JAPAN MNE Insights
Volume 8, Issue 1
July 2022
CONTENTS

1. Special Essay:
Researching
Internationalization ofJapanese MNEs throughFirm-Level Data:
Contributions, Challenges,
and Opportunities

2. Special Essay:
Possibilities for Researchacross Disciplines andJapan as a Research
Setting in International
Business

Japan Academy of Multinational Enterprises

http://www.mne-jp.org

Special Essay:
Researching Internationalization of Japanese
MNEs through Firm-Level Data: Contributions,
Challenges, and Opportunities
Mario Henrique Ogasavara
Professor of International Business,
ESPM Sao Paulo, Brazil
mario.ogasavara@espm.br
Visiting Researcher,
Keio University, Japanmario.ogasavara@keio.jp

1. INTRODUCTION
When I received the invitation to write an
essay for the Japan MNE Insights, I thought about
how to contribute to the Japan Academy ofMultinational Enterprises. In particular, to help
international scholars get in touch with Japaneseinternational business (IB) research, which is a
proposal made by the former Academy President
Shigeto Morokami (2014). I read previous articles toknow the point of view already made by scholars
about Japanese IB research. They all shared excellent
insights and reinforced the importance of scholars tocontinue the investigation of Japanese multinational
enterprises - MNEs (Lehmberg, 2014; Narula, 2020;
Rose, 2021; Strange, 2015), despite the great attention
to emerging markets MNEs (e.g., Chinese firms).
Thus, I decided to write something more related to a
way to research the internationalization of Japanese
MNEs using firm-level data. I am an IB researcher
and have used firm-level databases for over twenty

years. Also, I came to Japan for my sabbatical leave
as a visiting researcher at Keio University1 to gather
more recent firm-level data from Japanese databases
for an ongoing research project. Therefore, I hope tocontribute to this newsletter by sharing what I havelearned using firm-level data to understand theinternationalization of Japanese MNEs. In this essay,
I want to provide to the international academic
audience, particularly those unfamiliar with Japanesedatabases, the richness of information we can get
using these sources, and the relevant contributions
already made by scholars to Japanese business studies
and IB research. Finally, I want to discuss somechallenges of using these datasets and opportunities
for future research in the field.

2. MAIN DATABASESIn the following, I will present two primarydatabases published in Japan and cite other overseas

1Vol.8 Issue 1
sources used by scholars to develop research on theinternationalization of Japanese MNEs2.
2.1 Toyo Keizai Databank: Overseas JapaneseCompanies (OJC)
Toyo Keizai Inc. (TK), a private company,
was founded in 1895 and has published several
business and economics books and magazines and has
focused on collecting statistical and Japanese
corporate data. The most known and used TK dataset
for IB research is Kaigai Shinshutsu Kigyou Souran,published annually since 1970. It translates into
English as 'Japanese Overseas Investments' or'Japanese Multinationals – Facts and Figures' or'Overseas Japanese Companies' (OJC), labeled by
TK. It prepares this annual directory through an
extensive survey collection obtained by Japanesecompanies with operations overseas. OJC is
considered a reliable and comprehensive source ofJapanese-owned foreign subsidiaries by listed andunlisted MNEs. It covers rich information about each
Japanese foreign subsidiary worldwide in two printed
versions: classified by country (kuni betsu) or firm
(kaisha betsu). Both versions provided the samedetailed information such as: the subsidiary's name;address/phone number; establishment year; capital;
turnover; business description; entry mode; the nameof the director; the number of total employees andexpatriates; name and capital share held by eachpartner; and subsidiary measurement of performance(i.e., gain, breakeven, and loss). The last OJC printed
edition launched in April/May 2022 comprises 33,000
foreign subsidiaries of 5,400 Japanese MNEs. In
addition, it includes information on 2,900 foreign
offices (Toyo Keizai, 2022). Besides the printed
format, TK offers CD-ROM and WEB (Toyo Keizai
DCL – Digital Content Library) formats withadditional information such as the classification of theindustry sector and the investment motives.
OJC is considered one of the few private
databases offering detailed data for each foreign

JAPAN MNE Insights
subsidiary. Usually, other datasets provided important
information about international subsidiaries based on
the parent company, but not with such details as OJC
data. For instance, Wharton Research Data Services(WRDS) Company Subsidiary Data provides
information about a parent company based on SEC
filings that shows the subsidiary's name, location(country or city), and percentage of ownership. These
details are almost similar in Mergent Online, Orbis(public and private firms), Osiris (public companies),and LexisNexis. In addition, the S&P Capital IQ
offers more information based on a parent company's
FDI (subsidiaries), including relationship type,industry, investment date, assets, money valuation,
total investment, percent owned, and businessdescription. However, Capital IQ does not show
information for longitudinal data (i.e., sales over time,ownership changes, and management leadership) for
each subsidiary.
2.2 METI data: Survey on Overseas Business
Activities (SOBA)
Another firm-level data on Japanese overseas
affiliates is a survey conducted since 1971 by the
Research and Statistics Department and the Trade andInvestment Facilitation Division of the Trade andEconomic Cooperation Bureau of the Japanese
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). It
is called Kaigai Jigyo Katsudo Kihon Chosa,translated into English as 'Survey on Overseas
Business Activities – SOBA.' This survey presented
the actual conditions concerning overseas businessactivities of Japanese firms helping the government
develop future industrial and trade policies. METI
separates the survey method into two parts. The firstis the 'Basic Survey,' which contains more detailed
information gathered every three years. The other isthe 'Trend Survey,' comparatively rough and carriedout between the Basic Surveys. It includes
information on Japanese firms (parent companies)
that, at the end of the fiscal year (31 March), own or

1 Joint research with Chie Iguchi (Keio University), supported by a grant from the Japan Foundation Japanese Studies Fellowship Program.
2 Based on English published articles in international academic journals.

