REPORT
IN T

2015

Living Blue
Planet Report
Species, habitats andhuman well-beingWWF
WWF is one of the world’s largest and most experienced independent conservation organizations,with over 5 million supporters and a global network active in more than 100 countries.
WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build
a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by conserving the world’s biologicaldiversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and promoting
the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.
Zoological Society of London
Founded in 1826, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is an international scientific,
conservation and educational organization. Its mission is to achieve and promote theworldwide conservation of animals and their habitats. ZSL runs ZSL London Zoo and ZSLWhipsnade Zoo; carries out scientific research in the Institute of Zoology; and is actively
involved in field conservation worldwide. The ZSL manages the Living Planet Index® in acollaborative partnership with WWF.
WWF International
Avenue du Mont-Blanc
1196 Gland, Switzerland
www.panda.org
Institute of Zoology
Zoological Society of London
Regent’s Park,London NW1 4RY, UK
www.zsl.org/indicators
www.livingplanetindex.org
Design by: millerdesign.co.uk
Cover photograph: © naturepl.com / David Fleetham / WWF
Living Planet Report
WWF’s Living Planet Report, released every two years, is a leading science-based
analysis on the health of our planet and the impact of human activity upon it. The
Living Planet Report 2014 detailed alarming declines in biodiversity, showing species
populations falling by half between 1970 and 2010. It also showed that humanity,
particularly in developed nations, continues to make unsustainable demands on nature.
This special edition takes a deeper look into these findings, and their implications, forthe marine realm. Data on marine ecosystems and human impacts upon them is limited,reflecting the lack of attention the ocean has received to date. Nevertheless, the trends
shown here present a compelling case for action to restore our ocean to health.

ISBN 978-2-940529-24-7
Living Planet Report®
and Living Planet Index®
are registered trademarksof WWF International.

This report has been printed on FSC certified paper.
Printed at NCP SA and Cavin SA, Switzerland

Contents
INtroduction

3

CHAPTER ONE: THE STATE OF OUR BLUE PLANET	4

The marine Living Planet Index
Fish
Other species trends
Habitats

67
8
12CHAPTER TWO: OUR Ocean under pressure	

22

Our ocean under pressure
Overfishing
Aquaculture
Tourism
Climate change
Extractives
Land-based pollution

24
26
29
31
33
35
37

CHAPTER 3: WHY WE SHOULD CARE

41

Why we should care
Socio-economic implications of ocean decline
Invisibility of nature’s value: a major cause of ocean decline
An ocean of opportunity

42
44
44
47

Chapter 4: Turning the tide	

49

Blue planet solutions
The One Planet Perspective in action

50
54

THE NEXT WAVE

60

References

62

Foreword page 1

Living Blue Planet Report page 2© WWF / Matthew Lee

Nearly 3 billion people rely on fish as a major source ofprotein. Overall, fisheries and aquaculture assure thelivelihoods of 10–12 per cent of the world’s population.
60 PER CENT OF THE WORLD’S POPULATION LIVEs WITHIN 100KM OF
THE COAST. MARINE VERTEBRATE POPULATIONS DECLINED 49 PER
CENT BETWEEN 1970 AND 2012. POPULATIONS OF FISH SPECIESUTILIZED BY HUMANS HAVE FALLEN BY HALF, WITH SOME OF THE
MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES EXPERIENCING EVEN GREATER DECLINES.
AROUND ONE IN FOUR SPECIES OF SHARKS, RAYS AND SKATES IS NOWTHREATENED WITH EXTINCTION, DUE PRIMARILY TO OVERFISHING.
TROPICAL REEFS HAVE LOST MORE THAN HALF THEIR REEF-BUILDINGCORALS OVER THE LAST 30 YEARS. WORLDWIDE, NEARLY 20 PER CENT
OF MANGROVE COVER WAS LOST BETWEEN 1980 AND 2005. 29 PER
CENT OF MARINE FISHERIES ARE OVERFISHED. IF CURRENT RATES OFTEMPERATURE RISE CONTINUE, THE OCEAN WILL BECOME TOO WARM
FOR CORAL REEFS BY 2050. SEABED MINING LICENCES COVER 1.2
MILLION SQUARE KILOMETRES OF OCEAN FLOOR. MORE THAN 5
TRILLION PLASTIC PIECES WEIGHING OVER 250,000 TONNES ARE in
the SEA. oXYGEN-DEPLETED DEAD ZONES ARE GROWING AS A RESULTOF NUTRIENT RUN-OFF. The ocean generates economic benefits
worth at LEAST US$2.5 TRILLION PER YEAR. JUST 3.4 PER CENTOF THE OCEAN IS PROTECTED, AND ONLY PART OF THIS IS
EFFECTIVELY MANAGED. INCREASING MARINE PROTECTED AREA
COVERAGE TO 30 PER CENT COULD GENERATE UP TO
US$920 BILLION between 2015 and 2050.

Marco Lambertini
Director General,
WWF International

The trends
shown in thisreport present
a compellingcase for action
to restore ourocean to health.

Our Living Blue Planet
Our ocean – that seemingly infinitely bountiful, ever awe-inspiring
blue that defines our planet from space – is in crisis.
When I wrote the foreword to the 2014 edition of WWF’s
Living Planet Report, I said it was not for the faint-hearted. This
edition – a deep dive into the health of marine species and thehabitats on which they depend – is equally if not more sobering.
The marine Living Planet Index (LPI) presented here isroughly in line with the global LPI, which shows a 52 per centdecline in vertebrate populations since 1970. That alone should set
off alarm bells. But it’s what’s hidden in the overall marine LPI that
foretells an impending social and economic crisis.
When we look at the fish species most directly tied to humanwell-being – the fish that constitute up to 60 per cent of protein
intake in coastal countries, supporting millions of small-scale fishers
as well as a global multibillion-dollar industry – we see populations
in a nosedive. The habitats they depend on, such as coral reefs,
mangroves and seagrasses, are equally threatened.
The picture is now clearer than ever: humanity is collectively
mismanaging the ocean to the brink of collapse. Considering theocean’s vital role in our economies and its essential contribution
to food security – particularly for poor, coastal communities –that’s simply unacceptable. Could the economic implications of thecollapse of the ocean’s ecosystems trigger the next global recession
or undermine the progress we have made on eradicating poverty?
Solutions exist: smart fishing practices that eliminate
bycatch, waste and overfishing; getting rid of harmful subsidies
and unregulated fishing; protecting key habitats and a large enoughportion of the ocean to enable the regeneration of its living resources
while conserving iconic species and inspirational places; cutting CO2
emissions that threaten a potentially catastrophic acidification of theocean. And the ocean has another great advantage: it is a dynamic,
interconnected global ecosystem that can bounce back relatively
quickly if the pressures are dealt with effectively.
WWF reports on the state of the planet’s health every two
years. But we decided we needed to amplify the warning siren forthe ocean this year, because the situation is urgent and the momentto act is at hand. The global community has prioritized a healthy
ocean in the post-2015 sustainable development agenda. These
commitments must be backed by tangible investment in restoringand sustainably managing marine resources.
The pace of change in the ocean tells us there’s no time towaste. These changes are happening in our lifetime. We can and wemust correct course now.
Foreword page 3

On Mali Island in Fiji, Alumita Camari expertly handles
a freshly caught live (and aggressive) mud-crab from themangroves. Mita, as she’s commonly known, is considered
the best mud-crab harvester in her village. A single mother,
she relies on fishing to provide for herself and her daughter.
Life in Fiji has always been shaped by the ocean. The Pacificisland nation is home to the Great Sea Reef, known locallyas Cakaulevu. Over 200km in length, it’s the world’s third
longest barrier reef system after Australia’s Great Barrier
Reef and the Mesoamerican Reef off the Caribbean coastof Central America.
The reef and associated ecosystems like mangroves arefundamental to the country’s economy and people’s way oflife. They provide food, attract hundreds of thousands of
tourists each year, and protect coastal areas from storms.
But coral reefs and other marine ecosystems are declining
all over the world. Populations of marine species are falling,
while habitats are being destroyed and degraded. The
incredible marine biodiversity of our blue planet, and thediverse coastal cultures that have evolved upon it, face anuncertain future.

© Jürgen Freund / WWF-Pacific

CHAPTER ONE:THE STATE OF OURBLUE PLANET

The marine Living Planet Index

Fish

The Living Planet Report 2014 highlighted the alarming state of
the natural world upon which our societies and economies depend.
The Living Planet Index (LPI), which measures trends in 10,380
populations of 3,038 vertebrate species, declined 52 per centbetween 1970 and 2010. In other words, population sizes ofmammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish fell by half on
average in just 40 years. Humanity continues to make unsustainable
demands on nature, threatening our long-term well-being andprosperity. As ecosystems decline, meeting the basic needs of a
growing human population will become an even greater challenge.
The LPI for marine populations, compiled for this report,
shows a decline of 49 per cent between 1970 and 2012 (Figure 1).
This is based on trends in 5,829 populations of 1,234 mammal,
bird, reptile and fish species. With many more species and locations
included, the marine LPI in this report is almost twice as large as
it was in the Living Planet Report 2014, giving an even clearer
picture of ocean health — and the decline is even greater thanpreviously described. The period from 1970 through to the mid1980s experienced the steepest decline, after which there wassome stability – but more recently, population numbers have beenfalling again. The global index masks considerable variation indifferent regions: numbers have been increasing (from previously
depleted levels) in northern latitudes, but falling in tropical andsubtropical regions.
This chapter dives deeper into this data. Because the marine
environment has not been comprehensively monitored, there aregaps in the data for some regions. The Zoological Society of London(ZSL) has created indices for a number of ecosystems and species
types where we have sufficient robust data available from publishedreports, journal articles and fisheries researchers.

Of the marine fish in the LPI (930 species), 1,463 populations (492
species) are recorded as utilized, whether for local subsistence orcommercial use. The index for all utilized fish species indicates a 50
per cent reduction in population numbers globally between 1970
and 2010 (Figure 2). Of the utilized fish populations, data sources
for 459 contain information on threats. Exploitation is identified
as the main threat in the vast majority of cases; other threats listed
include habitat degradation/loss and climate change impacts.

Figure 2: The utilizedfish index declined
50 per cent between
1970 and 2010
(WWF-ZSL, 2015).
Key

Index value (1970=1)

2

Utilized fish index
Confidence limits

0
1970

1980

1990

Year

2000

2010

For fish species of importance for regional economies,
livelihoods and food, the decline may be even more dramatic. Thiscan be seen in the case of Scrombidae, the family of mackerels,
tunas and bonitos. An index for Scrombidae, based on data from 58
populations of 17 species, shows a decline of 74 per cent between
1970 and 2010 (Figure 3). While the most rapid decline is between
1976 and 1990, there is currently no sign of overall recovery at a
global level.
2

1

0
1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

Year
Living Blue Planet Report page 6

1995

2000

2005

2012

Figure 1: The global
marine LPI shows adecline of 49 per centbetween 1970 and 2012.
This is based on trends in
5,829 populations of 1,234
species (WWF-ZSL, 2015).

Figure 3: The index
for Scrombidae (tuna,mackerel, bonito)
declined 74 per centbetween 1970 and 2010
(WWF-ZSL, 2015).

