6 The structure of alanguage lesson

Lessons are events which are fairly easy to recognize. They take place ina particular setting (e.g., a school or classroom), they normally involve
two kinds of participants (the teacher and students), and they normallyconsist of recognizable kinds of activities (e.g., the teacher lecturing at
the front of the class, the teacher posing questions and calling on students
to answer them). A lesson is, hence, distinguishable from other kinds ofspeech events, such as meetings, debates, arguments, or trials.
Like other speech events, however, lessons have a recognizable structure. They begin in a particular way, they proceed through a series ofteaching and learning activities, and they reach a conclusion. This patternof structure or organization is a result of the teacher's attempts to manage
the instructional process in a way which will optimize the amount oflearning that can take place in the time available. Wong-Fillmore (1985:23-4) observes:
How classes are organized and how instructional events are structured
determine to a large extent the nature of the language that students hear anduse in the classroom .... Two sets of characteristics appear to distinguishclasses that work for language learning from those that do not. The first set
relates to the way the classes are structured or are organized for instruction,
the second to the way language is used in lessons.

Research on teaching in mainstream classes has found that when teachers
structure their lessons effectively, they:
Begin a lesson with a short review of previous, prerequisite learning.
Begin a lesson with a short statement of goals.
Present new material in small steps, with student practice after each step.
Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
Provide a high level of active practice for all students.

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Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

Ask a large number of questions, check for student understanding, and obtain
responses from all students.
Guide students during initial practice.
Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
Provide explicit instruction and practice for seatwork exercises and, where
necessary, monitor students during seatwork.
(Rosenshine and Stevens 1986: 377)

This chapter concerns how lessons are organized into sequences and how
the momentum of a lesson is achieved. This is referred to as structuring.
The focus will be on four dimensions of structuring:/

Opening. How a lesson begins.
Sequencing. How a lesson is divided into segments and how thesegments relate to each other.
Pacing. How a sense of movement is achieved within a lesson.
Closure. How a lesson is brought to an end.

Openings
The opening of a lesson consists of the procedures the teacher uses tofocus the students' attention on the learning aims of the lesson. Researchon teaching suggests that the opening, or "entry," of a lesson generally
occupies the first five minutes and can have an important influence on
how much students learn from a lesson (Kinds vatter, Wilen, and Ishler,
1988). In her longitudinal study of limited English proficiency students
in third and fifth grade classrooms in the United States, Wong-Fillmore(1985: 27) found that effective lessons for language learning wereformal, scheduled lessons with clear boundaries. The beginnings of smallgroup lessons were usually marked by an actual change in the physicallocation of the students or by some other movement ... [such as] turningseats around so students face one another. The beginnings of such eventswere often marked by changes in the teacher's voice quality or volume, or in
the teacher's location or posture, these serving to call the group to attention.

Lesson beginnings can serve a variety of purposes. For example, specificlessons openings can be used to:Help learners to relate the content of the new lesson to that of the last or
previous lessons (cognitive contribution).
Assess relevant knowledge (cognitive contribution).

The structure of a language lesson

115

Establish an appropriate "set" in learners: i.e., prepare them for what is tofollow (cognitive or affective contribution).
Allow "tuning-in" time - which may be especially important in situations
where learners have come directly from a radically different environment(pragmatic contribution).
Reduce the disruption caused by late-arriving students (pragmatic
contribution).
(McGrath, Davies, and Mulphin 1992: 92-3)

The way a lesson opens reflects a number of decisions that a teacher
makes, either consciously or unconsciously. A number of options areavailable. For example, a teacher could choose to:• describe the goals of a lesson.
• state the information or skills the students will learn.
• describe the relationship between the lesson/activities and a realworld need.
• describe what students are expected to do in the lesson.
• describe the relationship between the lesson/activities and a forthcoming test or exam.
• begin an activity without any explanation.
• point out links between this lesson and previous lessons.
• state that the activity the students will do is something they will
enjoy.
• do something in order to capture the students' interest andmotivation.
• review learning from a previous lesson.
• preview the lesson.
The purpose of a lesson beginning will determine the kind of activity or
strategy the teacher uses to begin the lesson (see Appendix 1). Rosenshine and Stevens (1986: 381) point out, for example, that beginning alesson with a short review provides additional opportunities to learn
previously taught material and allows the teacher to provide correction or
reteach areas that students are having difficulty with. This can be accomplished by:• Asking' questions about concepts or skills taught in the previous
lesson.
• Giving a short quiz at the beginning of class on material from previous lessons or homework assignments.
• Having students meet in small groups (two to four students pergroup) ~o review homework.