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JAPAN MNE Insights

Vol.8 Issue 1
have owned overseas affiliates (subsidiaries) in thepast. However, it excludes the financial, insurance, orreal estate affiliates. In addition, SOBA data lists
three types of overseas affiliates: (i) those in which aJapanese corporation has invested capital of 10% or
more; (ii) those in which a 'subsidiary,' funded morethan 50% by a Japanese corporation, has invested
capital of more than 50%; (iii) those in which aJapanese corporation and a subsidiary funded more“conjunction with the OJC database. In addition to India,
COMM published other countries' handbooks,
particularly from Southeast Asia, such as Thailand,
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar. It lists
information about the Japanese company name in romanletters and kanji, business description, name of the
managing director, website, mailing and e-mailaddresses, and telephone/fax numbers of all units in the
country for the same affiliate. However, to my

I want to provide to the international academic
audience, particularly those unfamiliar withJapanese databases, the richness of information
we can get using these sources, and the relevant
contributions already made by scholars toJapanese business studies and IB research.”knowledge, I do not find any publicationin major academic journals using theseother countries' handbooks.
To analyze the internationalizationof Japanese MNEs in Brazil, I also
gathered additional subsidiary-level datato complement OJC data. I used the'Yearbook: Japanese Companies in Brazil'

than 50% by a Japanese corporation have invested
capital of more than 50%. In addition, the survey
includes various items on affiliates' characteristics,
such as the establishment year, the breakdown of sales
and purchases, employment, costs, and R&D
expenditures. The last survey (51st edition) launched inJuly 2021 got a 75.2% response rate and resulted in
25,703 subsidiaries of 7,281 Japanese firms with valid
responses (METI, 2021).

(Ogasavara & Hoshino, 2008, 2009). It is a bilingual
Portuguese and Japanese yearbook published in Brazil
since 1974, providing some additional information notavailable in the OJC database. For instance, it ispossible to find details of the balance sheet and income
statement (sales and profit) for some subsidiaries,
providing subsidiary-level data performance such as
ROS, ROA, and ROE.

2.3 Other databases

3. ACADEMIC RESULTS

Depending on the context investigated,international scholars adopted other country-specificdatabases for triangulation purposes or to complement
previously mentioned Japanese datasets. For instance,
when examining Japanese FDI in the US, someresearchers utilized the Japan Economic Institute (JEI)– Direct Investment in the United States with the OJC
database (Chen, 2008; Chen & Hennart, 2002, 2004;
Hennart & Reddy, 1997; Hennart, Roehl, & Zietlow,
1999).

The OJC database started its history in the IB
area with a focus on quantitative analysis by the
researchers' group headed by Professor Paul Beamish
at the University of Western Ontario's Ivey Business
School in the mid-1990s. According to Sartor (2014),
Shige Makino introduced first the database to Beamish
in 1994. At that time, Makino was one of the first
Beamish's Ph.D. students and had used the OJC todevelop his MBA thesis at Keio University in the late1980s. Inspired by the successful case of RaymondVernon's development of the Harvard Multinational
Enterprise Project (HMNEP)3, Beamish launched, in
1994, the Japanese FDI (JFDI) Research Program at
Ivey Business School. The HMNEP resulted in

To investigate the Japanese FDI in India,
Buckley, Cross, & Horn (2012) and Horn & Cross(2016) used the 'Japanese Companies in India
Handbook' published by COMM Bangkok (COMM) in

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longitudinally based research with academic
contributions in the area and a notable output ofpublications4. Also, Beamish noted that the OJC data
provides detailed subsidiary information to investigate
his research interests in international joint ventures andstrategic alliances. Beamish's vision and efforts ofusing OJC data for IB studies showed very successful
and impressive outputs. As for May 2022, the IveyJFDI research program with the contributions offaculty members, Ph.D. Program graduates andcandidates have authored 179 publications: 158
academic journal articles, 2 books, 19 book chapters,and 31 Ph.D. dissertations5.
Sartor (2014) made a great overview andanalysis of the Ivey-JFDI research group's publication
before 2009. He showed that most articles were
published in top-tier journals6, providing important
contributions to the IB literature and understanding theJapanese FDI phenomena. It includes topics related toentry modes, ownership structure, equity control,
strategic alliances, joint ventures, location strategy,
subsidiary performance, expatriation strategy, thetiming of entry, institutional distance, regionalization,
geographical scope, and product diversification, among
others. Sartor (2014) also demonstrated by an OLS
regression that the research impact (i.e., citation count)is explained particularly from studies related to theorybuilding, publication age, journal quality, theoreticalfoundation, and event history analytical method. Aftera long history of the Ivey-JFDI Program, besides
Beamish, most former Ph.D. students became
prominent scholars in the IB and Strategy area7, suchas Andrew Delios, Jane Lu, Shige Makino, Charles