Key

Key
Marine Living Planet
Index

Scrombidae index

Confidence limits

Confidence limits

Index value (1970=1)

2

Index value (1970=1)

1

1

0
1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Year
Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 7

Other species

Sea cucumbers
Sea cucumbers are distributed globally, and harvested and traded in
more than 70 countries (Purcell et al., 2012). They play a vital rolein the ecosystem, regulating water quality, turning over sediment,
recycling nutrients, and as prey for commercial species such as
crustaceans. They are also prized as a luxury food item, particularly
in Asia. Globally, sea cucumber fisheries have expanded massively inthe last 25 years (Figure 5). Many populations have been overfished,causing knock-on effects in the ecosystem. Some areas without
sea cucumbers have become uninhabitable for other organisms;
sea cucumbers turn over sand by feeding on organic matter mixed
within it, and the nutrients they excrete can be taken up again byalgae and corals (Mulcrone, 2005).
In the Galapagos, sea cucumber populations declined 98
per cent between 1993, when the first legal fishery opened, and2004 (Shepherd et al., 2004). Similarly, populations fell 94 percent between 1998 and 2001 in the Egyptian Red Sea due to overexploitation (Lawrence et al., 2005). Despite the introduction ofa fishing ban in 2003, populations decreased by another 45 percent between 2002 and 2007 (Ahmed and Lawrence, 2007). Some
commercial species are returning to their earlier overfished areas,
but there is no evidence of stock recovery.

The decline observed in fish populations holds true for other marine
species. As marine ecosystems are closely interconnected, thesedeclines can affect marine food webs and alter ocean ecosystem
functioning (McCauley et al., 2015). While the IUCN Red List
shows a growing number of threatened marine species, only asmall fraction of known marine species have been evaluated – andin many case there is insufficient data to conduct an adequate
assessment (Figure 4). Further research and monitoring is urgently
needed into fish species and marine invertebrates, in particular, todetermine threat levels.
We have selected three species groups as indicators of thecurrent level of stress on biodiversity and marine ecosystem health:sea cucumbers (one of the few invertebrate species groups to havebeen monitored in some detail); sharks and rays, which include
many threatened species but also many data gaps; and marine
turtles, where species’ critically endangered status has helped spurconservation action.

100
Terrestrial contact

Exclusively aquatic
20

Key
60

16

Unreviewed
Data deficient

40

Extinct
Endangered

20

0
ST
7

PO
36

SS
478

SSL
82

CS
88

DBRF
530

CF
1061

MRF
MI
~15,050 ~151,150

Figure 4: Threatened marine species,
as chronicled by the IUCN Red List.
Threat categories include “extinct” (orange), “endangered” (red; IUCN
categories “critically endangered” + “endangered”), “data deficient”(light grey), and “unreviewed” (brown). Groups that contact land duringsome portion of their life history (green) are distinguished from species
that do not (light blue). The total number of species estimated in eachgroup is listed below the graph (McCauley et al.,2015).

Living Blue Planet Report page 8

Species groupings
ST Sea turtles
PO Pinnipeds and marine
mustelids
SS Seabirds and shorebirds
SSL sea snakes and marine
lizards
CS Cetaceans and sirenians
DBRF Diadromous/brackish ray-finned
fishesCF Cartilaginous fishes
MRF Exclusively marine
ray-finned fishes
MI Marine invertebrates

Figure 5: Global sea
cucumber harvest,
based on FAO data
(Purcell et al., 2013).

Tonnes (dried) x 1,000

Percent of species

80

12

8

4

Key
Global sea cucumber
harvest

0
1950

1960

1970

1980

Year

1990

2000

2008

Improved governance of sea cucumber fisheries is vital.
Management measures need to take account of sea cucumber stocks,
the ecosystems they are part of, and the socio-economic drivers of
exploitation (Purcell et al., 2013).

Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 9

Sharks and rays
Sharks and rays are fished across the open ocean and the coastlinesof the world, as the main target or as secondary catch or bycatch(Dulvy et al., 2014). Globally, catches of sharks, rays and related
species such as skates rose more than threefold from the 1950s to ahigh in 2003 and have been falling since (Dulvy et al., 2014). Thisdecrease is not so much a result of improved management, but ofthe decline in populations (Davidson et al., 2015). As most catchesof sharks and rays are unregulated, total catch could be three to fourtimes greater than reported (Clarke et al., 2006; Worm et al., 2013).
Around one in four species of sharks, rays and skates is now
threatened with extinction, due primarily to overfishing (Dulvy
et al., 2014). Sharks and their relatives include some of the latest
maturing and slowest reproducing of all vertebrates (Cortés, 2000):
these species are especially vulnerable to overexploitation.
Many shark species are apex predators; others are filter
feeders or carnivores of a lower trophic level. While the effects offalling shark numbers are still being studied, there is widespread
concern about the damage to ecosystem health. Research has shownthat the loss of apex predators nearly always results in further
marine ecosystem degradation (Estes et al., 2011).

Figure 7: The 11
most endangered
subpopulations
identified by the MTSG,
overlaying threats andknown trends for eachRMU.
KeyCountry with key
nesting site
Primary location ofsea turtle population

2% 4%
11%

47%

Vulnerable
113 species
Near threatened
129 species

Living Blue Planet Report page 10

2

6

4

9

10

7

Critically endangered
25 species
Endangered
43 species

23%

5

3

1

Key

13%

11

8

Least concern
229 species
Data deficient
465 species

Hawksbill turtles(Eretmochelys imbricata)

Leatherback turtles(Dermochelys coriacea)

Loggerhead turtles(Caretta caretta)

Olive ridley turtles(Lepidochelys olivacea)

1 4 7 102

3 6 115 8 9East Atlantic Ocean, North
East Indian Ocean, West Pacific
Ocean, East Pacific Ocean
Key nesting sites:
Congo, India, Indonesia,
Príncipe, São Tomé,
Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Malaysia, Philippines

East Pacific Ocean
Key nesting sites:
Mexico, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica

North Pacific Ocean
North East Atlantic Ocean
North East Indian Ocean
Key nesting sites:
Cape Verde, Bangladesh,
Myanmar, JapanWest Indian Ocean
North East Atlantic Ocean
North East Indian Ocean
Key nesting sites:
India, Sri Lanka, Oman

Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 11

Turtle illustrations adapted from Conservation International/Cesar Landazabal

Figure 6: Shark andray species at riskof extinction: an
additional 7 per centof the data deficient
species are estimated tobe threatened (Dulvy et
al. 2014).

Marine turtles
Marine turtles are spread throughout virtually all tropical and subtropical waters. They often migrate thousands of kilometres fromfeeding grounds to nesting sites, and occupy differing habitats ashatchlings, juveniles and adults. They also face varying pressuresfrom human consumption, bycatch in fisheries, climate change,marine debris, loss of nesting beaches and myriad other hazards.
This makes assessing the status of marine turtles challenging.
Currently, the IUCN Red List classifies four turtle species as
endangered or critically endangered – hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley,green and loggerhead — while olive ridley and leatherback arevulnerable, and flatbacks are data deficient. However, this global
viewpoint masks significant regional disparities. The IUCN Marine
Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG) has recently developed a new
approach, which focuses on regional management units (RMUs)(Wallace et al., 2010).
In 2013, the status of leatherback turtles was reassessedusing this system. Of the seven subpopulations or RMUs, four wereassessed as critically endangered, including those in the Eastern
Pacific that have declined by 97 per cent in the past three generations,and two as data deficient; however, the North West Atlantic
population is now rated least concern after decades of conservation
efforts. These regional statistics provide a far more realistic view ofthe status of leatherbacks than a single global listing. Other species
are now being reassessed on a regional basis, which will give a moreaccurate picture of trends and conservation priorities.

Habitats
While human exploitation is identified as the major cause of thedeclines in marine species, habitat loss and degradation are also
major threats. The following section looks at trends in three key
marine ecosystems: coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves. It also
looks at the status of deep-sea habitats in the North Atlantic andpolar ecosystems in the Antarctic.

Key
Indo-Pacific

80

60

40

20

Caribbean

0
1968

>25%

1975

1980

1985

Year

1990

1995

2000

2004

Of the 930 fish species in the LPI database, 352 are classified
as “reef associated” (living and feeding on or near coral reefs),
comprising 2,501 populations. The index for reef-associated fish
species declined 34 per cent between 1979 and 2010 (Figure 9).
Many reef-associated fish such as the various species of groupers
are important food sources both commercially and for local
subsistence. While overexploitation was listed as the primary
threat to the majority of populations, habitat degradation andloss, climate change and invasive species were also identified as
significant threats.

Over 25 per centof all marine species
live in coral reefs, yetthey cover an area
about half the sizeof France

2

Figure 9: The reefassociated fish species
index declined 34 percent between 1979 and2010 (WWF-ZSL, 2015).
Key

Index value (1979=1)

Coral reefs
Coral reefs provide some of the most biologically rich, productive
and economically valuable ecosystems on Earth. Over 25 per centof all marine species live in coral reefs, and yet they cover less than
0.1 per cent of the ocean, about half the area of France (Spalding
et al., 2001).
Globally, around 850 million people live within 100km ofa coral reef and directly benefit from the economic, social andcultural services it provides (Burke et al., 2011). Reefs support many
economically important fish species, providing food for hundredsof millions of people. They also protect the coast from storms
and erosion, and generate jobs and income from fishing, tourism
and recreation.
Three-quarters of the world’s coral reefs are currently
threatened (Burke et al., 2011). Pressures include increased fishing,poor water quality from coastal agriculture, deforestation, coastal
development and shipping, as well as rising ocean temperatures andacidity brought on by global warming. At current projected levelsof warming and acidification, coral reefs could be lost altogether by
2050 (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2015).
Recent studies indicate that tropical reefs have lost morethan half their reef-building corals over the last 30 years (HoeghGuldberg et al., 2015). Figure 8 shows an overall large decline incoral cover in the Indo-Pacific and the Caribbean since the 1970s.
This degradation threatens both the reefs and the communities andeconomies they sustain.

Figure 8: Percentagechange in coral cover
over time in the IndoPacific (blue) and
Caribbean (red) (Bruno& Selig, 2007; Jackson etal., 2014).

Percentage change in coral cover100

1

Reef-associated fish
species index
Confidence limits

01979

Living Blue Planet Report page 12

1985

1990

1995

Year

2000

2005

2010

Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 13

Median rate of change (µ, % y-1)

Seagrass
Seagrass meadows provide a range of ecosystem services, fromcatching sediment and stabilizing the seabed (Gillis et al., 2014)
to providing grazing for dugongs, manatees and green turtles, andcritical habitat for commercially important fish species (Orth etal., 2006). They also store vast amounts of carbon: Fourqurean etal. (2012) estimate that seagrass meadows store 83,000 tonnes ofcarbon per square kilometre, more than twice as much as a typicalterrestrial forest.
Seagrass coverage worldwide has declined by about 30 per
cent over15 the last century. Waycott et al. (2009) carried out aglobal assessment of 215 studies to determine the status of seagrass
10
habitats. A total of 1,128 observations from around the world
between51879 and 2006 were included in their assessment, whichindicated0 a mean decline in seagrass area of 1.5 per cent per year,
adding up to a total of 3,370km2 lost in 127 years on those sites(Figure -5
10).
Extrapolatingthese figures to a global scale suggests that
-10
more than 51,000km2 of seagrass meadows have been lost since
1879, a-15
total of 29 per cent of seagrass area. The current global
2
estimate-20of seagrass coverage is 177,000km (Waycott et al., 2009).

Figure 11: The index
for fish in seagrass
habitats shows adecline of over 70 per
cent between 1970 and2010 (WWF-ZSL, 2015).
Key

Confidence limits

Net change in area (km2)

-100
-200
-300
-400
-500

Figure 10: Net area ofseagrass gain and loss
per decade in study
sites (Waycott et al.,2009).

