japan

2

Pre-School Education

3

Elementary Schools

4

Lower Secondary Schools5

Six-year secondary Schools

6Upper Secondary Schools7

Colleges of Technology

8

University System (Colleges, Graduate Schools)

9

Schools for the Handicapped

10

Specialized Training Collegesand Miscellaneous Schools

11

Modernization of Japanand the Public Education System

1 The SchoolSystem in Japan

2 Pre-School Education

3 Elementary Schools

4 Lower Secondary Schools

5 Six-year secondary Schools

6 Upper Secondary Schools

7 Colleges of Technology

48University System (Colleges, Graduate Schools)

9 Schools for the Handicapped

10 Specialized Training Colleges and Miscellaneous Schools

11 Modernization of Japan and the Public Education System

5

The school system in Japan waschanged from a dual system to a singletrack school system through educational
reforms inﬂuenced by the United States
after World War Ⅱ . The 6-3 school
system means not only extension of
the period of compulsory educationfrom 6 years to 9 (6+3) years, but also
the articulation between elementary
education schooling and secondary
education schooling into a single-trackschool system.
As Japanese society developed
and became more sophisticated, theincidence of advancement following
compulsory education rapidly increased(educational explosion). It became
difficult to meet the actual educational
needs of people under the uniﬁed school
system. Educational system reforms wereneeded to modify the single-track school
system through establishment of collegesof technology and six-year secondary schools.
In Japan, the principle of legalism is basic to the educational system. Ten different types of schools are provided and justiﬁed by Article 1of the School Education Law (e.g. lineal). School system reforms have been implemented to build a life-long learning society. Cooperation or fusion
between school education and social and out-of-school education are viewed as challenges leading to a relaxation of the rules of Japanʼs educational
system.

This figure shows a single-trackschool system in Japan.
Fundamentally, the Japanese singletrack school system is made up ofelementary schools, lower secondary
schools, upper secondary schools anduniversities (6- 3- 3- 4 years).

This

system was modified by introducing
technical colleges in 1961 andcomprehensive secondary schools in
1998, which increased peopleʼs options
and diversified the school system.
However, this modification does notmean that the Japanese school system
has become a dual system.
As part of the above modification,
uniﬁcation of kindergartens as preschool
educational institutions and nurseryschools as child care institutions, andintroduction of the option of skipping
grades in post-compulsory educational
institutions, are under discussion.

6

Under the dual school system thefollowing two systems exist at the sametime. The ﬁrst system is the structured
system from university (the highest
level of educational institutions), thatis a place for the most advanced study
and research, to preparatory schools（grammar schools）: or a system “fromtop to bottom.” The second system
introduced during the modern period
involves schooling for basic education,
including teaching literacy to thecommon people. The single-track school
system integrates the top-to-bottom
school system with the bottom-to-top
school system. Whereas the dual school
system has been common in Europe
historically characterized by aristocraticand hierarchical societies, the singletrack school system is typical of theUnited States.
From the end of the 19th century to
the early 20th century in Japan, following broad calls for democratization of education, the shift from the dual school system to the single-track school
system was developed as a school uniﬁcation movement. At ﬁrst, only the elementary school levels were synthesized. During this transition period,
there was a multi-channel school structure as a transitional, middle form of the two systems. Later, changes also occurred also at the secondary schoollevel and in the basic education system, including the establishment of a lower division level of secondary schools and a shift to the single-track school
system. However, what roles secondary schools, which connect compulsory and higher education, should take is a matter of perspective of the level ofthe educational system.

Public kindergarten, elementary school,
lower secondary school and upper
secondary school

7

Kindergartens are educational
facilities that are superintended by the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Science,Sports and Technology (MEXT) for
children from 3 to 5 years old, andthat give young children appropriate
surroundings and encourage thedevelopment of their mind and bodies.
While in theory school can only beestablished by the state, autonomous
regional entities and scholastic
corporations, the present timekindergartens can also be established byreligious corporations and individuals.
Day care centers are welfare
facilities for infants superintended by the
Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare.
In Japanʼs present educational
system, day care centers andkindergartens comprise a dualized
structure of institutions for infants interms of age, time for service, content ofcare, teachersʼ qualiﬁcations and precincts. Given the uneven distribution of day care centers and kindergartens, ongoing changes in mothersʼ work
situations, and the difﬁculty of achieving administrative and ﬁnancial efﬁciency of facility maintenance due to the decline in birth rates, efforts tointegrate and unify the two tier system of preschool education (day care centers and kindergartens) provide a challenge. Up to the present, attempts
to integrate the Course of Study (kindergarten) with the Guide to Child Care (day care centers) and to construct both facilities on the same premise
are permitted in order to unify their respective administrations that represent a special area for structural reform.

While there is a movement towards
unification of kindergartens and day
care centers, they remain institutionallyseparate and distinct because ofdifferences in aims and age spread. For
example, kindergartens remain in chargeof 3 to 5 year-olds while day care centershandle 0 to 5 year-olds.
However as birth rates are on
the decline, the unification of the two
is sought on the grounds that local
communities need to raise their ﬁnanceefficiency. MEXT has admitted thatkindergartens could take care of children
until the evening, because regionally
there is an inadequate availability of
day care centers in relation to demand,with long waiting lists. Therefore, there
is a need and logic to dissolve theinstitutional separation of kindergartensand day care centers.

8Over time the number ofkindergartens in Japan has decreased
and as of May 1st, 2002 totaled 14,279.
Approximately, 60% of them are private,
and 15% of the private kindergartens
are not corporate. The number ofkindergarteners peaked in 1978 at
approximately 2,500,000, and has
decreased to 70% of that peak today.
Enrollment rates in kindergartens
peaked at 64.4% of eligible children
during 1979- 81, and have decreased
to 59.9%. The reasons behind this trend
include both declines in birth rates
and the increasing availability of andenrollment in day care centers. Day carecenters today total 22,000 and take careof 1,800,000 children, which is as manyas attend kindergartens.
Children can enter kindergartensfrom 3 years age up through the endof the preschool age group. Nowadays,
enrollment by 4-year olds in 2-year preschools account for the largest proportion, followed by enrollment of 5-year-olds in a 1-year preschool andthen 3-year-olds enrollment in a 3-year preschools. Of the nearly 110,000 full-time preschool teachers in national, public and private preschools,
more than 90% are female.

Kindergartens usually take chargeof children for four hours, either onlyin the morning, or in the morning
through lunch time. The instructional
content follows the Course of Studyfor kindergartens approved by MEXT,
and centers on education and play inaccordance with local environments.
However, through revisions initiatedin 1998, the emphasis has shifted to“zest for living” in elementary schools,
improved planning and the role ofteachers.

9Elementary schools established inJapan under the compulsory education
system aim to provide general basic
education. The State, local governments
and incorporated educational institutions
have the right to establish such schools.
Most elementary schools have been
established by local governments
except for schools attached to national
universities and private schools. Under
the system of “special zone for structuralreform,” stock corporations will also
be permitted to establish elementary
schools.
According to the School Education
Law, the management of educational
expenses is left to the founders ofschools. However, in the compulsory
education schools, authority andresponsibility are shared between theState and the prefectures as higher order
governments in order to both ensurecommon approaches to nation building as well as to maintain and improve educational standards.（School law →Ⅵ− 6）
The curriculums of the elementary schools are based on the Course of Study and consist of the following subjects (Japanese Language,
Social Studies, Arithmetic, Science, Life Skills, Music, Drawing and Handcraft, Home Economics, Physical Education), Moral Education（→Ⅳ− 44 〜48）, Special Activities（→Ⅳ− 49 〜 63）and the Period of Integrated Study（→Ⅳ− 64 〜 68）. With the revised Course of Study in 2002, teachingof English during the Period of Integrated Study was approved With the provision of greater leeway for local school discretion, “creation of special
curricular-oriented schools” is being promoted.

The management of public
elementary schools is left to themunicipal boards of education as
founders. However, the state (MEXT)
and prefectures (the boards of education)
exercise authority mainly in educational
personnel management (personnel
administration) and curriculum
management (guidance administration).
This type of management is called amultistory structure.
Educational personnel are
categorized as municipal officials.
However, municipal boards of education
have limited rights. These include
submission of personnel reports onteachersʼ service and supervision ofteachersʼ service to prefectural boardsof education on personnel. Prefectures
handle personnel matters including
appointment and dismissal, the quorum
and the emolument burden. Furthermore,
the state (MEXT) assumes ﬁnancial responsibility for ½ of actual emoluments and outlays for teachers supported through prefectural funds basedon the System of the National Treasury's Share of Compulsory Education Expenditures. Following the revision of the Course of Study in 2002,
educational contents are primarily left to each schoolʼs discretion. However, determination of the criteria and the character of the Course of Studyand the administrative framework for textbook authorization have been retained by the state. In many cases, prefectural boards of education organize“standard curriculum,” and help shoulder the guidance administration function through their roles as supervisors of small municipalities.

10

The number of elementary schools
in Japan is about 24,000 at present,
and 99% are public (municipal-run,town-run and village-run) schools. The
present number of students in Japanis about 7,240,000, and the numberof teachers is about 410,000. Since
primary education is compulsory andthe enrollment rate is almost 100%.
However, the scale of enrollment has
been changing due to declining birth
birth rates. The present number ofschools is about 88% of that of the peakyear (1955) while the current numberof students is about 57.5% of the peakyear (1960). The number of teachers
has increased by 14% compared with
FY1960.
The proportion of women to thenumber of teachers has increased
consistently to the present level of
62.6%.

The period of integrated study
is a new concept established by the
Course of Study which was adopted
and implemented starting in 2002.
However,it determined only the numberof hours of schooling, leaving thecontents and methods to the discretionof local schools. Specifically, there are
four pillars identiﬁed with the ʻperiod of
integrated studyʼ, namely international
understanding, educational informationand technology, social welfare andhuman rights. These are carried out
from elementary school levels (from the
3rd grade) through upper secondary
schools.
These pictures shows scenes fromthe period of integrated study: thetheme of this period is “international
understanding”.

11Lower secondary schools were
established following the extension ofcompulsory education from 6 years to 9
years under post-war educational reformsof compulsory schools. Lower secondary
education consolidated advanced coursesof national elementary schools and youth
schools existing under the old system.
The objectives of lower secondary
schools are to cultivate qualities essential
for effective citizenship. These are basedon elementary school education andcover basic information on occupations,
respect for diligence and awareness ofdiffering skills, inculcating the ability todetermine courses of action along withself and emotional control and a sense offair play in social activities.（School law→Ⅵ− 7）
As compulsory education, theeducational contents of lower secondary
schools are required to be similar. At thesame time, since educational contents should have sufﬁcient ﬂexibility to be relevant to a studentʼs courses after graduation and facilitate self growthduring puberty, electives are provided.
The basis of public lower secondary school administration is similar to that in elementary schools, since both are compulsory municipal
schools.

The management of public
elementary schools is left to municipal
boards of education as founders.
However, the state (MEXT) andprefectures (the boards of education)
exercise authority mainly in the areaof educational personnel management(personnel administration) andcurriculum management (guidance
administration). This is called amultistory structure.
Educational personnel are
categorized as municipal officials.
However, municipal boards of education
have limited rights; they submit reports
on teachersʼ service and on supervisionof teachersʼ service to prefecturalboards of education on personnel（Teachers whose salaries are given by
prefecture →Ⅱ− 28）. Prefectures have
responsibilities over personnel affairs,
including appointment and dismissal, thequorum and the emolument (ﬁnancing) burden. The state (MEXT) ﬁnances ½ of actual emoluments of teachers supported also by prefectural funds
based on the System of the National Treasury's Share of Compulsory Education Expenditures（→Ⅱ− 32）. Following the revision of the Course of
Study in 2002, the educational contents are primarily left to each schoolʼs discretion. However, determination of the criteria and character of the
Course of Study and handling of the administrative frameworks for textbook authorization have been retained by the state. In many cases, prefecturalboards of education organize “standard curriculum,” and and also handle the guidance administration function as educational supervisors of small
municipalities.

12

The number of lower secondary
schools in Japan is about 11,000.
Approximately 93% are public-municipal
schools because lower secondary
schools are compulsory educationalorganizations. The proportion of private
schools is 6.2%. Almost all of the private
lower secondary schools are linked toupper secondary schools and are partof an integrated system of six-year
secondary educational organization.
The number of students in Japan
approximates 3,860,000. the number offull-time teachers is 250,000 with thecurrent proportion of female reaches,at 40.7%, continuing to increase. Lower
secondary schools are affected by
the decline in birth rates no less thanelementary schools. The current numberof lower secondary schools is about
81.1% of the peak in 1955, while thecurrent number of students is 64.8% of
the level of the 1965 peak.
Lower secondary schools comprise the highest level of compulsory education. The proportion of attendance in upper secondary schools is
97.0%. By adding the number of students who attend specialized training colleges, the this proportion continuing on with schooling after graduationfrom lower secondary schools rises to 97.7%.

Lower secondary schools inJapan are compulsory and are a part ofsecondary education. Because of this, acommon curriculum is set for all students,
while at the same time meeting therequirement to deal with studentsʼ variedinterests and abilities. Class instruction
based on level of achievement（ → Ⅵ −35）has been widely adopted. With theintroduction of course electives, schools
are better able to handle the variedinterests and abilities of students.

13

While continuity between
lower secondary schools and upper
secondary schools is not guaranteed,nor compulsory, the proportion of
students going on to upper secondary
schools is 97%. Public lower secondary
schools are established by municipalities
as components of the compulsory
educational system while public upper
secondary schools are established mainly
by prefectures as non-compulsory
education school. Achievement tests
are required to enter upper secondary
schools. The negative effects of thesetests on education and instruction
at lower secondary schools has been
criticized despite the fact that virtually
all students proceed on to secondary
schools. Since lower secondary schools
and upper secondary schools areintegrated in many private schools, a shift
in studentsʼ and their parentsʼ preferencesfrom public to private secondary schools has been occurring. Given the above situation, comprehensive secondary schools have been deﬁned as thetenth type of schools in Article 1 of the School Education Law, under the revision of the Law undertaken in 1998. Comprehensive secondary schools
are six-year-schools that are divided into a lower division (three years) and an upper division (three years). While it is still possible to transfer tolower secondary schools and upper secondary schools in mid-stream, the key feature of comprehensive secondary schools is their six-year integrated
curriculum.

There are three types ofcomprehensive six-year-secondary
school education. Each type permits
exceptions in curricula development.
Secondary schools were established
as a new school system to facilitate
unified education. In public schools,
local entities may establish all schools
except type C ( tie-up-type), because
lower secondary schools are establishedby municipalities and upper secondary
schools are established by prefectures.
An exception occurs for designatedcities that are allowed to establish
both lower secondary schools andupper secondary schools. Due to large
differences between the teacher systemand the financial system, municipalities
encounter numerous difficulties.
Cooperation between schools establishedby municipalities and schools set up by
prefectures, and between national schools
and prefectural schools is permitted and encouraged in the tie-up-type.
Cooperation and interaction between kindergartens and elementary schools, elementary schools and lower secondary schools, and upper
secondary schools and universities has been promoted because of the necessity to ensure that studentsʼ progress in learning proceeds as smoothly as
possible.

14

Since the comprehensive sixyear secondary school was only firstestablished in 1999, the numbers ofschools and students are small. However,
the establishment of additional six-yearsecondary schools is likely to acceleratesince there are movements promoting
establishment of such schools in eachprefecture. Cooperation between
kindergartens ‒ elementary schools,
elementary schools ‒ lower secondary
schools and between lower secondary
schools ‒ upper secondary schools will
become an increasing reality.
As discussed when initiallyformulating this system, since thenumber of six-year-school is limited,
there is a risk that they might become“schools for elite” oriented to university
entrance examinations. As a matterof fact, there are some cases ofcomprehensive six-year public schools
with too many applicants. Careful oversight by the boards of education is required.

Physical prerequisites are necessary
to establish a secondary school that
integrates a lower secondary schoolwith an upper secondary school, such as
ensuring that their facilities are locatedon the same premises. The school in thispicture was newly constructed in 1994
and it is the ﬁrst comprehensive six-year
secondary school in Japan.

15

The upper secondary school wasestablished as an individual organization
follow-up to nine-year compulsory
education based on educational reforms
implemented after World War Ⅱ . Later,
educational institutions subsequent tocompulsory education were diversified
through institutionalization of colleges oftechnology, specialized training colleges
and comprehensive six-year secondary
schools. The institutional framework ofupper secondary schools themselves
diversified through rapidly increasing
advancement rates to upper secondary
schools along with the diversiﬁcation of
students.
The "three principles of upper
secondary schools“ (small school district
system, co-education system andcomprehensive course) were formed as
an institutionalized framework when
the upper secondary school system wasestablished. This institutional framework, however, subsequently diversiﬁed. There are four types of institutions: a) full-time course ‐part-time course(day/night/ day and night）- correspondence course: classiﬁed by the form of class, b) graded course‒ credit course (used together except for a quasicredit system at the university) classiﬁed by the form of accreditation or completion, c) ordinary education course ‒ specialized education course ‒comprehensive course classiﬁed by major, and d) general course ‒ advanced course (one year after graduation from a general course) ‒ specialized
course (one year after graduation from lower secondary schools) classiﬁed by educational level. Specialized education courses comprise vocational
education courses. There are agricultural courses, technology courses, commercial courses, ﬁsheries courses, home economics courses, and nursing
courses in vocational education programs.（School law →Ⅱ− 37）
Education which addresses theneeds of studentsʼ needs and thatis relevant to studentsʼ individual
situations has become a basic featureof Japanese education since 97.7% of
lower secondary school students receive
upper secondary school education
after graduation from lower schoollevels. Therefore diverse educational
opportunities are provided following
completion of lower secondary schools.
These include colleges of technology,
upper division of comprehensive six-yearsecondary schools, specialized training
colleges (upper secondary course‐
upper secondary specialized training
colleges), and miscellaneous schools.
This is in addition to the conventional
main stream progression from lower
secondary schools to upper secondary
schools. Moreover, upper secondary
schools themselves have been promoting
integrated department and credit system schools since they could not accommodate the diverse range of students who go to upper secondary school
within the conventional framework of “full time school‐part-time course” and ”ordinary course‐vocational course”.

16The enrollment rates in upper
secondary schools in Japan reached
97% in 2002. While the upper
secondary education is not compulsory,
it is regarded as equivalent to thecompulsory education and has required
special arrangements in order toaccommodate the diverse range ofstudents enrolled. Advanced courses(vocational courses or comprehensive
courses) have diversiﬁed and have been
established in the credit system in upper
secondary schools. Nowadays, diverse
options and flexible responses areneeded due to the decreasing demandfor part-time courses for working
students arising from economic growthaccompanied by the increasing demandfor correspondence courses for school
students choosing not to attend fulltime.
In addition, approximately 2/3rdsof students proceed to the tertiary educational level consisting of universities, junior colleges and specialized training colleges. This situation demands
that adapted guidance be provided that addresses studentsʼ interests, aptitudes and competence.

There are six types of courses
in upper secondary schools, namely
Agriculture, Industry, Commerce,
Fisheries, Home-Economics, Nursing,that comprise specialized education
courses for upper secondary schools.
Each course has distinct divisions with a
total range of 400 divisions.

17While the colleges of technology
might appear to be similar to special/ vocational schools that hsf special
curricullums and specialized training
colleges under the old Japanese
educational system, they are completely
different institutions. During an earlystage of era of high economic growth
Japan, demands for technical experts
to function as “middle man power” forindustries grew. Colleges of technology
were first established in 1967. In theirfive-year educational programs, thefirst three-years correspond to upper
secondary school and the last two
years correspond to junior college.
The advantage is that these colleges
provide ﬁve-years of systematic technicaleducation. The disadvantage is that they
become fixed on training of mid-leveltechnicians as the demand for highly
skilled technicians by industry becomesstronger.
The colleges of technology represent a new type of educational institution that were added after the enactment of the School Education
Law. They became an exceptional element of the single-track school system linking upper secondary and higher education. In addition, since it inpractice it was difﬁcult to transfer to universities during the early phases of these institutions, there was a concern that the single-track school system
would become a double track one. However, this concern has receded as the ﬂexibility of Japanʼs educational system had increased and the diversityof higher education has been promoted.
Although the educational content of the colleges of technology during their ﬁrst three years of instruction was based on upper secondary
school curricula and standards, they do not conform to the guidelines of the Course of Study. Also although they are categorized as institutions ofhigher education, they are completely different from universities as they do not have faculty meetings for educational and organizational management.
This makes their systematic characteristics unclear, having features of both upper secondary and higher education.

The biggest problem encounteredby the colleges of technology in theJapanese school system, is that theelement of the dual school system wasbrought into the democratic 6-3 singletrack school system that was put into
practice under the educational reforms
instituted after World War Ⅱ . The 5-year
systematic curriculum that corresponds
to three years of upper secondary
education and two years of lower higher
education do not correspond with thecurriculums of upper secondary schools,
universities and junior colleges in Japanʼ
s single-track school system. This madetransferring to colleges of technology forhigh school graduates and transferring
to universities for graduates of collegesof technology difficult. In other words,
colleges of technology tended to become“dead end” institutions because they
were seen as schools “outside” of Japanʼs
6-3-3-4 single-track school system.
This problem got serious with the increase in the demand for transfers to universities by graduates of colleges of technology concurrent
with advances in the structure of industry. It was solved with a revision of “Criteria for University Establishment,” which facilitated the transfer of units
which students attained in colleges of technology to universities. In short, a shift from a “dual system” of schools to “diversiﬁcation of educational
opportunities” occurred involving “enlargement of choices”. However, this development raised questions regarding the social functions and viabilityof the colleges of technology.

18

The number of colleges oftechnology has remained basicallyunchanged since 1985. About 90% of
all colleges of technology are national
institutions while a few of them have acommunity and private status. While thenumber of students also has remained
almost constant, student advancement
rates to universities have increased
rapidly following restructuring of theinstitutions, and the numbers andrates continue to increase. At present,
more than one in three graduates fromcolleges of technology moves on to
university education.

① Tokyo Metropolitan College of
Aeronautical Engineering② School emblem of Tokyo Metropolitan
College of Aeronautical Engineering③ Aeronautical, Mechanical andElectronics engineering Gallery④ Experiments in Advanced Physics（Department of AeronauticalEngineering, 4th grade）

19

Under the School Education Law,
“Universities” are regarded as one form ofeducational institution, including “juniorcolleges” and “graduate schools”. Due todeclining birth rates in Japan resulting
in a decreasing population of persons
under 18 years old, the relationships
between these three institutions havebeen changing. Enrollment rates in postsecondary schools reach approximately
70% of the university age population.
Under circumstances in which more than
70% of students register to attend private
universities and more than 90% register
to attend private junior colleges, securing
entrance to post-secondary education is
problem to many students. The abolitionof junior college and their conversion
into universities, the reorganization oftechnical fields in response to studentsʼinterests and needs, the reformation andtransformation of national universities into
national university corporations, and the establishment of professional schools in graduate schools represent broad national trends. These trends, inturn, impact upon the quantity and quality of higher education.
The aforementioned reforms were required because of the increasing sophistication of the Japanese economy, the increasingtransformation of Japan into information society, and the need for universities to respond to internationalization and globalization. Various issues
that have arisen linked to this restructuring of he character of Japanese universitiesʼ. One is that Japanese universities have often been described as“difﬁcult to enter and easy to graduate”. Others include the need to improve the efﬁciency of the distribution of of higher educational costs, and theneed to develop improved evaluation systems and independent administrative systems.
Until recently, there were threeforms of universities in Japan, national,
public and private (incorporated
educational institutions), and theirlegal characteristics were clearly
distinguishable. However, underevolving national reforms concerning
administration and finance, reducing
the number of teachers, improving thequality of universities, and make theallocation of state funds became majortasks. After April 2004, all national
universities changed their mode ofestablishment and currently are now
structured as “national university
corporations”.

Their management

has become similar to that of private
universities to the extent that educational
personnel are no longer consideredas public servants and the university
accounting systems have changed to thatof enterprises.
The management of the incorporated national universities is left to directors under the leadership of the university president. Participation
by outside members is substantial, as they account for more than half of the members in the supervision and administrative conference. As a result of
this change, management by “faculty meeting,” decision-making bodies that used to have authority over university personnel and ﬁnancial affairs aswell as educational research, will undergo change.
The autonomous management by incorporated institutions involves setting a target and a plan every six years. However, there are somemisgivings about the relationships and interactions between the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology on the one hand, andthe university corporations, particularly with regards to management capacities.

20

The number of universities inJapan has increased constantly, but
the number of national universities
began to decline in 2003 through aprocess of amalgamation. The numberof junior colleges in Japan has also been
declining since 1995 due to mergers
with universities, as well as abolishment.
Although the number of university
students has increased to the present,
it is certain that the number of students
will begin to decline in the future due
to expected declines in enrollment
rates and a declining population of 18
year olds. Also the number of juniorcollege students has been decreasing
rapidly since the peak year in 1995, andhas almost halved at the present. By
contrast, the number of graduate school
students has doubled during the last ten
years, and continues to increase thanks
to the establishment of professional
graduate schools.
There is a large discrepancy in the number of university teachers when comparing national and public universities on the one hand, andprivate universities on the other, particularly in terms of the ratio the number of students per teacher. The ﬁgures are: 10.2 students per teacher fornational universities, 10.8 for public universities, and 24.6 for private universities. This is problematic given the fact that many teachers at national
and public universities also teach in graduate schools and that the majority of departments in private universities are for liberal arts.

Japanʼs national university entrance
examination system is totally different
from that of a private university.
National universities carry out two
examinations of their own along with theresults of the examination administeredby the National Center for University
Entrance Examination (NCUEE). Whileprivate universities basically selectstudents using their own examinations,the number of private universities which
use the examination administered by
the NCUEE has increased in recent years
once private junior colleges started touse the NCUEE in 2004.

21

Special education for handicappedchildren was introduced into theformal school system through the legal
confirmation of right off all Japanesecitizens to receive education afterWorld War Ⅱ . As a result, compulsory
education was guaranteed for schoolaged handicapped children although thesupport network for maintaining sucheducation was not evenly promoted.
Schooling for the handicapped becamea part of compulsory education in
1979. During that time, the conditions
and philosophy of education for
handicapped children changed fromsegregation involving different methods
and opportunities to broader patternsof integration with ordinary children.
At the present, the key challenge is todeﬁne and operationalize what universal
education for handicapped children
should be.
Conventional criteria for schools, classrooms and guidance often are not appropriate for meeting the educational needs for for children
with multiple disabilities and diverse disabilities. Therefore some composite schools with the functions and facilities to meet such needs have been
designed in recent years under the framework and auspices of specially supported education.

The school system of special
education is legally divided into threeareas. There are schools for the blind,schools for the deaf and schools forthe handicapped that

prefectural

governments are required to establish.
Based on the levels of disabilities,
special (handicapped or training)classes are established in ordinary
schools. Disabilities are divided into six
categories: mental retardation, physicallydisabled, health impairment, partial
sight, hard of hearing, and others. Fromthe perspective of integration, special
resource classrooms are provided forhandicapped children who originallyattended ordinary classes, Educational
visitation in which teachers visit studentsʼ
homes to instruct them is arranged forseverely handicapped children who have
difﬁculties attending normal schools.

22

The number of schools for the blindand for the deaf in Japan has hardly
changed over time.

However, thenumber of schools for the handicapped
other than the blind and for the deaf
has been increasing since their formal
establishment became compulsory
in 1979. The number of students inschools for the blind and for the deaf
has decreased to about 1 / 3 of 1950
levels. The reasons are not only thatthe total number of students in Japan
has decreased, but also that the numberof blind or deaf children have declined
due to advances and improvements
in medical science. The number ofstudents entering schools for thehandicapped other than the blind andthe deaf has increased since 1979
because of the increase in the numberof children with multiple and severe
disabilities attending school. This isbecause of: a decrease in the number of children not attending school as education became compulsory, an increase in the number of children withmultiple and severe disabilities and the establishment of a new category for disability.
The number of teachers has increased in absolute terms as well as the ratio of students to teachers for all three types of schools forhandicapped children. Currently, the average number of students per teacher is 1.14 for schools for the blind, 1.37 for schools for the deaf and 1.62
for school sfor the handicapped other than the blind and the deaf.

① School buildings for the handicappedand school buses. All teachers standin front of the building to meet theirstudents every morning.
② Students come to school by way ofschool bus.

23

Specialized training colleges
and miscellaneous schools are notregular schools, and are not defined in
Article 1 of the School Education Law.
Nevertheless, school establishment
criteria and curriculum are statedin the same article. In other words,
these colleges and schools differ fromprivate supplementary schools run by
individuals, as they are categorized
as “non-regular institutional schools.”
Whereas for the schools defined in
Article 1 of the School Education Law,
founders are confined to the State,
local governments and incorporated
educational institutions, specialized
training college and miscellaneous
schools can be established by the otherentities.
The specialized training colleges
are deﬁned as having a certain scale andstandard among existing miscellaneous
schools. They were formalized institutionally in order to expand learning opportunities at the upper secondary education al and higher educational
levels covereing broad technical skills, qualiﬁcations and liberal arts.
（→Ⅱ− 36）

Specialized training colleges
are divided into three courses(upper secondary course/specialized
course/general course) based on therequirements of students. The highest
level of such courses is defined as a
specialized course (the term is morethan two years after completion of
upper-secondary education). Students
completing the course can transfer touniversities or colleges. It can be said
that there is an institutional equivalency
between upper secondary specialized
courses and upper secondary schools,
and between specialized courses anduniversities and colleges. In recent years,
the number of students who graduate
from universities or junior colleges andenter specialized training colleges has
been increasing. Therefore specialized
training colleges are providing diverse
opportunities for education for Japanʼs lifelong learning society.
Specialized training colleges are required to meet set criteria for establishing special training colleges as speciﬁed by an ordinance of the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, as “non-regular institutional schools”.

24Specialized training colleges
were established on the basis of
miscellaneous schools. There wereslightly fewer than 1,000 schools at theinitial stage of the institutionalization in
1976. While the number of schools has
continued to increase, in recent years
this number has remained constant.
Since some of the miscellaneous schools
have converted to specialized training
colleges, and the number of the former
has been decreasing consistently.
The number of students attending
specialized training colleges has
decreased since 1993 due to declining
birth rates, while the number of
specialized training colleges hasremained constant. The number of
miscellaneous schools has declined
to 1/6th or less of their peak once
specialized training colleges were
established.

① Buildings of specialized training
colleges② Students of architecture studies areoperating CAD (computer-aided design)③ Students of graphic design studies④ Training room for welfare
information studies⑤ Motor-mechanic studies; the rightside is a lecture room and the left ﬂoor
imitates a selling agentʼs room. Because
specialized training colleges must teachnot only modern technology but also
knowledge for selling according tosocial needs, computer are required
basic knowledge in each of the studies.

25

It is said at international meetings
that education largely contributed tothe modernization of Japan. However,the development of the Japanesesocial system before the Meiji period
contributed to the modernization ofJapan involving a shift from the feudal
period to a modern state. Moreover, thespread of the ʻTerakoyaʼ as educational
institutions for the people leading
to the worldʼs highest educational
enrollment rates largely contributed tothe establishment of Japanʼs modern
public educational system.

Theestablishment and the development of
the modern public educational system
in Japan during the Meiji period went
through 3 stages. These were (a) the
introduction of the developed westernmodel during the early Meiji period,(b) the establishment of a Japanesestyle system by Arinori Mori, the first
Minister of Education, and (c) the provision of free tuition for compulsory education accompanied by the extension of compulsory education parallelwith improvements in enrollment rates. After that, by intensifying ʻImperial nationalism and framing the objectives of education in terms of national
control over values, Japan efﬁciently achieved such objectives within the framework of establishing a ʻwealthy nation and strong armyʼ and a modern
capitalist state. Japan also became a politically and economically homogeneous nation but education then moved towards militarism both prior to andduring World War Ⅱ . During this period, education was extremely controlled by the prevailing militaristic ideology that lacked rationality. Finally,
this educational system collapsed. After World War Ⅱ , under the leadership of the United States, reforms promoting democratization of education
were instituted. The sovereignty of the people in education and educational rights were ensured and these reforms in turn contributed to social
reforms and social development during the post-war period.

26

Ⅱ

Japanese Educational Administration
and Finance

1

The System of Law

2

Fundamental Law of Education

3

Reform Movements in Educational Administration (1)4Reform Movements in Educational Administration (2)5The Board of Education

6

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)

7

Guidance Administration by MEXT

8

Educational Finance and Responsibility Structure

9

Schools Covered by the School Education Law

10Establishment and Management of Schools

11

Criteria for School Facilities and Class Size

12

Enrollment and Non-Attendance

13

Self-Evaluation / Third Party Evaluations

14

Disclosure of Educational Information

15

School Councilor System

16

Textbooks and Supplementary Materials

17

Disciplinary Action Against Children and Students

18

Specially Supported Education System

19

Students of the Permitted Enrollment System

20

Education of Children in Isolated Areas

21

Evening Lower Secnondary School

22

Lower Secondary Equibalency Examination

1 The System of Law

2 Fundamental Law
of Education
3 Reform Movements
in Educational
Administration (1)4 Reform Movements
in Educational
Administration (2)5 The Board of Education

6 Ministry of
Education, Culture,
Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT)

7 Guidance
Administration
by MEXT
8 Educational Financeand Responsibility
Structure
9 Schools Coveredby the School
Education Law
10 Establishment
and Managementof Schools
11 Criteria for
School Facilities
and Class Size

28

12 Enrollment
and Non-Attendance
13 Self-Evaluation/ Third Party
Evaluations
14 Disclosure of
Educational
Information
15 School Councilor
System16 Textbooks andSupplementary
Materials
17 Disciplinary Action
Against Children
and Students
18 Specially Supported
Education System

19 Student of Permitted
Enrollment System

20 Education ofChildren in Isolated
Areas
21 Evening Lower
Secnondary School
22 Lower Secondary
Equibalency
Examination

29

Japanese laws are composed ofwritten laws and unwritten laws. Written
laws in which the supreme statute is
the Constitution of Japan, are divided
into two types of law: one is nationallaws that are enacted by the Diet, theCabinet and Ministries, while the otheris autonomous ordinances provided byautonomous regional entities and otherorganizations. The kinds of unwritten
laws are customary laws, case laws,
construction by administration andrational laws. In Japan, construction
by administration such as throughnotification and reply on provisions by
the responsible Civil Service authorities
has substantial function as law
formulation.

In this slide, the genealogy of thenational law in statute form is briefly
explained. Japanʼs supreme law is theConstitution. The government ordinanceis issued by the cabinet to utilize lawsthat are formed through concretedeliberations of the Congress, The
ministerial ordinance is an order from
the Ministers of State of each ministry or
government office. For instance, in the
School Education Law, the enforcement
regulations of the School Education Law
consist of ministerial ordinances. In theministerial ordinance, the criteria forestablishment of schools and textbook
authorization are included. The official
notice, directive, and the notice / circularon the top right corner of the ﬁgure areissued by Ministers of State. However,when compared to ministerial ordinances
which have legislative restraints, thesealternatives carry legislative restraints.
Therefore, penalties or sanctions arenʼt applied if they are violated. Though the Course of Study is the directive, the administrators of curriculums who
donʼt follow the Course of Study are likely to be punished for violations of the enforcement regulations of the School Education Law, which providethat a curriculum has to be in line with the Course of Study.