JAPAN MNE Insights
Dhanaraj, and Anthony Goerzen, among others. In
their Top 5 publication citation list, all have papers
based on the OJC data as a source for their empiricalanalyses (i.e., Delios & Beamish, 1999, 2001; Delios& Henisz, 2003; Dhanaraj & Beamish, 2004; Gaur &Lu, 2007; Goerzen, 2007; Goerzen, Asmussen, &Nielsen, 2013; Goerzen & Beamish, 2002, 2005;
Henisz & Delios, 2001; Lu, 2002; Lu & Beamish,2001, 2004, 2006; Makino & Delios, 1996).
In addition, we can also find other scholars,
who are not associated with the Ivey-JFDI Program,
using
the
OJC
data
to investigate
theinternationalization of Japanese MNEs. As private
data, anyone can purchase the OJC database. We canhighlight some Japanese and non-Japanese scholars8
who published their research in international academic
journals. For instance, Hideki Yamawaki, with an
economic perspective, investigated the relationshipbetween Japanese FDI and exports (Yamawaki, 1991).
Naoki Ando contributed to the understanding of thesubsidiary staffing of Japanese MNEs (Ando, 2011,2012; Ando & Paik, 2013; Ando, Rhee, & Park, 2008;
Paik & Ando, 2011). Jean-François Hennart examined
entry strategies (i.e., WOS, joint ventures, andacquisitions) of Japanese firms in the US market (Chen& Hennart, 2002, 2004; Hennart, 1991; Hennart &Reddy, 1997; Hennart et al., 1999). Jacques Jaussaud
analyzed the effect of control mechanisms ofsubsidiaries (i.e., joint ventures, family and nonfamilybusiness) on performance (Abdellatif, Amann, &Jaussaud, 2010; Jaussaud & Schaaper, 2007; Jaussaud,
Schaaper, & Zhang, 2001). Jaeyong Song developed
his research on sequential FDI of Japanese MNEs

3 In the 1960s, Vernon started his effort to collect longitudinal data with the 180 of the largest U.S. MNEs from public and private data from sources
dating back to the early 1900s. The data collection efforts ended in the mid-1970s including 400 MNCs headquarters not only in the U.S., but also
Europe and Japan.
4 By 1975, the HMNEP resulted the publication of 151 academic journal articles, 17 books, and supported 28 Ph.D. theses.
5 Based on the information available at https://www.ivey.uwo.ca/internationalbusiness/research/ivey-international-research-by-themegeography/japanese-foreign-direct-investment-article-abstracts/
6 Top-tier journals including Journal of International Business Studies, Academy of Management Journal, Strategic Management Journal,
Organization Science, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of World Business, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of International
Marketing, Journal of Management, Organization Studies, Strategic Organization, Journal of Business Venturing, Academy of Management
Executive, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, Journal of Business Ethics and Management and Organization Review.
7 As for 20 June 2022, at least with 1,000 citations on Scopus: Paul Beamish 12,861; Andrew Delios 6,998; Jane Lu 4,260; Shige Makino 4,184;
Charles Dhanaraj 3,277; and Anthony Goerzen 1,765.
8 With at least three publications in academic journals using OJC data.
9 Third generation of Japanese-Brazilian. I studied in Japan with the support of the Mombukagakusho scholarship.

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JAPAN MNE Insights

Vol.8 Issue 1(Chung & Song, 2004; Song, 2002). Moreover, I citesome foreign graduate students, including myself,
advised by Professor Yasuo Hoshino to investigate
different contexts of Japanese FDI (Ben-Youssef &Hoshino, 2007; Rasouli-Ghahroudi & Hoshino, 2007;
Siripaisalpipat & Hoshino, 2000; Somlev & Hoshino,2005).
At the begging of the 2000s, I started myjourney in the IB field as a young foreign9 graduate
student at the University of Tsukuba. I had my firstcontact with the OJC database at that time throughHoshino's international seminar group. I was very
fascinated with the details provided by this databasefor each Japanese foreign subsidiary. I used the OJC
data resulting in my master's thesis and Ph.D.
dissertation investigating the internationalization ofJapanese MNEs in Brazil. I continued
my research on this topic at the
National University of Singapore10 andin Brazil as a professor in graduate
programs11 when I got research funding
to acquire some printed editions of the
OJC database. I have learned thatJapanese subsidiary had a better
performance when: (i) entering throughJVs with home-country partners withprior experience in the local market(Ogasavara & Hoshino, 2007); (ii)“when investing in the electronics sector (Ogasavara,2013), while subsidiary control with expatriates andownership level influence the location choice in global
cities (Izumi, Burnier, Ogasavara, & Figueiredo,2017). In addition, formal and informal institutions
matter for expatriation assignments in Latin America
moderated by subsidiary size and having the samegeneral manager over time (Moreira & Ogasavara,
2018). At the same time, institutional distances
between home and host countries affect subsidiarysurvival (Cassio-de-Souza & Ogasavara, 2018),
internationalization speed (Chang & Ogasavara, 2021),
and subsequent investments (Battistuzzo & Ogasavara,2022).
Other relevant results we can highlight include several
worldwide conference winner awards from different
academic associations. For example, we can list best

Regarding the challenges of using firm-level
data in investigating the internationalization ofJapanese MNEs, first, I highlight the restricted
access of some databases to international
scholars.”