-2000
-3000
120

Number of sites

Key
Decreasing80

No detectable change
Increasing

40

0

nd

pre-1930 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s

Living Blue Planet Report page 14

1980

1990

Year

2000

2010

ZSL calculated an index for fish populations found in seagrass
habitats, based on data on 350 populations of 232 species. Thisshows a dramatic decline of over 70 per cent between 1970 and 2010
(Figure 11). LPI data sources identify exploitation as the main threat
to populations in seagrass habitats, followed by habitat degradation/change; the threat of pollution appears to be higher within seagrass
habitats than in the indices for fish and coral reefs discussed above(WWF-ZSL, 2015).

nd

-1000

0
1970

200

0

1

Seagrass-associatedfish index

-25
100

Index value (1970=1)2

Mangroves
Mangroves are known to exist in 123 countries, though just five(Indonesia, Australia, Brazil, Nigeria and Mexico) account foralmost half (45.7 per cent) of the total global mangrove area
(Spalding et al., 2010). They provide spawning grounds, nurseries,
nutrients and shelter for many species, including fish, reptiles,
amphibians, mammals and birds (Nagelkerken et al. 2008).
They also provide a variety of benefits to human populations,
including provisioning services (firewood, timber, fisheries, otherforest products), regulating services (coastal protection, carbon
sequestration, buffering seagrass beds from terrestrial sediment/
nutrient loads), and cultural services (recreation, ecotourism,
spiritual) (UNEP, 2014).
Worldwide, nearly 20 per cent of mangrove cover was
lost between 1980 (18,794,000 hectares) and 2005 (15,231,000
hectares), equal to nearly 3.6 million hectares (Figure 12). The
primary cause of this loss was the conversion of mangrove areas todifferent uses such as aquaculture, agriculture, infrastructure andtourism, as a result of increasingly high human population pressure
in coastal areas (FAO, 2007).

Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 15© Jürgen Freund / WWF

Between 1980 and 1990, the global annual rate of net
mangrove loss was 1.04 per cent. This fell to 0.66 per cent between
2000 and 2005 (FAO, 2007). Many governments are increasingly
recognizing the importance of mangroves, which has resulted inbetter protection, management and restoration. Legal protection,
natural regeneration and planting programmes have enabled places
such as Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Sundarbans Reserved Forest of
Bangladesh to increase their mangrove cover (FAO, 2007).
The importance of mangroves to fish populations is
undoubted: numerous species rely on them as nurseries, forexample. However, there is not enough data to develop an index
for mangrove-associated species. More research is needed tounderstand the relation between these populations and thecondition of the mangroves.

Extent of mangroves by region
1980-2005 (Area million ha)

20

15

Figure 12: Estimatedchange in extent ofmangrove cover byregion and worldwide
from 1980 to 2005.
Adapted from The
world’s mangroves
1980-2005 (FAO, 2007).

10

5

0
AfricaAsia

North & Central
America

OceaniaSouth
AmericaWorld-14% -25% -23% -10% -11% -19%
Mangrove losses 1980-2005

Key

2005
2000
1990
1980

Mangroves provide spawning grounds and nurseries for fish, protect coastlines and store carbon —but a fifth of global mangrove area was lost between 1980 and 2005.

Living Blue Planet Report page 16

Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 17

Deep-sea habitats: North Atlantic Ocean
Important marine ecosystems are not confined to the tropics.
Deep-sea habitats such as seamounts, deep-water corals and polar
habitats are also an integral part of our ocean system. Data forthese habitats is limited, but there is evidence that they are facing
enormous pressure and change.
The North Atlantic Ocean is one of the world’s richest marine
areas. Whales and turtles travel through its waters, and seals andseabirds as well as many commercially important fish find shelter,
nursery and feeding grounds in the region. The North Atlantic also
hosts diverse and productive habitats, such as cold-water coral reefs
and hydrothermal vents. Due to its wealth of habitats and resources,
the North Atlantic makes a crucial contribution to the economy andsocial well-being of many coastal communities and countries inwestern Europe.
The index for deep-sea fish populations for the North Atlantic(Figure 13) is based on 77 populations of 25 species, and indicates a
72 per cent decline over the last 40 years. In the last two decades theindex is more or less stable, but not showing signs of recovery.

Polar habitats: Southern Ocean
Despite its remoteness, the rich marine life of the Southern Ocean
has experienced some of the sharpest recorded declines in fish
populations (WWF, 2014). Limited data means it is not possible todevelop a reliable overall index for the Southern Ocean. However,a massive decrease in population numbers of some commerciallytargeted fish species can be observed in the late 1970s, following
increased fisheries activity in the region (Figure 14) (CCAMLR,
2013b). Illegal, unregulated or unreported (IUU) fishing is aparticular concern in the Southern Ocean (Osterblom and Bodin,
2012; CCAMLR, 2013a).
Unsustainable levels of fishing have been largely curtailed
since the establishment of the international Commission for theConservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
in 1982 (Figure 16). The Ross Sea toothfish, for example, is now
managed to a target of 50 per cent of the original stock biomass(Figure 15). This is a conservative limit that enables productive
commercial exploitation while minimzing the risk of stocks
becoming depleted. CCAMLR has adopted an ecosystem-based
management system, and has also substantially reduced levels of
IUU fishing and seabird bycatch.

Figure 13: The deepsea fish index for the
North Atlantic shows
an overall downward
trend (WWF-ZSL, 2015).

1Key
Deep-sea fish index
Confidence limits

0
1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Year

The North Atlantic contains a number of vulnerable marine
ecosystems – groups of species, communities or habitats that, basedon the physical and biological features they possess, are deemedvulnerable to impacts from fishing activities, particularly practices
such as bottom trawling (FAO, 2009). The use of bottom-touchinggear and overfishing of target stocks in these vulnerable areas
damages the marine resources and ecosystems.

Figure 14: Population
trends in twocommercial fish species
from the Southern
Ocean – marbled rockcod and mackerel
ice fish – show sharp
declines in the 1970s(CCAMLR, 2013b; Duhamel
et al., 2011).
Key
Marbled rock cod(South Orkney
Islands)
Mackerel icefish(South Orkney
Islands)

Spawning stock biomass(X 1,000 tonnes)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1975

1976

1984

1986

Year
300

Spawning stock biomass(X 1,000 tonnes)

Index value (1970=1)

2

250
200
150
100
50
0
1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

Year

Living Blue Planet Report page 18

Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 19

60

Key
40

Estimated spawning
stock biomass

20

10-90% confidence
interval

050% biomass
threshold
20% biomass
threshold

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

Year

Figure 16: Annual
catches in the Antarctic(in thousands oftonnes) of fish andkrill combined, byyear, showing the
reduction in catchsince the creation of the
CCAMLR (Adapted from
FAO 2013-2015).

700
600
500
400
300

Key

200
100

Paciﬁc, Antarctic(Area 88)

0Indian Ocean,
Antarctic (Area 58)
1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2009

Year

Antarctic krill
Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is central to the food chain
in the Southern Ocean. Many types of species including whales,
penguins and fish are reliant on krill as a food source. The
abundance of krill is heavily influenced by environmental
conditions, such as the availability of phytoplankton in the summer
and the extent of sea ice in winter (CCAMLR, 2015). Althoughestimates are subject to large uncertainties, the density of krill
appears to have declined in the 1980s in the Southwest Atlantic
Ocean, where most of the fishing now occurs (Figure 17).
This is the part of the Southern Ocean that has warmed
most in recent years (Gille, 2002). The Antarctic Peninsula is oneof the fastest warming areas on the planet (Turner et al., 2009).

Living Blue Planet Report page 20

Atlantic, Antarctic(Area 48)

Figure 17: Antarctic
krill postlarval
abundance (number
per m 2) within 10 o E to
90 oW (Atkinson et al.,2014).

Density log 10 no. per m 2

Biomass (x1,000 tonnes)

80

Thousand tonnes

3

Figure 15: Estimatedpopulation trend for
Antarctic toothfish in
the Ross Sea showing
current managementwith a 50 per centbiomass target.

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1976

1979

1982

1985

1989

1991

1994

1997

2000

2003

2006

2009

2012

Year

The associated decline in winter sea ice extent is thought to be afactor in krill decline. Over coming years, ocean acidification andwarming waters will have an impact on these species (Kawaguchi etal., 2013; Hill et al., 2013). There is concern about the impact thatdeclines in krill will have on the food web of the Southern Ocean.
Krill is targeted by industrial fishing boats, and processed
into feed for aquaculture and livestock or omega-3 foodsupplements. The total reported krill catch in 2013/14 was around
294,000 tonnes, the highest reported catch since 1991. Interest in
krill fishing continues to rise.
CCAMLR regulates the fishery within an interim trigger levelof 620,000 tonnes, around 1 per cent of the krill biomass in thefished area.
Climate change and krill
Krill are vulnerable to impacts associated with climate change:• Sea ice provides shelter for Antarctic krill during the winter.
The ice also acts as habitat for algae, which the krill feed on(ACE, 2009).
• Krill are a coldwater species and grow fastest in cold water— any warming can slow down or stop growth(Hill et al., 2013).
• Increased global CO2 levels in the atmosphere have increased
the amount of CO2 absorbed by the ocean, resulting inseawater that is more acidic. This is a major threat to krill
because it can damage their exoskeleton and may cause
substantial declines in Southern Ocean krill populations overthe next 100 years (Kawaguchi et al., 2013).

Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 21

On Robben Island in South Africa’s Western Cape, a jackass
penguin covered with oil from a tanker spill cuts a lonely
figure. Oil spills can be devastating to seabirds and othermarine life – and as offshore oil extraction and shipping
expand, the risk is likely to increase.
From oil and industrial shipping to fishing and pollution,
coastal development to climate change, human activities
are having a huge impact on the marine environment.

© Martin Harvey / WWF

CHAPTER TWO: Our
Ocean under pressure

Our ocean under pressure
For centuries, people have regarded the ocean as an inexhaustible
source of food and a convenient dumping ground, too vast to beaffected by anything we do. But in the space of just a few decades,it has become increasingly clear that the ocean has limits and thatin many important parts of our seas the sustainability thresholds
have been well and truly breached. The data presented in Chapter
1 gives us a snapshot of an ocean in trouble: populations of marine
species have fallen dramatically and vast areas of vital habitats havebeen degraded and destroyed, with implications that we are only justbeginning to comprehend.
Driving all these trends are human actions: from overfishingand extractive industries, to coastal development and pollution, tothe greenhouse-gas emissions causing ocean acidification and sea
temperature rise. While these pressures are described separately
over the following pages, they also have a cumulative impact: forexample, an ecosystem degraded by pollution and fragmented bydevelopment is likely to be slower to recover from the effects ofoverfishing and less resilient to the impacts of climate change.

+2 billion
The global population is
expected to grow by another2 billion to reach 9.6 billion
people by 2050 – with aconcentration in coastal
urban areas (FAO 2014a).

50%
destroyed

Half the world’s corals anda third of all seagrasses
have been lost (HoeghGuldberg et al., 2015).

Living Blue Planet Report page 24

300%
Ship traffic has quadrupledover the past two decades,with the largest growth in
the Indian Ocean and theWestern Paciﬁc Seas
(Tournadre, 2014).

x2
Average per capita fishconsumption globally
increased from 9.9kg
in the 1960s to 19.2kg
in 2012 (FAO 2014b).

US$14-35 billion

Subsidies that encourage
overfishing, mostly in developed
countries, are worth an estimated
US$14-35 billion – even though
the global fishing fleet is 2-3 times
larger than the ocean can sustainably
support (Sumaila et al., 2010, 2013;
Nellemann et al., 2008).