30

Various educational laws ofJapan are based on Article 11 of theFundamental Law of Education andwere laid down as necessary laws for
enforcement. In terms of their form as alaw, the Fundamental Law of Educationand other laws related to education
have the same characteristics. However,
because of its special features, theFundamental Law of Education is treatedin correspondence with the Constitution.
○ Private schooling:○ Social education:○ Educational Laws: Law for the Special
Regulations Concerning Educational
Public Service / Law concerning Local
Public Servants / National PublicServices Personnel Law / Law on Shareof Allowance / Law of Securing of Capable
Educational Personnel / Special Measures Law for the Payment of Salary etc. to Educational Personnel / Educational Personnel Certiﬁcation Law○ Educational Administration and Finance：Law concerning Local Administration and Finance / Autonomous Law / Ministry of Education
Establishment Law / Local Financial Law / Law concerning Tax Grants of Local Government / Law concerning the National Treasuryʻs Share ofCompulsory Education Expenses / Law on Share of Allowance / Law concerning the National Treasuryʼs Share of Facilities Expenses / Law concerning
Relief of Natural Disaster Expenditure / Extraordinary Treatment Law concerning Rebuilding of Dangerous Facilities of Public Senior High School /Law Governing Special Measures for the Establishment of Special Schools for the Disabled

Every year, publishing companies
publish a revised edition of the statutebook related to education. This updated
statute corresponds to changes in theﬁeld of education because of revisions ofeducational laws in sequence. Recently,
educational institutions have beenrequired to learn diverse laws eventhough such laws donʼt directly relate toeducation, such as the Copyright Law.
As a result, the volume of statute books
has been increasing yearly. There is anindication that deregulation has helped
to cause such increases in the revisions
in laws.

31Article 1:Aim of education=“the fulldevelopment of personality”
Article 2:Educational principle=“alloccasions” “in all places”
Article 3:Equal opportunity ofeducation=“according to ability”
Article 4:Comupulsory education=“”
Article 5:Coeducation=“”
Article 6:School education=“”
Article 7:Socilal education=life-long
education
Article 8:Political education=“”
Article 9:Religious education=“”
Article 10:School administration=“”① Japanʼs Fundamental Law of
Education has regulations on
educational objectives, and it was
designed to eradicate the supernational education of the pre-WorldWar II period.
② Breaking economic barriers
to receive education was a major
objective of the Fundamental Law of
Education system. The interpretationof education “according to ability” isunequivocal.
③ There is a discussion on themeaning of compulsory education,that is whether it means to enroll
formally in schools as provided by thelaw or should it be understood in a
broader sense.
④ There is a discussion on the public
nature of education.
⑤ It includes the idea of lifelong
learning and the relationship between
lifelong learning and Social Education.
⑥ There is a sense of avoidance of politics and religion among teachers because of the strong demand for the political and religious neutrality in
education.
⑦ There has been a discussion on the bounds of the state, that is how far it can participate in the stipulation and maintenance of appropriate
educational conditions.

32

● Japanʼs Fundamental Law of Education
has regulations on educational objectives,and it was designed to eradicate thesuper-national education of the preWorld War II period.
● Breaking economic barriers toreceive education was a major objectiveof the Fundamental Law of Education
system. The interpretation of education“according to ability” is unequivocal.
● There is a discussion on a reading ofcompulsory education whether it means
to enroll in schools which are provided bya law or it shall be understood in a wider
sense.
There is a discussion on the public natureof education.
It includes the idea of lifelong learningand the relationship between lifelong
learning and Social Education.
There is a sense of avoidance of politics and religion among teachers, because of the strong demand for political and religious neutrality in education.
There has been a discussion on the bounds of the state, that is how far it can participate in the stipulation and maintenance of appropriate educational
conditions.

The review below mentions two
key court cases and illustrates various
arguments that were made concerning
participation by the state in education,and that had a large inﬂuence on reformsof educational administration in Japanafter World War Ⅱ , Specifically, theCourt Case on Textbooks, and the Court
Case on the Achievement Examination
dealt with the issues of citizensʼ right tolearn and on who in Japan has the rightto education.
It is clear that discussions on how
much a nation should be involved in the
education of Japanese nationals was
one element that raised awareness ofeducational issues after the World War
Ⅱ , Namely, what type of educational
administration is required and desirable?. It was clear that initiatives for restructuring educational administration fell behind actual needs, such asmechanisms that could representative parents and promote community involvement, as well as to nurture school autonomy. These days, cooperation
between the state (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) and teachers (Association of Teachers in Japan) has increased
substantially, thereby encouraging reforms on educational administration.

33

The adjacent flow chartshows that until the 1960s, postWorld War II reforms focused mostly
on educational administration.

After

the 1970s, reforms shifted from
centralization to decentralization.
The Board of Education Law in1948 enabled Japanese educational
administration to start over basedon the principle of democratization.
During the 1950s, when the key
policy concern was to secure politicalneutrality in education, the Board of
Education Law was revised and theLaw concerning the Organization
and Functions of Local Educational
Administration was enacted. These
reforms promoted centralizationof educational administration. We
can see the prototype of the educational reform steps taken since the 1980s in the Report of the Central Council for Education based on the threeprinciples (respect for the individual, transition to a lifelong learning system, accommodation to the changes in society such as internationalizationand information exchange).

When comparing the pre-war andthe post-war Japanese educational
philosophy and responsibility there
are three prominent features. First,
before World War Ⅱ , legislation
re educational laws was based on
the principle of Imperial Ordinance.
After the war, it switched to theprinciple of legislative enactment
embodied in the Constitution ofJapan and the Fundamental Law of
Education. Second, before the war,education was a national affair, notautonomous. While the Government
was responsible for administration ofschools and personnel management,
regional entities were responsible
for maintenance of school plan andthe pay for teachers. After the war,
whereas regions have responsibilities
for education based on the principleof decentralization, the national
government retains the functions to provide guidance and advice to the regional bodies. Third, before the war, educational authority in Japan was
based on a top-down mechanism centered in the School Inspector System: Minister of Education (School Inspector) ‒ Governor (Prefecture School
Inspector and County School Inspector) ‒ Mayor (Education Affairs Committee) ‒ Principal and Teacher. After the war, however, the basic principle
was adopted that the Ministry of Education and the Boards of Education are legally equivalent.

34

The adjacent Figure shows
the meanings of the principle ofdemocratization, regional devolution,
and autonomy enacted by the Boardof Education in 1948 as well as
alterations under the Law concerning
the Organization and Functions of Local
Educational Administration. The revisions
associated with recent decentralization
are also mentioned. The Law concerning
the Organization and Functions of Local
Educational Administration distanced
itself from the legislative substance of theBoard of Education Law, with methods
for activating Boards of Education
remaining an issue. The Law concerning
the Organization and Functions of Local
Education Administration in 1999
restructured educational administration
under general administration, involving repeals of aspects of decentralization such as the superintendent appointment system and the institution ofcommission affairs.

In a contemporary welfare state,
where educational administration isrequired to actively provide education,
the role of the central educational
administration is strengthened and theﬁnancial burden on the state increases. As
a result, reforms were needed in various
aspects of educational administration
and accompanying financial systems.
These include ⅰ ) the administration
participation system, ⅱ ) implementationof educational plans, ⅲ ) preparation of an
educational research system. A common
problem of contemporary welfare statesis that tax revenue levels are inversely
proportional to the provision of welfare. A
major feature of social reforms regarding
education in developed countries during
the 1980ʼs was deregulation. Deregulating
countries entrusted their private sectors with public works projects or privatized nationalized industries, and promoted “small government,” trying toactivate their economic activities based on the principle of competition. Educational administration under a deregulation policy involves shifting therole of educational administration from a pre-regulated type to post-check-type, performing the important task of trying to maintain the public natureof services. While the educational administration of a welfare state attempts to control educational plans in order to carry out efﬁcient educational
undertakings with limited educational resources, the educational administrational approach under deregulation attempts to mobilize the energy of theprivate sector in order to maximize the value of money rather than educational plans, and to make effective use of competitive educational resources.

35

In a contemporary welfare state,
where educational administration isrequired to actively provide education,
the role of the central educational
administration is strengthened and theﬁnancial burden on the state increases.
As a result, reforms were neededin various aspects of educational
administration and accompanying
financial systems. These includeⅰ ) the administration participation
system, ⅱ ) implementation of
educational plans, ⅲ ) preparationof an educational research system. A
common problem of contemporary
welfare states is that tax revenue
levels are inversely proportional to theprovision of welfare. A major featureof social reforms regarding educationin developed countries during the 1980ʼs was deregulation. Deregulating countries entrusted their private sectors with public works projects or
privatized nationalized industries, and promoted “small government,” trying to activate their economic activities based on the principle of competition.
Educational administration under a deregulation policy involves shifting the role of educational administration from a pre-regulated type to postcheck-type, performing the important task of trying to maintain the public nature of services. While the educational administration of a welfare state
attempts to control educational plans in order to carry out efﬁcient educational undertakings with limited educational resources, the educational
administrational approach under deregulation attempts to mobilize the energy of the private sector in order to maximize the value of money rather
than educational plans, and to make effective use of competitive educational resources.
The Educational Reform Programis one of the six structural reforms
carried out by the Hashimoto cabinet.
After the announcement of the
program in January, 1997, it wasrevised several times and finally the
program was completed in September,1999 (the sub-title ”to forge an
educational nation.”) The reform itemson the program are steadily becoming
institutions over time.

36

The Educational Reform Program is
one of the six structural reforms carriedout by the Hashimoto cabinet. After theannouncement of the program in January,
1997, it was revised several times andfinally the program was completed in
September, 1999 (the sub-title ”to forge
an educational nation.”) The reform itemson the program are steadily becoming
institutions over time.

The progress of the seven priority
strategies and their position in the overall
Japanese educational policy are underdiscussion and review. Key aspects are as
follows:① Increase in the number of teacherscapable of providing small-group guidance,such as the 20 students per class system
for fundamental subjects in public
elementary schools and lower secondary
schools. ② Undertake decisions by theprefectural boards of education to set up
exceptional standards regarding classsize which fall below that of the averagedetermined by the state. (40 students perclass) ⇒ Improve studentsʼ basic scholastic
proﬁciency ʻin easy to understand classesʼ.

③ Establish the ʻChildrenʼs Dream Fundʼ and implement programs (a) for children to experience nature, to conduct hands-on activities such as
volunteer work (b) of subsidizing childrenʼs book-reading activities such as book clubs ⇒ Enhance various hands-on and reading activities in thecommunity.
④ Diversify the composition of members of the boards of education and recruitment of parents. Open meetings of the boards of education to the
public. Provide greater discretion for principals to transfer school personnel. ⇒ activate boards of education.
Transfer incompetent teachers to a different job. ⇒ Take appropriate measures on incompetent teachers
The ﬁgure on http://www.mext.go.jp/a̲menu/shougai/21plan/main̲b2.htm or
http://www.mext.go.jp/a̲menu/shougai/21plan/p5.htm,
http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/soshiki2/07.htm

37

English Training for in-service
teachers (from Kindergarten,elementary and lower secondary
schools in an English education special
zone in Mito, Ibaraki). Mito city will
start English education in elementary
school from next year as a special
educational plan.

The Japanese Board of Education
system was made by drawing fromthe example of Americaʼs educational
administrative system after WorldWar II. While the latter system did
not address Japanʼs actual conditions,the concepts and philosophy of
the Japanese system clearly reflect
Americaʼs Board of Education system.
Aspects of the Japanese system areshown in the next slide. We will cover
the philosophy, actual conditions,and issues re the Board of Education
system that are central to educational
administration in Japan.
The Municipal Boards of Education
which establish public elementary
schools and lower secondary schools
need to cooperate with the heads ofmunicipalities regarding financingof general education because theboards donʼt have authority overbudgeting. Also, they need to explain the meaning and contents of the philosophy of independent general administration because municipality
heads are concerned with educational administration. In addition, the distinction between the theoretical philosophical level and actual practice isneeds clariﬁcation under decentralization policies, since these are directly linked to the recent revisions of the Law concerning the Organization andFunctions of Local Education Administration.

38

The board of education is a council
system of organization that usuallyconsists of five members. While theboard of education has the right to decidepolicies about the management andenforcement of educational / academic /cultural administration from a broad pointof view, a major duty of the superintendentof the board of education as an expert on
educational administration is the actual
execution of policies. The superintendentis required to attend all meetings of theboard and to give advice on proceedings.
The secretariat is also set up to deal withofﬁce work that is under the authority ofthe boardʼs scope of duties. The secretariat
includes teacher consultant supervisors,clerical staff and technical staff.
In this diagram, the sixth member ofthe board is listed in parenthesis. This indicates that the board of education “can consist of six people.” As indicated above, the secretariat is under theauthority of the superintendent and is viewed as comprising a part of the board of education in a broad sense.

The above chart shows school
related functions of general educational
administration, academic research andcultural aspects, that are functions of theBoards of Education. This chart shows
the relationship between the municipal
boards of education and the founders of
public elementary and lower secondary
schools. The relationship between theprefectural board of education and private
schools are omitted from the chart. Also,
the items indicated by the arrow show themain features of the roles of the Boardsof Education and public elementary andlower secondary schools and do not cover
all the relationships between them.
Typically, the relationship between
the Boards of Education and schools
was conﬂictual involving opposition. Recently, through educational administration reforms, such relationships have become more cooperative andcollaborative. Local autonomous bodies have been set up that delegate additional rights to principals, such as budget implementation and school
management that under the stronger authority delegated to principals has improved the rate educational progress.
（ Legal regulations of principalʼs duty →Ⅵ− 15）39

The decision-making of Boards ofEducation is done at meetings thatare convened and presided by thesuperintendents of the boards ofeducation who represent and act onbehalf of the boards. The attendanceof the chairpersons of individualboards of education and more thanhalf of the committee members isneeded to stage an official meetingand vote. The order of business is
decided by the majority of committee
in attendance, but if the pros and consare equal, ﬁnal decisions are referredto the chairpersons of the boards ofeducation. Provided that decisions are
viewed as fair, the committee will not
discuss any aspects related to personaland business affairs of individualcommittee members. The meetings are basically open to the public as indicated by the presence of observers in the above picture.

This slide shows aspects of revisedfunctions of the government and local
regional entities as a result of theestablishment of Law concerning theAdvancement of Regional Devolution
and the Law concerning theOrganization and Functions of Local
Education Administration in 1999. The
legislation made 475 laws concerning
23 ministries. The revisions that relate
to the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology
amount to 20 laws and one ordinance.
The following points summarize thesubstance of the revisions.
1) Specification of administrative
division
Deletion of School Educational
Law § 106 and clarification of thefunctions of the Supervision Agency. It
also includes clariﬁcation of legal trust
duties in the Private School Promotion Subsidy Law § 17.
2) Deregulation
Changed provisions “give the general instruction” to “establish a technical standard” under the Law concerning the Organization andFunctions of Local Educational Administration § 43:4, “shall / should do” becomes “allowed to do” in the same law, § 48:1, and “approval” shifts to“consultation and agreement” in regulations concerning the standard class-size and the ﬁxed number of educational personnel at public compulsory
schools.
3) The delegation of commission to the lower partFor example, the Law concerning Organization and Management of Local Education Administration abolished the followings:
・“appointment and approval” of superintendent of boards of education
・“authorization” to boards of education of designated cities by prefectural boards of education
・“authorization” concerning secondary school

40

The educational administrative
organization of Japan consists of the
Cabinet and the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.
The right of administration of the state
belongs to the Cabinet, and the Prime
Minister directs and supervises eachsection of administration. The Ministryof Education, Culture, Sports, Scienceand Technology (MEXT) mainly takes
charge of educational affairs among all theministries under the control of Cabinet thatplan and carry out policies. The Education
ministry was formed by integrating theformer Ministry of Education, Science,Sports and Culture and the Science andthe Technology Agency under ministerialreforms enacted in 2001. It also functions
as a government policy-making ofﬁce wasstrengthened. In MEXT, councils were set up including the Central Council for Education and the Council of the Textbook Survey for Authorization.
The councils discuss and submit reports requested by MEXT.
(The diagram http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/soshiki2/index.htm)

The educational administrative
organization of Japan consists of the
Cabinet and the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.
The right of administration of the state
belongs to the Cabinet, and the Prime
Minister directs and supervises eachsection of administration. The Ministryof Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT) mainly takes charge ofeducational affairs among all the ministries
under the control of Cabinet that planand carry out policies. The Education
ministry was formed by integrating theformer Ministry of Education, Science,Sports and Culture and the Science andthe Technology Agency under ministerialreforms enacted in 2001. It also functions
as a government policy-making ofﬁce was strengthened. In MEXT, councils were set up including the Central Council for Education and the Councilof the Textbook Survey for Authorization. The councils discuss and submit reports requested by MEXT.
. → http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/soshiki2/index.htm

41

The law concerning theAdvancement of Regional Devolution
basically implemented the content
of the Report of Central Council of
Education, “Regional Devolution in the
Future” in 1998. This law states thatthe role of the state in educational
administration is largely transferred to
local governments, and the role of the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT) is tomake a basic policy framework and toset standards of educational contents.

Since 2000, the Central
Council of Education consists ofthe following subcommittees:① Subcommittee on Education
Systems; ② Subcommittee on LifeLong Learning; ③ Subcommittee on
Primary and Secondary Education;and ④ Subcommittee on Sports
and Youth. The Council submitted aReport in 2003, which emphasized:① revision of standard of university
establishment; ② revision of theFundamental Law of Education and the
Basic Plan of Educational promotion;③ improvement in strategies
for presenting curriculum andinstruction in primary and secondary
education; and ④ development of aninternational student policy.

42

Guidance administration covers
non-authoritative and non-binding
administrational actions such as guidance,
advice and assistance. As stated in the tentharticle of the Fundamental Law of Education,
the duty of educational administrators
is to prepare and establish appropriate
educational conditions. In recent years,
educational administrators are also expected
to operate in a non-authoritative manner sothat educational activities can evolve freely
and creatively with respect for the relative
independence and autonomy of Board of
Education and schools.
Key aspects of the task to provide guidance
and advice regarding regional ownership ofeducation includes:＊ Avoid constraining the judgments byprefectures and municipalities;＊ Emphasize supportive functions, such as collection and provision of information;＊ Stress correction of educational administration and school management and administrative aspects that violate laws, such as the Fundamental
Law of Education and School Education Law

The Law concerning Local
Authority and the Law on Organizationand Management of Local Educational
Administration, were revised on the basisof the Law concerning the Advancementof Regional Devolution enacted in 1999.
These laws prescribe the relationshipbetween the state Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT) and boards of education. In
the regulations of the Law concerning
Local Authority, the Minister of MEXT
has the authority over technical advice,
requests for submission of materials,
requests for revisions, instructions,advice, assistance, and coordination of theautonomous administration of boards ofeducation. Regarding administration of
the prefectures, whereas previously revisions were issued directly in response to requests, now the situation has changed to a system of instructions
re setting criteria for administrative management. Under the Law concerned with the Advancement of Regional Devolution, the Minister of MEXT has
authority to instruct, advise, counsel, plan, assist, subsidize, and investigate local boards of education.

43

“The Japanese supervisory system
reflects the conversion of the former
system of directive educational
administration into a system ofadvisory educational administration
as an outcome of post-war educational
administrative reforms. The aim of
this system is to support schools
through constructive guidance andadvice based on expert knowledge
and experience. Supervisors who areassigned to boards of education takecharge of specialized guidance forprincipals and teachers regarding
curriculums and teaching. During the
pre-war period, this task was handled
by inspectors. Currently, there are
two types of supervisors: one type isappointed by municipalities while theother is delegated from prefectural boards of education. Among approximately 3,200 municipal boards of education in Japan, only 1/3 of them havesupervisors.

The duties of the supervisors, as
specified in Article 19 of the Law
concerning the Organization andManagement of Local Education
Administration, are as follows:● Supervisors, under the directionof their superiors, engage in office
work related to guidance of technicalmatters involving curriculums at
schools, instruction improvement
and in guidance of other school
educational staff.
● Supervisors should have broad
backgrounds in education and be
cultured and experienced regarding
technical matters regrding curriculums
at schools, instruction improvement
and matters pertaining to other school
education staff.
① Initial training for new elementary
school principals done by theprefectural education board, November
2004（In service training →Ⅷ− 15 〜 22、Ⅷ− 29 〜 31）② Textbook authorization（→Ⅱ− 63）③ Course of study（→Ⅳ− 13 〜 16）

44

The principle of defraying expenses
provides that school founding entities
comprising the state, prefecturesand school juridical persons remain
responsible for paying expenses fortheir schools. In reality, there is a large
ﬁnancial imbalance in ﬁnancing capacities,
there are many special regulations
regarding handling of school expenses
and responsibilities that are designed toensure provision of adequate educational
ﬁnancial resources.

In order to reduce financial
imbalances and differences, two systems
have been introduced to public schools:
the system of national subsidies involving
vertical adjustments and the subsidy
system of local governments involving
horizontal adjustments. Subsidy systems
for private schools have also expanded
in a way that helps to close the financial
gap between national/public schools andprivate schools.
→ http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/
houdou/15/01/030115b.pdf

45

The national treasury finances 1/3
to 1/2 of the maintenance expenditure
for facilities and equipment in public
elementary and lower secondary
schools. Also, half of the salaries forteachers working at national / publicschools are subsidized by the nationaltreasury.

New first year students are given
textbooks by the principal at an
Entrance Ceremony.

46

National legislation and regulations
support the equal opportunities foreducation as well as the public character,neutrality, and the gratis (free) status ofeducation as a basic feature of Japanʼs philosophy of schooling. Publicschool teachers need to hold a teacherʼs certificate in order to teach at schools
covered by the national legislation, where
the curriculums need to be based on theprinciples embodied in the Course of
Study. The Fundamental Law of Education
provides that private schools must notsupport a particular political party or
conduct political education against
a particular political party, and must
maintain political neutrality.

Specialized training colleges,
which were ﬁrst established in 1976, arenot covered in Article 1 of the School
Education Law. However, with recent
amendments regarding enforcement
regulations and the criteria for school
establishment, there is now flexibility
to transfer credits between colleges oftechnology and upper secondary schools,
and between colleges of technology,
universities and a junior colleges. （Specialized training colleges → Ⅰ − 37 〜
40）

47

Aims and purposes of elementaryand secondary schools are deﬁned by
School Education Law. Subjects, moral
activities and special education are set
up as educational categories.

The school system of Japan becamea single track system througheducational reforms after World War
Ⅱ.
After the reforms, schools, including
technical training schools, specialized
training schools, and comprehensive
secondary schools were added to thesystem making it appear to be a dual
track system. However, measures
have been taken to avoid a deadend situation under the current
educational system.

48

According to Article 2 of Japanʼs School Education Law, “Schools canbe founded only by the state, local
government, and juridical persons as
deﬁned by Article 3 of the Law on Private
Schools.” However, to found kindergartensand schools for handicapped, a founder
does not need to be a school juridical
person. A person who wants to found aschool must follow the criteria for school
establishment, such as the type of school,
the equipment and the composition
which are determined by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology. The criteria for establishing
new elementary/lower secondary schools
were not set until 2002. This is because
99% of the elementary schools and 94% of
the lower secondary schools were publicschools due to regulations of the School Education Law and other laws deﬁning criteria for establishment. However, in order to encourage and topromote the establishment of private schools, new criteria for school establishment were formulated in 2002.

49

As an example of the ﬂexible systemof class organization, each class may
be made up of fewer than 35 students
if there are more than 3 classes in
one grade and the average numberof students in one class is morethan 35 in the 1st grade. Careful
instructions are necessary in schoolwith approximately 100 students.

Many schools havevacant class-rooms because of thedecrease in recent birth rates. These
vacant class-rooms may be utilized
as dining rooms for students; or for
facilitating activities for local people inthe community, including guardians.
① Relaxation room ( counseling room)② Utilization of vacant rooms（children
club）
In considering the need to conserve
local environments at schools andfrom the viewpoint of environmental
education, MEXT is promoting theestablishment of environmentallyfriendly school facilities, or ecoschools.
Source: http://www.mext.go.jp/
english/org/f̲formal̲16.htm

50

Until new criteria for establishing new elementary/
secondary school were issued in 2002, laws and criteria
described here were the main criteria for determining facilities
in elementary schools and lower secondary schools. Even
after enactment of the 2002 law, these earlier criteria still infunction. These days, the focus has shifted from the provisionof facilities to cope with increases in the number of students
to the provision of facilities to provide an enabling culturalenvironment, and to cope with individuality of students andtheir needs, including diversiﬁcation of teaching methods. Also,
reuse of facilities in response to the decrease in the number ofstudents have eventuated in policies to open school facilities tothe public.
① Educational ﬁnance / laws on facilities / criteria*Sharing of Expenses for Various Compulsory Education
School Facilities (types of classrooms, appropriate school sizeand conditions) * the Law for the Promotion of Science Education (criteria of science education facilities) *the Law for the Promotion of Education in
Isolated Areas (Necessity for providing schools in isolated areas) * Law Governing Special Measures for the Establishment of Special Schools for the
Disabled (criteria re facilities of special public schools for the disabled) * the School Lunch law, Standards for the Provision of School Lunches (criteria
of facilities for school lunch in compulsory education schools)② Other directives, guidelines, council reports(1974) * Concerning Creation of Cultural Environment for School Facilities (1967) * Concerning School Facilities which Meet the Needs ofDiversiﬁcation of Educational Methods (1988) * Concerning computer-intelligent educational facilities (1990) * Concerning Compounding of School
Facilities (1991) * Guidelines on Management of School Facilities (1992)

The school environment refers
to the natural, physical, and artificial
environment surrounding schools. School
environments also include problems
related to school facilities, size of theclasses/schools, school architecture,
natural and social environments in local
communities, school districts and along
school routes.
● Social Conditions
・Avoid industrial areas, love motel
areas（Building Standards Law 48, etc）
・No environmental pollution suchas air pollution, noise, or damage fromvibration（Law concerning Enterprisers' Burdenof Cost for Environmental Prevention,
Law concerning Special National Financial Expenditure for Initiatives for Environmental Prevention, Law concerning Prevention of Noise Pollution of
Airplanes around Public Airports, etc.）● Natural Condition
・Height of the school location（Building Standards Law19)
・Commuting distance to school（Enforcement of National Treasury's Share of Expenses for Compulsory Education Schools 3, less than 4 kilometers51A standard school size is 12 to 18
classes in elementary schools andlower secondary schools. Still, there
are many small sized schools nationwide with only one class in each grade.
Schools in large cities have been
unified or closed due to the urban
sprawl phenomenon which has grownover the last 20 years. In recent years,
some problems about school and classsizes have arisen, such as the issue ofcontinuance of small schools linked tothe abolition of school district s.
→ http://www.pref.shimane.
jp/section/kyousou/kekkagaiyou/
gaiyou02.html

Reforms of school facilities areproceeding at established schools
in response to the informationoriented society and to new efforts
that school facilities be opened to the
local community. In the latter case,establishing safety measures against
external intruders who enter school
premises is one of the issues.

52

Japanese parents have an obligation
to send their children between the agesof 6 to 15 to school. Today, there is anincreasing number of school-refusal(absentee) students for various reasons,even though in theory such students areformally enrolled. The need to deal withsuch school-refusal (absentee) children
represents an important task that needs
to be addressed within current school
policies.（Non-attendance → Ⅴ − 20 〜
24）

The number of students who areabsent from school for more than 30 daysa year is increasing, not for a valid reason
like illness, but for “non-attendance,”
which means they canʼt or donʼt want to
go to school. As of 1999, 1 out of 288
students at the elementary school leveland 1 out of 41 at the lower secondary
school level were recognized as nonattending (absentee) students.
→ http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/
houdou/14/08/020820c.htm(Non-attendance → V − 20 〜 30)

53

The boards of education encourageabsentee students to return theirschools by by improving theirmotivation and attitudes through self
learning activities, group activities
and counseling.（ Measures for School
Refusal → Ⅴ − 34・37）Resource)
http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/
houdou/12/12/001219j.htm
Special classes and specially adaptedclassrooms for school dropouts are
established by boards of education
excluding such places as educational
centers or vacant classrooms inorder to guide the absentee students.
Efforts are made to provide individual
counseling, group guidance andsubject guidance systematically incooperation with the school to whichthose students belong in order to support their return to school. Organizations that provide only educational consultation are not included in classes
and specially adapted classrooms for school dropouts.
（→Ⅴ− 20~30）

In addition to special classes forschool absentee children, there aresimilar facilities also in private freeschools（ → Ⅴ − 25）and free spaces
to provide educational instruction forschool dropouts. Attendance at theseclasses is considered equivalent toschool enrollment.
（ Measures for School Refusal →Ⅴ−
20 〜 30）54Based on the criteria for establishing
new elementary/secondary schools asenacted in 2002, self- inspection andself-evaluation of schools has become an
obligation. A regulation providing for asimilar obligation was added to the criteria
for school establishment for schools atother educational levels such as upper
secondary schools and specialized training
colleges.

Generally, school evaluations are
based on “management in accordancewith objectives” derived from business
management methods. In practical terms,
school evaluations are conducted based on
the “Plan, Do, Check, Action cycle.”55

It is important that numerical target
sand action targets are set during
annual planning phases in schools inorder to evaluate progress. There are,however, some problems that derivefrom the difficulty in quantifying
aspects and outcomes of school
educational goals and targets eachacademic year.

External school assessments havenot become obligatory under existing
ordinances. However, many schools
voluntarily have started to assess thevalidity of self-inspections and theself-evaluations. The main approach isto survey opinions of parents to help
them to participate in accountability.
Third party school assessments havebeen introduced in some schools andare carried out by third parties such as
educational researchers, sometimes by
involving them in the school boards.

56

The criteria for establishing newelementary/secondary schools are coveredin the regulation that schools should open
their information to public scrutiny andto carry out self-inspections and selfevaluations. A key element of debatedconcerned how far the Free Access toInformation Ordinance or the Protectionof Personal Information Ordinance of
local regional bodies applies to personal
information on education. Recently an
increasing number of lawsuits and claims
have opened the release of information onsuch aspects as school guidelines, which
previously were not open to the public or
to individuals.

＊ The argument of the plaintiff (Theperson who asks for disclosure of
information)① A precedent proves that Article 13of the Constitution protects the right toprivacy. This right includes the right tocontrol private information. Therefore a
student has the right to see his/her own
school transcript.
② The studentʼs right to see his/her own
education information is guaranteed in
Article 26 of the Constitution, as the rightto education.
③ There is no negative effect, such as
undermining the relationship of trust
between the student and the teacher, by
the studentʼs perusal of his/her schooltranscript. Therefore, school transcript will
be excluded from non disclosure documents, and nondisclosure of school transcript is illegal.
＊ The argument of the defendant (The municipal board of education)① The right to control private information is not set as a positive law. The right to ask for disclosure of private information as in this case, is founded
in regulation.
② There is a bad effect such as not being able to secure the fairness of the content if you disclose the school transcript to the student. Schooltranscript will be included in the non disclosure document, therefore, the decision of nondisclosure is not illegal.

57

The Supreme Court handed down afreedom of grade evaluation or verdictin a November 2003 case where a
23 year-old woman had pleaded forthe disclosure of her school record atelementary school. That was the ﬁrst
judgment by the Supreme Court about
the disclosure of school records to thesaid person.
http://www.asyura2.com/0311/
nihon10/msg/699.html→ table; www.psn.ne.jp/~jhc-cebc/s-zyouhou/naishin.htm

The school councilor system isdefined as “the role which is newly
formed as the mechanism of local
peopleʼs systematic commitment toschool administration” “to encourage
the future school to be administeredsystematically and flexibly under
the leadership of a Principal, in
an independent and autonomous
fashion, in order to be able to evolvea distinctive school program thatcomplies with the actual conditionsof students and local communities”.
(A Notification from Administrative
Vice-Minister of Education, January
21st, 2000.)

The system needs

to be accountable to and reflect
the demands of parents and local
communities for effective school
administration.

58

By August 2002, a school councilor
system was set up in 50.2% of public
elementary schools in Japan. An additional
31.8% are considering establishing such asystem. The situation varies widely fromprefecture to prefecture.
→ http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/
houdou/15/01/030112.htm（ The number of public school whichconstitutes school councilor →Ⅶ− 49）

Among school councilors, parents
comprise 18.2%, which is the largest
proportion.

Persons involved inneighborhood associations and social
education associations comprise 15.2%
each, persons who have worked at schools
comprise 10.6%, persons who have worked
in private companies comprise 6.3%, andpersons from school alumni associations
comprise 5.2%.

59

From left side; head-teacher ofacademic affairs（ → Ⅵ − 21）, viceprincipal, principal（ → Ⅵ − 12 〜15）, school councilor 1,2,3

In order to promote and ensure“Academic Achievement” under the2002 appeal, three things were done:
re-interpretation of Course of Study
as a minimum standard; incorporationof contents for promoting improved
learning from textbooks; andrevision of the Criteria for textbook
authorization for various compulsory
educational schools. In other words:
Following the objectives of the
Course of Study of elementary andlower secondary schools and paying
attention to contents and treatment;(2) Avoiding insertion of unnecessary
elements into the contents oftextbooks based on the treatmentof contents in the official Course of
Study. Regarding the contents ofbooks that are not textbooks, it ispossible to link up aspects not coveredin the Course of Study with contents
that are already there without deviating from the aims and meaning nor burdening students with extraneous information, and(3) The contents of books should corresponded with the levels of mental and physical development of students, and neither be too high or too low interms of students abilities.

60Textbook authorization means thata book that is a candidate to be a school
textbook is examined for whether it isproper for subject-use, and authorized as
an appropriate book for use as a textbook.
The process proceeds as follows:
An author or a publisher of a book applies
for book authorization to the Minister of
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT).
The Minister of MEXT determines
whether to authorize or disqualify thebook as a text book based on hearings of
the Textbook Survey and Authorization
Council, and notifies the applicant of theresults.
In the case of the reservations regarding
the determination, the council needs toreceive a notice regarding the examinationand the submission of a modiﬁed schedule, undertake a hearing, and then make a decision either to authorize or disqualify the book. When the
Minister is going to decide to disqualify a book, s/he notices the reasons for it beforehand and listens to objections from the book applicant. If
an appeal is ﬁled by the applicant within 20 days after receiving the notiﬁcation of examination from the MEXT minister and, it is recognized asreasonable, and the Minister withdraws the initial notiﬁcation in question.

Article 21, Clause 1 of the School
Education Law
An elementary school should use
school textbooks approved by MEXT (theMinister of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology) or school
textbooks owned MEXT.
Article 107, the School Education Law
Regardless of the provision of
Article 1, the Clause 1 of the School
Education Law, the MEXT Minister
supplies, school textbooks other thanthose stated in Article 1, Clause 1 can beused in upper secondary schools, upper
secondary divisions of schools for theblind, schools for the deaf, and schools forthe handicapped other than the blind anddeaf, and also in special classes.

61

Among disciplinary actions,expulsion, suspension and admonition
are handled by the school principal.
These three are usually calleddisciplinary actions as punishment.
Other disciplinary actions include
rebuking, standing, and doing a duty
such as a penalty, which can be given
by teachers. “Corporal punishment”
includes not only physical actions tothe body such as hitting or kicking,but also actions that give students
physical pain like making them
maintain a speciﬁc posture for a longtime. Since such actions give different
levels of pain, such as standing in theclassroom and standing under theburning sun, teachers must consider
studentsʼ age, health, residential,
environmental and other constraints,
and must judge if there is any physicalpain to a student. School detention
is recognized as disciplinary action. However, not allowing students to go to the bathroom or keeping them long after meal time is considered ascorporal punishment.