having partners with interfirm trust, which is theprevious partnership in other countries (Ogasavara &Hoshino, 2008); (iii) having accumulated both local
and international experiential knowledge (i.e.,
operational time and network of subsidiaries) andinvest sequentially in the host country (Ogasavara &Hoshino, 2009); (iv) having more expatriates, local
experience and home-country partners during the
economic crisis period (Cordeiro, Ogasavara, &Masiero, 2017). Japanese MNEs are influenced
significantly by their own- and other-entry modes

paper awards in the Academy of International Business– AIB (Delios & Makino, 2002; Goerzen & Beamish,2002); Academy of Management – AoM (Chan, 2003;
Fang, Jiang, Makino, & Beamish, 2008);
Administrative Sciences Association of Canada –ASAC (Delios & Zhou, 1998); Brazilian Academy ofManagement – ANPAD (Ogasavara, 2008); Academyof International Business Latin America and the
Caribbean Chapter – AIB-LAC (Battistuzzo &Ogasavara, 2021a; Moreira & Ogasavara, 2015); andAssociation of Japanese Business Studies – AJBS

10 At the Department of Japanese Studies, in the Japanese management area working with Hendrik Meyer-Ohle.
11 At the University of Fortaleza and ESPM Sao Paulo.
12 Founded in 1957 at the US-Japan Trade Council as a non-profit research organization supported by Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
13 WRDS Company Subsidiary Data, Mergent Online, Orbis, Osiris, LexisNexis and S&P Capita IQ.

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Vol.8 Issue 1(Ando, 2016; Battistuzzo & Ogasavara, 2021b) among
others. Of course, it does not mean that OJC data wasdeterminant for winning these awards. The award
committee evaluates the best papers based on thefield's theoretical, methodological, and empiricalcontributions. But it is important to emphasize that the
OJC data offers crucial information to use as aconstruct for dependent or independent variables andtest hypotheses by applying different statisticaltechniques while helping to advance IB theory
development.
The SOBA data has been used mainly by somescholars to investigate Japanese MNEs in international
trade, FDI, and overseas R&D based on economics
perspectives published in economics journals (Bellone,
Kiyota, Matsuura, Musso, & Nesta, 2014; Hayakawa& Matsuura, 2011; Hayakawa & Tsubota, 2014;
Kiyota & Urata, 2008; Todo, 2011; Todo &Shimizutani, 2008). When looking at publications in
the IB and Strategic fields, we can highlight thecontributions of Takehiko Isobe, Shige Makino, andChristine Chan. They examined the effect of
institutions and location on the performance ofJapanese foreign subsidiaries (Chan, Makino, & Isobe,
2010; Chung, Lee, Beamish, & Isobe, 2010; Makino,
Isobe, & Chan, 2004).
4. SOME CHALLENGES
Regarding the challenges of using firm-level
data in investigating the internationalization ofJapanese MNEs, first, I highlight the restricted accessof some databases to international scholars. It is thecase of SOBA data. Although it is considered acomprehensive firm-level data of Japanese foreign
affiliates, we should remember that the Japanese
government gathers SOBA data through METI.
Therefore, it has confidentiality protection by law that
it is difficult to disclose such information. It is only
possible to access this firm-level data when a scholar isJAPAN MNE Insights
associated with the METI research project, most of thetime available mainly to Japanese researchers. There isa chance to conduct joint research, but it must verify
the terms of use when involving foreign scholars.
Another challenge is the low coverage rate of thissurvey, which vary sharply over time and differ
substantially from variable to variable within a year
(RIETI, 2010). For open access, it is available no morethan aggregate data such as summary tables of
employment and sales by industry and country.
Another challenge is the discontinuity of data
publication for some sources, which becomes difficult
to update and build longitudinal data. For instance, JEI(Japan Economic Institute)12, which gathered data on
Japanese foreign affiliates in the US, concluded its
activities in 2001. The 'Yearbook: JapaneseCompanies in Brazil' followed the same way,
publishing the last edition in 2009. Moreover, eventhough we can obtain foreign subsidiary information ofJapanese MNEs through some international private
databases mentioned earlier13, the great challenge isthe high subscription cost, which restricts theaccessibility of this data to a few universities andscholars. Also, these databases mostly show foreignsubsidiaries of listed Japanese firms, not including
unlisted firms, and the subsidiaries directory is notextensive and provides detailed information like the
OJC data.
In this way, the OJC data is the only feasible
database to be used by international scholars.
However, we should state some challenges related tothis dataset. Although the acquisition price14 isreasonable for a one-year edition of a printed version,
it demands a lot of effort to input (typing) this data intoa spreadsheet to be later used for quantitative analyses.
Some information follows a standard or a code (inkanji), making the collection possible even for those
who cannot read Japanese. It was the case for most of
my Brazilian students who developed their master's
theses or Ph.D. dissertations using the OJC data. But

14 As for June 2022, according to the Amazon Japan website, the price of the 2022 printed edition is￥24,200.
15 For instance, business description to identify the industry sector; name of the Japanese firm (in kanji or katakana) to identify the parent firmor partners; name of the general manager (in kanji) to evaluate the subsidiary management stability over time.
16 Kinokuniya bookstore offers a possibility to buy a digital version of the OJC data accessed through the reader app Kinoppy.