3-5°C
ocean warming by 2100

At current rates of temperature rise, coral
reefs will disappear by 2050 (Hoegh-Guldberg
et al., 2007; IPCC, 2013).

29%

1/3
x3-5

Deforestation of theplanet’s mangroves is
exceeding average global
forest loss by a rate ofthree to five times(UNEP, 2014).

of global fish stocks
are over exploited80%(FAO 2014).

More than a third of oil and gas
comes from offshore sources,and growing demand is fuellinginterest in deep‑sea
deposits (Maribus, 2014).

of all tourism
is based near
the sea(Honey and
Krantz, 2007).

A moderate-sized cruise shipon a one week voyage generates
795,000 litres of sewage
3.8 million litres of grey water
500 litres of hazardous waste
95,000 litres of oily bilge water
8 million tonnes
8 tonnes of garbageof plastic waste is dumped

in the ocean each year – or

15 large garbage bags

based on 2,200 passengers and800 crew (Copeland, 2008).

for every metre of coastline. That
number is set to double by 2025
(Jambeck et al., 2015).

Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 25

Overfishing1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
0

400
600

200

Depth (m)Mean depth of fishing (m)

100

300
400

800
1000
1200
1400

Key

1950
At least 10%
PPR extraction
At least 20%
PPR extraction
At least 30%
PPR extraction

1600

500
R2 = 0.96

600

1800
2000

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
0
200
400

2006

600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800

2

Living Blue Planet Report page 26

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
0200

Depth (m)Mean depth of fishing (m)“The cod fishery, the herring fishery, the pilchard fishery, themackerel fishery, and probably all the great sea fisheries, areinexhaustible,” declared Thomas Henry Huxley at a fisheries
exhibition in London in 1883. “That is to say, that nothing we doseriously affects the number of the fish.”
He could not have been more wrong. Today, the world’s fishstocks are under considerable pressure, with 29 per cent classified
as overfished and a further 61 per cent as fully exploited, withno ability to produce greater harvests (FAO 2014b). This is a big
problem for future global food security. Overfishing not only affects
the balance and interaction of life in the ocean, but also the socialand economic well-being of the coastal communities that depend onfish for their way of life.
A growing world demand for fish, overcapacity – partly
driven by fishing subsidies estimated at up to US$35 billion
per year, equivalent to around a fifth of the industry’s overall
revenue (Sumaila et al., 2013) – and the lack of new or alternative
opportunities are all contributing to a “race to fish”. This is depleting
many coastal fisheries and causing fishing fleets to look further and1960areas
1970 1980
fish deeper into international waters. New species1950andare1990 2000
0being targeted as traditional stocks become exhausted. Figure 19
100 only the deepest
shows the huge expansion in heavily fished areas:
and most inaccessible parts of the ocean are yet200
to feel pressure
from fisheries.
300
More fish are being caught at greater depths
than ever before(Figure 18). Around 40 per cent of the world’s fishinggrounds are400
now in waters deeper than 200m and many deep-water species
500
are likely to be overexploited (Roberts, 2002). Only a few decades
R = 0.96
600 500m: now,
ago it was virtually impossible to fish deeper thanwith technological improvements in vessels, gear and fish-finding
equipment, bottom trawling is occurring at depths of up to 2,000m(UNEP, 2006, Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). Most deep-sea fisheriesconsidered unsustainable (Norse et al., 2012) have started to target
fish populations that are low in productivity, with long lifespans,slow growth and late maturity (Morato et al., 2006). This leads
to rapid declines in the population (Devine et al., 2006) and evenslower recovery once the stock has collapsed (Baker et al., 2009).
As a result of this growing pressure, the number of fish stocks
that are overfished and fully fished has increased, while less than 10
per cent of fisheries have any capacity for expansion (Figure 20). Yet
this huge increase in fishing effort does not mean we are catching
more fish: the total weight of fish landed in marine capture fisheriesin 2012 was 79.7 million tonnes, compared to 80.7 million tonnes

Figure 19: The
huge increase in
the proportion ofprimary production
requirement (PPR)
extracted by fisheries
globally between
1950 and 2006. PPR
indicates the total
amount of foodnecessary to sustain
fish populations in acertain area (Watson,
Zeller and Pauly 2011).

2000

Figure 18: The mean
depth of bottom fishing
globally increased fromaround 200m in 1950 tomore than 500m in 2004(a); this is reflected in
the increase in catches
in lower depth strata (inmillions of tonnes)(Watson & Morato, 2013).
15000
5000
1000
500
100
0

in 2007 (FAO, 2014b). For some species, the increased fishingpressure has had an adverse effect, as seen in the overall decline in
the utilized fish species index presented in Chapter 1, and the evensteeper 74 per cent decline in the Scrombridae group.
Small-scale fisheries are not immune to overcapacity,
overfishing or destructive fishing practices. In some cases, theactivities of the small-scale fleets themselves have been a root causeof depletion and environmental degradation. In many other cases,
the difficulties faced by small-scale fleets have been compounded (oreven initially caused) by the arrival of industrial-scale fleets in theirtraditional waters. These factors are not exclusive to small-scale
fisheries. In many developing countries, fisheries continue tohave open access with no effective controls on the quantities offish harvested or the techniques used. Lack of political will, data
deficiencies and inadequate financial and human resources are often
blamed for weak governance and management (CSR, 2006; FAO
and OECD, 2015).
The fisheries sector is often a buffer for populations
marginalized by conflicts, climate events, poverty or unemployment

Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 27

Aquaculture

which makes it politically difficult to restrain access to resources,
placing vulnerable populations in even more precarious situations.
At a global scale, IUU fishing has escalated over the last two
decades. IUU fishing is estimated to take 11-26 million tonnes offish each year, adding to the pressures on stocks (Agnew et al.,2009). This represents 12-28.5 per cent of global capture fisheries
production (FAO 2014b).
Overfishing is also closely tied to bycatch, which causes
the needless loss of billions of fish, along with marine turtles,
whales and dolphins, seabirds and other species. Global bycatchlevels (excluding IUU fishing) are estimated at 7.3 million tonnes(Kelleher, 2005).
While overfishing is a global problem, it is by no means
uniform and there is evidence that effective management can
successfully rebuild stocks. However, addressing the drivers of
overfishing throughout the vast majority of coastal waters and thehigh seas remains an urgent challenge.
Newfoundland, in Canada, provides a sobering example
of what happens to communities when populations are fished tocommercial extinction. For centuries, the cod stocks of the Grand
Banks seemed inexhaustible. In the early 1990s, the fishing andfish-processing industry employed 110,000 people. But in 1992 thecod fishery collapsed and 40,000 people lost their jobs, including
10,000 fishermen. Today the cod stock, although showing signs ofrecovery, remains well below pre-collapse levels.

“With the world’s population predicted to increase to 9 billion
people by 2050 – particularly in areas that have high rates of foodinsecurity – aquaculture, if responsibly developed and practised,
can make a significant contribution to global food security andeconomic growth.”Árni M. Mathiesen, Assistant Director-General of FAO Fisheries
and Aquaculture Department
Over the past three decades, global aquaculture has grown on
average at 8.6 per cent each year. Fish farming has enabled seafood
consumption to continue to increase even as marine fisheries
production has flat-lined. It now supplies 58 per cent of the fish weeat, has kept the overall price of fish down, and made protein andimproved nutrition more accessible to communities around theworld. Around 90 per cent of the world’s 18.9 million fish farmers
are small-scale producers from developing countries (FAO, 2014a;
FAO, 2014b).
But farming fish is not always a sustainable alternative.
In many countries, aquaculture production has depleted key
ecosystems like mangroves, polluted aquatic environments
and potentially reduced climate change resilience for coastal
communities. Poor management, a lack of capacity and access totechnical knowledge, or irresponsible practices have also led tolarge-scale disease outbreaks, such as early mortality syndrome
for shrimp in Asia (FAO, 2013).

100

70
60

Key

50

Fully fished

Overfished atbiologicallyunsustainable levels

40
30
20

Year

Living Blue Planet Report page 28

2011

2006

2002

1990

1986

1982

1978

1974

0

1998

Underfished

10

1994

Percentage of stocks assessed

Figure 20: Global
trends in the state ofmarine fish stocks,
1974-2011 (FAO, 2014b).

Overfished

80

Figure 21: The
continued increase inseafood productionin the last 30 years isalmost entirely due toaquaculture(FAO, 2014b).
Key

Fully exploitedfish stocks

Aquaculture
production

Not fully exploitedstocksCapture production

Production (Million tonnes)

160

90

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1950

1955 1960 19651970

1975 1980

1985 1990

1995 2000

2005

2012

Year

Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 29

© Adam Oswell / WWF-Greater Mekong

Prawn farms in Vietnam
Aquaculture, and in particular shrimp farming, is a key economic
sector in Vietnam. It creates many jobs and generates substantial
income for the country. But shrimp farming is coming at a costto the environment. Both small-scale and large-scale shrimp
farms have destroyed mangrove forests, polluted groundwaterand coastal estuaries, and increased salination on agriculturalland. Intensive farming methods have also introduced pathogens,leading to major shrimp disease outbreaks that result insignificant economic losses.
One way to reduce these negative impacts is throughcertification schemes, such as the Aquaculture StewardshipCouncil (ASC). Businesses that join the ASC commit to a betterway of producing farmed seafood with less impact on theenvironment, stronger protection of biodiversity and water
resources, higher standards of animal health and better working
conditions. Through ASC certification, shrimp farms aim tomeasurably reduce adverse impacts on the environment andcommunities by preserving wetlands and mangroves, addressing
the transfer of viruses and disease, improving water quality,
feeding responsibly and addressing biodiversity issues.
WWF is helping small-scale shrimp farmers in Vietnam
to implement better management practices that reduce
negative environmental impacts and will help them achieve
ASC certification.

Living Blue Planet Report page 30

Tourism

9.8%

Global GDP
generated by
tourism andrelated activities

Figure 22:
The impacts of tourism
on marine healthTourism is one of the largest and fastest-growing industries in theworld. Coastal and marine tourism is one of its most importantsectors and a major component of thriving coastal communities.
This growth, however, can bring with it major environmental,
cultural, social and economic implications. Careful attention needs
to be paid to these impacts.
Globally, tourism and related economic activities generate 9.8
per cent of GDP and employ 277 million people, or 1 in every 11 jobs
(WTTC, 2013). The sector continues to grow fast, especially in someof the world’s least developed countries.
Although tourism can be an opportunity for sustainable
development, poorly planned development of hotels and resorts incoastal areas can result in habitat destruction, pollution, and othernegative impacts on local communities as well as biodiversity.
The increased popularity of cruise ships can also adversely
affect the marine environment. Carrying up to 6,000 passengers
and 2,000 crew, these enormous floating towns are a major sourceof marine pollution through the dumping of garbage and untreatedsewage at sea, and the release of other shipping-related pollutants(Copeland, 2008).