62

When a principal dismisses orsuspends students from school andadmonishes them through disciplinary
action, such actions are generally calleddisciplinary action as punishment. There
are also practical disciplinary actions
which can be taken by teachers suchas lecturing, forcing students to standand undertaking duty penalties. Somedisciplinary action are set independently
by individual schools. For example,
absence from school is an offence
subject to disciplinary action lighter thanactions against drop-out. Some improper
student behavior may not be subject todisciplinary action but rather alternative
actions may be taken as guidance basedon agreements with students. The rightto take disciplinary action by teachers
applies only to students who belong to the school where the teacher works, although it is not important of the students actually attend their class.
Under the guidance structure established at every school, it is important for teachers to understand the character of individual students and theirhealth conditions. There are limits to circumstances where dismissal and suspension from school is an option. This means that it is difﬁcult to dismiss
students who belong to public schools and to suspend students of school age.

In 1991, 196 teachers were
submitted for disciplinary punishment
for administering corporal punishment
in their schools, including assuming
responsibilities assigned only tosupervisors. In 2000, 428 teachers were
submitted to disciplinary punishment,
which is more than double the number in
1991.
While it is recognized through court
judgments that actions by a teacher tostrike a studentʼs head with his or her
hand, even when assaulted, is legallywrong, there are some cases in whichteachers can apply power to students
within deﬁnite limits if it is needed. Suchsituations, however, are conﬁned to cases
where alternative forms of disciplinary
action, such as vocal lectures are viewed as weak by students and do not leave an impression. Such actions are limited to the discharge of educational
functions in educational settings. This judgment, however, does not provide leeway for teachers to become physical with students.

63

The enforcement regulations of the
School Education Law was amended
in 2002 in order to reconsider theapproach to guidance on enrollment.
This was done so that the appropriate
education could be designed
to meet the special educational
needs of individual students withdisabilities, consistent with thechanging educational situation for thedisabled, such as the the evolutionof social norms and the push fordecentralization of education.

As of May 2001, about 199,000
infants and students were beingtaught at schools for the blind, deaf,
handicapped, in special classes atelementary, lower secondary schools,
and in resource rooms. Amongthese students, about 157,000 werein compulsory education, which
comprised 1.4% of all the children of
the same age. Recently, in response
to rising demands, attention has
been paid to students with severe
handicaps and multiple handicaps.
There has been progress in providing
early education of children withmilder handicap, increases intheir advancement rates to upper
secondary schools, increased diversityof career options after graduation,and social normalization. (Ministryof Education, Culture, Sports, Scienceand Technology (MEXT) white paper、
2003、p.143) According to data on the implementation of resource room teaching, of 30,000 students in resource rooms, speech handicapped
comprise 84% and the emotionally disturbed comprise 10%.

64

As of May 2001, about 199,000
infants and students were being taught at
schools for the blind, deaf, handicapped,in special classes at elementary, lower
secondary schools, and in resource rooms.
Among these students, about 157,000
were in compulsory education, which
comprised 1.4% of all the children of
the same age. Recently, in response torising demands, attention has been paid
to students with severe handicaps andmultiple handicaps. There has been
progress in providing early education ofchildren with milder handicap, increases
in their advancement rates to upper
secondary schools, increased diversity ofcareer options after graduation, and social
normalization. (Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT) white paper、2003、p.143) According to data on the implementation of resource room teaching, of 30,000 students in resource rooms,
speech handicapped comprise 84% and the emotionally disturbed comprise 10%.

Individual education support plans
are designed to support handicapped
students appropriately and consistently
from early childhood through graduationfrom school by using a long-term
perspective. It is based on the idea of
the need to correctly assess the needsof individual handicapped students andto respond to them adequately from theviewpoint of education. The educational
support plan has been formulated andrevised, including the contents of special
educational needs, adequate targets andeffective educational support measures
along with appropriate staff andorganization.

65

The scene of specially supported
education class.

The permitted enrollment systemallows students with handicaps whomeet standard enrollment criteria toenroll in elementary schools or lower
secondary schools. The municipal
boards of education certify the studentsʼ
enrollment, and are required to assessarrangements to ensure a that there is aproper environment for them to enroll,such as availability and placementof teachers who have a high level ofexpertise in guidance.

66

There are some cases of disputes
between disabled studentsʼ parents whowish to send their children to ordinary
schools and the boards of educationthat recommend them to attend schools
for the handicapped that are designed
to meet their special needs. In order tocarry out guidance and to ensure smooth
enrollment, it is important that the boardsof education provide opportunities forconfidential educational consultation
for the parents. This can be done when
initial contacts are made with principalsof schools, where both parties can listen
to concerns and help to build up mutual
trust in their relationships. Such trust
can help facilitate accurate judgments on
which type of school is appropriate forindividual students to enroll in, based on
mutual understandings and cooperation with the parents.

67

The Course of Study for the schoolof blind, deaf, and the handicapped
and kindergartens, elementary, lower
secondary, upper secondary schools
are designed to improve integrated
education. Since 2001, practicalresearch has been conducted toencourage self-help and participation
in local communities by exchanging
students of the school of blind, deaf
and handicapped and the ordinary
school children of the same generation
through various activities. (”White
Paper of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology”, 2003, p.144)

The aim of the Law for the
Promotion of Education in Isolated
Areas: Improvement in standards ofeducation in isolated areas throughpolicies that the Government andregional bodies must implement topromote education for children in
isolated areas based on the intention ofequal opportunities in education andin view of the need to accommodate
specific circumstances of isolatedareas.

68

To assess a school districtʼs degreeof isolation, the points linked to specificcriteria are calculated by totaling up
points for each factor. To assess the extent
of relative isolation that is difficult tofigure out by using only normal criteria,
additional points are added when theschools in question have difficulties toadminister education due to specificconditions. These include the absenceof facilities to draw or to supply water if
the district relies on rain or river water as
drinking water resources.

Although the number of isolatedarea schools increased with the revision of
the criteria for designation of local areas
in 1990, it is now decreasing gradually.
However, in Hokkaido and Kagoshima
Prefectures, the percentage of theisolated-area schools is over 40% at bothelementary and lower secondary schools.
→ Figure: http://www.pref.niigata.jp/
sec40/ja/tyouki/20zu.gif

69

In addition to the Law for the
Promotion of Education in Isolated
Areas there are additional provisions
concerning educational development
and improvement of isolated areasin Japan in the Law on Promotion of
Isolated Islands, the Special Treatment
Law on Activation of Isolated Area,
and the Special Treatment Law on
Measures for Areas of High Snowfalls.
Educational Development is regarded
as an important element of theComprehensive Area Development
Plans.
① An elementary school in an isolatedarea, October 2004 ② An elementary
school in an isolated area with a pooland gymnasium, October 2004
③ Multi grade class, 2003
④ Joint lesson by TV among three elementary schools, 2nd grade, Arithmetic, July 2004

Evening lower secondary schools
in Japan started amid the confusion
after World War II, and were firstestablished in Osaka in 1924 to offer
a place to study for children who
had to work to live and could not go
to school. Then the concept spreadthroughout Japan. The student age
range is wide, varying from teens topeople in their eighties, and including
people who could not get educatedfor various reasons, such as Korean
Japanese, and recently, repatriatesfrom China, refugees, and increasing
numbers of foreigners. Evening lower
secondary schools represent an
important place for them to study
Japanese.

70

In 1955, the number of evening
schools in Japan was over 84 and thenumber of students was over 5,000.
By 1968, the number of students had
decreased to 400 under a government
policy which aimed to stabilize society
and make evening lower secondary
school students study in the daytime.
As of April 2002, however, there are
35 schools attended by around 3,000
students nationwide under the movement
to establish evening schools. In 1971, a
subsidy from MEXT (Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology)
for evening schools and classes started
and Japanese Language Classes were
held for repatriated Japanese from China.
By 1994, the number of Japanese-Latin
American students who studied at evening
schools had rapidly increased from previous levels. Since the beginning of 1980s, the number of dropout students attending such schools has been
increasing.
（Website of evening school: http://wwwsikasenbey.or.jp/~jkobi/yatyu.htm)

It is reported that the proportionof students at evening lower secondary
schools is Japanese (22.1%), Korean
Japanese (26.7%), repatriates (32.2%),
refugees (1.5%), immigrants (0.5%) andother foreigners (16.7%) (as of September,
2002).
① 6:46 PM. Some full-time course
students have almost finished cleaning
up the school yard after club activities.
② School time table. ③ School lunch. ④
4th lesson hour. ⑤ Japanese（ Ｅ class=1st grade, ordinary class）. ⑥ Arithmetic（Ｄ class= 3rd grade, Japanese class）. ⑦
English（Ｄ class= 3rd grade, Japaneseclass）. ⑧ Art class. ⑨ Outline of classes.
⑩ School events

71The Lower Secondary Equivalency
Examination is the exam for people
who have temporary exemptions or
exemptions from school to ascertain
whether they have the same orabove scholastic ability in order toenter upper secondary school. It has
been effective since 1967. The exam
subjects are Japanese, math, social
studies, science and foreign language.
If passing grades are attained in someof the subjects, those subjects will be
exempted the following year.

People who did not graduate fromcompulsory education school for reasons
such as war and poverty were permitted
to take the examination in 1997. Since
1999, persons who graduate frominternational schools and foreign schools,
or who were still in such schools, werealso permitted to take the exam.

72

① Prefectural ofﬁce building② Meeting room in the building

73

Ⅲ

Japanese Social Education

1

Social Education Facilities 1 (Citizen's Public Halls )2Social Education Facilities 2 (Libraries)

3

Social Education Facilities 3 (Museums)

4

Supervisors for Social Education

5

Houses for Youths and Children's Natural Houses

6

Social Educational Organizations

7

Social Correspondence Education

8

Social Physical Education and Life-long Sports

9

Cultural Centers (Private Proﬁt Social Education Businesses)

1 Social Education
Facilities 1 (Citizen's
Public Halls )2 Social Education
Facilities 2 (Libraries)

3 Social Education
Facilities 3 (Museums)

4 Supervisors forSocial Education

5 Houses for Youths
and Children's Natural
Houses76

6 Social Educational
Organizations

7 Social
Correspondence
Education

8 Social Physical
Education andLife-long Sports
9 Cultural Centers(Private Proﬁt Social
Education Businesses)

77

The citizensʼ public halls (Kominkan)
are an original social education facility
in Japan. They were promoted inJapan through the “Establishment andAdministration of citizensʼ public halls“, that was based on a notice from asubordinate officer of the Ministryof Education in 1946. As the Social
Education Law was enacted in 1949,
citizensʼ public halls (Kominkan) wereregistered as a social education facility
established by municipalities.
At present, there are about 18,000
citizensʼ public halls in Japan (Kominkan)
whose form, scale and equipment are
different. From the viewpoint of functionsof citizensʼ public halls, however, there
are similarities. These halls function as
a local comprehensive educational andcultural facility, and as a center for meeting, learning and social interactions for citizens.
Full-time or part-time curators and citizensʼ public hall ofﬁcers are assigned to each citizensʼ public hall (Kominkan). Social Education
Ofﬁcers qualify as citizensʼ public hall (Kominkan) ofﬁcers in some municipalities. There are also some citizensʼ public halls to which clerks and parttime Social Education Leaders are assigned.

According to the regulations of
the Law on Social Education, citizensʼ
public halls are to be established bymunicipalities. However, establishment
styles differ largely among municipalities.
Some municipalities establish citizensʼ
public halls in each elementary school
district, some in each secondary school
district, and others establish a large
one (with around 1500 square meters)
serving a wide area.
The disposition of citizensʼ publichalls can be divided into two systems: 1)
Main Building System (Central ‒ Regional
Hall System) and 2) Central ‒ Branch Hall
System. The difference between them liesin the establishment of a citizensʼ publichalls management councils throughwhich people in local communities get
involved in the management of the halls.
Under the Main Building System, themanagement council can be set up at each
citizenʼs public hall, whereas under the Central ‒ Branch Hall System, it is enough to set up the council only at the Central Hall. Therefore in terms of
the participation of people from local community\ies, the Main Building System guarantees more participation.

78

The total number of citizenʼs publichalls in Japan was approximately
18,000 in 2002, and the percentage ofmunicipalities with citizensʼ halls was
91.7%.
There were approximately 58,000
personnel who worked for citizenʼs public halls in 2002. Among them,
19,000 supervisors of citizens' publichalls played a leading role.
The number of citizensʼ public halls
established in Japan is higher than than
the number of museums (approximately
1,000) and libraries (approximately
2,500) in terms of Japanʼs social
education facilities. The number islarger than that for lower secondary
schools, and smaller than that forelementary schools. Citizensʼ publichalls are the closest to local communityiesin Japanʼs social education facilities.

Civic citizensʼ public halls

79

Citizensʼ public halls conduct various
activities related to meeting, learning andgathering of people within communities
given their function as municipality social
education institutions. They arrange classes
and courses to offer opportunities for
self-development. Among the classes andcourses they offer, there are culture-oriented
programs, sport recreation, skill development
courses for daily life and courses to learn
about the local community in order todeepen understanding of it.
In addition, citizensʼ public halls
provide places and rooms for independentgroup or club activities for communities, andare utilized as venues for various events andmeetings of the community.
① Taisho-goto (Japanese modern harp)
courseCitizensʼ public halls conduct various
activities related to meeting, learning andgathering of people within communities
given their function as municipality social
education institutions. They arrange
classes and courses to offer opportunities
for self-development. Among theclasses and courses they offer, there
are culture-oriented programs, sport
recreation, skill development courses
for daily life and courses to learn about
the local community in order to deepen
understanding of it.
In addition, citizensʼ publichalls provide places and rooms forindependent group or club activities forcommunities, and are utilized as venues
for various events and meetings of thecommunity.
① Sado (tea ceremony) course

80Citizensʼ public halls conductvarious activities related to meeting,learning and gathering of people withincommunities given their function
as municipality social education
institutions. They arrange classes andcourses to offer opportunities for selfdevelopment. Among the classes andcourses they offer, there are cultureoriented programs, sport recreation,
skill development courses for daily
life and courses to learn about the
local community in order to deepen
understanding of it.
In addition, citizensʼ publichalls provide places and rooms forindependent group or club activities forcommunities, and are utilized as venues
for various events and meetings of thecommunity.
Picture: senior citizens are visiting the relics of a city. The instructor with a red cap is a retired school teacher. This program is named “longevity
university”.
① study tour to visit the relics in the city

Under the Library Law enacted
in 1951, a “library” is defined as an
institution whose objective is to collectbooks, records and other necessary
materials, to assemble and preserve
them, and to make them available forpublic use so that they can contribute toculture, research and recreation of thepeople. Also under the law, libraries are
divided into two categories according
to how they are established. It defines
public libraries as those establishedby a prefecture or a municipality, andprivate libraries as those established byprivate entities such as the Japanese
Red Cross or corporations defined
under Article 34, the Civil Law. In termsof the numbers of libraries established,
more than 90% of all the libraries are public libraries.
Specialists assigned to libraries are librarians and librarian assistants.

81

By the year 2002, around 2700
libraries had been established in Japan.
Of those 2700, 64 libraries were
established by prefectures. Since Japan
has 47 prefectures, this means there
are 1.4 libraries per prefecture on
the average. On the other hand, since
there are about 3300 municipalities,
the number of libraries establishedby municipalities averages 0.75 permunicipality. This figure shows thataround 3 in every 10 municipalities do
not have libraries in their municipal area.
As for the number of library staff,
about 6 people work at a library on
average. In terms of the administrative
levels of municipalities, differences in
the number of staff assigned to libraries
is recognizable. For libraries set up by
prefectures, there are around 30 staff each, whereas for libraries set up by cities, the ﬁgure is around 7.6 staff, and for libraries set up by towns orvillages, the average goes down to 2.4.
There is a gap between differing administrative levels of municipalities in the provision of public libraries in Japan.

By the year 2002, around 2700
libraries had been established in Japan.
Of those 2700, 64 libraries were
established by prefectures. Since Japan
has 47 prefectures, this means there
are 1.4 libraries per prefecture on
the average. On the other hand, since
there are about 3300 municipalities,
the number of libraries establishedby municipalities averages 0.75 permunicipality. This figure shows thataround 3 in every 10 municipalities do
not have libraries in their municipal area.
As for the number of library staff,
about 6 people work at a library on
average. In terms of the administrative
levels of municipalities, differences in
the number of staff assigned to libraries
is recognizable. For libraries set up by
prefectures, there are around 30 staff
each, whereas for libraries set up by
cities, the ﬁgure is around 7.6 staff, andfor libraries set up by towns or villages, the average goes down to 2.4.
There is a gap between differing administrative levels of municipalities in the provision of public libraries in Japan.

82

The building of a civic library

As prescribed in the Library Law,libraries collect mainly books to be usedby local people in order to cultivate
their minds, as well as for research
recreation. Needless to say, withpossessions of numerous materials,
such as books, it is important as well as
necessary for libraries to have facilities
where people can study comfortably
and engage in recreation.
Picture: facilities in a library.

83

As prescribed in the Library Law,libraries collect mainly books to be usedby local people in order to cultivate theirminds, as well as for research recreation.
Needless to say, with possessions of
numerous materials, such as books, it
is important as well as necessary forlibraries to have facilities where people
can study comfortably and engage inrecreation.
In addition, libraries have outreachprogram, for example, reading stories forchildren. Members of a civic voluntarygroup registered at a library are readinga picture book in a room at the library in
the above photograph.

As prescribed in the Library Law,libraries collect mainly books to be usedby local people in order to cultivate theirminds, as well as for research recreation.
Needless to say, with possessions of
numerous materials, such as books, it
is important as well as necessary forlibraries to have facilities where people
can study comfortably and engage inrecreation.
In addition, libraries have otheroutreach programs, for example
operating mobile libraries that are forpeople who cannot come to the librarybecause of geographic or life conditions.
The municipal library in the above
picture owns two mobile libraries that
visit 48 fixed places in the city twice amonth, hauling about 3,000 books.
① A mobile library car stopped at anelementary school.
② A mobile library car carries about
3,000 books.
③ Books are operated with a computer.

84

Under the Museum Law enacted
in 1951, a “museum” is defined as
an institution whose objective is tocollect materials related to history, art,
folklore, industry and natural science, topreserve and to display them, and thento make them available to the public foreducational use so that the museums
can contribute to local culture, researchand recreation of the local community,
and also to provide opportunities forresearch on collected materials.
Under the law, public museums arethose established by prefectures ormunicipalities while private museums
are those established by corporations
defined under Article 34 of the Civil
Law including religious corporations.
Specialists assigned to museums are
curators.

Excluding national museums, there
were around 1,100 museums in Japanas of 2002, including both public andprivate museums which are registeredunder the Museum Law. On the
average, there are about 21 museums
per prefecture.

85

About 10 staff are assigned to eachmuseum in the year 1999.

A prefectural natural museum
building.

86

A natural museum offers various
courses. This is a family natureobservation course titled “Letʼs watch
the natural environment with ﬁreﬂies”.
① Visiting a pool and observing theenvironment. The pool is located on thenatural museumʼs premises.
② Listening to a lecture about ﬁreﬂies.
③ Observing ﬁreﬂies after dark.

A natural museum offrs various
courses. This is an in-service training
course for teachers titled “the integrated
science education utilizing nature athand”.
① The keynote speech② Workshop in a forest: listening tosounds of nature③ Workshop in a bamboo forest:
making bamboo charcoals87

A natural museum offers various
courses. This is a family natureobservation course titled “the observationof Hakone salamanders. ”① Picking of Hakone salamanders, ②
Observation

Supervisors for social education are
professionals in social education. Duties
are deﬁned in the Social Education Law.
Supervisors for social education
are assigned to the secretariats of eachboard of education. Supervisorsʼ roles
include planning social education, andcoordinating interactions with othersocial education groups for social
education projects.
（Supervisor, Supervisor for social
education →Ⅱ− 29）88Supervisors for social education
are full-time staff specialized in social
education. Assistant supervisors forsocial education assist work of thesupervisors and work during periods
stipulated by the law. Persons are
qualiﬁed to be supervisors if they havetaken classes for subjects on social
education.
There were 4,599 supervisors andassistant supervisors in 2002. (These
included visiting-supervisors for social
education.) The system of visitingsupervisors for social education began
i n 1 97 4 wi th a s ub s id y f ro m t he
National Treasury in order to address
the problem of a lack of supervisors forsocial education in some municipalities.

Picture: this lecture is offered byuniversities for people who want tobecome supervisors for social education
held.

89

Houses for Youths and Childrenʼ
s Natural Houses are social education
institutions for youths and children.
The number established increased
especially after the 1970ʼs. In terms oftypes of establishers, there are national
institutions as well as public institutions
established by local autonomous bodies(municipalities). Also, in terms types offunctions, there are lodgings located inremote areas and non-lodging facilities
located in daily-life areas.
In 1959, the Central House for
Youth was established in Gotenba,
Shizuoka as the first national house foryouth, and 13 have been established up
to the present. The ﬁrst national childrenʼ
s natural house was opened in 1975 in
Muroto, Kochi, as the Muroto Childrenʼs
Natural House. Currently there are 14 childrenʼs natural houses nationwide.
At first,the lodging-type houses for youths and childrenʼs natural houses focused on group lodging training. However, today, they
allow small groups and families to use the facilities. From the perspective of supporting lifelong learning, these houses strengthen and support
opportunities for independent activities by users.

There were 1,307 public youth
facilities in Japan as of 2002: 213
prefectural facilities (16.3%), 736 city
(56.2%), 346 town or village (26.5%) and
13 union (1.0%) facilities respectively.
According to their targets and functions,Childrenʼs Natural Houses total 326(24.9%), Houses for Youths total 223(17.1 ％ ), Houses for Youth s(Day Care)
total 171 (13.1 ％ ), Cultural Centers forChildren total 105 (8.0％ ), and othertypes of facilities total 482 (36.9%).

90

A Central Youth Center building in
Ibaraki Prefecture

Inside facilities in a House for Youth91

Various programs in the Houses for
Youths.
① Morning meeting (radio gymnastics)② Outdoor cooking③ Candle performance

Social educational organizations areregistered as organizations that “may beeither corporate bodies o non-corporate
ones that do not come under official
public control and that aim to provide
services related to social education”
under the Social Education Law. Typicalsocial educational organizations
comprise PTAs, Culture Associations,Sports Associations, Boy Scouts, Youth
Associations, Womenʼs Associations andBoys Sports Clubs.
Social educational organizations areregistered under the Social Education
Law. This implies that there is a close
relationship between Japanese social
educational administration and social
educational organizations. At thepresent, many regional bodies support
diverse social educational organizations
including learning (study) circles thatare committed to activities in local
communities.
There is a need to structure a new relationship between social educational organizations and Japanese social educational administrationconsidering the diversity of circles or clubs that are committed to local communities and NPOs that are committed to social education.

92

① ② ③ National Youth Meeting, Nov.
2004
④ Youth Association annual meeting,May 2004⑤ Regional activity: attendance at a
local festival, 2003
⑥ Regional activity: discussion about
peace activities, 2003①② Boy Scoutsʼ activity: Camping③④⑤ Cub Scoutsʼ activity. Fishing93This regional Womenʼs
Association holds a convivial meeting
every month inviting mothers/lower
secondary school students/members of
this association as a type of activity toassist parenting mothers ( ①〜⑤ ). There
are 108 members of the association.
All activities are carried out based onmembership fees (1,000yen/year) andother income sources, for example
selling vegetables and foods.
① Mothers enjoy themselves talking withother participants while their babies andchildren are playing.
② Some members and lower secondary
school students are cooking for lunch.
③ The meeting closes after taking lunch.
Many mothers join in even though they
are not association members.
④ Lower secondary school students take part as volunteers to support this activity for parenting mothers.
⑤ A supervisor for social education from the townhouse lectures lower secondary school students in order to train them as rural junior leaders.

Under the Social Education Law,correspondence education is approved
when conducted using regulareducational plans, involving sending ofteaching materials and supplementarymaterials to students through thecorrespondence method. Based on thesematerials, students solve problems,
teachers make corrections and give
instructions, and questions and answers
are corresponded. (Article 50)
The major correspondence methods
and mediums comprise mail, fax,
computers, broadcasts, and other types.
By using these methods, videos andsound materials can be used efficiently.
For evaluation purposes, social
correspondence education should be
associated with schools and vocational
training institutions.
There are four types ofcorrespondence courses : 1) qualiﬁcations,2) business, 3) hobby・language and 4) liberal arts.

94Bodies or associations which
intend to start social correspondence
educational programs (schools or
public corporations that are non-proﬁtorganizations such as foundations)apply for approval and authorization
through the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.
The Ministry judges their financial
ability to undertake the correspondence
education business, the appropriatenessof the contents of their teachingmaterials and correction and guidance,
and the adequacy of the number ofteaching advisors available. MEXT thendecides whether such correspondence
courses are needed to encourage andpromote social education and thenauthorizes the courses.

A social welfare course held bya corporate body contains homestudy/schooling/practice teaching,and is completed in two years. The
recruitment number is 2,000 persons
every year, with 21,600 persons having
passed through this course.
① Schooling in a social welfare course:
A lecture titled the introduction ofsocial education, Nov 2004
② A practical guide for teaching of
nursing care95

In recent years, there have been
increasing numbers of people who
participate in sports in daily life to theaccompaniment of expanding interests
in sports, increasing leisure time andimprovements in the standard of living
in Japan. MEXT attempts to consolidate
local sports environments with theobjective to promote a life-long sportssociety In Japan that allows every
citizen to enjoy sports and to improvephysical abilities. The idea is based on
the “Basic Plan for Promotion of Sports”,
that was enunciated in September 2000
as a 10-year plan starting from 2001.
Currently, the state provides assistance toestablish integrated sports clubs and topromote sport centers that service wide
areas where people can gain familiarity
with sports and where the training of sport instructors can be conducted. By this measure the state attempts to promote sports in the wider society
including staging of sports events.

Prefectural park
① Multi-purpose area
② Gymnasium③ Baseball ground④ Indoor pool
⑤ Tennis court

96

Soccer festival for lower grades ofan elementary school at a soccer ﬁeld inmunicipal sports park

July, 2004

[example]① Warming up and exercise, ②
Cheering families、③ gameA rental fee for a multi-purpose areaat this place: whole space = 3000 yen
for 2 hours for 2 soccer ﬁelds
The number of registered boys sport
clubs in Tsukuba city. (in terms of sport
events, May 20, 2004)
Baseball

19 clubs ‒ 434 members(students), 140 instructors
Soccer

20 clubs ‒ 969 members(students), 128 instructors
Judo

4 clubs ‒ 71 members(students), 10 instructors

Boys and Girls Judo Meeting at a
Martial Arts Hall, University of Tsukuba,
July 2004
The 5th Tsukuba Boys and Girls
Judo Meeting (Sponsorship: Tsukuba
City Board of Education and Judo clubof the University of Tsukuba; Meeting
Place: Martial Arts Hall, University ofTsukuba)
The main host of a Juvenile JudoTournament <Tsukuba Central JudoClub>
Supported by the Judo club of the
University of Tsukuba, Board of
Education of Tsukuba

97

Recently, especially in urban areas,
private companies such as newspaper
firms, broadcasters, or department
stores, have opened cultural centers toprovide opportunities for education,
culture, and sports businesses (courses)
to the public with a charge. Private social
education businesses such as cultural
centers offer diverse and creative
learning opportunities with flexible
ideas. Although they differ in degree
between regions, private social education
businesses play extremely importantroles in supporting diverse lifelong
learning activities for residents.
Under the the notice by the headof the lifelong learning department of
MEXT, “Interpretations regarding private
proﬁt social education businesses in theSocial Education Law” issued in September, 1995, MEXT announced its view that “social education” deﬁned in Article 2 of the Social Education Law
includes organized educational activities by private businesses and the use of citizensʼ public halls by private proﬁt social education businesses.

98

① Childrenʼs atelier course② Flamenco course③ This cultural center which is locatedin a downtown area is administrated
by a newspaper company.
④ Front of this cultural center. Everycourse will finish in 3 months. The
center prepares 230 courses and about
1,000 persons are taking courses. The
proportion of females who take courses
is more than 80%, and the proportionof female lecturers is more than 70%.
Among the elderly, higher numbers ofmales take courses.
⑤ Leaf lets of various courses: courses
concerning obtaining qualifications,languages, playing instruments, dances,
health, cooking, general knowledge, andhobbies99

Part 2Ⅳ

Organaization and Implementation of Curriculum

Ⅴ

Class-room Management and GuidanceⅥ

School Management

Ⅶ

Cooperation between School and Local Community

Ⅷ

Teacher's Qualiﬁcations, Training, and Appointment

102

Ⅳ

Organaization and Implementation
Curriculum(1) Outline
1

Total Structure of Curriculum2

Process of Curriculum Development(2) Organaization of Curriculum

3

Educational Objectives and Curriculum

4

Curriculums and Courses of Study(3) Implementation of Curriculums

5

Organization of Units and Study Materials

6

Lesson Plans

7

Evaluation of Study

8

Class and Curriculum Evaluations

9

Forms of Guidance(4) Examples of Curriculum Activities

10

Subjects in Elementary Schools

11

Moral Education

12

Special Activities 1 (Class Activities)

13

Special Activities 2 (Students Council)

14

Special Activities 3 (Club Activities)

15

The Period of Integrated Study

16Club Activitiesof(1) Outline
1 Total Structure ofCurriculum
2 Process ofCurriculum
Development(2) Organaization of Curriculums
3 Educational
Objectives andCurriculum
4 Curriculum andCourses of Study(3) Implementation of Curriculums
5 Organization of Unitsand Study Materials
6 Lesson Plans

7 Evaluation of Study

8 Class andCurriculum
Evaluations
9 Forms of Guidance104

(4) Examples of Curriculum Activities
10 Subjects in
Elementary School

11 Moral Education

12 Special Activities 1(Class Activities)
13 Special Activities 2 (Students Council)

14 Special Activities 3(Club Activities)

15 The Period of Integrated Study

16 Club Activities

105Each school sets up its ideas andeducational objectives. The curriculum isa schoolʼs educational plan that organizes
each gradeʼs core requirements in asystematic management style.

“Educational objectives” are conceptsof “what kind of human beings are to
be nurtured”. In order to achieve suchobjectives, educational contents must be
determined. The educational contents of“what to teach learners” are “curriculums”
that have a close relationship withteaching methods (how to teach). The“curriculums” of schools in Japan consistof two areas: “subjects” and “nonsubjects.” For example, in elementary
schools there are nine subjects: “Japanese
language,” “social studies,” “arithmetic,”“science,” “life styles,” “music,” “drawing
and handcrafts,” “home economics” and“physical education”. Inn “non-subjects”
there are “moral precepts,” “special
activities” and “the period of integrated
study.”

106

In Japan, local standard curriculums
provided by the prefectural boards ofeducation and the municipal boards ofeducation, are based on “The Course of
Study,” which is the standard nationwide
curriculum. Each school makes its“yearly guidance plan” as a generalplan at the beginning of the year. This
guidance plan provides direction for ①
Guidance plans for grades, fields andsubjects, ② Semester guidance plans, ③Monthly guidance plans, ④ Weekly andunit guidance plans, ⑤ Daily guidanceplans and ⑥ Current lesson guidanceplans. Plans are gradually made from
① to ⑥ . These plans are evaluatedthrough actual classes and periodicallyreexamined.
The school also makes its “Courseof Study” at the beginning of the year. This plan is made for each subject and extracurricular activity (moral education, special activities, the period of
integrated study) at each grade level and for each class.

The picture above provides one
example of “yearly guideline plan list” ata lower secondary school (Art). Using
this list, teachers are able to plan yearly
instructions for each subject they teach,and also to review their actual lessons
in comparison with initial plans.

107Curriculum development is
an activity that evaluates a schoolʼ
s curriculum continuously from theperspective of social change, etc., andthen improves it. It includes curriculums
at various levels, for instance, schools,
communities, and the national
curriculum. In Japan, the implementationof the fundamentals of the Course of
Study and each schoolʼs full involvementin curriculum development commenced
after CERI (Center for Educational
Research and Innovation) of the OECDadvanced an idea called SBCD (Schoolbased Curriculum Development).

Curriculum development isa dynamic process of curriculum
improvement through “doing (teaching
and guidance)” and evaluation of
the results of a planned curriculum.
“Teaching” is one of the practicemodels in the curriculum development
process. It is important that the unityof “process of teaching improvement”
be incorporated into curriculum
development.

108

The above chart illustrates theprocess of curriculum development
in Japan. This process needs a setof procedures which are to ① set
educational objectives,

2) selectstudy experiences, ③ select contents,④ organize study experiences andcontents, ⑤ perform evaluations, and⑥ make improvements. By this setof practical procedures, each school
develops its own curriculum.

This is one example of the themesof the “Development Research
School” laid out by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT) in 2002. In Japan,
the importance of developing creativeand practical curricula at each school
is emphasized. Research into originaland new curricula development, suchas at various “Development Research
Schools”, is in progress at national andlocal levels.

109

Educational objectives of schools are
ideas formulated by each school on what
education ought to be. They indicate theconcept of the ideal type of person thateach student should become throughparticipation in school educational
activities. Educational objectives ofschools can be divided into 4 levels: 1)
school objectives, 2) grade objectives,
3) class objectives, and 4) objectives ofindividual students.

In Japan, the Constitution and theFundamental Law of Education provide
educational objectives, and on the basisof them the Boards of Education andschools determine educational objectives.
School educational objectives show eachschoolʼs educational philosophy. various
educational activities are carried out inschools to achieve the objectives.

110This is an example of educational
objectives at an elementary school.
School educational objectives consistof ʻschool objectivesʼ, ʻgrade objectivesʼand ʻclass objectives.ʼ It can be said
that the objectives of school activities
become more practical over time.

This picture is an example of posted
ʻclass objectivesʼ. Among a varietyof posters in the classroom, ʻclassobjectivesʼ are educational objectives
for all the students who belong to theclass to aim for during the school year.
These are posted where students cansee them daily. ʻClass objectivesʼ play
an important role in assisting each
student to go over and to reflect ondaily personal educational activities andpriorities.

111

In Japan, the official “Course of
Study” is the basis of the national
curriculum which is revised once in about
every 10 years. The current versionof the Course of Study was issued on
December 14th 1998 comprising the
Course of Study for elementary schools,
the Course of Study for lower secondary
schools, and the Course of Study forkindergartens. These courses of study
have been in force since April 1st 2002.
In addition, the Course of Study for upper
secondary schools, the Course of Studyfor schools for the blind, schools for thedeaf, and schools for the handicapped
other than the blind and the deaf were
issued on March 29th 1999.

● Careful selection of educational
contents: Reduction, transition andintegration of contents that tend to beadvanced to upper level grades, seniorschools● Creation of ”the period of integrated
study”: Featured educational anddevelopmental activities created andframed by each school● Response to internationalizationand spread of the information age:
Learning foreign language conversation,using computers and information andtelecommunications networks in classes
such as during “the period of integrated
study.”● Reduction of class session hours:
Reducing the annual total of class session
hours by 70 credit hours (2 credit hours
a week)112

At elementary schools, each classis 45 minutes long. The total of classhours for special activities are counted
as hours for class activities (excluding
school lunch periods), which is provided
in the Course of Study for elementary
school.
（The day of a student →Ⅸ− 29）(From the left), ① The Course of
Study (for elementary schools), ② theCourse of Study (for lower secondary
schools), ③ the Course of Study (forupper secondary schools), ④ theCourse of Study (for kindergartens), ⑤
the Course of Study for schools for theblind, schools for the deaf, and schools
for the handicapped other than theblind and the deaf

113

Teaching contents are organizedin some units according to the actual
conditions of studentsʼ achievements
based on each gradeʼs and subjectʼs
objectives. The organization of teachingcontents needs to:
Clarify each subjectʼs objectives andselect proper teaching contents carefullyto achieve objectives of units.
Arrange units to ﬁt students, consideringteaching contentsʼ quality of systems anddevelopment
Arrange school events based on theschoolʼs and local communityʼs actual
conditions and seasons.