116

Reflective teaching in second language classrooms• Having students prepare questions about previous lessons or homework. They can ask questions to each other, or the teacher can ask
them to the class.
• Having students prepare a written summary of the previous lesson.
• Having students ask the teacher about problems on homework andhaving the teacher review, re-teach, or provide additional practice.
In their study of adult classes in EFL and modern languages, McGrath etal. (1992) found that lesson openings are used principally "to establish an
appropriate affective framework for learning and, to a lesser extent, toestablish an appropriate cognitive framework" (p. 105). They also foundthat learners are sensitive to the contribution of lesson beginnings.
How do these features of lessons affect language learning? Although
there is relatively little research on openings in second language classrooms (however, see McGrath et al. 1992), Wong-Fillmore (1985) suggests that openings and other boundary markers within lessons, such astransitions and closings, help frame the event, giving students an idea ofwhat to expect and how to prepare for it.
The formulaic starters used by the teachers helped to signal when thesescheduled events were to begin, so the students knew when they should begin
paying attention and what they should be listening for. (Wong-Fillmore
1985: 28)

The following lesson transcript shows how a teacher deals with a lesson
opening in a language arts class for ESL students at secondary level.
After greeting the students (Ss) and dealing with noninstructional matters, the teacher (T) begins:
T:

S:
T:
S:
T:
S:

The other time we were talking about figures of speech. And wehave already in the past talked about three kinds of figures ofspeech. Does anybody remember those three types? Mary?
Personification, simile, and metaphor.
Good. Let me write those on the board. Now, can anybody tellme what personification is all about again? Juan?
Making a non-living thing act like a person.
Yes. OK. Good enough. Now what about simile? ... OK,
Cecilia?
Comparing two things by making use of the words "like" or
"as."

T:

OK. Good. I'll write that on the board. The other one metaphor. Paul?

The structure of a language lesson

S:
T:

S:
T:
Ss:
T:

Ss:
T:

117

It's when we make a comparison between two things, but wecompare them without using the words "like" or "as."All right. Good. So, it's more direct than a simile. Now, we had
a poem a few weeks ago about personification. Do you remember? Can you recall one line from that poem where a non-living
thing acts like a human person?
"The moon walks the night."
Good. 'The moon walks the night." Does the moon have feet to
walk?
No.
No. So this is a figure of speech. All right. Now, our lesson today has something to do with metaphor. We already did simile
and we just slightly touched on metaphor before. Now we'regoing to see what they have in common. So, by the way, do you
have your songs with you?
Yes.
Last week I told you we were going to share songs and thisweek it's my turn to share with you a song that I like. And 1
have chosen a song by Simon and Garfunkel.

(The class then listens to the song "I Am a Rock" and discusses themetaphors in the lyrics.)
This teacher has chosen several strategies to begin her lesson. She makes
links to a previous lesson, she previews the current lesson, and she uses asong to capture the students' interest and provide further illustrations ofmetaphor.
Discussion
1. Review the list of strategies for lesson openings on page 115.
Which strategies do you (or the teacher you are observing)use most frequently? Do you (or the teacher) use any strategies that are not on this list? For what purposes are thesestrategies used?
2. Examine the list of purposes for lesson beginnings and the illustrative activities in Appendix 1. Can you add to the list of
purposes? Choose one of the purposes on the list. Give otherexamples of activities that could be used to achieve thispurpose.
3. You are teaching an intermediate reading class based on amagazine article about the dangers of boxing as a sport.

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Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

Think of a suitable opening for the lesson. Does it match one of
the strategies listed on page 115?
4. Read the transcript of the lesson opening on pages 116-117
again. How many of the strategies listed on page 115 does
the teacher employ?

Sequencing
Another dimension of structuring in lessons has to do with the format of
the lesson itself. Most lessons do not consist of a single activity; rather,
the teacher analyzes the overall goals of a lesson and the content to betaught and then plans a sequence of activities to attain those goals. Thissequence of sub-activities for a lesson establishes ,a kind of format or
script for the lesson. Experienced teachers often have a mental format inmind when they think of a particular kind of lesson, such as a reading
lesson, a composition class, a listening lesson, and so on. This format
represents the sequence of activities which make up the lesson.
Wong-Fillmore (1985: 29) points out that in the third and fifth grade
reading lessons she observed, a typical lesson format consisted of theteacher:Presenting new vocabulary items used in the text at hand.
Eliciting discussion on the meanings and uses of the new words andrelating them to known words.
Having the group read the words together from the list.
Having the group read the text silently.
Having learners take turns reading the paragraphs in the text.
Discussing the meaning of the text with the students.
Making an assignment for seatwork to be done individually.
In second and foreign language teaching, a number of principles haveemerged for determining the internal structure of lessons. These principles are based on different views of the skills and processes underlying
different aspects of second language learning and how learning can beaccomplished most effectively. The following are examples of principlesof this kind, which are taken from ESL methodology texts of different
persuasions:• Simple activities should come before complex ones.
• Activities involving receptive skills should precede those that involve productive skills.
• Students should study a grammar rule before trying to use it.