Airport construction
Increased sedimentationfrom dredging and infilling

Resort development
Increased sedimentation, resort
operation, sewage disposal,
habitat destruction

Cruise ships
Nutrient enrichmentfrom illegal sewage
disposal. Litter fromillegal or accidental
solid waste disposal

MarinasPollution from oils andpaint residues, pollution
from fuelling

Motor boating and yachting
Nutrient enrichment from sewage
disposal. Pollution from fuelling
Scuba diving
and snorkeling
Physical damage.
Kicking up sedimentFishing
Overexploitationof reef fish stocks

Artificial beaches
Increased sedimentation(from sand removal or frombeach instability)
Seafoodconsumption
Over-exploitationof high-priced resource
species (snapper, grouper,
spiny lobster, conch)
Demand formarine curiosities
Exploitation of rare,endangered or vulnerable
species such as shells,
black coral, turtles

Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 31

Galapagos: infrastructure and tourism
In a little over three decades, the Galapagos has beentransformed from “worthless Clinker Islands” into one of theworld’s most famous ecotourism destinations. Over 1.5 million
visitors have experienced the unique natural wonders ofGalapagos. Tourism accounts for half the local economy, andbrings in US$418 million a year to the economy of Ecuador.
Improvements in local transportation, communication,
infrastructure, health, and socio-economic well-being are directly
attributed to the tourism industry (Epler, 2007).
Tourist revenue is also essential for conserving the islands’fragile ecosystems. However, the rapid increase in visitorsfrom 40,000 in 1990 to more than 145,000 in 2006 and a
restructuring of the tourism sector in favour of larger cruise ships
have placed increasing pressure on the archipelago (Epler, 2007).
Rapid development and ever-increasing infrastructure needs,
along with higher demand for imported goods and fossil fuels, theintroduction of invasive species, immigration and waste threaten
the land and waters of the Galapagos.
WWF is working with the public sector and local tourism
businesses to design and implement a new ecotourism model thatboth supports conservation and improves people’s livelihoods.

Climate change
and the ocean:
Key risks

Loss of coral reefs
due to warming
and acidification 
reduced biodiversity,
fisheries production
and coastal protection© James W. Thorsell / WWF

Shift in distributionof fish andinvertebrates due towarming waters decreased catches intropical regions

Extreme weather
events and reduced
ecological resilience coastal inundationand habitat loss
Living Blue Planet Report page 32

Climate change
The ocean regulates our climate and drives the weather determining
rainfall, droughts and floods. Ocean waters also absorb vast
amounts of CO2, helping to mitigate human-caused global warming
and climate change. Indeed, in the last 200 years, the ocean has
absorbed around a third of the CO2 produced by human activities
and has absorbed over 90 per cent of the extra heat trapped by therising concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases (Gattuso etal., 2015).
Impacts on key marine and coastal organisms, ecosystems,
and services are already detectable, and several will face a high riskof impacts well before 2100, even under the low-emissions scenario(Gattuso et al. , 2015). By absorbing CO2, the ocean is becoming
more acidic – now occurring at a rate that is faster than any otherperiod in the past 65 million years. Warming and acidifying oceans
amplify the impact of other pressures from overfishing, habitat
destruction and pollution. For example, the increased acidity of theocean reduces the ability of coral reefs to re-establish themselves(“bounce back”) from disturbances such as bleaching, cyclones andcrown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2015).
If current rates of temperature rise continue, the ocean will become
too warm for coral reefs by 2050 (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007).
This would mean a major disruption to at least 25 per cent of thebiodiversity in the ocean, as well as the loss of productive fisheries
and significant impacts on industries such as tourism. The loss ofreefs as a barrier would increase the exposure of coastal areas towaves and storm systems.
Coastal systems and low-lying areas are also increasingly
experiencing adverse impacts from sea level rise – submergence,coastal flooding, and coastal erosion. The loss of coastal ecosystems
such as mangroves and seagrass beds increases vulnerability ofcoastlines and people to the impacts of climate change. Many lowlying developing countries and small island states are expected to
face severe impacts that, in many cases, could result in displacementof people, damage to ecosystems, and adaptation costs amounting toseveral percentage points of GDP (IPCC, 2014).
Loss of livelihoods,
coastal settlements,
infrastructure, ecosystemservices and economic
stability
Rising sea levels
 threats to low-lying
coastal areas
Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 33

Climate change in the Arctic
With only 4 million people spread over more than 32 million
square kilometres, the Arctic remains largely untouched by direct
human impacts. But the effects of global climate change have led
to an unprecedented state of flux. Evidence indicates that Arctic
summer temperatures today are higher than at any time in thepast 2,000 years (Kaufman et al., 2009).
The most drastic result of continued warming is theongoing shrinking, in extent, thickness, and volume, of summer
sea ice. The Arctic Ocean is projected to become nearly ice-free insummer within this century, likely within the next 30 to 40 years(Overland and Wang, 2013).
Life in the Arctic Ocean is highly adapted to the presenceof ice. On and around the ice, polar bears hunt, seals give birth,
walrus rest and feed, and whales feed and hide from predators.
But these are just the more visible parts of a whole ecosystem
driven by pulses of nutrients mediated by the ebb and flow ofsea ice (Eamer et al., 2013). A change in the timing of nutrient
pulses can spell difficulty for both endemic and migratory
species. Millions of migratory birds rely on the pulse of life in
the Arctic spring.
The Arctic Ocean will also likely be particularly prone to
an increase in acidity levels. This is a problem for shell-forming
sea life such as zooplankton, an important part of the Arctic foodweb. A recent study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration modelled the future of US Arctic waters, andconcluded that within decades, “the diverse ecosystems that
support some of the largest commercial and subsistence fisheries
in the world may be under tremendous pressure” (Mathis
et al., 2015).
Changes in the Arctic are significant to people locally andglobally. The Arctic Ocean and surrounding seas produce morethan 10 per cent of global marine fisheries catch by weight – morethan 7 million tonnes per year. The Survey of Living Conditionsin the Arctic (Poppel et al., 2007), which covered indigenous
households in Alaska, Greenland, Canada and Chukotka, foundthat two-thirds of households obtained at least half their foodfrom traditional resources. Diminishing resources could produce
economic and cultural hardship, and push Arctic peoples toincreasingly look to new industries for support – potentiallyputting further pressure on this crucial ecosystem.

Contribution toclimate change

The Arctic Ocean
is likely to becomenearly ice-freein summer
within the next
30 to 40 years

Extractives

To meet our ever-increasing demands for fossil fuels and mineral
resources, extractive industries are moving into new areas –including remote ocean regions and deep-sea areas with fragile
ecosystems and unique biodiversity.
Around a third of oil and gas extracted worldwide comesfrom offshore sources, and this proportion is predicted to increase.
With many reserves exhausted in shallower waters, companies arepushing to greater depths to access new sources. But this is a riskybusiness, as evidenced by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010,
which killed 11 people and leaked 130 million tonnes of crude oil
into the Gulf of Mexico (GPO 2011).
According to the Institute for Sustainable Development andInternational
Relations (IDDRI), the offshore oil and gas sector
2is the least regulated marine-related industry internationally(including from gas flaring) and regionally when it comes to the environment, safety andcompensation (Rochette, 2014). There are no binding global
standards on environment and safety, liability provision and oil spill
response and preparedness regarding oil and gas operations (except
for the transport of oil and gas), and many companies operate todifferent environmental and social standards depending on the
country in which they are working. In some developing countries,
even the most basic environmental requirements are not met. Thisis a particular concern, as offshore exploration and development is
growing fast in Africa and other developing regions.

CO and methane
emissions

Transportation and infrastructure risks
Seafood
contamination
Pollution

Loss of sensitive
habitats(mangroves and corals)

Disturbance to marine mammals
and fish stocks(especially during seismic surveys)

Living Blue Planet Report page 34

Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 35

Oil and gas in the Arctic
Oil and gas is the most widely discussed and most controversial
resource development sector in the Arctic. According to theUnited States Geological Survey (Bird et al., 2008) the Arctic
contains an estimated 90 billion barrels of oil and 30 per cent of
the world’s undiscovered natural gas. Much of the undiscovered
gas is in Russian territory, while the oil is thought to be mostly
offshore of Alaska, Canada and Greenland.
Offshore oil development is especially controversial.
Shell has encountered major difficulties (technical, regulatory
and reputational) in its efforts to drill in Alaskan waters, andexploratory drilling in Greenland’s Baffin Bay drew concern from
Canadian Arctic residents. A few of the sector’s major players
are not at present actively involved in oil and gas projects in
the high Arctic due to substantial risks and the absence of key
technologies and infrastructure to ensure safe operations as well
as reasonable economic returns.
There are no proven effective methods of cleaning up oil
spills in ice, especially mobile ice. Even without ice, the effects
of a spill in Arctic conditions will linger for decades. Oil from theExxon Valdez spill in Alaska still pollutes beaches, more than 25
years later.
While industrial development is expanding in the Arctic,
serious challenges make its consequences unclear. There are
few reliable technologies designed to work in Arctic conditions;infrastructure is very limited; very few strategic environmental
assessments have been done, and knowledge of Arctic ecosystem
dynamics is weak; there are next to no regional Arctic-specificenvironmental standards in the oil and gas industry; noconsistent standardized liability regimes in particular linked
to environmental risk; and there is still no comprehensive
regional or international governance regime for ecosystem-based
management. Finally, the Arctic requires a comprehensive andrepresentative network of marine protected areas to build andprotect resilience in a region expected to experience wrenchingclimate change.

Living Blue Planet Report page 36

MiningMining impacts on marine environments are not a newphenomenon. Marine and coastal zones have been damaged bymining activity since the dawn of the industrial revolution. Somecoastal areas have been used as repositories for coal discards andmetal mine tailings for centuries, both directly dumped offshore or
via river courses that were used, in effect, as industrial drains. Suchwas the extent of this impact over the years that the accumulated
wastes are now periodically dredged to reclaim the minerals lost by
the inefficient technologies of earlier centuries. Thankfully many ofthese practices have now long been outlawed, though some nearshore coastal zones continue to struggle to recover.
There is also growing interest in the deep ocean, thelargest biome on Earth, as an untapped source of both preciousand semi-precious metals, and mineral deposits. With advancesin technology and in anticipation of rising demand and prices,
extracting this mineral wealth is drawing commercial interest andraising conservation concerns. While no commercial deep-sea
mining operations have occurred to date, the International Seabed
Authority has issued licences covering 1.2 million square kilometresof ocean floor in areas beyond national jurisdiction in the Pacific,
Atlantic and the Southern Indian Ocean (Shukman, 2014).
The impacts from this type of mining are unclear, limited by
the lack of knowledge about deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystemcomplexity, but as huge areas of seabed have been licensed thescale could be unprecedented. Understanding and knowing
how to manage these impacts, if indeed the impacts can be
acceptably managed at all, and avoiding development in areas withunacceptable risk will be key in avoiding the damage of the past.