“Teaching materials” are theimportant elements that constitute aclass with “students” and “teachers.”
The elements that shape the contents
to be taught and in a class are “teachingmaterials.” Textbooks are the mainteaching materials while other items
include documents, reference materials
and objects which teachers select fromthe daily life of students. An activity
under which a teacher selects, interprets,
and organizes “teaching materials” inthe context of class objectives is called“research on teaching materials.” Ateacher spends a long time to conduct“research on teaching materials” for use
in teaching classes.

114

An example of a list of the unit
structure for an arithmetic lesson at anelementary school.

The above picture consists of a
figure of a unit structure for a schoolʼs period of integrated study. It enables
one to conceptualize one year curriculaby units.

115

A “guidance plan” is a speciﬁc plan
made on the basis of school curriculum.
On the basis of the “Guidance plan” and“Unit structure” as a general perspective,
individual class “study lesson plans” perperiod are made. By making a “study
lesson plan,” teachers can plan the classdevelopmental process for a period andprepare guidance suitable for childrenʼsactual conditions.

Subsumed within “Lesson plans” areall the outcomes based on class planningand research on teaching materials done
by a teacher, including his / her ideas ofeducation and educational instruction.
The “Lesson plan” is a blueprint withintentions and structures of each classthat is prepared to pre-plan the class.
The “Lesson plan” is also useful to help
improve the way teachers teach. By
reviewing guidance plans, teachers candetermine where there are instruction
gaps. This allows them to adapt thestructure of their future classes in a way
to try to ﬁll in those gaps.

116

In the above lesson plan, in addition
to the name of the instructor, date, andclass, additional information includes① name of the unit ② the reason for
the unit setting ③ objective of the unit
④ plan for the unit ⑤ objective of thisclass ⑥ guidance process for this class.
For ② , teachers write about how theyshould teach, what they should use, andtheir views of the students in their class.
In this unit, and for ⑥ , they outline
the process of the class hour from the
beginning through conclusion.

(Picture) The above picture provides
an example of a lesson plan (1st gradeof lower secondary school, Japanese
History).

117

Written “guidelines” change every
time the Course of Study is revised
according to evolving principles. These
written guidelines consist of “recordsof the school register” and “records of
instructions,” and plays two roles as: 1)
the original certiﬁcation for external use,and 2) instruction materials.
A “report card”（

→

Ⅶ

− 19）

contains information about a studentʼ
s performance and attendance record.
Report cards are provided to studentsʼ
parents at the end of each quarter,
thereby allowing them to track the
progress of their children in order toprovide feedback and reflect on future
instruction. In Japan today, absoluteevaluation are being considered seriously
as a means to assess studentsʼ academic
performance since they provide a clearer assessment of studentsʼ performance and progress.

Today in Japan, setting concrete
educational objectives and making
precise evaluations of the extent to which
objectives have been achieved have beenprioritized in order to clarify individual
improvements. This approach reflects
previous knowledge regarding the utilityof evaluations.
Excerpts from the Curriculum
Council, Report on Evaluation of Learningand Educational Process of Students,
December 4th, 2000.

118

This is a picture of a school reportcard. A homeroom teacher carefully
writes down evaluations of the
progress and strengths of individual
students in order to let the know theirachievements, to set goals and to
inform parents regarding their childrenʼs academic development.

In order to assess studentsʼ academic
achievements, teachers evaluate tests
which are done before, after and during
the school term. Teachers also check
notebooks, worksheets and work doneby each student in order to be awareof their level of understanding and toteach appropriately. Teachers ﬁle these
documents and make use of them intheir evaluations.
① 6th grade, November 2005
② 1st grade, January 2005
③ 1st grade, December 2003
④ Test, 6th grade, December 2003

119An evaluation of class improvements
is called ʻclass evaluationʼ and anevaluation of curriculum improvement iscalled ʻcurriculum evaluation.ʼ Throughthese evaluations overall class andcurriculum palns are reassessed.

ʻCurriculum evaluationsʼ are madeto check if curriculum are designed
and implemented appropriately and to
improve curriculums. Evaluations are
conducted at multiple levels, such as
schools, communities, and the state.
ʻCurriculum evaluationsʼ of schools
are conducted in terms of ① studentsʼ
assessment of academic achievement,② organization of school curriculum
development, ③ relationships between
communities and curriculums, ④
results of evaluations of curriculums
and the entire school and ⑤ school
characteristics.

120

ʻClass evaluations” are made to
improve classes. While valuation points
differ according to class objectives,
important points to be considered are① the appropriateness of class content
in terms of child development, ②
whether the class content has adequate
range to accommodated individual
differences, ③ whether children areable to work effectively and whether
they are satisﬁed with the content, ④
whether children had opportunities toexpress their thoughts about things thatthey donʼt understand and ⑤ whether
the teaching materials and equipment
were effectively used.

In this picture, teachers observe aclass. After the class visit, they hold aseminar, and discuss the objectives,content and methods of the class. There
are both ʼin-school seminarsʼ held in thesame school and ʼopen seminarsʼ which
are open to outsiders. By learning fromthese seminars, teachers reassess theirclassroom instruction methods andattempt through mutual feedback to
improve individual quality and abilities.
① Class visit, moral education, 1stgrade, March 2005
② Discussion after the class121

There are three forms of generalguidance: ① frontal teaching, ② groupstudy, and ③ provision of individual
learning. In addition, recently, providing
guidance according to studentsʼ
individual needs and abilities becomes
important at Japanʼs elementary schools
and lower secondary schools.

The above caption illustrates
general types of instruction and thecharacteristics of each type. Currently inJapan, schools utilize not only classroom
study but also other types of instruction,such as group and individual study .
Which type of teaching methods arepracticed depends on the contents of aclass. → (addition) To instruct students
individually and to ascertain their levelof comprehension, instruction is given by
the teacher by walking around childrenʼsdesks.（The number of students per class→Ⅱ− 41）

122

The Course of Study adopted in1998 aims to strengthen the teachingof basic and fundamental contents
and to develop education considering
individual studentsʼ needs and abilities.
To achieve this goal, instruction forsmall numbers of students is carriedout, such as through individual andgroup teaching, instruction based on
studentsʼ abilities and team teaching.

The Course of Study adopted in1998 aims to strengthen the teachingof basic and fundamental contents
and to develop education considering
individual studentsʼ needs and abilities.
To achieve this goal, instruction forsmall numbers of students is carriedout, such as through individual andgroup teaching, instruction based on
studentsʼ abilities and team teaching.
① Frontal teaching, arithmetic 5th
grade, January 2005
② Group study, science 4th grade,
December 2003
③ Team teaching, Japanese language
1st grade, December 2003
④ Individualized teaching, arithmetic
1st grade, December 2003
⑤ Individuaizedl teaching of Japanese, Japanese language, January 2005

123

There are nine subjects inelementary school; ʻJapanese language,ʼʻsocial studies,ʼ ʻarithmetic,ʼ ʻscience,ʼ ʻlife
skils,ʼ ʻmusic,ʼ ʻdrawing and handcrafts,ʼ
ʻhome economiesʼ and ʻphysicaleducation.ʼ ʻLife skillsʼ is taught onlyin the first and second grades, whileʻscienceʼ and ʻsocial studiesʼ are taught
from the third grade. Fifth and sixth
graders study home economics together.

Posting objectives from the Courseof Study
In the current curriculum, contents ofeach curriculum were selected carefully
to make sure that they are fundamental
and basic.

124

The above shows scenes fromscience and music classes in elementary
school.
① Japanese, 1st grade, December 2003
② Calligraphy, 4th grade, July 2004
③ Arithmetic, 1st grade, December
2003

The above shows scenes fromscience and music classes in elementary
school.
① Science 4th grade, December 2003
② Music 6th grade, December 2003

125

The above shows scenes fromphysical education, handicrafts and home
economics classes in elementary school.
① Physical education, December 2003
② Physical education (swimming) 2nd
grade, July 2004
③ Drawing and Handcrafts 3rd grade,
December 2003
④ Home economics 5th grade, November
2005

They shows scenes from social
studies and life skill activities inelementary school.
①② Social Studies (study outside theschool), 3rd grade, November 2004③④ Life skills (study outside the school),
2nd grade, November 2004

126

These are examples of childrenʼs learning activities in an elementary
school: research, summary,presentation, discussion, observation
and watching.
① In a school library room (theperiod of integrated study), 6th grade,
December 2003
② In a science room, 4th grade,
December 2003
③ In a science room, 6th grade,
December 2003
④ In a science room, 6th grade,
December 2003
⑤ In a science class, 6th grade,
September 2004
⑥ In a period of integrated study(international education), 2nd grade,
June 2004

Elementary and lower secondary
schools in Japan conduct ʻmoral
educationʼ classes once a week. Moral
education is provided in each subject
and throughout all educational activities
in the school.
1.Objectives of moral education
To teach and instill morality
covering moral sentiments, moral
judgment, moral attitudes and thecapability and willingness to put
these in practice through educational
activities at school.
2.Objectives of moral education
classes
To intensify moral values of selfawareness and to develop studentsʼ
ability to practice morality
maintaining close relations
with other individuals. This is done by intensifying and integrating moral education through systematic developmental instruction.

127

by

In grades 1 and 2,(4) was added as an item of contents tonurture love for oneʼs birthplace even inlower grades, and also(2) was added to have a more
independent relation with groups.
In grades 3 and 4,(6) was added to nurture cultural andtraditional values of oneʼs birthplace andJapan as well as to consider progress ofinternationalized society from now on.
In grades 5 and 6, the end ofsentences was changed in pursuit ofmore independent relations with groups
and the society.

In grades 1 and 2,(4) was added as an item of contents tonurture love for oneʼs birthplace even inlower grades, and also(2) was added to have a more
independent relation with groups.
In grades 3 and 4,(6) was added to nurture cultural andtraditional values of oneʼs birthplace andJapan as well as to consider progress ofinternationalized society from now on.
In grades 5 and 6, the end ofsentences was changed in pursuit ofmore independent relations with groups
and the society.

128

These are the pictures of a Moral
Education textbook and supplementary
reading. In Japan, many schools use not
only textbooks, but also supplementary
readings.
① use of paintings for introduction.
② distributing handouts to students.
③ asking studentsʼ opinions.
④ handmade teaching materials⑤ supplementary readings① an introduction to a class using
paintings② ”watch with an eye of heart”③ a handicapped person relates her
experience129

“Special activities” are the activities
outside subjects that are done usually
through group activities of a whole class,grade, or school. They consist of fourtypes of activities: A) class activities,B) activities of student councils, C) club
activities, and D) school events.
* Objectives of special activities
Through appropriate group activity,
special activities aim to develop studentsʼ
minds and bodies in harmony, deepen
their awareness of being members ofa student groups, and nurture their
independent and practical attitudes inorder to seek to build a better life.
D. School events → Field Ⅸ ”Japanese
school life and culture”（D．School events →Ⅸ− 1 〜 15）“Class activities” are defined as
activities to improve progress in classand school life and to cultivate sound life
styles for children.
A specific example is (1) to solve
various problems in class and school life,
by making class rules and by assigningwork to individual students.
Another example is (2) to develop
attitudes to live with hope and purpose,to acquire basic living habits, to develop
good human relationships, to make useof libraries, to build healthy and safe life
styles in mind and body, and to develop
good eating habits during school lunch.

130①② Class meeting; Under the guidanceof a teacher and selected classrepresentatives, students bring up
topics such as problems in their class.
The students then discuss these issues
find solutions to the problems. (topic;
what to do while summer vacation, 6th
grade, July 2005)③ Morning meeting (1st grade
December 2003)④ Procedure of class meeting⑤ Record of class meeting (6th grade)⑥ Record of class meeting (1st grade,
December 2003)

These are pictures of students at
a school library and students during
lunch time.
① Students responsible for various
tasks, 2nd grade, December 2003
② School lunch time, 1st grade,
December 2003
③ Students responsible for growing
plants, January 2005

131

Another special activity is the“student council,” which is a studentsʼ
meeting organized by all students ina school. Management of the student
council is carried out primarily by
students in the 5th and 6th grades. The
types of committees that the student
council engages in are: “representative
committee, ” “committee” and “studentsʼ
assembly.”“Representative committees”
consist of “class representatives”“committee representatives” and “steeringcommittees.” Representative committees
discuss organization and government ofstudent councils, plans of meetings andgeneral school life. For example, theyhold such meetings as to make annual
activity plans, to conduct reviews ofactivities over the year, to plan sports
activities (marathon races, rope skippingday), to plan cultural activities (welcome
party for first graders, farewell party
for sixth graders), to discuss school
life problems (making and enforcing
school rules, how to deal with rainy
days, reading of books) and ﬁnally othertopics (plan UNICEF day, make an annual
cleaning plan).

132

① ② Student council “About greetings
movement”③ Feedback from a teacher

In the Newspaper Committee,
students prepare a school paper with
contents concerning intra-school
information and interviews aboutschool events.
① At a health committee, students aremaking posters calling attention for
all students to wash hands in order toprevent colds. December 2003
② Library committee December 2003
③ At a newspaper committee, students
are making a school newspaper
concerning school news and school
events. December 2003
④ At a radio broadcasting committee,
students are broadcasting school news
to all classes during an afternoon break.
December 2003

133

These pictures show student
assemblies titled “Welcome 4th year
students.” All the students gather and the
4th grade students are demonstrating
what they have recently learned.
① Reading compositions② Drama③ Physical Education④ Music“Club activities” are organized
mainly by the upper grade students
who have common interests. They arepracticed in elementary school. Teachers
encourage students to work and study bythemselves with leaders from the 5th or
6th grades.

134

The ﬁgure provides an example oftypical club activities at a school such as
athletics, arts, and recreational activities,
which meet studentsʼ needs. The schoolorganizes various types of club activities.

① Computer club, July 2004
② Cooking club: Students are making“Zenzai,” January 2005
③ Handicraft club, July 2004

135

The pictures show cultural activities
involving computer clubs and handicraft
clubs.
At the end of each term, students do selfassessments① Flower arrangement club, July 2004
② Flower arrangement club, July 2004
③ Science club, July 2004
④ Science club, July 2004

① Writing self-assessments② Club activities start from 4th grade.
The visiting 3rd grade students areobserving club activities to know what
they are like.

136

The pictures show athletic club
activities;① badminton, July 2004
② basketball, July 2004
③ table tennis, July 2004

The “period of integrated study” wasintroduced under the revised Courseof Study adopted in 1998. This is aperiod when children can study beyond
the normal framework of subjects by
pursuing original ideas identiﬁed within
individual schools: elementary schools,
lower secondary schools and upper
secondary schools. The aims of theperiod are mentioned below.
(1)

to develop and improve abilities

and stature to solve problems byidentifying issues, learning, exercising
critical thinking, interpreting and acting
independently.
(2)

to learn how to study and think,and to learn how to act independently
and creatively to solve problems and tocarry out investigative activities, and ﬁnally to be able to undertake self-introspection.
(3) to encourage children to (engage) in moral and special activities, and to be able to use these activities synthetically in order to develop
life skills and knowledge.
(1998 Course of Study for Elementary School General Rules・2002 Partial Amendment）

137

The “period of integrated study“ andthe subjects encountered have an interlinked structure, as shown in the chart
above. This means that the knowledge
and skills learned in each subject interrelate in a comprehensive fashion to “theperiod of integrated study”. The power
gained during the “period of integrated
study” is utilized in learning individual
subjecst.

Source ”Survey on School Education”
in September 2003, by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT)
From the above survey data, we
can see studentsʼ progress in developing
perspectives that they donʼt always
encounter in classroom settings whenlearning subjects. For example, whenchildren encounter new experiences
they become absorbed in studying by
themselves. They can also engage inactivities with children from other classlevels.

138

Source ”Survey on School Education”
in September 2003, by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT)
From the above survey data, we cansee studentsʼ progress in developing
perspectives that they donʼt always
encounter in classroom settings whenlearning subjects. For example, whenchildren encounter new experiences
they become absorbed in studying by
themselves. They can also engage inactivities with children from other classlevels.

The pictures show an activity
during the “period of integrated
study.” Various activities are done
during the period of integrated study,
depending on the creativity of teachersand students and the features of eachschool.
① Voluntary teachers from a NPO for
environment protection are explaining
advantages to plant reeds for restoring
nature. Students grew these reeds intheir school.
② Students are planting reeds.
③ City officials cooperate in carrying
reeds from the school to the lakeside.
(Human resources of community →Ⅶ−
35~39)

139

When compared with compulsory“club activities” in elementary school
which are performed during classhours with participation by all students,“extracurricular activities” are club
activities of studentsʼ choices which
are organized outside the curriculum atlower secondary schools or higher schoollevels. At present, the “extracurricular
activities” are practiced at most lower
and upper secondary schools. Since the“extracurricular activities” represent
activities chosen by students outsideof regular school curriculums, students
can develop social and group skills thatare more difficult to learn from schoolclassroom subjects, as well as to develop
their individual personalities.

The above list of club activities are
extracurricular, and are divided into
athletic and cultural clubs in school.
Through such club activities, students
can learn respect for their seniors,
sympathy toward juniors, and social
interaction skills that cross age groups.

140

The above pictures show athleticclub activities: Kendo and Softballtennis. Through club activities, students
participate in official games andtournaments.
During practice sessions, advisory
teachers also participate in club
activities①② Kendo (Japanese fencing)November 2004③④ Soft tennis December 2004

The above pictures show athleticclub activities: baseball and basketball.
Through club activities, students
participate in official games andtournaments.
During practice sesions, advisory
teachers also participate in club
activities①② Baseball November 2004③④ Basketball November 2004

141

These are pictures of extra-curricular
cultural activities such as computerclubs and brass band clubs. In these
activities, students show their abilities by
exhibiting their work at exhibitions held
both within and outside school premises,
including performing in concerts.
Feedback from external evaluations isdesigned to develop students skills andto improve the quality of their activities.
①② Computer club, December 2004③④ Brass bands, December 2004

142

Ⅴ Classroom Management and Guidance

1

Classroom Management Plans

2

Class Objective

3

Class Activities, Group Activities, Day Duty

4

"Class Newsletters"

5Group Activities for Children of Differing Ages

6

Non-attendance at School (Absenteeism)

7

Measures for Dealing with Non-attendance at school

8

Visits to Children's Homes

9

The School Counselor and the Counselorof Education for Sound Mental Development

10

Teacher Guidance Meetings

11

Class Fees

1 Class-room
Management Plans

2 Class Objective

3 Class Activities, Group Activities, Day Duty

4 "Class Newsletters"

5 Group Activities for Children of Differing Ages

Non-attendance at School (Absenteeism)144

7 Measures of Non-attendance at School

8 Visits to Childrenʼs Homes

9 The School Counselor and the Counselor of Education for Sound Mental Development

10 Teacher Guidance Meetings

11 Class Fee s

145

A classroom is a physical space
where students grouped in a classfocus on learning subjects and social
interactions in school life. Especiallyat the level of elementary schools, thetime spent in classrooms is signiﬁcant as
studentsʼ characters are formed throughinteractions among students undergroup-based study arrangements.
A disciplined, friendly andcomfortable atmosphere is indispensable
in classrooms since it forms the basis forstudents to live and learn year around.
A classroom that groups students withindividual personalities is not an easy or
automatic situation to sustain.
In elementary schools in Japan,
therefore, home-room teachers haveto make their own annual plans onclassroom management and then proceed to manage their clasess on the basis of the annual plan.

Home-room teachers usually arein charge of their classes in Japanʼselementary schools. While recently, somespecialized teachers only teach specificsubjects, such as , music , drawing andhandcrafts, home-room teachers teaches
and handled multiple subjects and also
are in charge of moral education, Special
Activities and Guidance. Therefore,
classroom management by home-roomteachers ranges from subject instructions
to extracurricular activities.
Students develop individually
by exercising their own abilities,
personalities, and by improving selfconfidence in class. At the sametime, they develop social group skills
by cooperating or discussing withclassmates with differing personalities
and abilities. In classroom management,teachers provide guidance for students
individually as well as for the whole classas a group.

146

A class management plan needs
to be made with a perspective ofeducational activities that includes
guidance on both subjects andextracurricular activities. Home-roomteachers need first to understandthe characteristics and conditions ofeach student, ascertain the features ofrequired group tasks, and then set classmanagement objectives for the year.
The teacher writes down precisely
what kind of tasks need to be performed
in order to achieve the yearly objectives
for each subject as well as for moral
education, special activities, and theperiod of integrated study.

Key class objectives are to develop
student groups that function to enhance
individual growth and that have positive
impacts on the education of individual
student s. Students themselves help todetermine the objective of their classes.
The objectives can be slogans or mottos
for each student who belongs to theclass. Formulating and pursuing suchobjectives have an important function
in creating orderly classroom conditions
where groups function in both learningand living contexts.

147

Class objectives play significant
roles for home room teachers inevery day teaching. Teachers should
understand the educational objectives ofboth their schools and their individual
grades. These objectives of classroom
educational activities are operationalized
in terms of timeframes such as terms,
months and weeks.
Teachers should understand thedevelopment and growth of students
both as individuals and in groups andthen provide appropriate guidance totheir students by keeping class objectives
in mind.

Each class has its own internal
atmosphere. Placards exhibited by onclassroom walls help contribute to thisatmosphere. Class objectives that show
the class motto are exhibited primarily
in the form of posters at the mostnoticeable places in the classroom as
reminders to both teachers and students.
（Notice/posters 1 →Ⅸ− 58）①② 6th grade, Nov. 2004
③ 1st grade, Nov. 2004

148

Class activities are the mostimportant activities in a class
functioning as one unit and include
special activities that are a part of theformal curriculum. They are defined
as “activities to enrich and to solidify
everyday life in class and school” and“activities to adapt to daily life and tolearn and improve health and safety.”
Solidarity making and enrichment
activities are done by “solving life
problems in school and class, organizedclass settings in a way to help students
cope with a division of work.” Other
activities are designed to promote “theformation of attitudes of helpfulness
and purpose, the development of basic
life style, the formation of desirable
inter-personal relationships, theutilization of school libraries, the nurturing of physically and mentally sound and safe life styles, and the formation of desirable eating habits.”
The objectives and contents of class activities have implications for both class-based and group-based activities as well as for day duties.
Class-based activities are the ones that students undertake involving a variety of classroom work by making individual assignments. Group-based
activities involve cooperation among students in small groups by engaging in various study and other activities. The day duty is daily work shared by
the entire class.

Class activities are placed in theformal curriculum to encourage
students to do activities voluntarily andindependently. They are as important aslearning individual subjects since they
are basic to establishing class groups.
Class activities have various
elements and approaches. The day duty
and the class-based activities promote
voluntary activities among individual
students. Class-based activities doneby student groups as a unit alongwith other group-based activities help
to cultivate the ability of a group of
students to work and interact together
autonomously.

149

Students who are in charge of classactivities have their names recorded on
the wall in a classroom along with thekind of activities they have to perform.
By demonstrating that all students
share a variety of classroom tasks, theresponsibility and desire of students toparticipate actively in class activities
increases.
①②③ Various tasks④ A student who has done his duty canrecord it with a color seal. 4th grade,⑤ Students responsible for school lunch
introduce interesting information about
todayʼs lunch menu. 6th grade⑥ Students responsible for school lunch
help clean desks used for serving lunch.
⑦ ⑧ Students decide allocation of tasks
through discussions.
（→Ⅸ− 31・32・50）① Study group. 6th grade, Dec. 2003
② School lunch group, 1st grade, July
2004
③ Group for cleaning, December 2003
④ Group for serving school lunch, 6th
grade, December 2003

150

① Day duty tasks② Names of day duty assignments forthe day, 1st grade, July 2004
③ A day duty student is writing theclass timetable before a morning
meeting. 6th grade, December 2003
④ Students performing the day duty arecleaning blackboard after a class, 4thgrade, January 2005
⑤ A day duty student is writing ajournal for the day, December 2003

Class newsletters are published as
one means of communication by homeroom teachers in cooperation withstudents and parents. Some teachers
donʼt publish them. The contents andthe methods used to publish newslettersdiffer between teachers. The newslettercan be an important way to make aclass pull together.
Newsletters have several functions.
The most common function is to informparents regarding childrenʼs school lifeand planned school events. They haveanother important function to convey tostudents a teacherʼs thoughts and ideas,
and to provide guidance by teachers
to students and their parents throughclass newsletters.

151

Classroom newsletters are handed
to students and their parents. Throughnewsletters parents understand thesituation of students in class and are
informed of educational policies of homeroom teachers as well as how home-roomteachers view their students. Students
also receive messages from home-roomteachers through classroom newslettersand during daily classroom life.
Home-room teachers with the ability
assess the effects of their classroom
newsletters try to do the following: toappropriately ascertain the circumstancesof students as a group and to informthem of relevant issues; to ask parents
about their level of understanding ofteacher policies; to prompt parents
to work with their children. Throughnewsletters, teachers also send messages to enhance studentsʼ motivations for life and learning.

152

In Japanʼs elementary schools that
follow the grade system, internalgroup activities traditionally have been
conducted among children of the sameage (peer groups) based on grade levels
and homerooms. However, recently the
number of siblings in a single family has
been decreasing. As a result, children
have fewer opportunities to play withchildren of differing ages in their daily
life. This leads to a diminishment of a
local communityʼs bond.
Therefore, in many elementary
schools, small group activities spanningchildren of various ages have been
introduced into the formal curriculum.
Seniors play roles as older brothers andsisters of juniors. This is done throughsuch activities as cleaning school
premises and by taking excursions organized into small groups that consist of students from differing age levels, such as spanning 1st graders to 6th
graders.

Group activities of differing aged
children usually consist of 1 or 2
students selected from each grade levelfrom the 1st to 6th. Grades. They areorganized into vertical divisions, thereby
breaking the age boundaries found inconventional grades and classes wherechildren have similar ages. A 6th grader
becomes a leader of a group and all
members actively cooperate together.

153

① Group members are deciding plays
which they previously enjoyed at a citypark.
② Each group starts from school.
③ Enjoying quiz rallies on the way to thedestination.
④ Arriving at the city park.
⑤ Playing and enjoying snacks withgroup members.

① Group leaders are gathering theirgroup members.
② ③ Group members are planting new
ﬂowers.

154

6th grade students are instructing
1st grade students about how to clean
the toilet. December 2003

Since the Meiji era, “increases
in educational enrollment andadvancement rates” in Japan have
served as important indices todemonstrating the development ofpublic education. After World War
Ⅱ , enrollment rates reached almost
100% in 9-year compulsory educational
facilities. While increasing advancement
rates to universities followed the rapid
increases in advancement rates to upper
secondary schools from 1950 to 1970,
students who cannot and/or donʼt want
to go to school are appearing today.
This symptom of dropout children
has come to be viewed as remarkableand has been termed a “school phobia”.
It is commonly viewed as a kind ofdisorder in which children of school age personally donʼt like attending school. More recently this phenomenon has begun to be called “tohkoh-kyohi,”
which means children themselves refuse to go to school. And now it is termed “non-attendance at school,” or absenteeism, which has a more generalmeaning that acknowledges the fact that children donʼt go to school for various reasons.（ Non-attendance →Ⅱ− 47~48）

155

The number of non-attending(absentee) school students has increased
rapidly at lower secondary schools inJapan, and the number and rates havecontinued to rise steadily during the
1990s. Recently, increasing rates of nonattendance (absenteeism) at elementary
school levels have also come to publicattention. The total number of nonattending school students at elementaryand lower secondary schools was over
138,000 as of 2001.（ Non-attendance→Ⅱ− 48）The reasons for non-attendanceat (absenteeism from) schools varyand include deteriorating relationships
with friends and/or teachers and poor
school achievement. Also, the numberof absentee students from schools isincreasing because of difficulties athome and personal problems. In bothcases, attention should be paid to themultiplication and overlapping of factors
leading to continuous non-attendance atschool.
There is also a view that from amacro level perspective, that the enforced
conformity and uniformity bearing down
upon individual students in the nationalmodern public education system inJapan may inevitably have caused thisphenomenon to appear and grow.

156

The reasons for non-attendance at(absenteeism from) schools vary andinclude deteriorating relationships
with friends and/or teachers and poor
school achievement. Also, the numberof absentee students from schools
is increasing because of difficulties
at home and personal problems. In
both cases, attention should be paid
to the multiplication and overlappingof factors leading to continuous nonattendance at school.
There is also a view that froma macro level perspective, that theenforced conformity and uniformity
bearing down upon individual students
in the national modern public education
system in Japan may inevitably havecaused this phenomenon to appear andgrow.

The phenomenon of “non-attendanceat school or school absenteeism” incontemporary Japan has occurred forcomplex reasons. The reasons include
relationships between teachers andstudents in school, academic pressures
on students, problems which derivefrom the diversification of family,
and studentsʼ mental and emotional
problems. In Japanese society which
has achieved economic affluence andmaintains high educational enrollment
and advancement rates, perhaps it is
becoming harder for such students toﬁnd meaning in “attending school.”157

① A free school located in Tokyo
rents this school building from a Tokyo
city office paying money. ② Regularmeeting on Friday afternoon: all students
attend, join in and decide their activities
or other topics (topics; art festival,
cleaning up before summer vacation,a free school schedule while summer
vacation, lodging at free school ③
Timetable ④ At the back of the room;making home page for this free school,on the floor; translating documents
into English which will be announced
at events in German, on the desk; selfstudy ⑤ Exercising playing the guitar ⑥
Playing video game
This free school established in 1985
was authorized as an NPO by the Tokyo
city ofﬁce in 1999. In 1992, the ministryof education indicated that it would leave the matter up to the principalʼs discretion to determine the number of days required to go to the freeschool in contrast to the number of days required for ordinary schools, and in 1993 agreed that commuterʼs tickets could be used by students. Thesedevelopments indicate that social awareness of the problem of non-attendance at schools (absenteeism) has increased.

It is necessary to deal with nonattending, absentee students individually
because there are various and multiple
factors behind their non-attendance atschool. It is necessary to understand thepresent conditions in which it is no longer
possible to affirm that it is absolutely
good or positive for all children to go toschool, since most non-attending school
children want to go to school, but cannot
do so for various reasons. It is necessary
to take measures to help such children toadapt to school life and to rejoin classes.
“Visits to childrenʼs homes byteachers” are designed to exchange
information regarding the reasons for
non-attendance by school children with
their parents and to communicate directlywith the children. “Attendance in healthrooms” is an option for some children
who want to go to school but cannot joina class because study pressures or poor
relationships with their friends. “Special classrooms for absentee school children,” established by municipal boards of education function to provide
such children with guidance and help facilitate their attendance at public schools.

158

There are many ways to deal with
absentee students. One option is todeepen their understanding of thenegative aspects of their non-attendanceat school through workshops andto provide direct guidance to such
students. Schools may also try to
promote cooperation with the familiesof such students and withotherorganizations.

There are many ways to deal
with absentee students. One option
is to deepen their understandingof the negative aspects of their
non-attendance at school throughworkshops and to provide direct
guidance to such students. Schools may
also try to promote cooperation withthe families of such students and withother organizations.

159

Reasons behind non-attendanceat school are various and composite.
Therefore in order to tackle them,a variety of appropriate measures
have been devised involving differing
perspectives.

① The classroom is a space to act
collectively rather than personally. If
a student wishes to study in nurseʼsroom, his/her desk will be placed there.
Students can have their own personal
space in school. February 2005
② This educational training center
provides any counselling needed byphone everyday from Monday throughSunday. February 2004

160

（Visits to childrenʼs homes → Ⅶ − 8・
10）

161

① At a studentʼs house.
② A teacher talks with a studentʼs
mother.
③ Leaving to the next studentʼs house.

As a result of increases inserious negative behavior by students(delinquency, violence, bullying,suicide, non-attendance at school.), it
became necessary to provide students
with “education for sound mental
development.” To deal with these
problems, counselors” began to be
deployed to schools as “specialists inmental soundness” by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology. Between 1995 to 2000,
such counselors were deployed to alimited number of schools financed
by MEXT that wanted to assess theuse of counselors and the resulting
impacts. Supported by grants from thegovernment, the project has expanded toprefectures and designated cities.
By the middle of 1998, counselorsof “education for mental soundness” were
deployed to lower secondary schools
lacking school counselors to relieve pressures and stress upon students by providing them with opportunities to talk about their distress without
constraints.

162

There are no official qualifications
for school counselors, althoughoccasionally certified clinicalpsychologists or school psychologists
are employed as school counselors.
School counselors are commissioned
by regional autonomous bodies and areassigned to specific schools. In mostcases, counselors work at schools on apart-time basis,once or twice a week.
School counselor provide guidance
to students as well as to teachers andparents.

School counselors can respond to
studentsʼ distress by taking advantageof their presence as “outsiders” at theschool, having a non-teacher status.
However, there are cases whereassigned counselors are unable to fully
understand the schoolʼs atmospherebecause of the part-time nature of theirjobs. It is necessary for counselors
and teachers to establish cooperative
relationships in order to provide more
effective and appropriate guidance forstudents.

163

① This school counselor (has aqualiﬁcation as a clinical psychologist) isreading the impressions of studentsʼ who
attended peer counseling in a “loungeroom”.
② This counselor of education for mental
soundness has a 2nd grade masterʼsdegree. ③ A counselor of education for
mental soundness④ The school counselor is taking school
lunch to talk with students in one of theclassrooms (1st grade of lower secondary
school) .
⑤ Afternoon break in “lounge room”

At elementary schools where homeroom teachers take charge of a class,there is a tendency that the problems ofstudent groups and individual students
remain within the class. Because ofthis, when a problem arises in a groupof students in a classroom setting, or
when problems gets worse between
teachers and groups of students, teachers
sometimes tend to keep the problems tothemselves.
In order to avoid such situations,teachers are given opportunities toregularly exchange information about thesituations of their classes and students
and concerns about class management
and guidance, and then discuss withother teachers on how to deal with the
problems.

164

Under the home-room teacher
system used in Japanese elementary
schools, it is difficult to identify
problems in classes from the outsidesuch as individual studentsʼ serious
behavioral problems, problems within agroup of students, and trouble between
homeroom teachers and students. That
is why such problems often tend to
become serious. Teachers who assume
a strong sense of responsibility tend toblame themselves for problems in theirclasses.
By sharing problems from eachclass along with ideas on teaching at
teachersʼ guidance meetings, guidance
provided to students will be improved.

165

Japanese compulsory education
represents a free education system:
tuition fees are not collected at publicschool and textbooks are distributed
free of charge at both public and private
schools.

However, incidental

private expenses are actually collected
at many schools, such as class fees andan appropriation for expenditures foreducational activities from studentsʼ
parents.（Education costs paid byguardians →Ⅶ− 71）

The above table shows that an
expenditure of 6,600 yen per year fora 3rd grade at an elementary school
is needed. Parents are required to pay“class fees” of 600 yen per month. By
looking at the items of expenses in thistable, it is clear that class fees are spenton teaching materials that are used inregular educational activities such as
tests, drill books and reading drills.
In addition to teaching materials,
schools collect money from parents for
expenditures such as school lunches,
expenses for excursions and school
trips, and paper used in the classroom
environment. The task of collecting
money is usually a part of the duty of ahome-room teacher.
（Education costs per child → Ⅶ − 72・
74）

166

①② After a morning meeting, a homeroom teacher starts to collect class fees.
③ Recording the names of students
who have paid class fees
④ A home-room teacher quickly brings
the class fees to the teachersʼ room.