6Vol.8 Issue 1
there are limitations since we could not use all theavailable information. To fully explore the data, there isa need for Japanese language skills15. Last year, I had astudent fluent in Japanese for the first time. He acquired
the digital format16 of the 2021 edition to develop his
master's thesis on the internationalization of Japanesetrading companies. Even for the digital format accessed
through a reader app (screen view), it was impossible tocopy/paste the information from the data to the
spreadsheet. It is necessary to enter (typing) all
information like the printed version.
TK also offers the OJC data through CD-ROM
and WEB formats. However, one year's edition of a CDROM format costs almost ten times more than theprinted version. The subscription to the WEB version(Toyo Keizai DCL) is more expensive since it covers a
range of years (2009 to 2022). Thus, this directory's
high cost also limits the access for a few universities
and scholars. But even using these expensive versions,the data extraction demands a lot of effort. For instance,
using the WEB version, after selecting the items andfiltering them, it shows a list of subsidiaries individually
per year, accessible only by clicking one by one.
Moreover, getting an electronic file when visualizing
this subsidiary's particular year information is
impossible. Instead, there is a need to select, copy andpaste from there to a spreadsheet. Therefore, it is very
time-consuming to collect the firm-level data
independent of the available format. Finally, although
the OJC database lists many Japanese foreignsubsidiaries, another challenge is the existence of many
missing data for some subsidiaries, which could restrict
the number of observations depending on the variables
used in the study or when building longitudinal data.
5. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
Even though we have some challenges in using
these databases to develop research on theinternationalization of Japanese MNEs, as mentioned
earlier, previous studies have already made relevant
contributions to the IB, Strategy, and Japanese business
literature. But, scholars have focused mainly on
country-level influences when investigating the location
strategy of Japanese MNEs. To advance the IB andJAPAN MNE Insights
Japanese studies research agenda, we must
incorporate relevant insights into subnational-levelaspects to analyze variations across countries(Chakravarty, Goerzen, Musteen, & Ahsan, 2021).
Scholars have already made appropriate contributions
using a subnational perspective focused on global
cities (Goerzen et al., 2013) or some specific contexts
such as North America (Chan et al., 2010; Delios &Ensign, 2000), East Asia (Hayakawa & Tsubota,2014), and China (Chan et al., 2010; Ma & Delios,
2007; Ma, Delios, & Lau, 2013; Peng & Beamish,2019). However, we should investigate more thesubnational-level location choice strategy of Japanese
MNEs in other subnational developing markets,particularly outside the Asian region. It implies
extending the view of a regional strategy for Japanesefirms (Collinson & Rugman, 2008).
Moreover, we learned from Peng & Beamish(2008) and Jiang, Jung, & Makino (2020) the effectof the country- or firm-level corporate social
responsibility (CSR) on FDI attraction andperformance. But we need more studies on this topic
to expand our understanding of how CSR, ESG(Environmental, Social, and Governance), and SDG(Sustainable Development Goals) affect the strategy
and expansion of Japanese firms over time indifferent industries and regions, particularly with thetrend of a more sustainable development world. Also,
we should not only investigate the internationalizationof Japanese manufacturing firms but go further by
analyzing more Japanese service firms. We still havelittle research on it (Bouquet, Hebert, & Delios, 2004;
Goerzen & Makino, 2007; Qian & Delios, 2008). In
the new century, which changes happened with theinternationalization pattern and strategy of Japanesetrading companies, banks, and other service firms?
What about the internationalization of the Japanese
ventures in the creative industries, new hightechnology sector, or more digital-oriented firms?
Applying mixed methods in our research(Hurmerinta-Peltomäki & Nummela, 2006) is anotheropportunity to advance the knowledge of Japanese
MNEs. I mean to combine the findings of quantitative
analysis using firm-level data with an in-depth

7Vol.8 Issue 1
qualitative study from the rare events or outlier cases
we find in our statistical tests (Beamish & Hasse,2022). In this way, we could build a bridge withinternational and Japanese scholars, dealing with thedifferences stated by Professor Asakawa (2014). On
the one hand, the Western-style focus their researchon the rigorous application of quantitative methods
that depends on firm-level data availability. On theother hand, Japanese-style are more orientated to thequalitative approach of fieldwork studies tounderstand the phenomena deeply. Thus, we could
attempt to diminish the tension between
distinctiveness and generalizability (Westney, 2005).
Shall we try doing joint research in this way?
6. REFERENCES
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case study of Japanese firms. Asia Pacific Business
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Ando, N. (2016). Localization, economic distance, andsubsidiary performance. AJBS Best Paper Award(Winner): AJBS Conference, New Jersey (USA).
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Paper Award (Winner): AIB-LAC Conference (online).
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Sequential investments and the survival of Japanesesubsidiaries in the context of institutional theory.
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Battistuzzo, F.J.F.D.A., & Ogasavara, M. H. (2022).
Survival of Japanese subsidiaries: Impacts of sequential
investment, institutional distances, and location factors.
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foreign direct investment in India: An institutional
theory approach. Business History, 54(5), 657–688.
Cassio-de-Souza, F., & Ogasavara, M. H. (2018). The
impact of cross-national distance on survival of foreignsubsidiaries. Brazilian Business Review, 15(3), 284–301.
Chan, C. M. (2003). Institutional perspective of foreign
direct investment strategy. Barry M. Richman Best
Dissertation Award (Winner): AoM Annual Meeting,Seattle (USA).
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471.

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Chen, S.-F. S., & Hennart, J.-F. (2002). Japanese investors’
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Paper in International Business Division (Winner):
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Vol.8 Issue 1

Special Essay:
Possibilities for Research across Disciplines andJapan as a Research Setting in International Business
Manami Suzuki, Ph.D.