Land-based pollution
Pollution on land has a huge impact at sea, threatening ecosystems,
impacting human health, damaging livelihoods and spoiling our
enjoyment of beaches. Land-based sources are responsible foraround 80 per cent of all marine pollution (UN, 2004).
Poor water quality and sediment are the most serious
pollution threats to many coastal and marine environments inpopulated areas (UN WWAP, 2014), with sewage being the greatest
contributor. In many parts of the world, sewage flows untreated, or
under-treated, into the ocean. According to the fourth UN World
Water Development Report, only 20 per cent of globally produced
wastewater receives proper treatment (UNESCO, 2012).
Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 37

Living Blue Planet Report page 38

Great Barrier Reef: Boosting resilience

Land-basedsources are
responsible for
80% of marine
pollution

Over the past 30 years, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef has lost
more than half of its coral cover. The Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park Authority warns that climate change is the most serious
long-term threat to the reef (GBRMPA, 2014). Building its
resilience by reducing other pressures is an urgent priority.
More than 40 per cent of coral loss has been caused byoutbreaks of the coral-eating crown-of-thorns starfish, which are
fuelled by nutrient run-off from farms (De’ath et al., 2012). WWF
is working with farmers, governments and companies to cut
pollution so coral can recover.
One key initiative is Project Catalyst, which brings together
sugarcane growers, The Coca-Cola Foundation, government
agencies and WWF to test and implement new practices that
reduce run-off and erosion and improve farm productivity.
Nearly 100 Queensland farmers are involved in the project, withimpressive results. But to get the cuts to pollution necessary for
the Great Barrier Reef’s survival, this work needs to be scaledup across all the catchments that run into the reef’s waters –encompassing millions of hectares and thousands of farms.
In recent years, WWF has campaigned against plans formassive new industrial developments along the reef’s coasts
which could have allowed up to 100 million tonnes of dredge
spoil to be dumped within its waters. Incredible public support
for the reef has resulted in a ban on dumping dredge spoil
from new developments in the reef’s World Heritage Site area.
Industrial development still poses many significant threats to thereef including increasing shipping traffic, dredging and dumping
for port maintenance and coastal habitat destruction. WWF willkeep driving for change to reduce these threats to ensure the best
possible future for the reef.
© James Morgan / WWF

Until the 1970s, dumping rubbish in the ocean had been an
accepted practice for centuries. Marine debris can travel immense
distances: it creates navigation hazards, smothers coral reefs,
transports invasive species and negatively affects tourism. It also
injures and kills wildlife; at least 17 per cent of species affectedby entanglement and ingestion of marine debris are listed as
threatened or near threatened on the IUCN Red List. It also may
pose a threat to human health (Gall and Thompson, 2014).
Plastic debris is of particular concern due to its abundance
and its persistence in the environment. There are estimated to beover 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tonnes afloat atsea (Eriksen et al., 2014). We are only just beginning to understandthe level and impact of microplastics – tiny plastic particles of whicharound 35,500 tonnes are estimated to be floating in our ocean(Eriksen et al., 2014). Many more organisms ingest small plastic
particles than previously thought, and these work their way up thefood chain (Cole, 2013; Lusher et al., 2013).
Meanwhile, fertilizer run-off from farms and residential
lawns causes eutrophication – the flourishing of algal blooms that
deplete the water’s dissolved oxygen and suffocate marine life
(Rabalais, 2002; Selman et al., 2008). Eutrophication has createdenormous “dead zones” in several parts of the world, including the
Gulf of Mexico and Baltic Sea, reducing species diversity (Smithand Schindler, 2009) and sometimes leading to toxic algal blooms
known as red tides (Anderson et al., 2008; Rabalais, 2002). Deadzones are growing in both magnitude and geographical extent(Selman et al., 2008).
Toxic wastes from industries continue to be discharged into
our major water bodies, through deliberate illegal dumping or
through run-off from land-based activities. Almost every marineorganism, from the tiniest plankton to whales and polar bears, iscontaminated with man-made chemicals, such as pesticides andchemicals used in common consumer products (Garcia-Hernandez
et al., 2007; Dorneles et al., 2013; Seltenrich, 2015).
With at least 60 per cent of the world’s population living
within 100km of the coast and the global population growing,
marine pollution from land-based activities is likely to worsen.
Given the transboundary nature of marine pollution, protectionof our ocean from land-based activities requires urgent
international cooperation.

Chapter 2: Our ocean under pressure page 39

The islanders of Donsol in the Philippines hold an annual
festival to celebrate their “patron animal”, the whale shark.
For the people of Donsol, the importance of endangered
whale sharks is obvious. The world’s largest fish attracts
tourists to the island, bringing hundreds of thousands ofdollars into the local economy. Communities benefit – andso do the whale sharks and other marine species, as local
people recognize the need to conserve their biggest asset.
Just as whale sharks are vital to Donsol, the natural assets
and services the ocean provides are massively important toeconomies and communities on a global scale. By failing toappreciate the value of ocean ecosystems, we are putting ourlong-term prosperity and well-being at risk.

© Jürgen Freund / WWF

CHAPTER 3:
WHY WE SHOULD CARE

Why we should care
“Both everyday experience and scientific research show that thegravest effects of all attacks on the environment are suffered by thepoorest. For example, the depletion of fishing reserves especiallyhurts small fishing communities without the means to replacethose resources; water pollution particularly affects the poor who
cannot buy bottled water; and rises in the sea level mainly affectimpoverished coastal populations who have nowhere else to go.”Encyclical Letter - Laudato Si’ - of the Holy Father Francis on Careof our Common Home.
The ocean is fundamental to life on Earth, underpinning economies
and businesses, and sustaining the livelihoods and well-being ofbillions of people worldwide. Yet as Chapter 1 has shown, many
ocean ecosystems are in serious decline – while the pressures
outlined in Chapter 2 continue to intensify. We are rapidly running
down our ocean – the natural assets like coral reefs, mangroves andthe species they contain – and the wealth of goods and services thatit provides. Overfishing, pollution, tourism, shipping, extractive
industries and now climate change are not only threatening thehealth of marine habitats and species, but also our fundamental lifesupport system. People’s health, way of life and security is at risk.
From coral reefs and mangroves to migratory fish stocks, theocean is rich in natural capital. These natural assets provide a rangeof goods and services on which we all ultimately depend (Figure23). The ocean benefits us directly, providing food, raw materials,
energy, medicines and other products. Nearly 3 billion people rely
on marine and freshwater fish as a major source of animal protein,
getting almost 20 per cent of their dietary intake from this source(FAO, 2014b) and around 10-12 per cent of the world’s population
depends on fishing and aquaculture as a livelihood (HLPE, 2014).
The ocean is also enormously important for recreation andtourism, and is of great cultural and spiritual importance to coastal
communities around the world. It’s also crucial to internationaltransport and shipping.
The ocean also benefits humans indirectly. It regulates ourglobal climate and weather, produces half the oxygen we breathe
and absorbs almost a third of anthropogenic CO2 emissions (IPCC,
2013). Coastal habitats protect coastal communities and cities fromstorms and erosion, and filter land-based pollution and nutrients.

Living Blue Planet Report page 42

Coastal habitats protect coastal
communities and cities
from storms and erosion

Scenic coastlines,
islands, and coral
reefs offer recreational
opportunities, such as
scuba diving, sea
kayaking andsailing

Offshore reefs createsand and protect theshoreline from severe
stormsFigure 23: Ecosystem
goods and services
provided by the ocean(UNEP 2011).

Estuarine seagrasses andmangroves provide nursery
habitat for commercially targetedfish and crustacean species

The oceans produce
half the oxygen webreatheOffshore energy
provides power tosupport coastal
development

Marine ecosystems including
seagrasses, mangroves andsaltmarshes act as carbon sinks,
reducing greenhouse gases
Healthy coral reefs are
hotspots of marine
biodiversity and can be asource for new medicinesand healthcare products

Sustainable fisheries
provide food, create
jobs, and support
local economies

Mangroves andsaltmarshes act
as natural filters, trapping
harmful sediments andexcessive nutrients

Marine natural capital: the Coral Triangle
Nowhere on Earth is richer in marine natural capital than the Coral Triangle, which covers
a vast area of ocean spanning Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea,
Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste.
One-third of the inhabitants of the Coral Triangle – more than 120 million people– depend directly on local marine and coastal resources for their income, livelihoods andfood security, and fish is a major source of protein in local diets (ADB 2014). Fisheries
exports from Coral Triangle countries in 2011 amounted to 1.7 million tonnes, worth nearly
US$5.2 billion (FAO FIGIS, 2011). The region also produces almost 30 per cent of the total
global tuna catch (WCPFC, 2014; IOTC, 2015), with an export value estimated at close to
US$1 billion (FAO FIGIS, 2011). A lucrative trade in coral reef fish caught and sold live forhuman consumption generates an annual value of US$1 billion (Muldoon, 2015).
The region also attracts tens of millions of visitors every year. The Pacific Asia Travel
Association estimates nature-based tourism in Coral Triangle countries is worth US$12
billion annually, with earnings shared by travel operators, tour guides, hotels, diving
operations and countless other businesses (Pet-Soede et al., 2011).

Chapter 3: Why we should care page 43€$ £ $ ¥$ € ¥ $$ £$¥$ €£ ¥€

Living Blue Planet Report page 44

seeing the economic sense in managing the ocean more sustainably.
In 2010, for example, the 193 member states of the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed on new biodiversity targets
which include “the need to incorporate values of biodiversity into
national accounting and reporting systems”. The same year, theUnited Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) launched the
TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) for Oceans
and Coasts initiative to incorporate values of oceans and coasts indecision-making.
Tools and approaches such as natural capital accounting(NCA) and ecosystem service valuation (ESV) are increasingly used
and accepted globally. NCA helps governments and companies
to track the status of natural capital assets and the benefits they
provide over time, while ESV is used to assess, quantify or estimate
the monetary value of benefits provided by nature. The informationthese tools provide can help decision-makers to develop policies,
target investment and manage ocean resources more effectively.

Valuing the ocean: an example¥£

Invisibility of nature’s value: a major cause ofocean decline
Despite our dependence on ocean ecosystems, their contribution isroutinely taken for granted. Many of the benefits they provide do nothave an explicit market value, providing little incentive for decisionmakers to account for the impacts of overuse or degradation, forexample when deciding how to manage a fishery or where to build a
new port. The value of many of nature’s services is often appreciatedonly when they are lost (MEA, 2005).
Understanding the value of ocean ecosystems is a crucial
first step in their recovery. Governments, intergovernmental
agencies, businesses and financial institutions are increasingly

In West Africa,
small‑scale local
vessels arecompeting fordwindling fish stocks
with heavily subsidized
super-trawlers fromEU countries€

Socio-economic implications of ocean decline
As the preceding chapters have highlighted, the ocean is being
re‑engineered as a result of human activity. Many marine andcoastal ecosystems are under such stress and degradation thatthey are now past the point where they can replenish themselvesand continue to provide us with the same level of benefits. Thisis generating increased risks and costs to human well-being andeconomies around the world.
The ocean’s once abundant fisheries are increasingly unable
to feed and provide livelihoods for the world’s rapidly expanding
population. In 2008, the FAO estimated that global fish stocks were
contributing some US$50 billion less every year than they would ifwell managed and fished sustainably (Arnason et al., 2008). Poor
coastal communities who rely most directly on the ocean for foodand livelihoods are particularly vulnerable – and often unfairly
disadvantaged. In West Africa, for example, small-scale local vessels
find themselves competing for dwindling fish stocks with giant (andheavily subsidized) super-trawlers from EU countries.
Ocean degradation is also increasingly threatening
sustainable tourism in many destinations. Tourism is especiallydependent on the condition of habitats such as coral reefs, andreef degradation has a direct economic impact on people whose
livelihoods rely on reef-related tourism.
Coasts denuded of protective habitats are increasingly
exposed to risks associated with rising seas and extreme weather
events. A UN report reveals that global mangrove deforestationis resulting in economic losses of up to US$42 billion annually(UNEP, 2014).
With the global population projected to increase beyond
9 billion people by 2050, the demand for ocean resources will
persist and intensify, placing further pressure on natural systems.
Climate change and associated ocean warming and acidification areexacerbating these risks.