167

Ⅵ

School Management

1School Management

2

School Management Plans

3

Educational Goals of School

4

Curriculum Management

5

Teachers' Meeting6

Principals' Duties and Competence

7

Appointment of Citizens as Principals

8

School Management Duties

9

Chief-teacher System

10

School Assessments

11

Evaluation of Teachers

12

School Risk Management

13

School Choice System

1415

1 School Management

2 School Management Plans

3 Educational Goals of School

4 Curriculum Management

5 Teachers' Meeting

6 Principals' Duties and Competence

7 Appointment of Citizens

8 School Management Duties

170

9 Chief-teacher System

10 School Assessments

11 Evaluation of Teachers

12 School Risk Management

13 School Choice System

14

学校力

15

日本の学校経営改革

171

School management focuses on
the importance of school stakeholdersʼautonomous use of creativity inmanagement. School stakeholders makedecisions about personnel and material
aspects such as setting educational goals
and curriculum design. They give shape
to the educational goals.

Since school is public educational
institute, school needs to make clear
on a management policy and importantgoals, relating to carry out education
as professional educational institution,and to make a school management
plan. When doing that, school needs
to care about laws, policies of board ofeducation, actual condition of children,and needs of parents and community.

172

Each school sets mid-term andlong-term management vision andstrategy, and based on those, it makes
management plans. In the plans, annual
educational plan, personnel plan, andﬁnancial plan are written down besides
the vision and the strategy of school
management. It is crucial to revise andevaluate the current situation for school
management plans.

Elements of school management
plans are; individual plans such as
educational plan, personnel plan,ﬁnancial plan, facility plan, organization
plan, and external plan, besides thevision and the strategy of school
making, and a comprehensive plan. In
the comprehensive plan and individual
plans, school needs to be clear on thegoals to be achieved, for example bysetting numerical values, and to carryout management evaluation to ensureaccountability.

173

Each school needs to develop
education and management based on
public education goals described in laws
and the course of study by the state.
Educational goals set by the state aredefined in the School Education Law
for each type of school. Based on that,the course of study shows concretegoals to be achieved in educational
activities. For example, the course of
study for elementary school defines
that, “each school should try to fulfill
education, which develops personalityof each student, by nurturing the abilityof the students to learn and think bythemselves and also the knowledge on
basic contents, while it aims to nurture
the various capacity of the students
and develops distinctive and creativeeducational activities.”
Educational goals of school needs to be set with consideration about actual conditions of children and school, and needs of the community.
For example, there is a school that focuses on the “nurturing of the ability to learn and think by oneself” as its educational goal.

Educational goals of elementary
school are prescribed in Article 17 and
18 of the School Education Law. Also,
the goals for each subject in elementary
school are deﬁned in the ofﬁcial Courseof Study. For example, the aim of
ʻJapanese language instruction is “todevelop oneʼs ability to express andcomprehend the Japanese language, andto improve the ability to communicate.
This includes developing abilities tothink and imagine and to have a goodlanguage sense, to increase awareness of
the Japanese language and to cultivate
positive attitudes and high regard
for the Japanese language.” The aimof ʻMathematicsʼ is “to acquire basic
knowledge and skills by introducing
mathematical concepts of numbers andfigures as well as to develop the ability
to think logically and to plan daily
events. Also, the aim is to appreciatemathematical processing, and to develop a willingness to use mathematics in everyday life.

174

Educational goals of lower secondary
schools are prescribed in Article.35 and
36 of the School Education Law. Also,
the goals of each subject are statedin the Course of Study. For example,
the aim of ʻJapanese Languageʼ is ʻtodevelop oneʼs ability to express andcomprehend the Japanese language andto improve the ability to communicate.
The aim is also to develop the ability
to think and imagine and to havea good language sense, to increaseawareness of the Japanese language
and to cultivate positive attitudes and ahigh regard for the Japanese language.ʼ
The aim of Mathematics is ʻto deepen
understanding of the basic concepts,
principles and rules of numbers andﬁgures, to acquire the ability to use andexpress mathematics, to enhance the ability to reason mathematically, to help appreciate mathematical perspectives and ways of seeing and thinking,and to develop an ability to apply mathematics to every day life.ʼ

Each school organizes its curriculum.
Curriculum management is theactivity on development, organization,
implementation, evaluation andimprovement of the curriculum.
Curriculum management is becoming
more important than ever, becauseof the need to structure autonomous
school management.
（The period of integrated study →Ⅳ−
64 〜 68）

175

Teachers' meeting is theorganization that enables teachers
to participate in school decision
making and it is set at each school. Itsinstitutional roles are: ① to support
duties of principal, ② to form common
understanding on management policyof school, ③ to create opportunities
of information exchange and mutual
understandings of teachers. In reality,
it is considered to be an organizationthat makes teachers participate in school
decision making.
There used to be no legal basis fora teachers' meeting. In 2003, in therevision of the enforcement regulationof the School Education Law, a teachers'meeting is deﬁned for the ﬁrst time.

Up to the present, there have beenarguments over whether teachersʼ
meetings function more as a decisionmaking body or as a consultative body ora subsidiary board for school principals.
However, with the revision oftheEnforcement Regulations of the School
Education Law, teachersʼ meetings wereclarified as functioning as subsidiaryboards for the principal.
Based on this perspective, teachers
are likely to be less active in participatingin teachersʼ meetings.

176

A principal is stationed at eachschool as the person in charge of school.
Duties of the principal are matterson enforcement and management ofeducation, teachers, students, schoolorganizational management, school
facilities and equipment, and external
relationships.
With the expansion of school
authority, the principal is required tohave the ability of setting the vision andstrategy of school making, ability ofmanagement and leadership.

177

Today, each school seeks emphasize
and focus on curricular activities.
Schools now have greater local
discretion, and local communities are
more involved in school management
than before. Elevating and upgrading
the qualifications required of school
principals as school leaders is also acurrent issue. School leaders who havethe capacity to manage school areneeded in order to achieve educational
goals of individual schools as well as todevelop educational activities efﬁciently
by considering alternative options forchanges in and out of schools.

Today, each school seeks emphasize
and focus on curricular activities.
Schools now have greater local
discretion, and local communities are
more involved in school management
than before. Elevating and upgrading
the qualifications required of school
principals as school leaders is also acurrent issue. School leaders who havethe capacity to manage school areneeded in order to achieve educational
goals of individual schools as well as todevelop educational activities efﬁciently
by considering alternative options forchanges in and out of schools.

178

Principals have the authority todesign curriculum, control expenses fortravel and facilities, select and employ
part-time teachers, offer an opinion on
personnel transfers of teaching staff,
and select school councilors, etc.
（School councilor →Ⅱ− 20）■ Qualifications for conventional
principal (enforcement regulations ofArticle 8 the School Education Law)
● Advanced class certiﬁcate of ateacher or ﬁrst class certiﬁcate（upper
secondary school and lower secondary
school principals need advanced classcertiﬁcates）● More than 5 years of “
education-related job” experience. It isnecessary to fulfill both requirements
above.
■ New regulations
Eliminate the necessity of a teachingcertiﬁcate from the qualiﬁcation.
The two types of cases that a citizen
will be accepted as a principal without ateaching certiﬁcate are as follow:● More than 10 years of “education-related job” experience（Article 8-2 ）● “ If there is a particular need for improved school management,” in addition to the above requirements, “a person that is viewed as having
equivalent qualities to persons who fulﬁll qualiﬁcations mentioned in Article 8 can be appointed or employed as principals”（Article 9-2）
“Appointment of a citizen as the Principal” is the latter case. Appointments are made by appropriate authorities who have appointment rights.

179

The number of persons recruitedas principals under the ʻAppointmentof citizens as Principalsʼ option has
increased rapidly, and by April 2004,
were above 50. There is a differencein the purpose and the process of
employment and training for ʻcitizen
principalsʼ among districts. The training
usually takes from 1 to 3 months.
However, since many of these principals
have little knowledge about educationaffairs, municipalities typically provide
diverse types of training. For example,
some municipalities offer practicaltraining regarding current school
conditions and relevant educational
legislation and require newly recruitedprincipals to visit various schools andinterview principals. The purpose of
employing non-teachers under the ʻAppointment of citizens as Principalsʼ option is to utilize their leadership and management to manage ability, theircapacity to generate ﬂexible and creative ideas and plans and to use networks that they have acquired through experience in the private sector. Suchtraining needs to be improved to become more effective in order for this alternative ʻappointment of citizens as principalsʼ option to better achieve its
intended goals and objectives.
In 2005, there are 79 citizens appointed as principals, and the number seems to be increasing, also besides that 79, there are 13 principals
who does not have teacher's certiﬁcate.

Duties of a principal are matters on
educational contents, students, teachers,
facilities and equipment, school ﬁnance,
external relationships, and other stuffs
relating to school management. School
management duties are those where
teachers take charge of some part ofthe school duties, with deciding types ofduties and their responsibility, in orderto deal with school duties. Based on that,each school makes an organizational
diagram of school management duties.

180

This is the organizational diagram ofallotment of school management duties.
The allotment of school management
duties varies for each school, but there
are not much difference. The diagramof allotment of school management
duties shows the process and system
of school duties, and also the process
and system of decision-making. Also,
it shows the cooperation system ofteachers.

A chief-teacher system is theinternal organization of school which
is set at more than 100 years ago. The
revision of Enforcement Regulation of
the School Education Law in 1975 havegiven the legal basis for this system.
The aim of the chief-teacher system is
to carry out school management thatcoordinates guidance and management.
Duties of a chief-teacher is ① to makeplans for one's part, ② communicationand management, and ③ to guide andassist, under the order of the principal.

181

Duties of each chief-teacher are as:○ Chief-teacher of school affairs: tonegotiate educational plans, classschedules, teaching materials withteachers; to offer training and advice torelated staff.
○ Chief-teacher of the grades: to set
management principles, plan educational
activities, negotiate with and between
other homeroom teachers/chief-teachersof other grades/chief-teacher of schoolaffairs/guidance supervisor, and offer
training and to provide advice to otherhome-room teachers.

The aim of school assessment ofeach school is to make improvementsin the next quarter or next academic
year by doing self-inspection and selfevaluation of education and management
during the certain quarter / academic
year at the end of that duration.

Schoolassessment was deﬁned in the criteria forestablishment of school (in 2002) in the
viewpoint of clarifying the responsibilityof school management and in the effort
of making the school public. According
to that criteria, school accountability
should be clariﬁed by making the resultof self-inspection / self-evaluation ofschool management open to public, andproviding information actively.
The aims of school assessment
used to be improvement of educational
activities and revitalizing school. From
now on, in addition to those aims, schoolassessment is done for accountability ofschool to guardians (parents) about the situation of school activities.

182

According to research undertaken
by MEXT (Ministry of education,
cultures, sports, science and technology), 38,289（88.4％）of public schools

have conducted assessments of theirschools. While (a) 19,173（44.3％）of
public schools have entrusted schoolassessment to parents and people
from their communities, (b) 61.8 ％ ofkindergartens, 95.6
schools, 94.8

％ of elementary％ of lower secondary

schools, and 69.6％ of upper secondary
schools have carried out schoolassessment themselves. Finally, (c)(15.9 ％ of kindergartens, 50.6 ％ ofelementary schools, 48.4

％ of lower

secondary school,s and 37.8％ of upper
secondary school have also assigned
school assessments to outsiders, insome cases in addition to their own internal assessments.

In conducting assessments of theirschools, over 90% of schools in Japanevaluated the following items: school
management, grade/class management,
class research/improvement, schoolbased training/research, school events,
and guidance. About 70% of the schools
also evaluated these items (grade /class management, class research /improvement, school based training/ research, school events, student
guidance) in school assessments
conducted by outsiders.
(Third party school evaluation
Committee →Ⅱ -54)

183

In conducting assessments of theirschools, over 90% of schools in Japanevaluated the following items: school
management, grade/class management,
class research/improvement, schoolbased training/research, school events,
and guidance. About 70% of the schools
also evaluated these items (grade /class management, class research /improvement, school based training/ research, school events, student
guidance) in school assessments
conducted by outsiders.
(Third party school evaluation Committee→Ⅱ -54)

Outline for efﬁciency rating○ Types of efficiency rating：Regular,
conditional, extraordinary○ Forms of efﬁciency rating：① At a local government level,
the superintendents of the boards ofeducation rate the principals② At a school level, the principals
rate the teaching and administrative staff○ Contents of efficiency ratings：
Ａ :Efficiency grades Ｂ : Aptitude/
personality Ｃ :Special mention Ｄ :General comments

184

Today, some local government
bodies have started seeking a new
efficiency rating system. Especiallyin Tokyo, under new School
management regulations were enacted
in December.1999, and in 2000, the
new efficiency rating system became
operational.
Under the new system, individual
educational personnel set their own
objectives based on their principalʼ
s educational principles. They thensubmit their self-evaluations about
their accomplishments in relation totheir objectives (self-declarations) . The
school principals and vice-principals
examine and assess individual teachersʼ
performance and duty records by using
absolute evaluation criteria, and thenuse these evaluations for advising and training the teacher. The superintendents of the boards of education also conduct a relative (comparative)
evaluation to be factored into recommendations for promotion.

School management regulations inTokyo prefectures state,
Article. 2 Efficiency ratings are
conducted by self-declarations andachievement evaluations
Article. 3 Efficiency ratings must be
done by all staff except for persons
appointed by the superintendents of theboards of education in Tokyo.
Article. 4 Self-declarations are basicallydone on April 1st, October. 1st, March
31st.
（Types of achievement evaluation）
Article. 5 Types of achievement
evaluations consist of a regular
evaluation and a special evaluation.

185

There are many risks of natural
disasters such as earthquakes andtyphoons potentially encountered by
students and schools as well as otherrisks that may occur during school
activities and school management.
Therefore it is responsibility of schools
to ensure the safety of their students. In
order to do this, various risks must be
assessed, reactions must be anticipated
and training in safety management
conducted.

Because the number of crimes
occurring at schools is increasing, MEXT
published“School Safety Emergency Appeal ‒ tosecure safety of children” (January 20,2004) As “Practical important guidelines
on school safety”【Important points on practical
approaches by schools】【Important points on practical
approaches by establishers】【Cooperation with communities】【Cooperation with related organizations/ groups within communities】

186

① December 2003
② March 2005
③ Hydrant and Emergency exit
④ Security company⑤ September 2004
（Disaster drill →Ⅸ− 12）

187

The Japanese School Choice system
was proposed by the National Task Forcefor Educational Reform third report（1987）and “Promotion of Deregulation
for Creative Human Development(second) ” (1996）etc. MEXT (Ministryof education, culture, sports, science andtechnology) notiﬁed the superintendentsof each prefectural board of education
about the ﬂexibility of school choice in
School Districts in 1997, and requested
the municipal boards of education to
notify parents and local communities.
MEXT requested that:① Each municipal board of educationmust consider parental needs② Switching schools and attending
schools in a different district is permitted
based on parental statements③ Each municipal board of education must distribute the information about school districts and the school choice system, and then prepare anaccompanying consulting system to be made available for use by schools, parents of students and communities

School choice system wasintroduced to respect guardians' will tochoose school for their children. When
guardians have right to choose school,
each school would promote education
with distinctive features with more
efforts. School now take efforts to gain
trust from guardians by improving school
through self-inspection / self-evaluation.
On the other hands, school choicesystem may increase gap between
schools, weaken the solidarity between
school and the community, and weaken
public education. At the current, about
10% of public elementary / lower
secondary school are introducing school
choice system.

188

School choice system wasintroduced to respect guardians' will tochoose school for their children. When
guardians have right to choose school,
each school would promote education
with distinctive features with more
efforts. School now take efforts to gain
trust from guardians by improving
school through self-inspection / selfevaluation.
On the other hands, school choicesystem may increase gap between
schools, weaken the solidarity between
school and the community, and weaken
public education. At the current, about
10% of public elementary / lower
secondary school are introducing school
choice system.

School choice system wasintroduced to respect guardians' will tochoose school for their children. When
guardians have right to choose school,
each school would promote education
with distinctive features with more
efforts. School now take efforts to gain
trust from guardians by improving
school through self-inspection / selfevaluation.
On the other hands, school choicesystem may increase gap between
schools, weaken the solidarity between
school and the community, and weaken
public education. At the current, about
10% of public elementary / lower
secondary school are introducing school
choice system.

189

School choice system wasintroduced to respect guardians' will tochoose school for their children. When
guardians have right to choose school,
each school would promote education
with distinctive features with more
efforts. School now take efforts to gain
trust from guardians by improving school
through self-inspection / self-evaluation.
On the other hands, school choicesystem may increase gap between
schools, weaken the solidarity between
school and the community, and weaken
public education. At the current, about
10% of public elementary / lower
secondary school are introducing school
choice system.

190

Ⅶ

Cooperation between schools and local
communities

1 PTA: Parents and Teacher Association
2 Visits to Childrenʼs Homes
3 Open Class Days
4 Parent-Teacher Meetings
5 Report Cards
6 Communication Notebooks between Teachers and Parents
7 School Newsletters, Grade Newsletters, Class Newsletters
8 School Home Pages
9 Human Resources of Communities
10 Working Experience
11 Community Learning
12 School Councilor System
13 Opening Schools to the Public
14 School Complex Facilities
15 Kodomo-kai (Children's Gathering)
16 Local Education Liaison Councils
17 110 Home for Children
18 Educational Costs Paid by Parents

1 PTA: Parents andTeacher Association

2 Visits to Childrenʼs Homes

3 Open Class Days

4 Parent-Teacher Meetings

5 Report Cards

6 Communication
Notebooks between
Teachers and Parents

7 School Newsletters,
Grade Newsletters, Class
Newsletters

8 School Home Pages

192

9

Human Resources of Communities

10

Working Experience

11

Community Learning

12 School Councilor System

13 Opening Schools
to the Public

14 School Complex Facilities

15 Kodomo-kai(Children's Gathering)

16 Local Education
Liaison Councils

17 110 Home for Children

18 Educational Costs
Paid by Parents

193

PTAs are organizations comprisingparents (guardians) and teachers. Some
PTAs, however, include families who
have no children.
Roles of PTAs include:① To obtain cooperation of parents
to maintain positive local educational
environments, and to curry out
educational activities; keeping up
schoolyards, educational volunteer work(for example story teller sin classes),collection of bell marks, etc.
② To inform teachers about parentsʼ
opinions or requests, to inform parents
about school policies and ideas regarding
school activities in order to promotemutual understanding between parents
and teachers; to hold parent-teacher
meetings in which board meeting ofﬁcers
forward parental requests to schools, publication of PTA news
③ To hold workshops about education and parenting for parents and teachers; lectures, study tours

There are many committees andpersons involved in Parent ‒ Teacher
Associations (PTAs). PTA Presidents
are representative of and responsible
for the PTAs, and are usually electedfrom among studentsʼ parents. PTA Vice
presidents are elected from teachers, andin many cases, from vice- principals. PTA
Vice presidents also may be composed of
two people: one is a teacher, the other isa parent. The PTA vice presidents assist
the presidents. PTAs are divided into
committees such as workshop, publicity
and accounting committees. Committees
for each grade and class are also formedin the associations and function as
individual PTAs for grades or classes.
（School management duties →Ⅵ− 19）194

A single Parent-Teacher Association(PTA) is established per school, andPTAs are also set up at national, block,prefectural, and local levels. The
national PTA organization provides
training and conducts public relations.
The National PTA Council, as a PTA
organization for elementary schools
and lower secondary schools, holds
national conferences and workshops,
publishes journals and case studies,
conducts youth civilizing projects, andcommends excellent PTAs and people
for distinctive merits. This is designed
to promote a combination of school
education, social education and homeeducation to promote sound youth
development and to improve welfare.
In the National PTA Council of upper
secondary schools, there are similar activities.

Picture : shows volunteer workorganized as a cooperative activity forschools by PTAs. It includes cleaningup a playground and school buildings
and helping to maintain facilities. By
engaging in work in a cooperative
manner, positive effects include
deepening of mutual understanding
and friendship between parents andteachers. September 2004

195

Road safety guard duties by a PTA① Representatives of the PTA inspectdangerous areas near a school.
② They report dangerous areas after
their inspection and information attainedby police ofﬁcers.
③ They make a dangerous zone map thatwill be given to each studentʼs family.

196

① :A lecture meeting about safetymeasures is held in an elementary
school room. The lecturer is anuniversity professor invited as
an expert on this subject. Lecture
meetings are managed by the PTA, andschool teachers do not get involved.
Elementary school, October 2004
② ③ ④ : shows a study trip thatparents and teachers go on together.
They visit schools, education facilities
and cultural facilities by charteringa bus. In addition to training on
educational problems and cultural
education, such joint trips help topromote communication and mutual
understanding between parents andteachers as well as to deepen theirfriendship.
② Start from the lower secondary school. June 2005
③ Parents are listening to an explanation about a recycling system and watching automatic machines in a beer factory. June 2005
④ Parents are listening to explanations on how to taste dairy products. The principle participates in this study trip. June 2005

Home-room teachers regularly visit
their studentsʼ homes and talk with
their parents around the beginning of
the school year.
In addition to regular visits, homeroom teachers, guidance teachers andchief teachers also visit studentsʼ homes
whenever they think it is necessary,for example, when students have along-term absence, have troubles
or accidents at school and have
behavioral problems. In these special
cases, it is important for teachers tohave a common understanding about
studentsʼ problems with their parents,
to understand the desires of the parents
and to relay the principles and views of
the school to the parents.

197

Visits to studentsʼ homes by teachers
have four aims: ① to understand
studentsʼ family

and community

environments, ② to understand studentsʼ
roles in their families and communities,③ to ascertain parentsʼ educational needs
for their children and ④ to communicate
teachersʼ or schoolsʼ educational
philosophy to parents.
（Visits to childrenʼs homes → Ⅴ − 31・32）

During the one to two week
period when home-room teachers visit
studentsʼ homes to provide guidanceat the beginning of the school year,
school hours are shortened and club
activities are canceled. It is common forteachers to visit a few homes per day
in their free time after school. Teachers
contact parents and schedule their visit
in advance. Teachers also consider thegeographical efficiency when visiting
studentsʼ homes.
① Plan for visits to childrenʼs homes② Schedule of visits to childrenʼs homes

198

On their visits to studentsʼ homes,
it is important for home-room teachers
to exchange frank opinions with theparents. It is also important not only to
ask them about their childrenʼs roles
at home and in the community, tosolicit parentsʼ requests, and to convey
teachersʼ thoughts and views clearly, butalso to actually observe the atmospherein studentsʼ homes and communities,
and to learn their characteristics. In
situations where studentsʼ families
give a special and excessive reception,teachers must refuse it politely. April
2005① depart from school② ③ house of a student④ go to next studentʼs house

The practice of holding openclass days is very important to create
an open school atmosphere. Parents
are very interested in how their own
children are doing in class. It is not
only a stimulus for teachers to improveclasses, but also a good opportunity
for the school to help parents learn
about and understand the educational
objectives of a school.
In recent years, schools have
expanded the periods of visit s toclasses by studentsʼ parents and havealso allowed people who live in theschool district to visit classes. The visit
to a class helps parents and residents
in school district sto understand andcooperate with their schools.

199

The aims of open class days are to
inform parents about their childrenʼs lifeat school and other children in the class,and to promote mutual understanding
and cooperation between parents andteachers.
It is important to prepare crisis
management on an open class day
because the presence of many visitors at
schools. Therefore, to prevent problems
from happening, schools are required tocheck visitors by asking them to write
their names and to wear a badge toshow that they are visitors.

Open class days for studentsʼ
parents are mostly held once a term
at schools. The schools are required
to inform the parents of the schedule
including subjects being taught on openclass day beforehand, including events
such as PTA conferences, grade meetingsand class meetings which may be held on
the same day.
When schools hold open class daysin which visitors are expected to visit
the schools for a certain period of time,schools need to announce open classday objectives and the way to undertake
visits widely in and outside the school.
When classes are open to local people,
the school should provide informationon the time schedule of classes and thecontent of subjects being taught in eachclass for visitors through newsletters or
website.
On open class days, it is very
crucial to strengthen safety controls by checking visitors at the school entrance and by patrolling on school premises in order to prevent potentially
dangerous people from sneaking into the schools.
Moreover, It is also important to receive feedback from visitors in order to improve classes and the school in the future.

200

Studentsʼ parents observe classes
or participate in study activities with
their students and teachers on openclass days. In the former case, parents
generally stand and observe a classfrom the rear of a classroom. If there
are many students and inadequate
space in a classroom, open spaces are
created for parents.
Parental silence is important forclasses to proceed so as not to beinterrupted or disrupted by parents
taking pictures of their children, or
recording classes with video cameras orby private chatting.
Meanwhile, it is useful for teachers
to prepare name lists for parents tocheck so that homeroom teachers canfind which parents are present during
open class days.

Parent-Teacher Meetings provide an
opportunity for a teacher and parents to
consult directly at school. Teachers may
have a meeting with parents of studentsof whole classes or of whole grades.
They may also hold meetings withindividual parents (individual meetings),
or with individual students and theirparents (3-person consultation).
Individual meetings and a 3-person
consultation are planned beforehand,or may be held when parents are calledto schools. Meetings involving whole
grades and classes are usually held
during open class days. For pre-planned
meetings involving individuals /3-person meetings, teachers clarify theobjectives of the meetings and schedulethem in advance.

201

At parent-teaching meetings, while
teachers explain school educational
policies to parents, studentsʼ parents
inform leaders, guardians and teachersof their desires. Teachers may discussproblems in grades and classes andschool educational problems, andexchange information about these
problems. By staging parent-teacher
meetings, mutual understanding andfriendship can be promoted between
teachers and the parents, and between
parents.
At individual meetings, studentsʼ
educational problems and futures are
discussed individually and mutual
understanding is built. For example,
home-room teachers explain speciﬁcally
about individual student achievements
and help to facilitate efforts by the schools to respond to the desires of children and their parents.

A parent-teacher meeting is held on
a class open day after parentsʼ visit to a
class

202

Report cards are documents ofindividual student achievement score
and class attitudes made by the schoolfor parents. I They are preparedbased on standard guidelines such as
studentsʼ attendance records, guidancecourses and performance results. Thereis no fixed format in writing a reportcard. Some schools use their own
formats, and others follow regionallyﬁxed formats.
Some schools in Japan have noreport cards. Instead, opportunities areprovided for home-room teachers to
explain individual student achievements
and attitudes to parents by holding
individual meetings at the end of eachschool term.
（Evaluation of students →Ⅳ− 25）

On a report card, ① Evaluations ofeach subject taken, ② Reports about
the period of integrated study are also
written. The evaluations of each subject
are absolute evaluations.

203

A life record includes children's
behavior and attitude at school, recordsof special activities, attendance, andcomprehensive evaluations. Report cards
are prepared by home-room teachers,
approved by a principals, and handed
over to individual students. Parents seal
the report cards after checking them.

Students and their parents tend
to be concerned about superficial
evaluations of students written on reportcards. There is always a need to respondto point out strengths and progress of
individual students, indicating areas
and leeway for improvements. It is also
important to inform parents about theintent of the report cards and how toread them.
This school shows studentʼsevaluations occurring ○ in the ﬁrst andsecond grades, and at levels of 1, 2, 3
from the third grade.

204

Communication notebooks between
teachers and parents are designed tosmoothen two-way communication
between schools and studentsʼ
homes. They are used especially forlower grades in elementary schools.
Students themselves transcribe daily
notes in their notebooks based onwhat their home-room teachers writeon blackboard for students to copy.
At the beginning of the 1st grade
when students cannot write letters,
they paste a piece of paper withtomorrowʼs schedule written down
on a communication notebook. Forcomments for individual students,
teachers will write them down on thenotebooks directly. Later at home,parents check the notebooks, sign them,and then write down requests or messages to the teachers. ̀ When students go to school the next day, the home-room teachers checks the commentsin their notebooks.

205

There is not a fixed model ofa communication notebook system
between teachers and parents. Notebooks
are sold as communication notebooks
and they have columns to put down adate, content, and a signature.
① 6th grade, December 2003
② 6th grade, January 2005
③ 2nd grade, December 2003
④ 3rd grade, January 2005

During “meeting” hours, students
copy notes given by teachers on their“communication notebooks.” At home,they check the notes and ask theirparents to write return notes to theteachers and schools.
In this elementary school, students
either paste notes printed on theirnotebook, or write them in.

206

Schools regularly publish several
different kinds of newsletters forstudentsʼ parents (per term, monthly,or weekly) by using word processors
or hand-writing. After newsletters
are complete, they are handed out by
students. They are useful in informing
parents of school plans, policies andvarious activities, and help parents tounderstand school policies and activities
and to cooperate with the schools.

Newsletters are published at
multiple levels such as schools, grades
and classes and at offices such as
nurseries, school lunch area andadministrative offices. The publicationof newsletters depends on individual
schools. School letters are distributed
to all studentsʼ homes, and occasionallyare circulated among homes, or posted
on bulletin boards inside the school
premises.

207

① School newsletter: school events andcontents of curriculum are reported.
September 2004
② School newsletter: school events andcontents of curriculum are reported.
November 2004

Grade newsletter: Newsletter of each
grade has a distinct title.
① 1st grade = Friends② 2nd grade = The sun③ 3rd grade = Shaking hands④ 4th grade = Power up⑤ 5th grade = Scrum⑥ 6th grade = Harmony

208

① School news
② Grade news
③ School health news
④ School-lunch news

① School-lunch news, October 2003
② School-lunch news, October 2004
③ School health news, November 2003
④ School health news, November 2003
⑤ PTA news, July 2004
⑥ PTA news, May 2004

209

An expanding number of schools
now set up their own home pages on
websites. Home pages are an effective
way not only to contact parents, butalso to handle school accountability
functions, to develop communication
networks through linkages and to get
information through e-mails.
On school home pages schools insert
school summary data, characteristics,
plans, and actual individual school
activities.

This is an example of an elementary
schoolʼs homepage. It is important toorganize information appropriately
and to present it so that it can be readeasily. It also is necessary to update theinformation daily.

210

Utilizing adultsʼ extensive
experiences and excellent knowledge
and techniques is an effective way
to diversify school education, tonurture social and work attitudes anda desirable view of occupation sandto impart guidance on practical skills.
Such alternative human resources are
not only effective in providing guidance
during the period of integrated study,
but also are expected to encouragechanges in awareness by educational
personnel of improvements inschool management. This is done byintroducing new ideas to the school.
Environs.
（ The period of integrated study →Ⅳ−
64）

In order to mobilize and to use
school volunteers, schools and local
governments promote establishmentof a volunteer bank. Local people
are encouraged to register in thehuman resource “banks” as volunteers
to work in individual schools. The
schools request the “banks” to dispatch
volunteers appropriate for selective
tasks when outside help is needed tohelp overcome personnel shortages.

211

Part-time teachers lacking teachersʼ
certiﬁcates are eligible to teach a portionof subjects under the Law on Certiﬁcateof Educational Personnel. It is necessary
for schools to report employment of suchpart-time teachers to prefecture Boardsof Education which have the right ofappointment. Part-time teachers lacking
teacherʼs certiﬁcates can be put in chargeof class lectures and tests and canevaluate results.

Children can engage in special
activities, develop human relationships
and feel that they are a part of thecommunity by studying with special parttime teachers and school volunteers.
A voluntary teacher from an NPO for
environmental protection is explaining
environmental protection system
dynamics.

212

A volunteer is telling foreign fairy
tales to students.

Working experiences of studentsʼ
concerns hands-on work experiencesin public organizations or companies.
It is carried out as a part of student
career guidance or in the period of
integrated study. It is designed not
only to promote understanding of an
occupation through hands-on work
experience, but also through examining
the occupation to better understand it.
Work experiences help develop positive
views of occupations and work as wellas to better identify studentʼs aptitudes
and determine appropriate courses andcareer paths. Cooperative relations
with organizations and companies
must be established in order to better
operationalize work opportunities.
（The special activities →Ⅳ− 49）（ The period of integrated study →Ⅳ− 64・65）

213

Nearly 90% of public lower
secondary schools in Japan provide
opportunities for students to havework experiences in companies ororganizations. In terms of grades, amajority of schools offer 2nd graders
options to have hands-on work
experiences, and in terms of duration,
47% of schools allocate one day tothe program. About 10% of schools
provide students with work experiences
extending for four days or more.

In standard Japanese curriculums,
74% of schools offer students work
experiences in “the period of integrated
study.”The rate is much higher thanin any other course periods of school
curriculums. The data show that 23% ofschools offer work experiences as special
activities, while 12% of schools donʼt
introduce them in standard curriculums
but rather offer them during longvacations. In principle, most schools let
all students in their grades participate.
→ http://www.mext.go.jp/b̲menu/
shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/siryo/005/030
71801/010/007/ 009.pdf

214Cooperation between enterprises
and their staff is indispensable. Preinstruction is provided to students, andafter their working experience, students
are required to submit reports to theirschools.
① Kindergarten② Bookstore③ Post ofﬁce④ Bakery

It is repeatedly said that school
curriculums should be relevant to theactual conditions and characteristics ofcommunities as evidenced by the new
Curriculum Council and the new Courseof Study. Speciﬁcally, during the period
of integrated study, schools are required
to make use of the characteristics,
resources and educational functionsof communities in such aspects as(1) learning subjects relevant to thecharacteristics of communities; (2)promoting experiences in society suchas experience of nature, and volunteer
and learning activities such as field
trips and field studies; (3) integrating
guidance systems in cooperation with
community members and (4) actively using teaching materials about local communities and learning environments.
It is premised that school staff understand the actual conditions of communities where schools are located and they reside, and that theycan explain such characteristics through organization of school curriculums relevant to the actual conditions and characteristics of communities.
Schools are also required to solicit information about local natural environments, social environments, facilities and talent in the local communities aswell as the everyday life of children. It is possible to make use of Local Education Liaison Councils to get such information.

215

In 3rd and 4th grade Social Studies,
the main focus of courses is on local
communities. It is an extension of “lifeskills” in the 1st and 2nd grades andbecomes the basis for Social Studies in
the 5th and 6th grades. Sometimes, thislocal focus is incorporated within the
period of integrated study.

In social studies, the 3rd and 4th
graders in elementary school comemainly to learn about their communities.
This further develops what students havelearned in the class of life skills in grades
1 and 2, as well as lays the foundation
for what they will learn in social studies
classes later on. Social studies classes are
sometimes coordinated with the period
of integrated study.
Social studies classes in grades 3
and 4, attempt to get students to observeand research rural natural environs,social environments, industries, security
institutions, and regular lives and then toarrange their ﬁndings for presentation.

216

Community learning is a practical
type of study in which students ventureout into their local communities anddo research on them. Cooperation
with members of local communities
is necessary. At the beginning of theactivity of learning about charcoal
burns, local residents teach the students
how to make a kiln and ways to makecharcoal.

The school councilor system inJapan is outlined in Article 23, 3 of theenforcement regulations of the School
Education Law. School councilors
are commissioned by the boards ofeducation based on recommendations ofschool principal,s and are chosen among
those who have an understanding andviews on education, but excluding
school staff. School councilors provide
opinions on school management at therequest of principals. This is a systemdesigned to solicit and to reflect
opinions from parents and community
members regarding school management
in cooperation with local communities
under the guidance of school principals,
while at the same time encouraging
participation by knowledgeable outsiders.