Professor of Second Language Education,
Faculty of Business Administration, Hosei University, Japanmsuzuki@hosei.ac.jp

In the current globalized society, people
worldwide are influenced by international business(IB) whether they wish to be or not. The COVID-19
pandemic has affected all of our lives, ourcommunication system, and our way of working. The
pandemic has been accelerating digital transformationin our life and work. Furthermore, not only the
pandemic but also international politics has influenced
everything including business. Therefore, I believe that
IB research has the potential to contribute to achieving
world peace and creating a sustainable society.
IB research offers the possibility of
approaching various issues from a variety of
disciplines because it is related to all human beings andtheir activities. Since 2012, I have attended IB
conferences such as the Association of JapaneseBusiness Studies (AJBS) or the Academy ofInternational Business (AIB). Originally, my specialty
is applied linguistics, particularly second language
acquisition (SLA). I joined the IB academy motivatedby a simple but scholarly question: What is truly
necessary for English education in Japan? As all of you
know, Japanese people are notorious for their lack ofEnglish oral communication competence. English
education in Japan has emphasized reading since the
Meiji era, when industrialization and modernization
began. Reading with translation, what is called
yakudoku, is still taught in some English classes inJapan, although negotiations in English as aninternational language with people around the world
have become increasingly important. The main
purpose of pedagogical methods such as yakudoku
is to acquire culture and technology through foreign
languages such as English. Furthermore, the qualityof free automatic translation websites, such as
DeepL, has recently increased. Artificial
intelligence (AI) has advanced, and the AI
singularity will come in the not-so-distant future. As
an educator who has been teaching English inhigher education, I have been trying to provide
learner-centered education and develop mystudents’ creativity through participation in myclass to survive in the future in a more competitive
society and maintain their dignity as human beings(Suzuki, 2020).
Since 2012, I have been conducting researchon language issues in IB collaboratively with Dr.
Hidehiko Nishikawa and later Dr. Naoki Ando, mycolleagues at Hosei University, to explore myquestion about the needs of English education in
Japan. Next, I explain what we have studied. We
have been conducting research on foreignsubsidiaries of multinational corporations (MNCs)
operating in Japan. First, we carried out qualitative
studies. We interviewed Japanese employees who
had experience working for non-Japanese MNCs’

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Vol.8 Issue 1

foreign subsidiaries. We found that our interviewees
strengthens the positive effect of interculture-sensitive
had encountered culture clashes and language
recruitment (Suzuki, Ando, & Nishikawa, 2019b). The
barriers(Suzuki&Nishikawa,
2013,
results imply that professional competence is primarily
important as a required competence for MNC
November · 2014). The problem with theemployees. Recently, we have advanced our research,
qualitative study was that it has limitations due tointerviewees’ confidentiality andcompliance requirements. This is one
According to interviewees including the HR directorsof the critical issues and limitations ofof leading MNCs, wataridori managers are
IB research as well. Thus, based on
detrimental to MNCs; this information provided us
our prior qualitative research, wewith a preconception. However, recently, we haveformulated propositions or hypothesescome to think that there are two types of wataridori
for subsequent quantitative research
managers, those who are beneficial and those who areon language, communication andunbeneficial to MNCs through communication with IB
MNCs. We conducted a questionnaire
colleagues and practitioners.”
survey. The respondents to thequestionnaire
wereJapanese“

employees working for MNCs’ foreign subsidiaries inJapan.
From the research, we found that intraorganizational communication between parent firms
and foreign subsidiaries is positively associated withthe effect of MNCs’ knowledge sharing. Service firms
gain a greater benefit than manufacturing firms from
communication within MNCs. According to anotherfinding, foreign subsidiaries established throughacquisition can receive a more positive effect fromintra-organizational communication than thoseestablished through greenfield investment (Suzuki,
Ando, & Nishikawa, 2019a). The results of the study
suggest that communication is particularly effective indifficult situations, such as cross-border M&As, orcases of large cultural distance between parent firms’
and foreign subsidiaries’ countries for service industry
localization.
Furthermore, we studied three different types ofrecruitment (profession-sensitive, language-sensitive,
and interculture-sensitive recruitment) and their effecton the foreign subsidiaries of MNCs. We found thateach of the three recruitment orientations positively
affects MNCs’ knowledge transfer. Professionsensitive recruitment has a positive influence when
foreign subsidiaries are established throughacquisition. Moreover, offering professional training

focusing on host country national employees’
competences (e.g., corporate language proficiency,
communicativecompetence,or
professional
competence). In AJBS 2022, we will give a
presentation about wataridori managers, defined as
managers who repeatedly move from one foreignsubsidiary to another. The word wataridori can betranslated as “migratory bird” in English, butwataridori managers rarely go back where they havepreviously worked. We have been examining their
attributes (Suzuki, Ando, & Nishikawa, 2022, July).
According to interviewees including the HR directorsof leading MNCs, wataridori managers are detrimental
to MNCs; this information provided us with apreconception. However, recently, we have come tothink that there are two types of wataridori managers,
those who are beneficial and those who are
unbeneficial to MNCs through communication with IBcolleagues and practitioners. Our research on
wataridori managers is set to continue in the future.
Next, I describe what I have learned throughcollaborative research in the IB academic community
as an applied linguist. First, I will write aboutsociocultural theory (SCT) and the IB academy. In
SLA research, there are two main researchorientations: the psycholinguistic approach (themainstream) and the sociocultural approach (the13Vol.8 Issue 1