The Boston Consulting Group in collaboration with the Global
Change Institute and WWF recently estimated that the ocean
generates economic benefits worth at least US$2.5 trillion per
year. The total value of the ocean’s underpinning assets is at least
US$24 trillion (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2015). Underpinning
the value estimates are direct outputs (e.g. fishing), services
enabled (e.g. tourism, education), trade and transportation(coastal and oceanic shipping) and adjacent benefits (e.g. carbon
sequestration, biotechnology)(BCG, 2015). More than two-thirdsof this value relies on healthy ocean conditions.
However, the values highlighted are considered to bevast underestimates. The study did not attempt to assess thevalue of less well understood ecosystems such as seamounts anddeep-sea habitats. Moreover, the study did not consider the role
the ocean plays in atmospheric regulation, carbon storage andplanetary temperature control – nor its incalculable spiritual andcultural values.
The ocean is, of course, infinitely valuable: without it,life on Earth simply could not exist. It also has an intrinsic
value, irrespective of human perceptions. Valuation tools are
not about putting a price tag on our ocean assets so they canbe commoditized, but about enabling decision-makers to makesmarter choices so present and future generations can continue
to enjoy the benefits of a healthy ocean.

Chapter 3: Why we should care page 45

Ocean infrastructure: cost-effective protection tocoasts from flooding and erosion
The combination of severe storms, high population densities,
degraded natural habitats and climate change is putting property
and life at increasing risk around the world (IPCC, 2007). In theUS, about 16 per cent of the immediate coastline (within 1km of
the shore) is classified as “high hazard” area. These coastlines
are home to 1.3 million people and US$300 billion worth ofresidential property. Sea level rise is predicted to increase theamount of highly threatened people and property by 30-60 per
cent by 2100. A recent study found that 147-216 million people –more than a quarter of them in China – live on land that will be
below sea level or regular flood levels by the end of the century(Strauss and Kulp, 2014).
The traditional response to these coastal hazards has been
to construct levees and seawalls. But these are expensive to build
and maintain and often have consequences for the benefits thatnatural systems provide to people (Jones et al., 2012).
Recently, interest has increased in “green infrastructure”,
such as restoration of coastal habitats – wetlands, coastal forests,
mangroves, seagrass meadows, coral and oyster reefs. The aim is
to protect people and property while improving quality of life by
maintaining the full suite of benefits these ecosystems provide.
In 2013, the Natural Capital Project (a partnership between
WWF, The Nature Conservancy, University of Minnesota andStanford University) mapped the entire US coast to identify
where green infrastructure has the greatest potential for reducing
risk from coastal hazards (Arkema et al., 2013). On a national
scale, the number of people most exposed to future hazards
can be halved if existing coastal habitats remain fully intact.
Regionally, coastal habitats defend the greatest number of people
and total property value in Florida, New York and California.
In other parts of the world, coastal defence planning
has slowly begun to incorporate ecosystems alongside physicalstructures. Many poor coastal communities in countries like thePhilippines, Indonesia and small island developing states facegrave risks of hurricanes, tsunamis and sea level rise. These
communities largely depend on fishing for their food and income:
if their fisheries are in poor health, it is hard for them to bounceback from disaster. Multi-stakeholder efforts in these countries
are combining community-based and large-scale initiatives torestore natural habitats, to both strengthen fisheries and help
buffer coastal communities from floods and storms.

Living Blue Planet Report page 46

147-216 million people
live on land that will
be below sea level orregular flood levels by
the end of the century
Marine protectedareas could help
to reduce poverty,
increase food security,
create employment
and protect coastal
communities

An ocean of opportunity
Ocean ecosystems are renewable assets which, if maintained ina healthy state, would continue to provide goods and services inperpetuity. Substantial economic and social gains could be realized
by protecting and improving them, and from using them sustainably
and equitably to:• Enhance food security, health and well-being. Improvedand equitable access to food and raw materials from a healthy
ocean would improve quality of life for hundreds of millions ofpeople, as well as generating substantial savings from averted
healthcare and social costs.
• Deliver more secure and cost-effective public services.
Ocean ecosystems are a core part of a nation’s infrastructure
portfolio, and should be invested in accordingly. Protecting
and improving them to secure service supply would generate
multibillion-dollar savings (through reduced need forman‑made alternatives and avoided socio-economic costs).
• Build more resilient economies and businesses.
Improved access to a sustainable supply of raw materials would
insulate economies, businesses and supply chains from resource
shocks, price volatility and disaster risks.
• Generate economic growth where it is needed, including
through new businesses and job creation in coastal areas (forexample in fisheries and tourism) – areas that often suffer froma lack of economic opportunities.
Protecting our ocean makes economic sense
Marine protected areas (MPAs) that effectively protect critical
habitats, species and ecological functions are an essential tool for
ensuring ocean ecosystems can deliver services and benefits tocurrent and future generations. Brander et al. (2015) show thatwell-managed MPAs could help to reduce poverty, increase foodsecurity, create employment and protect coastal communities.
They modelled a range of scenarios to examine the net benefits
of expanding MPAs. Increasing MPA coverage to 30 per cent ofmarine and coastal areas could generate between US$490 billion
and US$920 billion by 2050 and 150,000-180,000 full-time jobs in
MPA management over the 2015-2050 period.

Chapter 3: Why we should care page 47

“Working with scientists and park managers really helped
me understand the benefits of fishing regulations,” says
Michele Iaia. “Today, my income is protected and I am lessworried about our community’s future.”
Michele is a fisherman in Torre Guaceto in Italy, a traditional
fishing site and a marine protected area (MPA) since 1991.
In 2000, fishing was banned in the entire MPA, leading
to conflicts and high levels of illegal fishing. Five years
later, a portion of the zone was reopened. The fishermen,
with support from scientists and MPA staff, were invited
to develop their own sustainable fishing solutions. One ofthese included a project to market species of low commercial
value, in collaboration with the Slow Food association.
Fishermen have improved their income, and now play anactive part in the management of the MPA.

© Giuseppe Affinito - Archivio Consorzio di Gestione di Torre Guaceto

Chapter 4:
Turning the tide© Jürgen Freund / WWFBlue planet solutions
As the preceding chapters make clear, marine and coastal
ecosystems are in serious trouble, and the pressures upon themcontinue to mount. If we don’t reverse these trends, the implications
will be profound – for the security, well-being and way of life of
hundreds of millions of people, for local and global economies, andfor the future generations who inherit this blue planet.
The picture in this report is bleak – yet there are signs ofhope. It’s not too late to save our seas: opportunities and solutions
exist for governments, business and industry, and civil society to riseto the challenge and work together to secure a living ocean for all.
WWF’s One Planet Perspective (Figure 24) provides a frameworkfor preserving and managing our ocean resources within ecologicallimits. It highlights the need to preserve our natural marine capital,
produce resources like seafood and energy in a better way, andconsume these resources more wisely. And it outlines two essential
enabling conditions – redirecting financial flows to support thesepriorities, and equitable resource governance that ensures our ocean
is looked after for the benefit of all.
This chapter introduces examples of how, all over the world,
the One Planet Perspective is being put into practice – and of
how marine ecosystems, and the people who depend on them, arebenefiting. We need to see solutions like these rolled out on a far
greater scale – urgently.

Preserve Natural Capital
RedirectFinancial
Flows• Payment forecosystem
services• Greening
investments• Redirection offunds/subsidies• Natural capitalvaluation• Marine protected areas: nurseries ofthe sea and coastal resilience• Ecological functions• Ecosystem restoration

Produce Better• Sustainable fisheries• Sustainable coastal development andtourism• Sustainble development/infrastructure

Consume More Wisely• Sustainable seafood consumption• Responsible tourism• Efficient use of energy and materials

Ecosystem
integrity

Living Blue Planet Report page 50

Food, waterand energy
security
Biodiversity
conservation

Equitable
Resource
Governance• Oceangovernance• Food security• Communitybased
management
structures• Empowerment/
gender issues

Figure 24: WWF’s One
Planet Perspective
provides a framework
for making better
choices for the marine
environment.

Using circle hooks like this one in place of traditional long-line hooks can reduce the accidental
catching of non-target species such as marine turtles by as much as 80 per cent. WWF is working withthousands of long-line tuna fishermen to promote better fishing methods that reduce impacts on themarine environment and support the industry’s long-term sustainability.

Chapter 4: Turning the tide page 51

Blue economy from a One Planet Perspective
The One Planet Perspective shows how we canhalt the depletion of the ocean, restore damaged
ecosystems, and manage, use and share the ocean’s
resources within the planet’s finite capacity.
These are also the ingredients for a sustainable
blue economy.
Preserve natural capital: Marine natural capital should be built
into national accounting, and the importance of ecosystem services
and natural assets should be considered in every decision that
affects the marine environment.
To date, the total ocean area under some form of protection
is only 3.4 per cent: concerted action is needed to reach the
Aichi Target, agreed under the CBD, to protect at least 10 per
cent of coastal and marine areas by 2020. WWF is working withgovernments, partners and local communities around the world
to establish effectively and equitably managed, ecologically
representative and well-connected networks of MPAs.
Produce better: Almost 10 per cent of wild-caught seafood
globally now comes from fisheries certified by the Marine
Stewardship Council (MSC). This ensures stocks are being managed
sustainably, and that impacts on marine ecosystems and species
are minimized. In addition, an increasing number of fish farms are
implementing the standards of the Aquaculture Stewardship Council(ASC). WWF and partners also work with fisheries, including
communities where certification is not an option, to improve fishingpractices. Better management in fisheries is vital for reversing thealarming decline in utilized fish species and rebuilding fish stocks toecologically sustainable harvest levels.
Meanwhile, shifting away from fossil fuels will reduce theimpacts of oil and gas sector development – and of climate change –on the marine environment.

Redirect financial flows: There is a compelling economic casefor investing in preserving and restoring marine natural capitaland sustainable production, yet investment patterns and harmful
subsidies continue to promote overfishing and unsustainable
exploitation. NCA and ESV tools, as described in the previous
chapter, can help support wiser investment choices.
One alternative model is WWF’s Financial Instrument for
the Recovery of Marine Ecosystems (FIRME). Which facilitatesloans for conservation measures and social support necessary to
put a fishery on a sustainable footing, to be repaid through profits
from increased future yields. User fees for marine protected areas
and tourism levies that are put back into conservation are also
examples of how finance can be redirected to enhance the value of
our ocean assets.
WWF wants to see a “Blue Alliance” of nations as well as
concerned organizations and businesses to drive action to restore
our ocean to health. This would include raising and accessing
funds to invest in restoring habitats, reforming fisheries (including
small-scale fisheries), reducing pollution, and building resilience toclimate change.
Equitable resource governance: Ocean protection andrestoration is not just a matter for government; communities andresponsible businesses must be engaged as well. Solutions must
involve holistic thinking that includes natural, social and economic
needs and limits.
WWF is working with communities to develop rightsbased, ecosystem-centred management systems, enabling them tosustainably manage their marine resources and ensure their longterm food and livelihood security. Gender issues often also need tobe addressed with regard to access to resources and benefits.

Consume more wisely: Demand from consumers and retailers
for more responsibly produced seafood has encouraged producers
to commit to ASC and MSC certification. Consumer choices
can also influence service industries such as tourism to operate
in more responsible ways that benefit marine ecosystems andcoastal communities.

Living Blue Planet Report page 52

Chapter 4: Turning the tide page 53

The One Planet Perspective in action
Read more at ocean.panda.org

seeOcean explorer

TransparentSea.org, launched in 2015 by
WWF and navama, is a digital platform
where fishing boats worldwide can registerand share their satellite data to prove they arecommitted to legal and responsible fishing.
The data will help inform fisheries managers
and combat IUU fishing.

BalticA more integrated approach to
managing marine resources in
the Baltic Sea region could add
550,000 jobs and €32 billion in
annual value by 2030.

US Eastern Seaboard

In the aftermath of Hurricane
Sandy, the US government isinvesting millions of dollars
in coastal defence projects,
including restoring oyster
and wetland habitats in New
York and combining naturaland engineered strategies forprotection in Louisiana.