217

In 2002, among schools establishedby prefectures and designated cites, thenumber of schools which had introduced
school counselors (including similarsystem) is 56 (94.9%), and the numberof schools which considered constituting
such system is 3 (5.1%). Among schools
established by municipalities excluding
designated cities, the number of schools
which have installed a school councilor
system is 1,690 (51.7%) [last research:
697 schools (21.2%)], and the number ofschools which considered a constituting
such system is 1120 (34.3%).
When we see the changes in
the numbers and proportions of local
governments which have constituted
school counselor systems, the numbers
and proportions are rising steadily in
prefectures, designated cities and municipalities. In municipalities, the numbers and proportions have more than doubled (697 (21.1%) to 1,690(51.7%)) between April, 2001 and August, 2002.
The number of public schools that have constituted school counselor systems (including similar system) is 20,851 (47.0%) while thenumber of public schools which have considered constituting such systems is 13,570 (30.6%). To compare the proportions of each kind of school,
they about 50% at elementary schools and lower secondary schools and about 65% at upper secondary schools, and schools for the blind, deaf andhandicapped children, while these proportions are less than 10% at kindergartens.
（School councilor →Ⅱ− 59）
In the 2002 academic year, thenumber of school counselors in Japanwas 95,142 (the ratio of men and womenwas seven to three), and most schools
have four to six school counselors per
school (61.9%). The kinds of school
counselor occupations are: parents
and guardians (18.2%), concerned
communities (15.2%), concerned
associations of social education (15.2%),
facilities and concerned associations ofsocial welfare (14.2%) and concerned
people of experience and having an
academic standing (10.6%). The terms
for counselors typically are“within one
year, until the end of the academic year”(95.7%).

218

A lot of schools conduct meetings
with school councilors once a semester.
Schools explain educational activities,
and sometimes a theme, and thenexchange opinions with councilors. In
some schools, principals do not holdmeetings, but seek councilorsʼ opinion
individually.

Opening a school to the publicmeans that schools serve as astronghold for the community by
opening up resources and educational
functions. The report of the Central
Council for Education in July 1996
says “schools need to work on various
activities as a stronghold of thecommunity, for instance, by opening
school facilities to local children
and adults and by actively providing
learning opportunities.” Meanwhile,
the report of the Council for LifeLong Learning in April 1996 says it isnecessary for a school to contributeto the community to which it belongs.
This means further extension of school
facilities and facilitating contributions
by educational personnel to the communities.
Schools now open open playgrounds and gyms for local gymnastic activities after school or on holiday. Recently, open schools have beenpromoted by making available vacant classrooms, reorganizing school facilities and utilization of school premises for public lectures.
（Complex facilities →Ⅶ− 57・58）

219

This shows the number of vacantclassrooms which have accompanied
the decrease in the number of students
in Japan. The vacant rooms have been
converted into social education facilities,
child welfare facilities and social welfare
facilities.

School libraries have also gradually
become open to the public.

220

The most common school facilities
in the open school program for public
use are playgrounds and gymnasiums.
They are used for social gymnastics,
community events and boys sport club
activities. It is necessary for school
to provide application proceduresfor users, and make rules clarifying
responsibilities for cleaning up after
the facilities have been for overallmanagement.
①② Using classrooms as places forstudentsʼ clubs③ Some students are playing inplayground④ Parents come to pick up theirchildren* This studentsʼ club takes care ofregistered students of grades 1, 2, and3, until 5pm after school. The studentsʼ club is run by a city, with 2 staffs arranged.

School complex facilities encompass
educational facilities such as schoolbuildings, community centers andlibraries. In March 1991, MEXT
issued an ordinance about planning,
designing and management of facilitiesin school complexes for the prefectural
Boards of Education. According to theordinance, school facility complexes
mean that ”educational facilities suchas school facilities, social education
facilities, cultural facilities, and sports
facilities within one building or
premises are institutionalized so as to
be inter-linked and interactive.” Theaims are (1) ground maintenance ofa comprehensive lifelong learning
community and (2) quality improvements in school environments to facilitate educational uses. At the planning level, facilities that can be inter-linked
to unify space are designed to help improve the local learning environment , and are organized and arranged in a way that promotes positive learning
environments for students and community members. In October 1997, “Plan and Building of Complex and High-size School Facilities” points out that“it should be built to ensure a high quality of learning environment and safety, and be easily utilized as public facilities, and to be planned in a way topromote interactions between older people and students at these educational complex facilities.

221

This is a facility located between anelementary school and a citizenʼs publichall (kominkan) and the city library. It is
possible to use the library and the hallfor educational and school activities. It isalso easy for citizenʼs public hall users touse vacant classrooms in local schools.
In this school, the teacherʼs room isnext to a city library and separated
from the corridor with a counter. It canbe said that this school is open to thecommunity.
① Left side: elementary school, Rightside: library and citizenʼs public hall
② Library③ Teachersʼ room and library④ Door dividing elementary school andcommon space

This example is of an institution
in the compound of a lower secondary
school and a welfare facility (special
nursing old peopleʼs home). The lower
secondary school makes use of the
facility during the period of integrated
study, and special activities. Students canalso interact with users of the facilities.
① The building of a lower secondary
school and old peopleʼs home.
②③ Lower secondary school students

and adults get together.
④ The lower secondary school opens its
gymnasium to community.
⑤ Gymnasium and the entrance of alower secondary school.

222

“Kodomo-kai” is a juvenileorganization designed to civilize local
children, and it encourages recreation,
voluntary work, and leadershipworkshops. “Kodomo-kai” haveboth childrenʼs administration andparental administration. At a city andprefectural level, there are Federationsof Kodomo-kai, and at a national level,
there is the National Federation of
Kodomo-kai organizations. What the
National Federation of Kodomo-kai does
is to:① guide and cultivate Kodomo-kai
activities,② coordinate between instructors andleaders who engage in Kodomo-kai
activities,③ cultivate and activate leaders in
Kodomo-kai activities,④ publish materials and do research to promote Kodomo-kai activities,⑤ cooperate with related organizations to fully promote Kodomo-kai activities,⑥ serve as a safety branch of Kodomo-kai activities.

There is a tendency for declines inkodomo-kai membership accompanying
falling birth rates and social changes inlocal communities.

223

The participation rates in “KodomoKai” (childrenʼs gathering) are fallingat both elementary school and lower
secondary school, although 45% ofchildren at elementary school still
participate in Kodomo-Kai, which is avery high rate, compared with the othergroups. At lower secondary schoollevels, participation in groups related
to sports is the highest, with the rateof participation in Kodomo-Kai coming.
However, more than 80% of students
in lower secondary schools do notparticipate in any outside groups, whichis caused by high rates of participationin club activities organized by schools
themselves.

“Kodomo-Kai” engages in various
activities. In this “Kodomo-Kai”, 112
elementary school students and 60 lower
secondary school students participate
as members. Funds are raised from themembership fees ( 100yen/months ) andfrom rubbish collection every month. The
activities include; summer festivals, one
day camps, visit s to old peopleʼs homes,
pounding steamed rice into cake ( mochitsuki ), farewell parties.（Attending to
School in a group →Ⅸ− 30）① lining up with same grade students② puriﬁcation by a shinto priest
sacred portable shrine⑤ a ﬂoat224③a④ lion dance⑥⑦⑧ rubbish collection

Schools are required to cooperate
and to construct networks with regional
facilities, organizations and associations.
For that reason, the establishment oflocal education liaison councils was
proposed in the first report from theCentral Council for Education in July
1996.
Local education liaison councils are
established mainly by municipal Boardsof Education through participationof the PTAs, youth associations, local
enterprises, regional organizations,regional associations and schools.
Liaison Council roles are to transmit
and consult about activities and toconstruct networks, in other words,
to promote improved child raisingby all members involved. The report
proposes the establishment of a Center for Revitalization of Community Education to provide services such as information dissemination, consultation,
registration and introduction of guides and volunteers. The September 1998 report from the Central Council for Education proposed efforts to assess
the needs for educational administration in school districts and to promote close cooperation between schools and regional societieties by adding
school councilors to Local Education Liaison Council membership.

Local Education Liaison Councils
are cooperative organizations composedof local organizations.

225

In Osaka prefecture, each lower
secondary school has a “local education
liaison council.” In order to rebuild
integrated education in cooperation withschools, homes and communities, local
people discuss educational problems in
the community. The council promotes
cooperative efforts in communities tocreate an educational community. The
committees are made of staff members
from elementary schools and lower
secondary schools, kindergartens,
daycare centers, schools for handicappedchildren, the PTAs, youth training
associations, welfare liaison councils,
autonomous meetings, children nursing
groups, NPOs, enterprises and the Civil
Service.

Local education liaison councils
work together with people andorganizations in communities, support
school education and child raising,publish information magazines andconduct educational activities and events
within communities.
① Karuta (traditional Japanese playing
cards) party ② Concert ③ Stalls

226

“110 Home for Children” wasstarted as a grassroots activity of a local
autonomous body and has expanded toall over the country. It is named after
110, the emergency phone number
for police. Amid an increase in thefrequency of appearances of suspicious
persons and kidnapping or attempted
kidnapping of children in communities,
this institution has the significant
function of assisting overseeing ofchildrenʼs safety in communities asa whole by providing shelter wherechildren can seek for help when they
feel or encounter danger.

Private houses in public andconvenience stores cooperatively offer
their places as “110 Home for Children”.
If children run in a 110 Home, residents
in the home provide shelter forchildren, ask what has happened, when
and where it has happened and also ask
them characteristics of suspects. Thenthe residents report the incident to thepolice.

227

Booklets are prepared for children
as a crime prevention measure. One
purpose is to inform them of the locationof 110 homes for children. Antherpurpose is to inform the children thatthey can ask for help when they see any
suspicious characters, get into danger
and are involved in an incident.

Houses of 110 homes for children
post signs. It is important for children to
know the location of the houses.

228

Under compulsory education,
tuition fees are free at national andpublic elementary and lower secondary
schools, and textbooks are also supplied
for free.

However, parents incur

expenditures such as teaching materials
except for textbooks, experiments andpractical activities, and school events.
Elementary and lower secondary
schools that serve school luncheons,charge parents for a part of the costs.
Depending on local autonomous
bodies or schools, school lunch fees
are collected by directly charging bankaccounts or are collected in classes
directly as monthly class expenditures.
Families with economic difficulties
may not be able to afford such school
expenditures. They can benefit fromwelfare services and receive assistance such as school supplies, educational materials, and school luncheon fees that are needed for compulsory
education in the form of “educational aid.”* Among the expenditures listed above, some are defrayed by parents separately, and others are collected at school. In these cases, the expenditures
are charged directly to bank accounts or collected in the form of money as expenditure on class by a home-room teacher.
（Class fee →Ⅴ− 41）（Example of how expenditure on classis spent →Ⅴ− 42）
Parents pay around 60,000 yen forschool educational expenses for theirchildren, and 40,000 yen for theirschool luncheons annually at public
elementary schools. For public lower
secondary school children, parents
pay around 130,000 yen for school
educational expenses, and 30,000 forschool luncheons a year. In private
schools parents pay over 900,000 yen
for annual school educational expenses,
which is much higher than educational
expenses incurred in public schools.

229

Among public elementary school
educational fees, parents incur expenses
for school supplies and materials forexperiments and practice as primarycosts, and transformation as secondary
costs. In public lower secondary schools,
parents pay expenses for school trips
and school excursions as primary costs,
followed by expenditures for educational
materials excluding school textbooks
and other school necessities (schoolsupplies and materials for experimentsand practice, and school uniforms
which are mandatory under school
rules). Because of the costs of school
trips to distant places and club activities
as extracurricular activities, parentsʼ
expenditures for lower secondary school
children are much higher than thoseincurred in elementary schools.

An envelope is often used to notify
parents of class expenditures and theircollection. On the envelopes the homeroom teachers write the total amountand breakdown of costs, and the dateof collection. These are handed toparents through students. The parents
then enclose the exact amount of money
needed in the envelop and their children
hand it in to teachers at school. The
teachers check the collected amountof money and stamp the receipt. If
necessary, teachers enclose any change
required and repay it to the parents.

230

Ⅷ

Teacher's Qualifications, Training,
and Appointment

1 Teachers' Professionality and Qualiﬁcations
2 Pre-service Training of Teachers
3 Equivalency Examination for Teacher Qualiﬁcations
4 Personnel of Teachers
5 In-service Training
6 In-service Training within one's own School
7 Training of School-leaders
8 Teachersʼ Salaries
9 Punishment for Teachers
10 Nurturing of Young Teachers
11 Nurturing of Middle Teachers
12 Nurturing of Principals and Role of Graduate School

1 Teachers' Professionality and Qualiﬁcations

2 Pre-service Training of Teachers

3 Equivalency Examination for Teacher Qualiﬁcations

4 Personnel of Teachers

5 In-service Training

6 In-service Training within one's own School232

7 Training of School-leaders

8 Teachersʼ Salaries

9 Punishment for Teachers

10 Nurturing of Young Teachers

11 Nurturing of Middle Teachers

12 Nurturing of Principals and Role ofGraduate School233

Teachers teach children using
educational contents that are basedon educational values derived fromscience, art and culture that have beencreated and compiled through human life
experiences, and that are based on thedevelopmental level of children.
Children select future jobs by learningfrom and mastering these educational
contents and then utilizing

theassociated skills to help direct their own
lives. The professionalism of teachers
depends upon a deep understanding ofboth educational contents and children,
including the ability to use and develop
educational activities though teaching.
Japan prefers diversity rather thanuniformity in teachers, considering thefact that teachers need to have a practical
capacity for providing guidance, an appropriate personality as well as specialty skills as seen from an international point of view.
At the present, inadequate capacities of teachers to provide appropriate guidance has emerged as a problem, and that has forced a change
in the concept of the status and skill requirements of teachers. Also, policies are being adopted to increase teaching guidance skills by reformulating
and clarifying the system of evaluating teachers, such as through personnel reports.
An emerging educational feature of Japan is demonstrated by its promotion of the concept that teachers guidance and teaching skills
should also be reﬂected in their own professional development as teachers. In order to improve professionalism, training of teachers is conducted atuniversities. Teachers require certiﬁcates to become teachers meeting national standards. There is also an accompanying training system to maintainand improve professionalism. There are various policies to improve professionalism. Among others these include introducing teachers' evaluations
through personnel reports, and improving teachers' professional capacity through the introduction of training programs for teachers who haveaccumulated 10 years of teaching experience.
For teachers' certificates, there arenormal certificates, special certificatesand extraordinary certificates. Normal
certificates include various typesofspecialized certificates (basic

qualification: master's degree), 1st-type
certiﬁcates (basic qualiﬁcation: bachelor's
degree), and 2nd-type certificates(basic qualification: associate's degree).
Extraordinary certiﬁcates are valid for 3
years or 5 years.
The special certificate system is asystem to provide special certificatesto civilians who do not have teachers'
certificates but who wish to teach andhave superb knowledge, experienceand technical skills in certain fields. It
requires a special education personnel
examination that is conducted by theprefectural boards of education thatappoint such people as teachers. Thissystem was introduced in 1988 with therevision of the law for licensing educational personnel. Through 2004, there have been only 113 cases of training for special certiﬁcates. Previously,
nobody could become a part-time teacher without a teachers' certiﬁcate, but this regulation was also abolished.
Extraordinary certiﬁcates are given to persons who pass the educational personnel examination only in situations when persons withteachers' certiﬁcates are not available to be appointed.

234

Following is an explanation
regarding the status of special part-timeteachers.
Subjects which special part-timeteachers can teach are the following:
Elementary schools: parts of all subjects,
club activities
Lower and upper secondary schools:
portions of individual subjects, partsof the period of integrated study andmoral education
Schools of special education: part ofindividual subjects, club activities(elementary schools), parts of theperiod of integrated study and moral
education.
There are 20,392 special part-timeteachers in 2003; 8,249 at elementary
schools, 3,324 at lower secondary
schools, and 8,589 at upper secondary schools.
The regular jobs of the special part-time teachers are as follows. Elementary schools: instructors of Japanese drums, carpenters at
sawmills, instructor of courses at cultural centers. Lower secondary schools: OA instructors, sports instructors, instructors of tea ceremonies /ﬂower arrangements, Noh instructors. Upper secondary schools: NPO staff, staff of welfare facilities, nurses, chief chefs at hotels. Schools of special
education: doctors, pharmacists, scientiﬁc therapists

There are 3 types of teachersʼ
certiﬁcates: advanced class certiﬁcationthat is given to those who havecompleted master's degrees andtaken advanced instruction, type 1
certiﬁcation that is given to those whohave completed necessary units at
4-year universities (bachelor's degrees),
and type 2 certiﬁcation that is given to
those who have completed necessary
units at junior colleges (associates'
degree)In order to obtain the advanced
class certification, it is necessary
to complete 34 units of classes on
specialized subjects, 41 units of classes
on teaching, and 8 units of classes on
specialized subjects or teaching. For
the type 1 certiﬁcation, the numbers of units are 10 units, 41 units, and 8 units, and for the type 2 certiﬁcation, they are 2 units, 31 units, and 4 units,
respectively.

235

Before the WW2, pre-service
training of teachers was conducted at
normal schools. After the WW2, thepre-service training system has changed
and is now conducted at universities. In
order to be an open system, universities
are permitted to have courses of preservice training of teachers approved by
the minister of education, culture, sports,science and technology, even if the
primary goals of the universities are notdirected at teacher's training.
This change was made because it
came to be recognized that teachingrequired a high level of professionalism
and that university education would besuitable for achieving this purpose.
Nowadays, pre-service teacher
training is conducted using curriculums
focused on building the basics of practical teaching abilities. The practical ability to teach is not only the ability to impart knowledge, but also involves
the ability to guide and teach children through the ability to understand, communicate and relate to children through teaching and regular guidance.
The pre-service training of teachers also focuses on teaching classes designed to nurture practical teaching abilities.
Pre-service teacher training is considered to be a part of the normal teacher's training process, designed to link up the appointment of
current teachers with training.

In terms of courses, pre-service
teacher training in Japan occurs at 461
universities, 398 colleges, 214 graduate
schools, and involves 69 majors at
accredited universities.(as of 1998)
The course subjects required toreceive conferment of a license comprise
specialized subjects at individual
universities comprise:
Curriculums about a subject
Curriculums about the teachingprofession- Curriculums regarding the teachingprofession are mainly as follows:- Curriculums concerning the meaningof the teaching profession- Curriculums concerning basic
educational theories- Curriculums concerning school
curriculums and instruction methods- Curriculums concerning student
guidance, educational consultation, carrier
guidance, etc.
- Seminars- Teaching practice
Curriculums concerning subjects or the teaching profession
Curriculums concerning special education
Curriculums concerning protective care
Curriculums concerning protective care or the teaching profession
Curriculums concerning nutritional education

236

For teachers' certiﬁcation for schoolof special education, in addition to thebasic qualification of teachers, it isnecessary to also take classes on special
education: 47 units for advanced classcertiﬁcation, 23 for type 1 certiﬁcationand 13 for type 2 certiﬁcation.

The entrance positions for preservice training courses for teachersat universities have declined to about
5,000 people annually over three years,
from 1998 to 2000. These trends reﬂect
a decline in the employment demand
for new teachers along with declining
birth rates. However, today, the annual
level of employment of new teachers
is increasing because of the improved
standards of teacher deployment in theprefectural boards and an increase inteachers retiring from public schools.
However, there are emerging problems
such as the issue of “paper” teachers
and the evolving mix in ages among
teachers at individual schools.

237

In pre-service training of teachers,
training practice is an importantcomponent designed to develop basic andpractical teaching skills. Practical teacher
training has been improved by theextension of the training requirements.
Currently, 5 units of practical training
are required for elementary schools, 5units for lower secondary schools, 3 units
for upper secondary schools and 5 units
for schools for special education. Also, in
1998, it became obligatory to undergo
an “experience of caring” ( 7 days) toobtain a normal teachers' certiﬁcation forelementary and lower secondary schools.
The aim of this special experience aim “toimprove the quality of teachers working
for schools of compulsory education, andto better fulfil compulsory education,
considering the importance of deepening the understanding of teachers regarding the dignity of individuals as well as of social solidarity.” (Law on
special cases of the law on licensing educational staff, relating to the normal certiﬁcation of teachers for elementary and lower secondary schools)① Orientation (principleʼs speech), May 2005

② Meeting with a home-room teacher, May 2005

③ Class visit (social studies, 1st grade), June 2005

④ Class visit (music, 2nd grade), June 2005

⑤ Class visit (physical education, 1st grade), June 2005

⑥ Class visit (drawing and handcraft, 2nd grade, June 2005

The equivalency examination forteacher qualification is the examination
to obtain teachers in fields whee preservice training at universities is not
sufﬁcient.
For elementary schools, the type2 certification of teachers is given. For
upper secondary schools, subjects of theexaminations are nursing, information,
welfare, judo, Japanese fencing,
information technology, architecture,interior, design, information science, andaccounting, and the type 1 certificationof teachers for the respective subject isgiven to those who pass the examination.
For schools of special education, there
are self-reliance activities (educationfor visually handicapped), self-relianceactivities (education for hearing
handicapped), self-reliance activities(education for physically handicapped),
and self-reliance activities (education forverbally handicapped), and the type 1 certiﬁcation on the relative subject is given to the ones who pass the examination.

238

In order to qualify as a teacher
in Japan, it is basically necessary toattain credits in prescribed subjects atuniversities. Under the revision of thecertification law in 1964, examinationof teachersʼ qualiﬁcations was instituted
as a requirement for teachers excluding
specific subjects of a technical nature
in upper secondary schools（judo,kendo, circulation practice). The 1973
revised certification law attempted
to broaden the base of selection ofteachers in an evolving educationalsociety by extending the qualification
requirement to include elementary
school teachers, upper secondary school
teachers (nursing, judo, kendo, interior,circulation practice, architecture anddesign) and special school teachers(nursing training = education for deaf and physically handicapped).

The equivalency examination for
qualiﬁcation of teachers for elementary
schools has 3 stages. In the firstexamination, there are questions
regarding educational / culturalsubjects, educational guidance forsubjects, basic subject contents, andsubjects on general teaching. The
second examination consists ofquestions on advanced matters subjects
and practical examination, and thefinal examination concerns matterspertaining to the practice of teaching.
There were 169 people who passed
the equivalency examination for
qualiﬁcation of teachers for elementary
schools in 2004, and only 1 in 11.8
applicants passed the examination.

239

Appointment is a generic term for
employment and promotion. As in the caseof general administrative officers, teachers
must be appointed based on their exam
scores, work records and other abilities.
However, the way teachersʼ examinations
are admilnistered is different from that for
general administrative officers. Teachersʼ
examinations are not competitive but
selective (Article 13 Clause 1, Law for theSpecial Regulations Concerning Educational
Public Service). Selection is made by judging
achievements, experience, humanity,
practical skills and experience and physicalstrength on the basis of speciﬁc standards.
In public schools, aside fromschools attached to speciﬁc universities, thesuperintendents of the boards of education
make the selection of teachers. In schools
attached to universities, the presidents of the universities handle this appointment task. In national universities, excluding schools attached touniversities, the Minister of MEXT handles appointments. (Article 13 Clause 1, Law for the Special Regulations Concerning Educational Public Service)
The examination for employment of teachers is designed to assess the ability, will and commitment to the mission as a teacher of individual
candidates through written, oral and practical examinations. For the ﬁrst year of teaching, prospective teachers are employed on a conditional basis,and during that period they undertake training for 1st year teachers.

The personnel and ﬁnancial aspectsof educational staff are supported
by prefectural funds, covering suchaspects as appointment (employment,
promotion), demotion, and dismissal, forexample. The system of management by
establisher for management of publicschools established by municipalities
does not include the right of deciding
on personnel s. Prefectural / appointed
city boards of education exercise such
personnel rights. The reasons for thissituation are the fact that these boardsof education fund half of the teachers'salaries, and by handling disposition ofteachers they are better able to betterand more broadly arrange needed
personnel exchanges.
However, since it is individual school
principals who observes teachers on adaily basis, and know their performance
more intimately, opinions of the principals
are respected in decision-making on personnel afffairs. (Law on local educational administration, article 38)
Currently, from the perspective of decentralization, there is a widespread view that municipal boards of education should have greaterrights in handling educational personnel affairs that are supported by the prefectural funds.

240

The trainingof teachers andteaching research are necessary inorder to prepare such educational
activities as classes and guidance, tosolve problems and tasks in the processof carrying out classes and guidance,
and to be aware of evolving changes
in education and then to reflect thesechanges in educational activities. A
Japanese word for training “kensyu” isderived by adding “syuyo” (cultivationof the mind) and “kenkyu” (research).
Cultivation of the mind means todeepen the awareness of individuals
as teachers, to inculcate responsibility
towards guardians of children andsociety, and to fulfil vocational andsocial responsibilities. Since the aimof education is to teach knowledge andtechniques to children depending on their levels of development, it is necessary to undertake research on teaching materials as well as research on
children.
Therefore, undertaking training is considered as a part of teaching duties as deﬁned in the law on special cases of public servants who are
educators.
Training should basically be carried out independently. However, given limitations and constraints, and because of the need forconsistency in educational administration of schools, opportunities such as in-service training are provided within schools, administration training aswell as advanced (“dispatch”) training in university and graduate schools. Training based on educational evaluations has also been introduced recently.

① Prefectural education training center② Municipal institute of education③ Prefectural natural museum④ Teacher training center(anindependent administrative institution)

241

For training conducted by boards ofeducation and teachers' training centers,
there are both basic types of training
such as training depending on teachingexperience (length of teaching) andteaching ability, and special trainings
such as training on subjects and training
corresponding to educational tasks. The
forms of training are classroom type
trailning such as through lectures andpractice, and discussion type training
where teachers submit educational tasks
and exchange opinions about them. In
central training, teachers are provided
lodging over a longer term training thatspans around 3 weeks. While training
involving lodging may be conductedby the boards of education, it typicallyinvolves short-term training.
Boards of education conduct training on their own as well as support the secondment and dispatch of teachers to universities and privatecompanies. Recently, the sabbatical system has been introduced that facilitates study by teachers at graduate schools.

242

① Initial training for new elementary
school principles, “About school
management (seminar)”, November
2004② Training for teachers with ten years
teaching experience in elementary
schools, “About student guidance(lecture)”, October 2004
③ In-service training on subjects forelementary and secondary school
teachers, “Development of teachingmaterials and teacherʼs skills to teach
Art (work-shop)”, November 2004

① In-service training on subjects
for elementary and secondary school
teachers, “To begin appreciation
regarding things at hand (workshop)”, November 2004 ; teachers
are conveying their impressions andopinions about studentsʼ works.
② Special training for elementaryand lower secondary school teachers,“English conversation”, February 2004

243

As there are few opportunities forteachers from different educational
levels to engage in discussions witheach other, through municipal leveltraining opportunities are provided
for teachers from various educational
levels (elementary, lower secondary,upper secondary and special schools) toparticipate in training together.

① Initial training for new elementary
school teachers, “training for educational
information”, October 2004
② Training for teachers with ten years
experience in lower secondary schools,“About student guidance (discussion)”,October 2004
③ Training for teachers with ten years
experience in lower secondary schools,“About special activities (discussion)”,October 2004
④ Training for teachers with ten years
experience in elementary schools, “About
student guidance (lecture)”, October
2004

244

In-service training is the traditionand culture of Japanese schools thathas been conducted for long time.
The aims of in-service training are tocultivate awareness and commitment of
individuals to their mission as teachers,
to improve teaching abilities of teachers,
to deal with children and student
issues, to solve educational tasks at
schools, to adjust teaching practices
and management to correspond to new
educational reforms, and to implement
research as appointed by boards ofeducation.
In-service training is incorporated
into school management plans.
Training committees are established
as an institutions for sharing of school
duties and where where individual
responsibilities are made clear. When carrying out in-service training, the roles and leadership of the head of such training / research is an importantelement. It is necessary to place and adequate number of capable people in such committee positions in order to ensure that the development oftraining programs actually happens.
For in-service training, it is a basic tradition that teachers should arrange such training independently. There is some concern that inservice training arranged by teachers independently does not occur very frequently, although it is recognized that it is good to conduct in-service
training as an organization.

Under in-service training within
schools, the research theme generally
focuses on improvements in policies
regarding educational practices within
the whole school, consistent with withthe school educational goals for theyear. Specifically, such training helps
to explore and to provide solutions tosuch aspects as educational guidance,
subjects for student instruction, andimprovements based on evaluations.

245

Planning, enforcing and managing
in-service training within schools
is conducted through the training
committee institution. The training
committee promotes the in-service
training as its core management task.
Since the in-service training is a part ofschool management plan, principles ofmanagement and education propoundedby the school principal should be
reﬂected. The teacher appointed as headof training leads the training committee,
and promotes in-services training.
The school head of training needs
to have leadership skills to organize andimplement school training plans basedon the goals of the school principal. The
organization and leadership ability of thehead of training is critical in in-service
training management.

① Demonstration class (Arithmetic“square measure”), 5th grade, June 2004
② Presentation of research, June 2004

246

Japanese “Reading” (elementary
school support training = guidance
director comes to school on demand):
4 elementary school teachers, 1 lower
secondary school teacher, 1 guidance
director (prefectural training center)

Workshop on class instruction, 4th
grade

247

The role and leadership ofa principal is very important inpromoting school independence andautonomy through autonomous school
management.

Currently

in Japanthere is a new concept of an ideal
type of a principal. A principal is now
expected to have the ability to manageand educational business requiring
management and leaderships, whereas
previously a principal was viewed as an
educational specialist. Under legislation
providing for a school management
council, principals are not only not only
expected to understand the legal aspectsof the law but also to manage the council.
Since this type of ability was not required
previously, an adjustment is requiredby principals to be able to take on andimplement such management tasks. This requirement necessitates changes in the training of school leaders that is differs from the past.
Normally, school leaders comprise teachers who hold management positions at schools such as principals, vice-principals, various
committee heads, and heads of affairs. When viewed in narrow sense, school leaders are limited to principals and vice-principals, while in a wider
sense, guidance directors and superintendents of education may be included. The central education committee deﬁnes a school leader in generalterms, including leading teachers, but does not indicate speciﬁc positions such as those of principals and vice-principals.

The contents of training
provided to school leaders are thematters relating to management asshown in the accompanying slide.
Under past training of principals, these
aspects were not systematically covered.
Changes in the roles of principals during
the last decade have been accompanied
by changes in the contents of training
since different abilities are now needed
for principals.
Since an objective ofthe training is to nurture the ability to
manage and handle problem-solving,case studies represent a very important
form of training that provides analysis
of management techniques in otherschool situations that provide lessons forproblem solving within oneʼs own school.
Also, training at private companies
provides a good opportunity to study
management principles that can beapplied to schools.

248

Training for new principals of
elementary schools (school-leaderʼstraining): organizational management
practice

Teachers' salaries have been
discussed from the perspective of thetreatment of teachers based on teachers'
evaluations, and the compulsory
education expenses provided under thestate liability system.
With regards to the former,
previously

salary levels among

teachers of the same age were similar,
even though some teachers handledwork situations with higher degrees
of difficulty and complexity, or did asuperior job. However, the former
seniority-based salary system forteachers has been changing to analternative system in which teachersʼsalaries are decided based on individual
abilities and achievements.
With regards to the latter, the issue of compulsory educational expenses under the state liability system is more controversial. The reportof the central education committee in October 2005, “Creating compulsory education for the new era”, proposed to preserve the current systemof compulsory educational expenses under the state liability framework, but without including teachers' salaries as a part of general ﬁnances. The
central government has indicated that it will allocate all 850 billion yen for lower secondary schools as a part of general ﬁnances. This results in a
substantial change from the current system where the state is responsible for only half of the teachers' salaries complemented by prefectural levelfunds, and is being done as a part of the “Trinity reform” that is undergoing in Japan.

249

Since municipalities establish andmanage municipal schools, it is a basic
principle that municipalities pay for thesalaries of the school staff. However,in order for the financial capabilities
of municipalities to be balanced acrossmunicipalities in order to prevent theexistence of educational gaps fromarising between municipalities, and at
the same time to ensure that nationwide academic standards are maintained
and improved, it is important that schoolstaff be properly assigned. The ﬁnancial
burden of individual prefectures under
this school staff system is determined bysuch personnel assignments.
This system implies that all
prefectures pay a salary for school staff
within a ﬁxed salary range. Compulsory
educational expenses under the State liability system imply that the state pays one-half of teacher salary costs while the the prefectures handle thebalance.

Salary is the general term that
includes wages, family allowances,adjustment allowances, housing
allowances, commuting allowances,industrial education allowances, special
allowances, extra work allowances, termend allowances and studying allowances.
The state has decided to pay for halfof teachers' salaries. (Law on nationaltreasury on expenditure of compulsory
education ) This system “aims to ensure
the adequate access and quality ofeducation for all Japanese nationals
under the principle of free compulsory
education, and therefore to provide
equal educational opportunities andto improve the quality and standard ofeducation.” (Law on national treasury on
expenditure of compulsory education,
Article 1) This is the subsidy, and ways
to use it are clearly defined. Since theadministration of state subsidies would
limit the independence of local governments, and since it contradicts the policy of decentralization that is promoted through current administration
reforms, there is growing support to abolish the current system and to shift teachers' salaries to be paid from general ﬁnances. The report of thecentral education committee, “Creating compulsory education for the new era” (October, 2005) recommends that the current system be retained, but
the policy of the central government currently differs from this recommendation.

250

Salary is the general term that
includes wages, family allowances,adjustment allowances, housing
allowances, commuting allowances,industrial education allowances, special
allowances, extra work allowances,term end allowances and studying
allowances.
The state has decided to pay for halfof teachers' salaries. (Law on nationaltreasury on expenditure of compulsory
education ) This system “aims to ensure
the adequate access and quality ofeducation for all Japanese nationals
under the principle of free compulsory
education, and therefore to provide
equal educational opportunities andto improve the quality and standard ofeducation.” (Law on national treasury
on expenditure of compulsory education, Article 1) This is the subsidy, and ways to use it are clearly deﬁned. Since the administration of statesubsidies would limit the independence of local governments, and since it contradicts the policy of decentralization that is promoted through current
administration reforms, there is growing support to abolish the current system and to shift teachers' salaries to be paid from general ﬁnances. The
report of the central education committee, “Creating compulsory education for the new era” (October, 2005) recommends that the current system beretained, but the policy of the central government currently differs from this recommendation.

The purpose of the threat of
dismissal is to help to ensure thatteachers perform their official duties
efﬁciently and that school management
is conducted appropriately.

The

purpose of disciplinary action is tomaintain official relationships throughpunishment.
The national civil service law (Art.
78, 82) and Local civil service law(Article.28, 29) provide the legal basis
for dismissals of and for disciplinary
actions against educational personnel.

251

Teacher related punishments
comprise dismissal, demotion, layoffand pay reductions. Teachers may facedismissal for reasons such as their poor
track records, mental and physicalproblems, and lack of appropriatequalifications. In punishments involving
disciplinary actions, there are warnings,
pay reductions, suspension from work,and dismissals. Punishments that affectteachersʼ positions/status are due toillegal actions, dereliction of duty, default
of duty and delinquency.
If there are any objections topunishments given, teachers can appeal
to personnel committees.

252

253

Young teachers,
especially 1st-year teachers have various
worries, difﬁculties and issues at school.
Capacity development is needed foryoung teachers to become independent
teachers. The first school for youngteachers to be assigned to is called a“second school”, and this illustrates how
important the first school to which ateacher is assigned to is.
Previously, 1st-year
teachers needed to do the same work
as teachers with 10 years of teachingexperience. They also were treated as
independent teachers. However, since
1st-year teachers do not have sufficientteaching ability and experience, training
for 1st-year teachers was implemented.
In such training, 1st-year teachers
are trained both within and outside of their schools for 60 days. Also, the status of 1st-year teachers is that of conditioned employment. Capacity
development for 1st-year teachers cannot be achieved in a single year, and take approximately 3 years. During this period of time, the role of inservice training within schools and the leadership provided by principals is critical in nurturing young teachersʼ development.

Expectations regarding
middle school teaching options have
expanded following the developmentof the program for autonomous school
management.