JAPAN MNE Insights

the key concepts is the zone of proximal development(ZPD). Within a ZPD, a person (e.g., a learner) canreach a higher level that he or she cannot achieve alone
with the assistance or guidance of a more capable
person (e.g., a teacher, a caretaker, or a more capablepeer). I have experienced a ZPD in exactly this way in
the IB academic community. I hope that thecommunity continues to be open and collaborativeeven to scholars from other fields.
Second, I will write about aproblem I encountered while conducting
IB research with Dr. Ando and Dr.
The difficulty lies in the definitions of IB terminology. For
Nishikawa. The difficulty lies in theexample, I have not ascertained the differences between
definitions of IB terminology. For
communication and knowledge transfer or the differences
example, I have not ascertained the
betweenlanguage
proficiency
andcommunicativecompetence. Moreover, it is still unclear to me whether
differences between communication andlanguage is included in culture. The existence of dictionaries
knowledge transfer or the differencesfor IB research could help it advance further.”
between language proficiency andcommunicative competence. Moreover,alternative). The concept of mainstream SLA is often
described with the metaphor of a computer. Learners
are regarded as computers. The process of SLA is
considered to be one of teachers inputting (throughinstruction) linguistic information into learners’
brains, where learners process the received
information and then output it. Learners are regarded
as a uniform entity similar to a computer. People who
participate in mainstream SLA research are calledsubjects, a conception of human beings as objects like“

a computer. I learned mainstream SLA mainly fromDr. Teresa Pica at the University of Pennsylvania
during my master’s program.
On the other hand, the application of SCT to
SLA has developed since the 2000s, mainly in North
America, when I obtained a Ph.D. in this field. I
learned directly from one of the main SCT scholars,
Dr. Merrill Swain at the University of Toronto. In
SCT, all people involved in an activity are consideredparticipants in the activity. For example, in a place of
education, teachers and students participate inlearning in class. They both create the learning
environment
andproducetheoutcomecollaboratively. My research position as an applied
linguist is between the mainstream and SCT. I haveconducted SLA research from both perspectives(Suzuki, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011).
I have participated in the IB scholarly
community. In other words, I am one of theparticipants there. Personally, I feel that thecommunity is very open and collaborative inadvancing IB research. I have been academicallyinspired through interaction with IB scholars atseveral IB conferences or seminars. In SCT, one of

it is still unclear to me whether language is includedin culture. The existence of dictionaries for IB
research could help it advance further. In my field,
such dictionaries or books have been published (Ellis,
2008; Richards & Schmidt, 2010). They are anecessity for SLA research, and they are similar to“bibles” of SLA.
Finally, Japan has lost its economic power
since its bubble economy burst. This obviously has
been reflected in my personal experience. In 2000,
when I visited my American graduate school friend’s
uncle and aunt in California, there was a SONY TV
set in their living room. In 2007, when I visited themagain, the Sony was replaced by a Samsung. Even at
the AJBS conferences, an increasing number ofbusinesses in other Asian countries, such as China
and Korea, have captured attention, as Dragon and
Tiger power has been increasing (Hemmert, 2012).
However, Dr. Horst Melcher, one of my colleagues at
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, where I
took a sabbatical from 2018 to 2020, gave me adifferent perspective on the Japanese economy, and I
could see a little light for the future of Japan. We
discussed “Can Japan Compete?” (Porter, Takeuchi,

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JAPAN MNE Insights

Vol.8 Issue 1& Sakakibara, 2000) and Dr. Melcher’s collaborative
case study on NTT’s 5G development at Harvard
University (Alcácer, Melcher, & Kanno, 2020).
Moreover, I sometimes saw advertisements for SONYand young people wearing SONY headphones in thestreets or the subways of Munich during 2018 and2020. I felt that some Japanese products were stillcompetitive and popular in the world.
One of the issues for Japanese firms seen in
NTT's smartphone technology development is that
Google, Apple, Facebook and Amazon (GAFA) havegained more profits than NTT from their state-of-theart technology (i.e., 5G). Historically, Japan absorbed
technologies and cultures from China and Korea before
modernization and European countries after
modernization, applied them, and created its uniqueand more convenient ones, for example, hiragana,katakana or Walkman. However, Japan requires newtechnology applications now. As Porter et al. suggest,
the reform of the business system or higher education
has not progressed yet. However, I believe thatJapanese firms still can gain advantages from“compact, multifunctional, quiet products” in addition
to products with a sophisticated appearance due toJapan’s long tradition and unique culture (Porter, et al.,2000, p.188).
I would like Japan to be a decent country, as Oe
Kenzaburo suggests in his essay, “Japan, theAmbiguous, and Myself” (Oe, 1995). My
interpretation of the word “decent” encompasses a
country that is not weak but indeed strong enough tocontribute to world peace, economics, politics, art, andscience. Regardless of its attractiveness as an IB
research target, Japan will continue to be one of themost appropriate settings for IB research and host to avariety of MNCs conducting business there. My travel
to search wataridori managers with Dr. Ando and Dr.
Nishikawa will continue, as will my participation in
the open, collaborative and thus progressive IB
scholarly community.