North Atlantic(Mid Atlantic Ridge)

The Charlie Gibbs MPA and fiveother high seas MPAs covering
285,000km2 in the North Atlantic
show a commitment to protecting
vulnerable marine ecosystems evenin areas beyond national jurisdiction.

Maldives

Mesoamerican Reef

Around two-thirds of agricultural land in the
Mesoamerican Reef catchment is under better
management practices that minimize negative
impacts on the reef. Pesticide toxicity has been
cut by 68 per cent, fertilizer and water use by
more than 30 per cent, and soil erosion by a third.

Living Blue Planet Report page 54

South Africa

To tackle overfishing, WWF is
supporting around 80 smallscale rock lobster and line
fishers on Kogelberg coast
to organize into community
cooperatives and sell directly
into higher-value markets.

In order to achieve MSC
certification for its poleand-line tuna fishery, theMaldives successfully lobbied
for improved tuna stock
assessments and management
throughout the Indian Ocean
region. WWF recommends
consumers purchase MSC
certified products to support
sustainable fisheries.

Fiji

Recognizing the value to local
development of divers coming to see
sharks, communities in Fiji have stopped
shark fishing in a 30-mile “shark
corridor”. Shark tourism contributed
US$42.2 million to the country’s
economy in 2010 (Vianna et al., 2011).

Chapter 4: Turning the tide page 55

The Coral Triangle
An ambitious initiative spanning six countries aims topreserve the region’s unparalleled marine riches forthe benefit of its current and future inhabitants.
Home to three-quarters of all known coral species, six of theworld’s seven species of marine turtles, 27 marine mammal
species and 3,000 species of fish, the Coral Triangle is the world’s
centre of marine life. Yet over the last 40 years, over 40 per
cent of the region’s coral reefs and mangroves have disappeared(Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2009). More than 85 per cent of its
remaining reefs are threatened, with nearly 45 per cent at high orvery high threat levels (Burke et al., 2011). Local threats, driven
by population growth and economic development, include coastal
development, pollution and damage from agriculture, shippingand oil and gas installations, and unsustainable and destructive
fishing. These are compounded by global stressors, including
warming sea temperatures and ocean acidification.
Recognizing the importance of preserving their region’s
hugely valuable natural capital, the six Coral Triangle countries
came together in 2009 to establish the Coral Triangle Initiativeon Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF). The
initiative, strongly supported by WWF and other development
partners, has produced groundbreaking collaborative actionplans to sustainably manage the region for future generations.
Key areas of focus include managing priority seascapes and MPA
networks, applying ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries
management, addressing climate change, and protecting
threatened species.
Preserve natural capital: The initiative has helped to catalyse
ambitious projects such as the Tun Mustapha Park, a vast MPA
encompassing almost 1 million hectares and 50 islands off Sabah,
Malaysia. The park contains a globally significant mix of coral
reefs, mangroves and seagrasses and is an important migratory
passage for fish, turtles and marine mammals. But it also
supports the livelihoods of 80,000 people, with approximately
100 tonnes of fish – valued at US$200,000 – caught each day.
Tun Mustapha Park marks a shift away from small, strictly
protected areas to a large area encompassing different sustainable
uses. Importantly, it will be managed in collaboration with local
communities. Community-based natural resource management isa key tool for conserving and sustainably using marine resources
while improving livelihoods in the Coral Triangle.

Living Blue Planet Report page 56

80,000Equitable resource governance: Women make up half ofall seafood workers globally (FAO, 2014b), and addressing theposition of women in fisheries is fundamental to tackling theroot causes of poverty and environmental degradation. In the
Solomon Islands, women’s empowerment has been central to a
project which aims to improve the lives of coastal communities
on the island of Ghizo. The project, supported by WWF-Australia
and funded by the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs andTrade and John West Australia, has included launching inshore
fish aggregating devices or “rafters”. These floating devices attract
fish, provide alternative fishing areas and contribute to reducing
fishing effort on the reefs.
The sale of fish caught at the rafters contributes to local
women’s savings clubs, part of a micro-savings and loans
scheme set up with seed money from John West Australia. The
women are able to take out loans to help fund small businesses.
In just 18 months, the scheme grew rapidly to seven savings
clubs, with more than 650 members, and the women had saved
over SBD$172,000 (US$21,400). Their investment into theproject is helping to ensure sustainable management of local
marine resources.

At almost a million
hectares, the Tun
Mustapha Park
contains a globallysignificant mix of coral
reefs, mangroves
and seagrasses andsupports the livelihoodsof 80,000 people.

Redirecting financial flows: The CTI-CFF has leveraged
nearly a quarter of a billion dollars in finance from donors
including the Asian Development Bank, the Global Environment
Facility, USAID and the Australian government (Abraham, 2015).
S. KOREA investment
JAPANThis in turn has encouraged
from private sector
companies operating in the region into sustainable fishing andtourism projects.

US$200,000

CHINA

Approximately 100
tonnes of fish, valued
at US$200,000 arecaught in the parkeach day.

INDIA

MYANMARLAOS
THAILAND

Figure 25. Map of theCoral Triangle (The Coral
Triangle Atlas; UNEPWCMC, WorldFish Center,
WRI, TNC 2010).
Key
Coral Triangle
scientific boundary
CTI-CFF
implementeation
area boundary

VIETNAMPHILIPPINESCAMBODIAMALAYSIAINDONESIAPAPUA NEWGUINEA

TIMOR
LESTE

AUSTRALIASOLOMON
ISLANDSVANUATUNEW
CALEDONIA

Chapter 4: Turning the tide page 57

FĲI
ISLANDSCatching less to catch more

Valuing nature in coastal management

Along the coast of Mozambique, local fishers are seeing
the benefits of no-take zones and MPAs.

Belize’s new coastal development plan takes full accountof the huge value of natural ecosystems.

Primera e Segundas is a chain of 10 pristine coral islands
stretching 150km along the coast of northern Mozambique. It’s
one of the most important places for sea turtle reproduction in
the western Indian Ocean, as well as home to migrating whales,
dolphins and seabirds. The area is also crucial for Mozambique’s
economy, and part of the world’s largest wild prawn fishery.
However, this globally important marine environmenthas been pushed to the point of collapse through industrial andartisanal overfishing, compounded by the increasing impacts ofclimate change. In the city of Moma, which has a population ofaround 300,000, four out of five people eat fish daily, and in overhalf the households at least one man or boy actively fishes. Manyof the more than 15,000 fishermen use harmful practices, likeusing mosquito nets which catch even the smallest fish.
WWF and CARE are working with poor communities in
the region to support development and conservation. In 2010,
the CARE-WWF Alliance helped set up two no-take zones,
where no fishing is allowed. Local communities are closely
involved in managing and monitoring these sanctuaries, and are
already seeing the benefits as the number and diversity of fish
has increased dramatically. After four years, the biomass caught
in surveys within the sanctuaries was 50.761kg compared to4.454kg for the same area outside, and there were three to fourtimes as many species (Mualeque, 2014). This leads to increased
catches for local fishers as these fish spread to other areas. As
a result of these positive effects, the Mozambique Fisheries
Research Institute has recommended that no-take zones beestablished in other parts of the country.

The beauty and diversity of Belize’s coastal ecosystems draw
tourists from around the globe. More than 40 per cent of thecountry’s population live and work along the coast and depend onthese ecosystems for their livelihoods.
Belize’s coastal and ocean ecosystems provide services
worth up to US$559 million per year – equivalent to 43 per centof GDP in 2007 (Cooper et al., 2009). These include support forcommercial fisheries, tourism and protection from erosion andstorm surges. But too often, the benefits of natural ecosystems
such as coral reefs and mangroves are overlooked in coastal
investment and policy decisions.
In 2010, Belize’s Coastal Zone Management Authority andInstitute began to develop the country’s first national Integrated
Coastal Zone Management Plan, in partnership with WWF and
the Natural Capital Project (NatCap). The plan replaces ad hoc
development decisions with informed, long-term management.
It provides science-based evidence to help resolve conflicts
between competing interests and minimize the risks to natural
habitats from human activities. It was developed through close
consultation with the public and different industries at local andnational level.
To understand the implications of different development
scenarios, the team used NatCap’s InVEST (Integrated Valuationof Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs) software, designed tohelp incorporate the value of ecosystem services into decisionmaking. For instance, by looking at how coastal development in
a particular area will affect key ecosystems, it’s possible to weighup the expected gains in tourist revenue against the potential
loss in income for lobster fishers and the increased vulnerability
to storms.
By balancing conservation with current and future
development needs, the plan could boost revenue from lobster
fishing by US$2.5 million, increase the functional area of coral
reefs, mangroves and seagrass by up to 25 per cent, and double
the value of these ecosystems for protecting the coast by 2025.
In short, it will help the people of Belize plot a wiser course formanaging the incredibly valuable resources their ocean andcoast provide.

Living Blue Planet Report page 58+300%
After four years, there
were three to fourtimes as many species
within the sanctuaries

Chapter 4: Turning the tide page 59

Living Blue Planet Report page 60© NASAIn 1972, the US space agency NASA released the first image of thefull, sunlit sphere of the Earth. Humanity had never seen our planet– our shared home – from that perspective, and the image left anindelible impression.
More than 40 years later, just as we were finalizing thisreport, NASA released the second such image – not a composite
stitched together to create one picture, but a single shutter snapof Earth taken from a million miles away.
By now, of course, the image is familiar. But it still has thepower to make us pause and reflect. There are no borders on thisglobe. We’re all connected, and we’re totally dependent on thisfragile planet suspended in the vast blackness of space.
This blue planet. If you ever doubted the primacy of the ocean
in shaping the life on Earth, just look at this image. If you everdoubted the link between ocean and climate, this image shows they
are inextricably interwoven.
Alongside awe and humility, this new image fills me with arenewed sense of urgency. Because while the Earth from space in2015 looks about like it did in 1972, we know that our planet haschanged substantially and perhaps irrevocably in the intervening
four decades. As this report describes, the marine Living PlanetIndex has declined by 49 per cent since 1970. That’s not just the lossof some fish and some turtles. That’s the unravelling of the fabric ofan ecosystem that sustains life on Earth.
This year, world leaders are meeting to discuss two global
agreements that could have profound implications for the futureof the ocean. In September, international heads of state andgovernment will agree a set of Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs). Goal 14 of the SDGs focuses specifically on the ocean.
The targets must translate into action to address the issues outlinedin this report, including habitat destruction, overfishing, illegal
fishing and marine pollution, and the commitments must be backed
by significant investment and implementation strategies.
At the end of 2015, governments will meet in Paris to try
to reach a binding and universal agreement on tackling climatechange. This is of the utmost importance, as current international
commitments fall far short of the action we need to stop levels ofwarming and acidification that would prove catastrophic to ocean
ecosystems and the people who depend upon them.
While it’s easy to get lost in the complexity of these issues,
when we step back and consider what’s really at stake, it becomes
clear that inaction is not an option.

© Phil Dickie / WWF

THE NEXT WAVEJohn Tanzer, Director,
WWF International
Marine Programme

Chapter 4: Turning the tide page 61

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Living Blue Planet Report
Living Blue Planet Report

100%

RECYCLED

Species
Human well-being

Populations of fish
species used byhumans have fallen
by half.

Marine and freshwater fisheries
are a major source of protein
for 2.9 billion people.

Natural capital
Habitats
Tropical reefs have lost
more than half their reefbuilding corals over thelast 30 years.

The ocean generates
economic benefits worth
at least US$2.5 trillion
per year.

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