These expectations

concern management staff, leadership
positions in sub organizations andguidance teachers. Middle schools needto provide an environment where schooltasks can be carried out and problems
solved through improved school
management.
Middle school leadershipis divided into management-type leadersand specialist-type leaders.
The training of teacherswith 10 years of teaching experiencehas been systematized. Such training isauthorized by the relevant authorities
in order to improve the qualifications
and abilities of teachers with 10 yearsof teaching experience, corresponding totheir individual capacities. Such training is based on evaluations of teachers performance and skills, which represents a change in the style of training
compared to the past. In formulating training tasks and training plans for individual teachers, other teachers also participate in training and in theprocess of providing guidance and assistance.

254

The current school
management reforms in Japan havechanged the concept of an ideal
principal, from that of an administrator
of a school to a manager of an
educational business, or a specialist of
management in addition to a specialistof education. In order to manage an
educational business effectively, aprincipal needs to set a vision and astrategy of school development. To
do that, it is necessary to have broad
views and deep insights not only withreference to education but also tosociety as a whole. A principal also
needs to have professional knowledge
and technical skills in implementing
school management plans andconducting school evaluations.
There are limits provided by experience, on the job training, and administrative training in the development of educational
knowledge and technical skills. Consequently, graduate schools play important roles in upgrading the knowledge and skills of principals as do
joint training provided by universities and boards of education. There are expanding opportunities to upgrade the skills of principals through theestablishment of graduate schools for school leaders. This kind of graduate school has been established at the Universities of Okayama and Chiba.
The university of Tsukuba is also preparing to set up a major in “school leadership development” during 2006.

255

Part 3

Ⅸ Japanese School Life and Culture

258

Ⅸ Japanese School Life and Culture

1

School Events

2

The Typical Day of Teacher

3

The Typical Day of a Student

4

Japanese School Life

School Events

Entrance

Ceremony

Opening Ceremony

Morning Assemblies

School Excursions("Ensoku")

Sports Day 1

Sports Day 2

Marathon Races

Overnight Trips

School Excursions

Involving Outdoor("Shugaku-Ryoko")

Study

Medical Check-ups

Disaster Drills

Music Festivals

Closing Ceremonies

The Typical Day of a Teacher

RecessesMorning Meetings

Preparation for Class

Teaching Classes

School Lunch 1

School Lunch 2

Cleaning Time

Graduation
Ceremonies

Skills to Teach

Meeting before
Going Back Home

Teachers' Rooms

Teacher's Desks

Instructions to Students

in Classrooms

The Typical Day of a Student

Going to School

Morning Meetings

in a group260

Class-based
Activities

Before Class

Class Hour

Recesses 1

Recesses 2

Recesses 3

Playing

Before and After

Teacher's Room

Meeting before Going

Getting out of

After School

Collective Discipline

Name, Name Card

Preparing &Collective Discipline

Lunch Time

Lunch

Back Home

School Life

Greeting

School Lunch Bags

Keeping Records

Cooperative Work during(Indoor Shoes)

School Lunch Periods

Cooperative work forPlaces Needing

School Lunch Menus

cleaning

Cleaning

Keeping Animals,
Growing Plants

Notices and Posters 1

Notices and Posters 2

Notices and Posters 3

Nurse's Ofﬁces

Co-education

Health Education

School Emblems

Testimonials

National Flag, Clocks

Students' Preferences

Uniforms

and School Songs

Memorial for Graduation

Assistant English

Notices and Posters 4Teacher

Teachers' Study
261

The course of study deﬁnes ﬁve types of school events.
① Ceremonial events ② Events concerned with arts ③ Events concerned with health/safety/physical education④ Events such as a school trip/collective lodging⑤ Events concerned with labor service or volunteer（Special activities →Ⅳ− 49）① Primary school entrance ceremony (admission of new 1st grade students), April 2004
② Primary school entrance ceremony (principalʼs speech) , April 2004
③ Primary school entrance ceremony (the introduction of homeroom teachers) , April 2004
④ Lower secondary school entrance ceremony, April 2005
The school draws a line between the beginning and the ending of events, activities, and classes, etc.

262

① The start of an opening ceremony for the new term
② Singing the school song③④ A speech from the principal
In the beginning of ceremonies students usually sing a school song and the national anthem, and the principal or vice makes a speech.

The morning assembly and vice-principalʼs speech263

①② Departure from the school③ Aquarium, ④ Prefectural ofﬁce, ⑤ Eating lunch, ⑥ Returning to school, ⑦⑧⑨ Aquarium (Students in a group are moving and watching during
the school excursion), ⑩ Prefectural ofﬁce, ⑪ Prefectural ofﬁce (an explanation with video), ⑫ Prefectural ofﬁce (prefectural parliament)
The students are asked to be punctual during assemblies and departures. Though school excursions students deepen their understandingof community characteristics and modern society.

① School gate
② Opening ceremony for Sports Day（1st grade）③ Cheering performance④ Team sports
All the students join in Sports Day activities (Undokai).

264

① Footrace (1st grade)② Lunch with students and their family in the school yard
③ Playing a tug of war joined by studentsʼ parents (5-6th grade students and their parents)④ Closing ceremony
Not only students but also parents and members of the community (including kindergarten infants) and senior citizens participate in
the sports activities.

① Students are divided into male/female groups in each grade. Students race in this groups.
② The race course extends to areas outside of the school premises.
③ Parents are cheering on and supporting their children.
④ Teachers are recording the time and place at the ﬁnish line.
⑤ Students are practicing in recess before the marathon race.

265

① Departure from the school② Climbing a mountain③ Arrival at a Youth House (a Youth House →Ⅲ− 25,26,27,28,29)④ Meeting to introduce the rules for the use of the Youth House⑤ Candle ﬁre ceremony
Youth houses (for teenagers) and juvenile houses (for children) set up as social educational facilities are often used for school activities.

① Departure from the school, ② Visitation at the Diet building, ③ Visitation at the Ship Museum④ Arrival at an inn, ⑤ Eating dinner at the inn⑥ Preparation for sleep
Students are taught group discipline while they inspect social facilities and equipment.

266

A medical check-up is carried out every year for all students. These pictures show the medical check-up for children who are entering
this primary school next Spring.
① Explanation at gymnasium② Ophthalmology checkup③ Dental checkup
Daily health consultations and care for the injured and ill are carried out in health care rooms.

① At the end of an evening meeting, there is an announcement that a big earthquake has occurred. Students place themselves under desks, andbegin to ﬂee after the earthquake subsides. 6th grade②③ homeroom teachers lead students to the schoolyard. ④ A homeroom teacher is doing a roll call.
⑤ Swimming with cloths on
Teachers pay close attention to student safety in their school life.

267

A primary and lower secondary concert is held by the Municipal Board of Education.

① A speech by the principal② A farewell speech to a teacher who is taking maternity leave268

①② Graduation ceremony at a primary school③④ Graduation ceremony at a lower secondary school
The graduation ceremony is the biggest all school events. It illustrates the characteristics of school life by encouraging studentsʼ parents
to participate in the event.

Teachers are responsible not only for instruction of subjects, but also for various types of student guidance.

269

① The time schedule for a morning meeting, ② Morning song sung by the students, 4th grade③ A hygiene check up, 4th grade, ④ A hygiene check note
⑤ A one minute speech by the students, 4th grade⑥ A hygiene check up, 6th grade① A science class at the science room
② Preparation for a science class
Before teaching a class teachers prepare well with teaching aids and experimental equipment.

270

Teachers devise their teaching approach. Teachers teach students in a friendly manner. A teacher prepares a lesson plan.
① Arithmetic, 5th grade, January 2005
② Arithmetic, 1st grade, December 2003

It is necessary for teachers to utilize various teaching aids and a computer. Teachers prepare various devices for use as teaching aids.
① Blackboard, science, 6th grade, December 2003
② Scissors, drawing & handcraft, 3rd grade, December 2003
③ Computer, the period of integrated study, 6th grade, December 2003
④ Musical instrument, Music, 6th grade, December 2003271

A long recess (between 2nd and 3rd periods) and a recess after lunch is usually 20 minutes long, so students can play in the schoolyard. Teachers will participate with the playing groups and are vigilant about safety.
① The teacher is playing with students.
② The teacher is watching studentsʼ play.

In the course of study it is explained that desirable habits should be developed among students through and during the school lunch
programs.
① The teacher is helping students serve meals.
② The teacher is checking clearing.

272

①② Having lunch with students③ Brushing teeth with students
At lunch time the teachers take their meals together with the students of their classes. School lunch periods are regarded as an
educational activity.

①② Teachers are helping students with cleaning.

273

① Time schedule for an evening meeting② Information from a student responsible for tasks③ Greeting① Student guidance meeting, February 2004
② Class hour, December 2003
③ A teacher at her own desk in the teacherʼs room, February 2005
④ Teachers still at school. December 2003
In each Japanese school there are teacherʼs rooms where teachersʼ desks are arranged. At their desks teachers prepare for teachingsubjects and other educational programs. Educational counseling is also conducted in these rooms. Teachersʼ meetings are also held in the teachers
rooms.

274

①② July 2004 ③ Teachersʼ desks in classrooms, 4th grade February 2005
④ Checking studentsʼ notebooks at at a teacherʼs desk in her classroom, Arithmetic 2nd grade, December 2003

① A homeroom teacher is cautioning a student who is talking with his friend in class.. 2nd grade, November 2004
② Teachers are examining the cause of trouble between students from different grades. 1st and 4th grade, January 2005
③ Teachers are directing students in the teachersʼ room. 6th grade, February 2005
（Guidance meeting →Ⅴ− 38）
A home room teacher takes charge of educational counseling. For students guidance teachers provide academic and life guidance.

275

Teachers and students share the same time table in a class room. Students not only study and perform tasks given by teachers, but also
derive their own pleasure and meaning from the activities.

① Going to school in a group, November 2004, ② Going to school in a group, December 2003, ③ Going to school in a group, February 2005,④ Storing their own bags in a ﬁxed place, 5th grade, November 2004
⑤ A list of students who will go to school together made by “Kodomokai”
Students learn about group discipline and safety by going to school in a group.

276

① A pair of students are chairing a morning meeting, 4th grade, January 2005
② Information from a student responsible for tasks, 4th grade, February 2005
③ One minute speech by students, 4th grade, February 2005
④ Collecting money for “the Children Bank”, December 2003
⑤ 6th grade students handing a birthday card to their homeroom teacher, 4th grade, February 2005
（Class activities, Group activities, Day duty →Ⅴ− 7 〜 9）

A student is responsible for checking the hygiene of classmates① A student who is responsible for hygiene takes a hygiene check note from a nurseʼs ofﬁce before the morning meeting.
② Hygiene check in the morning meeting③ Returning the health check note to nurseʼs ofﬁce（ Class activities, Group activities, Day duty →Ⅴ− 7 〜 9）277

① Preparation for a Physical Education class, 5th grade, Physical education, December 2003
② Moving from a homeroom to aScience room, 6th grade, December 2003

Students sometimes show a relaxed attitude during class hour.
① Going up to the shelf (in the cleaning time), 3rd grade, December 2003
② A thread is tangled in a sewing machine (in the home Economics class), 5th grade, November 2004
③ What is he thinking about ? (in a meeting before going home) , 6th grade, September 2004
④ Writing grafﬁti (in handcraft class), 3rd grade, December 2003

278

① Dodge ball, December 2003
② Jungle gym, December 2003
In addition to a scheduled lengthy recess, students also have ﬁve minute intervals between classes.

① Making use of recycled tires and a horizontal bar, December 2003
② Recycle cans, December 2003279

① Hula-Hoop, December 2003
② Horizontal bar with an assisting tool (left side) & Unicycle, December 2003
③ Unicycles are equipped at school① On a school outing involving a mixed age group activity, November 2004 ( → V − 15-19)② During the school lunch hour, 6th grade, December 2003
③ During the morning, February 2005
④ During an outdoor study hour, November 2004
⑤ After a discussion to decide what mixed age group activity will be planned for a school trip.

280

① Laying tablemats, 1st grade, December 2003
② Wearing a mask and washing hands, 1st grade, December 2003
③ Brushing teeth after lunch, 1st grade, December 2003
④ Sticking a lunch seal for lunch participation after lunch, 1st grade, December 2003

① Taking an Assistant English Teacher to a class, 1st grade, November 2004
② Removing a speck of dust from the eye, November 2004
③ Returning to teaching facilities after a class, January 2005281

① Preparation for going home, 1st grade, December 2003
② Putting on a jacket, 6th grade, December 2003
③ The class leader for the day is announcing some information, 6th grade, December 2003
④ Homeroom teacherʼs speech, 1st grade, December 2003

① Wearing a yellow hat for safety, December 2003
② Taking craft work back home, December 2003
③ Going home in a group, December 2003

282

①②③ Juku (supplementary private school/cram school)② Play dodge ball games organized by the dodge ball club.
After school many students commute to a cram school (Juku) and learn such skills as playing the piano and the violin, dancing andwriting calligraphy. Some students learn such sports as soccer, baseball, kendo and judo in a youth sports club on weekends. (The ﬁve-day weeksystem was fully implemented from2002. )In school life, students are trained to develop social behavioral skills, particularly group discipline and a sense of solidarity to thecommunity and the state. On the other hand, they also taught to recognize their own individuality through assuming individual roles andresponsibilities.

283

① Physical education class, 4th grade, November 2003
② Drawing & handcraft class, 3rd grade, December 2003
③ Science class, 4th grade, December 2003
④ Performance after school lunch, 6th grade, December 2003
⑤ Entrance ceremony, April 2004

① Line up before the opening ceremony, 3rd grade, September 2004
② School excursion at an inn where the students stayed, 6th grade, November 2004
③ Outdoor study (the period of integrated study), 4th grade, October 2004
④ After closing ceremony, 3rd grade, July 2004

284

① Desk, chair and school bag, 4th grade, January 2005
② Private bag, 4th grade, January 2005
③ School lunch bag, 4th grade, January 2005
④ Submission of homework, 4th grade, January 2005

① Preparation for Physical Education, 5th grade, December 2003
② Preparation for school lunch, 6th grade, December 2003
③ Clearing in Physical Education, 4th grade, November 2003
④ Clearing at Entrance Ceremony, April 2004
All the students help with preparations and clearing-up during and after class and school events.

285

School lunch bags with an apron and coif are hung on the wall. Students wear an apron and a coif when itʼs their turn to serve lunch.
When they ﬁnish their task for the week, they wash their apron and coif, and hand them to the next students who will be responsible for the task.
① Going to school with a school lunch bag on Monday morning②③ School lunch bags on the wall, ④ Going home with a school lunch bag on Friday① Checking reading homework, ② Students are recording their assigned jobs anytime after they ﬁnish them, 4th grade, January 2005, ③ Students
responsible for hygiene check ups for a class record student attendance every morning, 4th grade, February 2005,④ Students responsible for hygiene check ups for a class record attendance of students for every morning, 3rd grade, November 2004
Students record in turn student names for reading books, job assignments and attendance. They are accustomed to such responsibilities
for record keeping. Students are responsible for attendance and general hygiene checks.

286Students usually change their shoes inside and outside of school.
① In school students wear indoor shoes.
②④ Computer room③⑤ Music room

① Eating lunch sitting in a chair, 1st grade, December 2003
② Using chopsticks, 6th grade, December 2003
③ Drinking a bowl of soup, 6th grade, December 2003

287

The division of tasks between students at school lunch time makes it possible for students to have lunch regularly: a group of students
are responsible for serving lunch, while another group arranges desks and chairs for lunch. They take turns for these tasks.
① Putting on a apron and a coif. ② Carrying school lunch container to the homeroom. ③ Distributing the school lunch. ④ Returning the school
lunch containers to the school lunch room.
Students who are not involved in the tasks.
⑤ Arranging desks. ⑥ Washing hands. ⑦ Lining up to receive school lunch. ⑧ Returning the dishes.

① School lunch menus for a month, ② School lunch with bread, ③ School lunch with rice
④ School lunch is delivered from the school lunch center by truck everyday.
⑤ Students who by exception are permitted to bring a box lunch from home. (left side), 1st grade
The nutritional balance and calories are considered in the lunch contents.
（the school lunch law →Ⅱ− 43）288

① Moving desks and chairs.
② Students are sweeping the homeroom with a broom and students are wiping the ﬂoor with a damp cloth.
Cleaning the school is done by all the students. It is considered to be one of the educational activities.

① A homeroom teacher is helping with homeroom cleaning. 1st grade, ② Corridor, ③ Gymnasium, ④ School yard, ⑤ Lavatory, ⑥ Entrance, ⑦⑧
Turn table of cleaning areas.

289

① Planting ﬂower seedlings in a planter, 1-6th grade, November 2004
② Roof gardens on top of the school building, June 2005
③ Small salmon will be later released at the mouth of the river, May 2005
④ Snails, July 2004 ⑤ Chickens
All the programs are related to life and the natural environment.

Around the blackboard: These are pictures of the blackboard in front of class and around the blackboard. The date and the names of students
who have duties on that day are written at the bottom right corner of the blackboard and are updated daily ( ② ). Posters of monthly goals, theslogan of the class ( ① ), time schedule ( ① ), the names of students in charge of retrieving and serving lunch from the kitchen, and the lunch menu
are posted on the right side of the blackboard ( ④ ), these are ways to communicate with the students. Cards for a morning meeting ( ①③ ), themeeting at the end of the day, and the names of the students who have duties on that day enable students to know what their roles are for theday. The posters around the blackboard are mainly about what students need to do in their daily school life, and what the teachers want to let thestudents know, and therefore the space is used more as a bulletin boardas compared with other spaces in the classroom.
It is also one of students cooperative responsibilities to make notice, to make notices, posters and attach these to the blackboard.

290

The side walls and back walls in the homeroom: A rotary ﬁgure with the name of the students and pictures shows who is in charge of particularclass tasks. Students take turns in cleaning different areas in their classrooms and school s( ④ ). The school lunch newsletter, the grade newsletter,and the school newsletter are made by non homeroom teachers.
In addition to these, there are special student creations in the classes (Japanese calligraphy ( ① ), drawing ( ②③ ), handcraft ( ②③ ), andcompositions), and the contents relate to the students individually.

Hallway: There are signs at the entrance of each classroom. The grade, classroom number and name of home room teacher are written on thesign( ③ ). Signs for emergency exits and emergency goods are also visible( ④ ). Social topics are written on posters, lunch news and childrenʼ
s newspapers on the wall. In addition to grade news and health news, notices and introduction of activities at grade units, such as the period of
integrated study and (international understanding, welfare activities) school trip are visible.
① 5th grade June 2004 ② 6th grade November 2004
③ , ④ December 2003

291

① A nurse treats a studentʼs injury, December 2003
② A nurse counsels a student, December 2003
③ A bed with curtains, February 2005
④ Health check records, February 2005
⑤ Bulletin board on the side of the nurseʼs ofﬁce door
Every school has a nurseʼs ofﬁce.

At school events, both boys and girls serve as student representatives. In classrooms boys and girls sit side by side. In a group study
activity boys and girls do the same work.
① Entrance ceremony for new 1st grade students, April 2004, ② Athletic Meeting, 1st grade, September 2004
③ Home Economics, 5th grade, November 2004, ④ Moral Education, 4th grade November 2004
⑤ School Lunch, 1st grade, July 2004292

① Team teaching by a homeroom teacher and nurse teacher, 4th grade, November 2004, ② Study with students work, 4th grade, November 2004,③ Watching a video program, 4th grade, November 2004, ④ Remarks, 4th grade, November 2004, ⑤ A notice from the principal to the studentsʼ
parents.
1st grade ｢Clean body｣(1st semester), 2nd grade ｢The secret of the navel｣(3rd semester), 3rd grade ｢My birth｣(3rd semester), 4thgrade ｢Changes into an adult body｣(2nd semester), 5th grade ｢Birth of new life｣(1st semester), 6th grade ｢Letʼs learn about AIDS｣(2nd semester),(based on “a guide book for sex education”（Prefectural Board of Education))① Posters: A survey of studentsʼ favorite game and color② Posters: A survey of studentsʼ favorite subject and lesson③ Posters: “What will you do in the summer vacation?”④ Posters: “Do you have a meal three times a day?” and “Do you play outside?”⑤ Posters: A survey of studentsʼ favorite sports and animals

293

① Gym suits (in primary school, September 2004)② Students wear school uniforms (in an elementary school attached to a national university, March 2005)③ Students wear school uniforms (in a lower secondary school, April 2005)④ Students wear school uniforms (in a six-year secondary school, October 2004)① School emblem (primary school)② School emblem and school song (school pamphlet, primary school）③④ School song (primary school)⑤ Prefectural ﬂag, National ﬂag and School emblem (six-year secondary school)
Every school has its own emblem and song. By using the school emblem and song, students nurture their love for and attachment totheir school.

294

①② The national ﬂag and the school emblem ﬂag② School clock295

Graduates donate memorials to their school.
① The lyrics of the school song are carved on a stone monument② Tiles made by the graduates

An English lesson by an AET (Assistant English Teacher): AETs are employed by the Board of Education in each city.
①② An AET reviews the last lesson③ An AET employs an English card game.
④ With an AET after class296

Posters and newspapers which are sent by various external organizations are posted in school areas .

① In-service training within own school：class visit by teachers and reﬂection meeting (Physical education, 4th grade, November 2003)② In-service training within own school：class visit by teachers and reﬂection meeting (Moral education, 1st grade, March 2005)③ In-service training within own school：Teachers from several schools gather with lesson plans and discuss them. A guidance director fromprefectural training center joins in at the request of teachers. (Japanese language teachers of several elementary schools and lower secondary
schools November 2004)
In-service training and study meetings for teachers are conducted quite often.

297

Index"EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM& PRACTICE IN JAPAN"

byRyoichi Kamada
Seiko YamaguchiIndexs ... sliden ... note
6-3 school system

Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-26n
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅰ-26n
Ⅰ-2n

6-3-3-4 school system
6-3-3-4 yearsaaccountability

Ⅵ-4n
Ⅵ-22s
Ⅵ-22n
Ⅵ-33s
Ⅶ-33n
Ⅶ-48s
Ⅷ-34n
Ⅷ-35n
Ⅰ-9s
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅰ-9s
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅷ-15s
Ⅷ-15n
Ⅷ-17s
Ⅷ-43n
Ⅰ-27n
Ⅱ-10s
Ⅱ-27n
Ⅱ-29n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅱ-81n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-19n
Ⅳ-36n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅳ-39n
Ⅳ-40n
Ⅷ-26n
Ⅸ-19n
Ⅸ-27n
Ⅶ-58s
Ⅷ-20n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-17n
Ⅵ-24n
Ⅵ-16s

adequate access of education
administration

administrative training

advancement rates
adviceadvice and assistanceadvisory
aim of education
arithmetic

art
Article 1 of the School Education Law
assessments
autonomous school managementbbirth rates are on the decline
board of education

Ⅰ-6n
Ⅰ-10s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅰ-14s
Ⅰ-19s

1

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅱ-1s
Ⅱ-2s
Ⅱ-11n
Ⅱ-16n
Ⅱ-28s
Ⅱ-11s
Ⅱ-10s
Ⅱ-9s
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅱ-18s
Ⅱ-18n
Ⅱ-19s
Ⅱ-19n
Ⅱ-20s
Ⅱ-20n
Ⅱ-21s
Ⅱ-21n
Ⅱ-27n
Ⅱ-28n
Ⅱ-29s
Ⅱ-29n
Ⅱ-49n
Ⅱ-74n
Ⅱ-75s
Ⅱ-75n
Ⅱ-79s
Ⅲ-1s
Ⅲ-42s
Ⅴ-26n
Ⅳ-3s
Ⅳ-3n
Ⅳ-10s
Ⅳ-10n
Ⅵ-13s
Ⅵ-14s
Ⅵ-26n
Ⅵ-31s
Ⅶ-48n
Ⅶ-63n
Ⅶ-64s
Ⅷ-13s
Ⅷ-13n
Ⅷ-17n
Ⅷ-23n
Ⅷ-33s
Ⅷ-43s
Ⅷ-43n
Ⅸ-13n
Ⅸ-70n
Ⅸ-71n
Ⅰ-3s
Ⅲ-30s
Ⅲ-30n
Ⅲ-32n
Ⅶ-61s

board of education law

board of education's meetingboards of education

bottom to top school systems
boy scouts2Indexs ... sliden ... noteboys sports club activities
breaking economic barriers to receive education
bullying

Ⅶ-55n
Ⅱ-7n
Ⅴ-34n

calligraphy
career guidance

Ⅳ-39n
Ⅶ-44n
Ⅵ-19s
Ⅵ-20s
Ⅶ-40n
Ⅷ-6n
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅱ-23n
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅱ-24n
Ⅱ-25n
Ⅱ-26n
Ⅶ-52n
Ⅷ-34n
Ⅷ-35n
Ⅳ-5n
Ⅶ-57n
Ⅴ-7s
Ⅴ-7n
Ⅴ-8s
Ⅴ-8n
Ⅴ-9s
Ⅴ-10s
Ⅴ-11s
Ⅳ-50s
Ⅳ-51s
Ⅶ-71n
Ⅶ-74s
Ⅶ-74n
Ⅴ-41s
Ⅴ-42s
Ⅴ-42n
Ⅴ-43s
Ⅴ-43n
Ⅱ-50s
Ⅱ-50n
Ⅱ-49s
Ⅱ-47s
Ⅴ-12s
Ⅴ-12n
Ⅴ-13s
Ⅴ-13n
Ⅴ-14s
Ⅱ-41s
Ⅵ-21n
Ⅴ-11n
Ⅴ-7s
Ⅴ-7n
Ⅴ-8s
Ⅴ-8n
Ⅶ-73s

c

central council for education

central education committee
CERI
citizen's public hallclass activities

class expendituresclass feesclass for absentee school childrenclass for non-attendance childrenclass for school refusal childrenclass newslettersclass organization
class schedules
ｃlass timetableclass-based activities

class fees3Indexs ... sliden ... noteclass instruction based on level of achievementclasses for the handicappedcleaning

Ⅰ-16n
Ⅰ-34s
Ⅴ-10n
Ⅴ-19s
Ⅴ-19n
Ⅸ-16s
Ⅸ-24s
Ⅸ-24n
Ⅸ-34n
Ⅸ-44s
Ⅸ-55s
Ⅸ-55n
Ⅸ-56s
Ⅸ-56n
Ⅸ-59n
Ⅸ-14s
Ⅸ-46n
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅸ-44s
Ⅸ-62s
Ⅸ-51s
Ⅸ-44s
Ⅸ-46s
Ⅰ-2s
Ⅰ-2n
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅱ-36n
Ⅶ-26n
Ⅶ-23s
Ⅶ-23n
Ⅶ-24s
Ⅶ-25s
Ⅶ-25n
Ⅶ-26s
Ⅶ-56n
Ⅶ-52n
Ⅶ-56s
Ⅶ-58n
Ⅰ-33n
Ⅰ-2n
Ⅱ-38n
Ⅰ-18n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-6n
Ⅱ-7s
Ⅱ-7n
Ⅴ-41s
Ⅴ-41n
Ⅶ-71s
Ⅶ-71n
Ⅷ-9n

closing ceremonyco-educationcollective discipline (indoor shoes)
collective discipline (line-up)
colleges of technology

communication notebooks
communication notebooks between teachers & parents

community centerscomplex facilities

composite schools
comprehensive secondary schools
comprehensive six-year-secondary schools
compulsory education

4

Indexs ... sliden ... note

compulsory education guaranteed for school-aged handicapped
compulsory educational expenses under the state liability
compulsory school attendancecompulsory school enrollment
compulsory school establishment
constitution

corporal punishment

correspondence course

counselingcounseling rooms
counselor of education for sound mental development

counselor of moral education
counselors
Course of Study

5

Ⅷ-34n
Ⅷ-35n
Ⅰ-33n
Ⅷ-32s
Ⅷ-33n
Ⅱ-47s
Ⅰ-9s
Ⅰ-9s
Ⅱ-1s
Ⅱ-2s
Ⅱ-2n
Ⅱ-3s
Ⅱ-10n
Ⅳ-10s
Ⅳ-10n
Ⅱ-66s
Ⅱ-66n
Ⅱ-68n
Ⅰ-21s
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅰ-22s
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅱ-49n
Ⅴ-34s
Ⅴ-37n
Ⅱ-42n
Ⅴ-34s
Ⅴ-34n
Ⅴ-35s
Ⅴ-36s
Ⅴ-37s
Ⅱ-47s
Ⅴ-34n
Ⅴ-35n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-12n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅰ-25n
Ⅱ-2n
Ⅱ-30n
Ⅱ-35n
Ⅱ-62n
Ⅱ-77n
Ⅴ-7s
Ⅳ-3s
Ⅳ-3n
Ⅳ-13s
Ⅳ-13n
Ⅳ-14s
Ⅳ-15s
Ⅳ-15n
Ⅳ-16s
Ⅳ-16n
Ⅳ-22n
Ⅳ-25n

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅳ-35n
Ⅳ-36n
Ⅳ-38n
Ⅳ-64n
Ⅵ-5n
Ⅵ-6n
Ⅵ-7n
Ⅶ-45s
Ⅸ-1n
Ⅸ-22n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅰ-21s
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅰ-22s
Ⅵ-22n
Ⅱ-39s
Ⅱ-40s
Ⅱ-43n
Ⅱ-51n
Ⅱ-39s
Ⅵ-22s
Ⅱ-39n
Ⅱ-43s
Ⅱ-55s
Ⅱ-36s
Ⅰ-26n
Ⅲ-30s
Ⅲ-30n
Ⅳ-5s
Ⅳ-5n
Ⅳ-6s
Ⅳ-6n
Ⅳ-7s
Ⅳ-7n
Ⅳ-8s
Ⅳ-8n
Ⅳ-20n
Ⅳ-29s
Ⅳ-29n
Ⅳ-30s
Ⅳ-31n
Ⅳ-31s
Ⅳ-32s
Ⅵ-1s
Ⅵ-8s
Ⅵ-8n
Ⅷ-5s
Ⅷ-5n
Ⅷ-30s

creation special curricular-oriented schools
credit-systemcriteria
criteria for establishingcriteria for establishing of university
criteria for establishment
criteria for school establishment
criteria of establishingcriteria of establishing a Specialized training colleges
criteria for university establishment
cultural associations
curriculumddaily schedule
dangerous zones
day care centers

Ⅸ-29n
Ⅶ-6n
Ⅰ-5n
Ⅰ-6n
Ⅴ-7s

day duty

6

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅴ-7n
Ⅴ-8s
Ⅴ-8n
Ⅴ-9s
Ⅴ-10s
Ⅴ-11s
Ⅴ-11n
Ⅸ-31n
Ⅶ-65s
Ⅶ-65n
Ⅱ-10s
Ⅱ-10n
Ⅱ-12s
Ⅱ-18s
Ⅱ-18n
Ⅱ-69n
Ⅱ-74s
Ⅷ-14n
Ⅷ-34n
Ⅷ-35n
Ⅰ-5n
Ⅰ-29s
Ⅰ-5s
Ⅰ-29n
Ⅰ-39n
Ⅱ-42n
Ⅱ-20n
Ⅴ-9n
Ⅱ-12s
Ⅱ-12n
Ⅱ-14s
Ⅱ-69n
Ⅵ-32n
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-12s
Ⅱ-66s
Ⅱ-66n
Ⅱ-67s
Ⅱ-68n
Ⅷ-36s
Ⅷ-36n
Ⅷ-37s
Ⅷ-37n
Ⅵ-37n
Ⅰ-12n
Ⅷ-36s
Ⅷ-36n
Ⅷ-37s
Ⅷ-37n
Ⅷ-38s
Ⅷ-39s
Ⅷ-40s
Ⅷ-17s
Ⅱ-20s
Ⅱ-58n
Ⅰ-38n

daycare centers
decentralization

decline in birth rates
declining birth rates

decrease in birth rates
delegate additional rights to principals
demonstrating
deregulation

disabilities
disaster drill

disciplinary action

discretion
discretion of local schools
dismissal

dismissal punishment

dispatch training
dispatching teacher consultant
distinctive school program
diverse opportunities for education

7

Indexs ... sliden ... note
diverse range of students

Ⅰ-22n
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅰ-26n
Ⅰ-37s
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅱ-43n
Ⅰ-25n
Ⅱ-16n
Ⅰ-25n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅳ-41n
Ⅴ-2n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅷ-12s
Ⅸ-20n
Ⅸ-45n
Ⅷ-9n
Ⅱ-67s
Ⅱ-67n
Ⅰ-26n
Ⅰ-26n
Ⅰ-2n
Ⅰ-3n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅱ-38n

diversification of educational opportunities
diversification of students
diversification of teaching methods
diversity of higher education
diversity the composition of members of board of education
double trackdrawing and handcraft

drop-out
dual school systemdual systemdual track systemeeach school's discretion

Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅷ-24n
Ⅷ-16n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-8n
Ⅱ-9s
Ⅱ-10s
Ⅱ-11n
Ⅱ-12n
Ⅱ-18s
Ⅱ-18n
Ⅱ-19n
Ⅱ-20n
Ⅱ-21n
Ⅱ-23n
Ⅱ-24n
Ⅱ-25n
Ⅱ-27s
Ⅱ-29n
Ⅴ-20n
Ⅴ-24n
Ⅴ-20n
Ⅴ-24n
Ⅱ-31s

educational guidance
education training center
educational administration

educational advancement rates
educational enrollment rates
educational finance8Indexs ... sliden ... noteeducational materials
educational needs for children with multiple disabilities and diverse disabilities
educational objectives
educational principle
educational standards
educational training center
effective extension relationships with their local communities
efficiency
efficiency of the distribution
efficiency rating
efficiency rating of teacher
elasticity and flexibility
elementary education
emoluments and outlays for teachers supported though prefectural funds
enforcement regulations of the school education law

Englishenrollment rateenrollment rates in day care centers
enrollment rates in kindergartens
entrance ceremony

9

Ⅱ-43s
Ⅱ-43n
Ⅱ-20s
Ⅰ-33n
Ⅱ-7s
Ⅱ-7n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅴ-30n
Ⅵ-33s
Ⅰ-5s
Ⅰ-29n
Ⅵ-26n
Ⅵ-27n
Ⅵ-26s
Ⅰ-33s
Ⅰ-2s
Ⅱ-38s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅱ-2n
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅵ-9n
Ⅵ-10s
Ⅵ-10n
Ⅵ-16n
Ⅵ-20s
Ⅵ-20n
Ⅵ-21n
Ⅶ-48n
Ⅱ-36s
Ⅱ-66s
Ⅳ-15s
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅱ-17n
Ⅱ-84n
Ⅱ-85s
Ⅱ-85n
Ⅳ-59s
Ⅷ-12s
Ⅷ-20n
Ⅸ-70n
Ⅰ-11s
Ⅰ-29n
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅰ-7n
Ⅰ-7n
Ⅱ-34n
Ⅱ-34n
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-2s
Ⅸ-2n
Ⅸ-45n
Ⅸ-48n
Ⅸ-62n

Indexs ... sliden ... noteequal opportunity of education

Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-35n
Ⅱ-78n
Ⅰ-29n
Ⅱ-82s
Ⅱ-82n
Ⅱ-83s
Ⅱ-83n
Ⅱ-84n
Ⅴ-15n
Ⅴ-17n
Ⅴ-42n
Ⅶ-71s
Ⅶ-73s
Ⅶ-73n
Ⅰ-41s
Ⅱ-16n
Ⅱ-66s
Ⅱ-66n
Ⅱ-54n
Ⅴ-2s

evaluation systemevening lower secondary schools

excursion

expansion of school enrollment
experience nature
expulsion (drop-out)
external school assessments
extracurricular instructions and guidanceffinancial burden
financial burden of prefectures
flexible responses
for handicapped