References
Alcácer, J., Melcher, H., & Kanno, A. (2020). NTT
DOCOMO's Race to 5G. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
Publishing.
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hemmert, M. (2012). Tiger Management. London, UK:
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Oe, K. (1995). Japan, the ambiguous, and myself. Tokyo,
Japan: Kodansha.
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Japan compete? London, UK: Macmillan.
Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2010). Longman dictionaryof language teaching and applied linguistics (4th ed.).
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assessment of self- and peer revisions of writing withteachers' assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 43(1), 137-148.
Suzuki, M. (2010). Deliberate vocabulary learning throughreading a course textbook. In Hirakawa, M., Inagaki, S.,
Arita, S., Butler, Y. G., Horie, K., Hauser, E., Shirai, Y.,& Tsubakita, J. (Eds.), Studies in Language Science 9:Papers from the ninth annual conference of the JapaneseSociety for Language Sciences: 161-174. Tokyo, Japan:
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revision. Annual Review of English Language Educationin Japan, 22, 1-16.
Suzuki, M. (2020). Collaborative integrated writingcentered tasks for Japanese EFL learners: Students'
perceptions and a Teacher's Reflection. In Riazi, A. M.,
Shi, L., & Barkaoui, K. (Eds.), Studies and essays onlearning, teaching and assessing L2 writing in honour of
Alister Cumming, 218-245. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK:
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Suzuki, M., Ando, N., & Nishikawa, H. (2019a). Intraorganizational communication and its consequenses.
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Suzuki, M., Ando, N., & Nishikawa, H. (2019b).
Recruitment of local human resources and its effect onforeign subsidiaries in Japan. Management Research
Review, 42(8), 1014-1032.

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Suzuki, M., Ando, N., & Nishikawa, H. (2022). Wataridori
managers in multinational enterprises' foreignsubsidiaries: An exploratoy study [Paper presentation].
The 2022 Association of Japanese Business Studies
Conference.
Suzuki, M., & Nishikawa, H. (2013). Language andCommunication in Pre- and Post- International andDomestic Mergers and Acquisitions [Paper presentation].
The 30th Euro-Asia Management Studies Association(EAMSA) Annual Conference. Duisburg, Germany.
Suzuki, M., & Nishikawa, H. (2014). A culture clash ininternational merger and acquisition: A case study. The
MNE Academy Journal, 7, 147-164.

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Vol.8 Issue 1

Japan Academy of Multinational Enterprises
2021-2023 Executive Board
President:International Relations:Tetsuya Usui (Gakushuin University)

Chie Iguchi (Keio University)
Hiroshi Hoshino (Kyushu University)
Naoki Yasuda (Rikkyo University)
Xiaohong Qin (Kyushu Sangyo University)*

Vice President:

Yoshinori Yasuda (Soka University)
Masayuki Furusawa (Kindai University)

General Affairs:

Masahiro Ida (Hannan University)
Hiroshi Hoshino (Kyushu University)

General Planning:

Yasuro Uchida (University of Hyogo)
Hajime Baba (Kansai University)
Tamiko Kasahara (University of Shizuoka)
Nisato Suzuki (Meiji University)
Tatsuo Mori (Hirosaki University)*

Publications Commitee:

Hajime Baba (Kansai University)
Takeshi Fujisawa (Kwansei Gakuin University)
Naoki Yasuda (Rikkyo University)
Sadanori Arimura (Yamaguchi University)*
Hiroyasu Furukawa (Meiji University)*

Best Book and Paper Award Commitee:

Naotoshi Umeno (Osaka University of Commerce)
Susumu Harada (Meiji University)
Shohei Tabata (Kobe International University)
Shingo Nishii (University of Hyogo)*
Hirofumi Tatsumoto (University of Tsukuba)*

Public Relations:

Masashi Arai (Asia University)
Tamiko Kasahara (University of Shizuoka)
Yukiko Shinomiya (Kindai University)
Hiroyuki Yamabe (Nara Prefectural University)
Takao Yamamoto (Kanagawa University)*

Program Commitee:
Tomokazu Seki (Rikkyo University)
Takeshi Fujisawa (Kwansei Gakuin University)
Takahide Yamaguchi (University of Hyogo)
Motoyuki Kanetsuna (Nanzan University)*
Yoshikazu Sakamoto (Nihon University)*
Masato Yamauchi (Senshu University)*

Eastern Chapter:
Susumu Harada (Meiji University)
Kohei Mishima (Keio University)
Chitose Furukawa (Aichi University)*
Tatsuya Karasawa (Kanto Gakuin University) *Mitsuru Nakagawa (Nihon University)*

Western Chapter:

Yukiko Shinomiya (Kindai University)
Naotoshi Umeno (Osaka University of Commerce)
Sungwoo Byun (Kindai University)*
Taehyun Lee (Hannan University)*
Yoshihiro Matsukawa (Hiroshima University of Economics)*

Executive Secretariat and Directors:

Head Office: Takuya Fukazawa (Tokyo Fuji University)
Eastern Chapter: Nisato Suzuki (Meiji University)
Western Chapter: Hiroyuki Yamabe (Nara Prefectural University)

Auditor:Kazumi Tada (Hosei University)
Risa Jitosho (Ryukoku University)

Note: Those with * are coordinators of the role.

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JAPAN MNE Insights

Vol.8 Issue 1

Japan MNE Insights will be published twice a year on the AMNE official website (www.mne-jp.org).
Please feel free to contact with the editorial team if you have any question or request.

Japan MNE Insights Editorial Team
Editor-in-Chief
Tamiko Kasahara (University of Shizuoka)
EditorMasashi Arai (Asia University)
Yukiko Shinomiya (Kindai University)
Hiroyuki Yamabe (Nara Prefectural University)
Takao Yamamoto (Kanagawa University)
Japan MNE Insights Editorial Team is currently located at
Office of Dr. Tamiko Kasahara,
University of Shizuoka, School of Management and Information
52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
TEL/FAX:+81-54-264-5435 (direct)
Contact e-mail address: kasahara@u-shizuoka-ken.ac.jp
Copyright @ Japan Academy of Multinational Enterprises (Japan)

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