Ⅱ-12n
Ⅷ-33n
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅶ-49s
Ⅶ-49s
Ⅶ-49s
Ⅴ-41n
Ⅴ-25n
Ⅰ-21s
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅰ-22s
Ⅰ-22n
Ⅱ-3s
Ⅱ-3n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-6n
Ⅱ-10s
Ⅱ-10n
Ⅱ-26n
Ⅱ-27n
Ⅱ-35n
Ⅳ-10n

free education system
free school
full-time course

fundamental law of educationg
girl scouts

Ⅲ-30s
Ⅲ-30n
Ⅰ-21s
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅰ-22s
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-15s

grade-system

graduation ceremony

10Indexs ... sliden ... note

gymnasium

Ⅸ-15n
Ⅱ-35n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅴ-7s
Ⅴ-9s
Ⅴ-10s
Ⅴ-11s
Ⅴ-15s
Ⅴ-16s
Ⅴ-16n
Ⅴ-17s
Ⅴ-18s
Ⅴ-18s
Ⅸ-10n
Ⅸ-30n
Ⅸ-44n
Ⅴ-7n
Ⅴ-8s
Ⅴ-8n
Ⅶ-61n
Ⅱ-42n
Ⅱ-47s
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅱ-67n
Ⅴ-2n
Ⅴ-38s
Ⅴ-38n
Ⅴ-39s
Ⅴ-39n
Ⅵ-4s
Ⅵ-20s
Ⅵ-21n
Ⅵ-27s
Ⅶ-8n
Ⅷ-12s
Ⅷ-15n
Ⅴ-36n
Ⅴ-40s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅱ-27s
Ⅱ-27n
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅷ-27n
Ⅸ-72n
Ⅳ-25s
Ⅳ-25n
Ⅵ-13s
Ⅶ-58s

handcrafts
head-teacher of academic affaires
healthhealth care room
health office

Ⅸ-34n
Ⅱ-61n
Ⅶ-28s
Ⅸ-11n
Ⅴ-26s

gratis (free) status of education
greater leeway for local school discretiongroup activities

group activities for children of differing ages

group disciplinegroup-based activities

groups related to sports
guardians
guidance

guidance administration

guidance be provided that addresses student's aptitudes and competence
guidance director
guidelinesh11

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅴ-26n
Ⅴ-29s
Ⅴ-30n
Ⅰ-2s
Ⅱ-38s
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-41n
Ⅸ-34n
Ⅸ-62n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s

higher educationhome economicsi
independent administrative systems
information exchange
initial training for new teacher

Ⅰ-29n
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅷ-18s
Ⅷ-22n
Ⅷ-15s
Ⅷ-16s
Ⅷ-18s
Ⅷ-19s
Ⅷ-20s
Ⅷ-21s
Ⅷ-22s
Ⅷ-41s
Ⅷ-20s
Ⅷ-19n
Ⅷ-20n
Ⅷ-41n
Ⅷ-15s
Ⅸ-72n
Ⅷ-23s
Ⅷ-24s
Ⅷ-24n
Ⅷ-25s
Ⅷ-25n
Ⅷ-26s
Ⅷ-27s
Ⅷ-28s
Ⅷ-15n
Ⅱ-28s
Ⅰ-21s
Ⅰ-33n
Ⅰ-5s
Ⅰ-5n
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅱ-78s
Ⅱ-80s
Ⅱ-80n

in-service training

in-service training (outside the school)
in-service training on subjects
in-service training within schools
in-service training within individual schools
in-service training within own school
in-service training within school

instruct/advise
integrated study
integration
integration of two tier systems of pre-school educationinternationalization
isolated areasjJapanese

Ⅱ-85s
Ⅱ-85n
Ⅳ-39n

12

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅵ-6s
Ⅷ-27n
Ⅳ-36n
Ⅳ-36s
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-36n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅵ-6n
Ⅵ-7n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅸ-72n

Japanese languagekkindergarten

Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-4s
Ⅰ-4n
Ⅰ-5s
Ⅰ-5n
Ⅰ-6s
Ⅰ-6n
Ⅰ-7s
Ⅰ-7n
Ⅰ-8n
Ⅱ-39n
Ⅶ-43n
Ⅶ-49s
Ⅶ-49n
Ⅶ-65s
Ⅶ-65n
Ⅷ-6s
Ⅸ-7n
Ⅶ-59n
Ⅶ-60n
Ⅶ-61n
Ⅶ-62n
Ⅶ-59s
Ⅶ-60s
Ⅶ-61s
Ⅶ-62s
Ⅸ-30n

kodomo-kaillaw concerning local administration and financelaw concerning local authority

law concerning the organization and functions of local education administration

law for the promotion of education in isolated areas

13

Ⅱ-3n
Ⅱ-28s
Ⅱ-28n
Ⅱ-28n
Ⅱ-18n
Ⅱ-22n
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅱ-11s
Ⅱ-11n
Ⅱ-3s
Ⅱ-43n
Ⅱ-78s

Indexs ... sliden ... notelaw on national treasury on expenditure of compulsory education
law on organization and managements of local educational administration
law on promoting education in remote areas
law on social education
librarianlibrarianlibrary

library law

Life skills

life styles
life-long learning

life-long society

local autonomous bodies
local discretion
long-term training
lower secondary equivalency examination

lunch

Ⅱ-78n
Ⅱ-81n
Ⅷ-34n
Ⅷ-35n
Ⅱ-28s
Ⅱ-30n
Ⅷ-35s
Ⅲ-2n
Ⅲ-8s
Ⅲ-8n
Ⅶ-56n
Ⅶ-57s
Ⅶ-57n
Ⅲ-8s
Ⅲ-8n
Ⅲ-12n
Ⅲ-13n
Ⅲ-14n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅳ-42n
Ⅶ-45n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-6n
Ⅱ-7s
Ⅱ-7n
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅱ-26n
Ⅱ-32s
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-1n
Ⅰ-37s
Ⅰ-38n
Ⅲ-25n
Ⅵ-13n
Ⅷ-17s
Ⅱ-83s
Ⅱ-85s
Ⅱ-85n
Ⅳ-15n
Ⅶ-28s
Ⅸ-39s
Ⅸ-39n
Ⅸ-44s

m
making the school public

Ⅵ-22n

map that shows dangerous zones
math

Ⅶ-6s
Ⅱ-85s
Ⅱ-85n
Ⅵ-6n
Ⅵ-7n

mathematics

14

Indexs ... sliden ... note
medical checkmeeting at the end of the day
meeting before going back homemeetings

ministerminister of education, culture, sports，science and technology

miscellaneous schools

mixed age group activity
moral education

moral precepts
morning meeting

15

Ⅱ-75s
Ⅸ-58n
Ⅸ-16s
Ⅸ-25s
Ⅸ-29s
Ⅸ-34n
Ⅸ-41n
Ⅶ-26n
Ⅶ-12s
Ⅶ-14s
Ⅶ-14n
Ⅶ-16s
Ⅶ-16n
Ⅶ-17s
Ⅶ-17n
Ⅶ-18s
Ⅶ-18n
Ⅱ-23s
Ⅷ-10s
Ⅱ-28n
Ⅱ-28s
Ⅱ-63n
Ⅱ-64n
Ⅱ-66s
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-2s
Ⅰ-22s
Ⅰ-22n
Ⅰ-37s
Ⅰ-37n
Ⅰ-39s
Ⅰ-39n
Ⅰ-40s
Ⅰ-38n
Ⅱ-35s
Ⅸ-38n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅴ-3n
Ⅴ-2n
Ⅳ-44s
Ⅳ-44n
Ⅳ-45s
Ⅳ-46s
Ⅳ-47s
Ⅳ-48s
Ⅷ-3n
Ⅸ-62n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-51n
Ⅸ-16s
Ⅸ-17s
Ⅸ-17n
Ⅸ-29s
Ⅸ-31s
Ⅸ-31n
Ⅸ-32n

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅸ-58n
Ⅱ-81n
Ⅰ-33s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅲ-15s
Ⅲ-15n
Ⅲ-16n
Ⅲ-3n
Ⅲ-15s
Ⅲ-15n
Ⅲ-16s
Ⅲ-16n
Ⅲ-17s
Ⅲ-17n
Ⅲ-18s
Ⅲ-18n
Ⅲ-19s
Ⅲ-19n
Ⅲ-20s
Ⅲ-20n
Ⅲ-21s
Ⅲ-21n
Ⅸ-10n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅴ-2n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅳ-57n
Ⅵ-6s
Ⅶ-58s
Ⅷ-3s
Ⅷ-9n
Ⅷ-12s
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-13s
Ⅸ-13n
Ⅸ-20n
Ⅸ-51n
Ⅱ-46s

multi grade classmultiple and severe handicaps and diverse disabilities
multistory structuremuseum law

museummusic

music roomnnation building
national center for university entrance examination
national task force for educational reform
national treasury's share of compulsory education expenditurenational university corporations
national university entrance examination
neutrality in education

16

Ⅰ-9n
Ⅰ-32s
Ⅱ-9s
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅰ-9s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅰ-30s
Ⅰ-30n
Ⅰ-32n
Ⅱ-7n

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅱ-9n
Ⅱ-35n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-7n
Ⅱ-7s
Ⅶ-27s
Ⅶ-27n
Ⅶ-28s
Ⅶ-28n
Ⅶ-29s
Ⅶ-29n
Ⅶ-30s
Ⅶ-30n
Ⅶ-31s
Ⅶ-31n
Ⅶ-32s
Ⅶ-32n
Ⅸ-59n
Ⅱ-47s
Ⅱ-48s
Ⅱ-48n
Ⅴ-20s
Ⅴ-20n
Ⅴ-21s
Ⅴ-21n
Ⅴ-22s
Ⅴ-22n
Ⅴ-23s
Ⅴ-23n
Ⅴ-24s
Ⅴ-24n
Ⅴ-25s
Ⅴ-25n
Ⅴ-26s
Ⅴ-26n
Ⅴ-27s
Ⅴ-27n
Ⅴ-28s
Ⅴ-28n
Ⅴ-29s
Ⅴ-29n
Ⅴ-30s
Ⅰ-38n
Ⅱ-70n
Ⅱ-71n
Ⅱ-74s
Ⅰ-31n
Ⅰ-6s
Ⅸ-32n
Ⅸ-44s
Ⅸ-61s
Ⅸ-61n

neutrality of education

newsletters

non-attendance

non-attendance at school (absenteeism)

non-regular institutional schools
normalization

number of students
nursery school
nurse's officeoobligation of enrollment
obligation of a person who has parental authority to enroll children

17

Ⅱ-85s
Ⅰ-13s

Indexs ... sliden ... noteobligation to enroll children for compulsory school
obligation to establish compulsory school
off-campus training
open class days

Ⅰ-13s
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅷ-19s
Ⅶ-12s
Ⅶ-12n
Ⅶ-13s
Ⅶ-14s
Ⅶ-14n
Ⅶ-15s
Ⅶ-15n
Ⅶ-16s
Ⅶ-16n
Ⅶ-18n
Ⅱ-7s
Ⅶ-12n
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-3s
Ⅸ-46n
Ⅶ-52s
Ⅶ-52n
Ⅶ-53s
Ⅶ-54s
Ⅶ-55s
Ⅶ-55n
Ⅱ-40s
Ⅱ-15s
Ⅱ-53s
Ⅵ-25s
Ⅵ-23s
Ⅵ-23n

open door education
open school atmosphere
opening ceremony

opening schools to the publicorganization of classout-of-school learning
outside assessment
outside evaluation
outside school evaluationpparents

Ⅶ-48s
Ⅱ-16n
Ⅱ-47n
Ⅱ-53s
Ⅱ-54n
Ⅱ-55s
Ⅱ-60n
Ⅱ-75s
Ⅱ-75n
Ⅴ-35n
Ⅶ-1s
Ⅶ-4n
Ⅶ-5n
Ⅶ-7n
Ⅶ-8n
Ⅶ-8s
Ⅶ-9s
Ⅶ-9n
Ⅶ-10n
Ⅶ-11n
Ⅶ-12s
Ⅶ-12n
Ⅶ-13s
Ⅶ-13n

18

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅶ-14n
Ⅶ-15n
Ⅶ-16s
Ⅶ-16n
Ⅶ-17s
Ⅶ-17n
Ⅶ-18s
Ⅶ-18n
Ⅶ-19s
Ⅶ-19n
Ⅶ-21n
Ⅶ-22n
Ⅶ-23n
Ⅶ-24s
Ⅶ-27s
Ⅶ-27n
Ⅶ-33n
Ⅶ-36s
Ⅶ-48s
Ⅶ-48n
Ⅶ-50s
Ⅶ-72n
Ⅶ-73s
Ⅶ-73n
Ⅶ-74s
Ⅶ-74n
Ⅸ-7n
Ⅸ-8n
Ⅸ-28n
Ⅸ-63n
Ⅱ-60s
Ⅶ-1n
Ⅰ-21s
Ⅰ-21n
Ⅰ-22s
Ⅰ-22n
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅷ-35s
Ⅵ-1s
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅰ-12s
Ⅰ-12n
Ⅴ-3n
Ⅴ-3n
Ⅳ-2s
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-14s
Ⅳ-15s
Ⅳ-20n
Ⅳ-43n
Ⅳ-64s
Ⅳ-64n
Ⅳ-65s
Ⅳ-65n
Ⅳ-66s
Ⅳ-67s

parents and guardianspart-time course

part-time education
PDCA
period of integrated study

19

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅳ-68s
Ⅳ-68n
Ⅶ-20n
Ⅶ-35n
Ⅶ-38s
Ⅶ-40n
Ⅶ-42n
Ⅶ-45n
Ⅶ-47n
Ⅶ-58n
Ⅷ-3n
Ⅸ-20n
Ⅸ-46n
Ⅸ-60n
Ⅳ-14n
Ⅱ-69s
Ⅱ-74s
Ⅱ-74n
Ⅱ-76s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅳ-41n
Ⅳ-57n
Ⅸ-1n
Ⅸ-33n
Ⅸ-45n
Ⅷ-9n
Ⅷ-12s
Ⅸ-48n
Ⅴ-6n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅳ-12n
Ⅷ-32s
Ⅰ-2s
Ⅰ-5s
Ⅱ-38s
Ⅷ-9s
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅱ-20s
Ⅱ-58n
Ⅱ-61n
Ⅱ-66s
Ⅱ-67s
Ⅱ-75n
Ⅵ-9s
Ⅵ-12s
Ⅵ-10s
Ⅵ-10n
Ⅵ-12n
Ⅵ-15s

permitted enrollment

personnel administration
physical education

placards exhibited
political education
posters
prefectural funds
pre-school education

pre-service training of teacher
principal

20

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅵ-15n
Ⅵ-26n
Ⅵ-27s
Ⅵ-27n
Ⅵ-35n
Ⅶ-21n
Ⅶ-48s
Ⅶ-48n
Ⅶ-51s
Ⅶ-51n
Ⅶ-58s
Ⅷ-14s
Ⅷ-14n
Ⅷ-25n
Ⅷ-29s
Ⅷ-29n
Ⅷ-43s
Ⅷ-43n
Ⅸ-2n
Ⅸ-3n
Ⅸ-14n
Ⅴ-25n
Ⅱ-31s
Ⅱ-31n
Ⅱ-47s
Ⅱ-50n
Ⅰ-37n
Ⅰ-29s
Ⅰ-29n
Ⅰ-15n
Ⅰ-17n
Ⅱ-53s
Ⅵ-19s
Ⅵ-31s
Ⅶ-1s
Ⅶ-1n
Ⅶ-2s
Ⅶ-2n
Ⅶ-3n
Ⅶ-3s
Ⅶ-4s
Ⅶ-5s
Ⅶ-6s
Ⅶ-7s
Ⅶ-14s
Ⅶ-14n
Ⅶ-28s
Ⅶ-32n
Ⅶ-33s
Ⅶ-63s
Ⅶ-63n
Ⅶ-64s
Ⅶ-65s
Ⅶ-65n
Ⅶ-73s
Ⅶ-6n

principal discretion
principle of burden by fonder
principle of defraying expenses
private free schools
private supplementary schools
professional graduate schools
professional schools in graduate schools
proportion continuing on with schoolingproportion of students going on
PTA

21

Indexs ... sliden ... notepublic character
public nature

Ⅱ-35n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-6n
Ⅱ-7s
Ⅱ-7n
Ⅱ-12n

qualifying certificate examination

Ⅰ-2s
Ⅱ-38s
Ⅱ-38s

rates
refresher training to teachers for 10 years
regional devolution

Ⅰ-21n
Ⅷ-18s
Ⅱ-9s
Ⅱ-11s
Ⅱ-11n
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅱ-22s
Ⅱ-22n
Ⅱ-25n
Ⅱ-28n
Ⅱ-39n
Ⅱ-12s
Ⅰ-1n
Ⅱ-14s
Ⅰ-5n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅳ-25n
Ⅳ-27s
Ⅳ-27n
Ⅶ-19s
Ⅶ-19n
Ⅶ-20s
Ⅶ-21s
Ⅶ-21n
Ⅶ-22s
Ⅶ-22n
Ⅰ-34s
Ⅰ-34n
Ⅱ-70n
Ⅱ-71n
Ⅰ-33n
Ⅶ-13n

q

r

regulations of the school education law
regulative standards for kindergarten establishment
relaxation of the rules
relaxing the geographic restrictions on school districts
religious corporations
religious education
report cards

resource classroom system
resource rooms
right of all Japanese citizens to receive education
risk managementssabbatical system to study at graduate school
SBCD

Ⅷ-17s
Ⅳ-5s
Ⅳ-5n
Ⅱ-50n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅵ-24n
Ⅵ-25n

school absentee children
school administration
school based training

22

Indexs ... sliden ... noteschool complex facilities

Ⅶ-57s
Ⅶ-58s
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅱ-53s
Ⅱ-58s
Ⅱ-58n
Ⅱ-59s
Ⅱ-60s
Ⅱ-60n
Ⅱ-61n
Ⅵ-13s
Ⅵ-15s
Ⅵ-15n
Ⅵ-19s
Ⅶ-48s
Ⅶ-48n
Ⅶ-49s
Ⅶ-49n
Ⅶ-50s
Ⅶ-50n
Ⅶ-51s
Ⅶ-51n
Ⅶ-63s
Ⅶ-63n
Ⅶ-64s
Ⅴ-29s
Ⅱ-47s
Ⅴ-26s
Ⅴ-26n
Ⅴ-34s
Ⅴ-34n
Ⅴ-35s
Ⅴ-35n
Ⅴ-36s
Ⅴ-36n
Ⅴ-37s
Ⅴ-37n
Ⅴ-37n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-7s
Ⅱ-7n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅰ-9s
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅰ-17n
Ⅰ-25n
Ⅰ-29n
Ⅰ-37n
Ⅱ-2n
Ⅱ-3s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅱ-22n
Ⅱ-35s

school councilor

school counselors

school education

school education law

23Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅱ-36s
Ⅱ-36n
Ⅱ-37s
Ⅱ-37n
Ⅱ-39n
Ⅱ-64s
Ⅱ-64n
Ⅱ-66s
Ⅵ-5n
Ⅵ-6n
Ⅵ-7n
Ⅵ-12s
Ⅵ-15s
Ⅳ-49s
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-5s
Ⅸ-5n
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-10s
Ⅸ-46n
Ⅱ-46n
Ⅰ-17s
Ⅱ-14s
Ⅱ-14s
Ⅶ-49n
Ⅱ-35s
Ⅶ-49n
Ⅶ-54s
Ⅱ-35s
Ⅶ-49n
Ⅶ-54s
Ⅱ-14s
Ⅶ-54s
Ⅱ-35s
Ⅱ-55n
Ⅶ-31n
Ⅶ-32n
Ⅶ-33s
Ⅶ-34s
Ⅶ-34n
Ⅰ-13n
Ⅵ-13n
Ⅷ-29s
Ⅷ-29n
Ⅷ-30s
Ⅷ-30n
Ⅷ-31s
Ⅷ-43s
Ⅷ-43n
Ⅴ-10n
Ⅴ-37n
Ⅴ-42n
Ⅳ-52n
Ⅶ-28n
Ⅶ-71s
Ⅶ-72s

school excursion

school facilities be opened to the local community
school fees
school for blindschool for deaf
school for handicapped children
school for the blindschool for the deaf

school for the handicappedschool for the handicapped children
school for the handicapped other than the blind and deaf
school guidelineschool healthschool home pages

school law
school leader

school lunch24Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅸ-16s
Ⅸ-22s
Ⅸ-23s
Ⅸ-23n
Ⅸ-29s
Ⅸ-38n
Ⅸ-45n
Ⅸ-47n
Ⅸ-48n
Ⅸ-49s
Ⅸ-49n
Ⅸ-52s
Ⅸ-53n
Ⅸ-53s
Ⅸ-54s
Ⅸ-54n
Ⅸ-58n
Ⅸ-59n
Ⅸ-60n
Ⅸ-62n
Ⅸ-71n
Ⅴ-9n
Ⅱ-43n
Ⅸ-54n
Ⅶ-71n
Ⅵ-18s
Ⅵ-19s
Ⅴ-29s
Ⅷ-3s
Ⅵ-13s
Ⅵ-12n
Ⅱ-57n
Ⅳ-25s
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅰ-2n
Ⅰ-1n
Ⅱ-56n
Ⅴ-42n
Ⅶ-73s
Ⅶ-73n
Ⅷ-35s
Ⅸ-1n
Ⅸ-38n
Ⅸ-60n
Ⅶ-35s
Ⅶ-36s
Ⅶ-38n
Ⅵ-16s
Ⅶ-31n
Ⅶ-32n
Ⅰ-37n
Ⅰ-34s
Ⅰ-34n
Ⅰ-35n
Ⅰ-34s
Ⅰ-34n

school lunch
school lunch law
school luncheons
school management duty
school nurse
school open to the publicschool organizational duties
school record
school reports
school students choosing not to attend full timeschool systemschool system reforms
school transcript
school trip

school volunteers

school with unique curriculum
school-lunch
schools defined in article 1 of the school education law
schools for blindschools for deaf

25

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅰ-35n
Ⅱ-39n
Ⅱ-39n
Ⅷ-3s
Ⅷ-7s
Ⅷ-21n
Ⅱ-39n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅱ-64n
Ⅱ-70n
Ⅱ-71n
Ⅱ-77n
Ⅷ-3s
Ⅷ-7s
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅱ-64n
Ⅱ-70n
Ⅱ-71n
Ⅱ-77n
Ⅷ-3s
Ⅷ-7s
Ⅰ-34s
Ⅰ-34n
Ⅰ-35n
Ⅱ-70n
Ⅱ-71n
Ⅱ-77n
Ⅱ-64n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-37s
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅱ-85s
Ⅱ-85n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-36n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅳ-40n
Ⅳ-43n
Ⅳ-61n
Ⅶ-58s
Ⅸ-18s
Ⅸ-18n
Ⅸ-20n
Ⅸ-33n
Ⅸ-45n
Ⅰ-17s
Ⅰ-18s
Ⅰ-2s
Ⅱ-38s
Ⅵ-27s
Ⅳ-62n
Ⅵ-28n
Ⅱ-51s
Ⅱ-52s

schools for handicappedschools for the blindschools for the deaf

schools for the handicapped other than the blind and deaf

schools for the handicappedschools for the handicapped other than the blind and deaf
schools for the mentally or physically handicappedschools not defined in article 1 of the school education law
sciencesecondary education

self evaluation
self-assessments
self-declaration
self-evaluation

26

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅱ-54n
Ⅱ-55n
Ⅵ-22n
Ⅵ-23s
Ⅵ-23n
Ⅵ-27n
Ⅵ-24s
Ⅵ-34n
Ⅵ-22n
Ⅵ-34n
Ⅱ-40s
Ⅰ-38n
Ⅱ-70n
Ⅱ-71n
Ⅷ-23n
Ⅱ-38n
Ⅰ-2n
Ⅰ-26n
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅰ-25s
Ⅰ-25n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-3n
Ⅸ-65n
Ⅸ-66n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-20s
Ⅰ-20n
Ⅰ-2n
Ⅱ-5s
Ⅱ-5n
Ⅱ-6s
Ⅱ-6n
Ⅲ-22s
Ⅲ-22n
Ⅲ-30s
Ⅲ-30n
Ⅲ-34s
Ⅲ-34n
Ⅲ-41n
Ⅱ-69n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅱ-85s
Ⅱ-85n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-37s
Ⅳ-37n
Ⅳ-38s
Ⅳ-42n
Ⅶ-45s
Ⅶ-45n
Ⅶ-46s
Ⅶ-46n
Ⅷ-9n
Ⅱ-49n
Ⅰ-9n

self-inspection
self-inspection/evaluation
set criteria for establishing special training colleges
severe handicaps and multiple handicaps
sharing of school duties
single track system
single-track

single-track school system
six-year secondary school
six-year secondary schools

skipping gradessocial educationsocial education law

social norms
social studies

specially adapted classrooms for dropouts
special activities

27

Indexs ... sliden ... note

special area for structural reform
special classspecial classrooms for non-attending (absentee) school children
special educational needs

special educational plan
special schools for disabled

special training colleges
special zone for structural reform
special/vocational schools
specialized training colleges

specially supported education

specially supported education classsports associations

sports day

28

Ⅴ-3n
Ⅴ-2n
Ⅳ-2n
Ⅳ-49s
Ⅳ-49n
Ⅶ-21n
Ⅶ-58n
Ⅷ-22n
Ⅸ-1n
Ⅸ-22n
Ⅰ-5n
Ⅰ-33s
Ⅰ-34n
Ⅱ-64n
Ⅱ-70n
Ⅱ-71n
Ⅱ-75s
Ⅴ-26s
Ⅴ-26n
Ⅱ-69n
Ⅱ-72n
Ⅱ-74s
Ⅱ-17n
Ⅱ-70s
Ⅱ-70s
Ⅱ-70s
Ⅰ-2s
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅰ-25n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅰ-15n
Ⅰ-22s
Ⅰ-22n
Ⅰ-25n
Ⅰ-37s
Ⅰ-37n
Ⅰ-38s
Ⅰ-39s
Ⅰ-39n
Ⅱ-35s
Ⅱ-36s
Ⅱ-36n
Ⅱ-38n
Ⅱ-51n
Ⅰ-40s
Ⅰ-40n
Ⅰ-33s
Ⅱ-69s
Ⅱ-70s
Ⅱ-71s
Ⅱ-73n
Ⅲ-30s
Ⅲ-30n
Ⅲ-35s
Ⅸ-1s
Ⅸ-6s

Indexs ... sliden ... note

standard curriculum
standard guidelines
standard of university establishment
stock corporations permitted to establish elementary schools
student councils
student guidance

students' council

students in charge
student's interests, aptitudes and competence
students who have duties on that day
submission of personnel boards
submit reports
superintendent

superintendents

supervision
supervision of service regulations
supervisors

supervisors for social education
supplementary materials

29

Ⅸ-7s
Ⅸ-62n
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅶ-19n
Ⅱ-26n
Ⅰ-9n
Ⅶ-33s
Ⅴ-31s
Ⅵ-24n
Ⅵ-25n
Ⅷ-6n
Ⅷ-19n
Ⅷ-22n
Ⅸ-16n
Ⅸ-28s
Ⅳ-49s
Ⅳ-49n
Ⅳ-53s
Ⅳ-53n
Ⅳ-54s
Ⅳ-54n
Ⅳ-55s
Ⅳ-56s
Ⅳ-57s
Ⅳ-57n
Ⅴ-9s
Ⅰ-23n
Ⅸ-58n
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅵ-26n
Ⅵ-27n
Ⅵ-28n
Ⅷ-13n
Ⅷ-29s
Ⅷ-29n
Ⅱ-11n
Ⅱ-19s
Ⅱ-19n
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅱ-20s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅱ-10s
Ⅱ-19n
Ⅱ-29s
Ⅱ-29n
Ⅱ-30n
Ⅱ-29s
Ⅱ-65s
Ⅱ-64s
Ⅱ-62s
Ⅱ-63s
Ⅱ-64s

Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅱ-65s
Ⅸ-43n
Ⅰ-3s
Ⅱ-41s

supplementary private school/cram school
system from top to bottom
system of class organizationtteachers whose salaries are given by prefectureteachers' meeting

teachers' training centerteachers whose salaries are given by prefectureteaching materials

teaching staff supported by prefectural funds
team teaching

technical staff of museums

textbook

textbook authorization

third party school assessment
third party school evaluations
time schedule
timetable
tohkoh-kyohi which means children themselves refuse to go to school
training for 1st year teacher

30

Ⅰ-14n
Ⅱ-13s
Ⅵ-9s
Ⅵ-9n
Ⅵ-10s
Ⅵ-10n
Ⅵ-11s
Ⅷ-17n
Ⅱ-28s
Ⅳ-1s
Ⅳ-1n
Ⅳ-30s
Ⅳ-30n
Ⅳ-47n
Ⅰ-9s
Ⅰ-13s
Ⅳ-35s
Ⅳ-35n
Ⅳ-36s
Ⅳ-36n
Ⅸ-63n
Ⅲ-15s
Ⅲ-15n
Ⅲ-17n
Ⅱ-32s
Ⅱ-63s
Ⅱ-65n
Ⅴ-41n
Ⅶ-71s
Ⅶ-71n
Ⅱ-63s
Ⅱ-64s
Ⅱ-64n
Ⅱ-20s
Ⅰ-10s
Ⅰ-10n
Ⅰ-14n
Ⅰ-14s
Ⅱ-2n
Ⅱ-14s
Ⅱ-30n
Ⅱ-62s
Ⅱ-62n
Ⅱ-63n
Ⅱ-54s
Ⅱ-53s
Ⅸ-58n
Ⅴ-25n
Ⅴ-20n
Ⅷ-13s

Indexs ... sliden ... notetraining programs for teachers
training at private company
training based on educational evaluations

training by civil education bodies
training center
training for 1st year teacher
training for new principals
training for principles
training for teachers with ten years teaching experiences

training practicetraining provided to school leaders
training based on evaluationtransformation of national universities into national university corporations
tuition fees

turning national universities into newly independent administrative institutions

Ⅷ-1n
Ⅷ-30s
Ⅷ-30n
Ⅷ-15n
Ⅷ-42s
Ⅷ-42n
Ⅷ-15s
Ⅷ-41s
Ⅸ-72n
Ⅷ-41s
Ⅷ-41n
Ⅷ-31s
Ⅷ-31n
Ⅷ-19n
Ⅷ-19n
Ⅷ-22n
Ⅷ-42s
Ⅷ-42n
Ⅷ-9n
Ⅷ-30n
Ⅷ-25s
Ⅰ-29n
Ⅶ-71n
Ⅴ-41s
Ⅴ-41n
Ⅰ-29s

u
unification of kindergartens and day care centersunification of kindergartens and nursery schools
uniformity
unit

Ⅰ-6n
Ⅰ-2n
Ⅰ-1s
Ⅳ-3s
Ⅳ-3n
Ⅳ-17s
Ⅳ-17n
Ⅳ-18s
Ⅳ-19s
Ⅳ-19n
Ⅳ-20s
Ⅳ-20n
Ⅳ-21s
Ⅳ-21n
Ⅳ-23n
Ⅱ-3s

university management lawvvacant class-rooms
vacant rooms

Ⅱ-42n
Ⅶ-52s
Ⅶ-52n
Ⅶ-53s
Ⅶ-53n
Ⅶ-57n
Ⅰ-16n
Ⅰ-16n
Ⅴ-16n
Ⅴ-17s

variedvaried interests and abilities
vertically divided groups

31Indexs ... sliden ... note
Ⅴ-17n
Ⅴ-18n
Ⅰ-34s
Ⅰ-34n
Ⅴ-31s
Ⅴ-32s
Ⅴ-33s
Ⅶ-8s
Ⅶ-9s
Ⅶ-9n
Ⅶ-10s
Ⅶ-10n
Ⅶ-11s
Ⅶ-11n
Ⅴ-29s
Ⅴ-26s
Ⅴ-26n
Ⅶ-8n
Ⅶ-36n
Ⅶ-39n

visiting education
visits to children's homes

visits to children's homes by teachersvisits to students' homes
volunteersw
work experiences

Ⅶ-40s
Ⅶ-40n
Ⅶ-41s
Ⅶ-41n
Ⅶ-42s
Ⅶ-43s
Ⅶ-43n

youth associations

youth sports club

Ⅲ-30s
Ⅲ-30n
Ⅲ-31s
Ⅲ-31n
Ⅸ-43n

zest for living

Ⅰ-8n

y

z
491

1724

32

About teaching materials○ The background of teaching-materials development

In order to promote the elementary

secondary education maintenance of a developing country, preparation of educational management,
educational system, social education teacher training, and etc. become necessary conditions.
Japan has been accumulating the many educational experience and in it, there are the effective
information for a developing country or the information which has predominancy as compared withthe educational cooperation among advanced nations. Actuality, the interest about the educationalmodel of Japan which is not a European and American model is very high in a developing country.
However, Japan did not respond suitable for such needs until now. Then, it is necessary to maintainand reconstruct the information about Japan's educational experience, and to prepare to be able toshare with a developing country.
○ The purpose and budget of teaching-materials development work After fully understanding
the feature of the educational situation of a partner country, and the needs which the educational
staffs of a developing country have, educational cooperation enterprise need to examined thatwhat and how transmitted Japanʻs experience or information. Moreover, the form of educational
cooperation activities is various, such as acceptance training in Japan, dispatch training at a spot,
and training by the local educational persons concerned. This enterprise tends to edit effective
teaching materials in all the educational cooperation spots based on such examination, and tends
to build the information database about teaching-materials development and the teaching method.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology approves its signiﬁcance andsupplies the budget as「Project to Organize Information on Educational Experiences from Japan~Forcusing on Educational Management and Teachersʼ Training」(the cooperation bases systembuilding project for international cooperation in educational development promoted by MEXT).
○ The kind, the form, the whereabouts, and the language of teaching materials

HP of CRICED
Teaching
materials
The manual of

PDF ﬁleOrganization
related to JICA

Japan Foundation

University foreign
student center

Language

Slide collection CD Slide collection CD Slide collection CD Japanese and English

PDF ﬁleManualManualManualJapanese and English

Index

PDF ﬁle−−−Japanese and English

Training module

PDF ﬁle−−−Japanese and English

teaching materials

Request about teaching-materials use
CRICED has the copyright of these teaching materials, and it is prohibition to edit or
reproduce without notice the published photograph, the figure, table, and description.
And, when using these teaching materials except training aiming at the international
educational cooperation for a developing country, connect and obtain consent to CRICED
beforehand about the purpose of use and the usage.

Research Project Members

Research partnership person
Mariko Sato

University of Tsukuba・associate professor

Akiko Minei

University of Tsukuba・associate professor

Hiromichi Ojima

University of Tsukuba・professor

Shinji Kubot

University of Tsukuba・professor

Teuchi Akitoshi

University of Tsukuba・professor

Mizumoto Noriaki University of Tsukuba・associate professor
Hirohumi Hamada University of Tsukuba・associate professor
Tsutomu Horiuchi Kyoto University of Education・professor
Yokuo Murata

Osaka Seikei University・professor

Yutaka Ootsuka

Hiroshima University・professor

Nishino Setsuo

Nagoya University・professor

Yasuo Saito

National Institute for Educational Policy

Research of Japan・Generalization research ofﬁcial
Hideaki Shibuya

Tokyo Gakugei University・professor

Miho Hashimoto

Tokyo Gakugei University・associate professor

Noriko Iida

University of Tsukuba・Lecturer

Toshio Murata

CRICED Visiting researcher

Institute for International Cooperation Senior Advisor（Education）
Ryoichi Kamada

University of Tsukuba Graduate school of comprehensive

human Science
Nobuhiko Yanagibayashi University of Tsukuba Graduate school ofcomprehensive human Science

(Members of the editorial board)Supervisor：Mariko Sato
-TextbookGeneral editor
Ryoichi Kamada &Nobuhiko Yanagibayashi
Page layout
Yukiko Yamao-SlidesGeneral editor
Ryoichi Kamada &Nobuhiko Yanagibayashi
Slide layout: Ryoichi Kamada
Chart design: Nobuhiko Yanagibayashi
Documents research : Nobuhiko Yanagibayashi
Photographs & Interview : Ryoichi Kamada