The structure of a language lesson

119• Students should practice using a tense or grammar structure before
studying the rule that underlies it.
• Accuracy-focused activities should precede fluency-focused ones.
• There should be a progression within a lesson from mechanical orform-based activities to meaningful-based activities.
Often these principles reflect a specific school of methodology. For
example, in Situational Language Teaching (see Richards and Rodgers
1986), lessons often have the following format:
I. Presentation. The new structure is introduced and presented.
2. Controlled practice, Learners are given intensive practice in the
structure, under the teacher's guidance and control.
3. Free practice. The students practice using the structure without any
control by the teacher.
4. Checking. The teacher elicits use of the new structure to check thatit has been learned.
5. Further practice. The structure is now practiced in new situations,or in combination with other structures.
(Hubbard et al. 1983)
In Communicative Language Teaching, the following sequence of activities is often used (Littlewood 1986):
1. Pre-communicative

activities. Accuracy-based activities which
focus on presentation of structures, functions, and vocabulary.
2. Communicative activities. Fluency-based activities which focus on
information sharing and information exchange.
Appendix 2 illustrates this sequence in part of a unit titled "Giving
Opinions, Agreeing and Disagreeing, Discussing" from a communicative
listening/speaking text (Jones and von Baeyer 1983). The unit opens witha conversation that serves to introduce the functions and vocabulary to bepracticed in the unit. The next exercise focuses on the functional expressions used in giving opinions. The next two exercises are fluency-based
activities which practice giving opinions, This sequence of activities isfollowed throughout the rest of the unit as additional functions arepresented and practiced.
In the teaching of writing according to the Process Approach,. thefollowing sequence of activities is often recommended (Proett and Gill
1986).
1. Pre-writing activities. Activities designed to generate ideas forwriting or focus the writers' attention on a particular topic.

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Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

2. Drafting activities. Activities in which students produce a draft oftheir composition, considering audience and purpose.
3. Revising activities. Activities in which students focus on rereading,analyzing, editing, and revising their own writing.
Appendix 3 contains an example of this from a textbook on academic
writing (Leki 1989). The students are first introduced to techniques forgenerating ideas and planning essays. The next set of activities helps
students to use their ideas to write initial drafts. Later activities focus
students on revising and polishing their drafts.
The teaching of reading in ESL is similarly often divided into threestages. For example, Nuttall (1982) lists the following activities within areading lesson:
1. Pre-reading

activities. Activities which prepare the students forreading the text. Such activities could include providing a reason
for reading, introducing the text, breaking up the text, dealing withnew language, and asking signpost questions.
2. While-reading activities. Activities which students complete as theyread and which may be either individual, group, or whole-class.
3. Post-reading activities. Activities which are designed to provide a
global understanding of the text in terms of evaluation and personal
response. Such activities could include eliciting a personal response
from the students, linking the content with the student's own experience, establishing relationships between this text and others, andevaluating characters, incidents, ideas, and arguments.
This sequence is illustrated in Appendix 4, which is from a text on
advanced reading skills (Barr, Clegg, and Wallace 1981). Before students
read a passage on choosing a place to live, they are led through a series ofactivities which serve to generate ideas about the topic. They then readthe text section by section, completing while-reading activities which
involve prediction and information gathering. After reading the text,
students complete comprehension and evaluation tasks.
Individual teachers often develop their own formats for lessons, evolving personal variations on the formats they have been trained to use.
Wong-Fillmore (1985) points out that experienced teachers are often
consistent in how they organize their lessons and in the sequence of subactivities they use for particular kinds of lessons. While this might appear
to be an example of unimaginative, routinized teaching behavior, there
are advantages for learners.
Once [the learners] learn the sequence of sub-activities
for each subject, they
can follow the lesson without having to figure out afresh what is happening

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121

each day. They know what they are supposed to do and what they should begetting out of each phase of the lesson; thus they are ahead of the game infiguring out what they are supposed to be learning each day. (WongFillmore 1985: 29)

In dividing a lesson into sub-activities, the teacher also needs to consider
the transitions between one sub-activity and another within a lesson.
Research on elementary classrooms suggests that over thirty major transitions occur per day in such classes, accounting for approximately 15%
of classroom time (Doyle 1986). In many ESL classrooms, particularly
those focusing on communicative activities in pairs or small groups,
there is frequent reorganization of learners for different activities, andtransition time can be significant.
According to Doyle (1986), skilled teachers mark the onset of transitions clearly, orchestrate transitions actively, and minimize the loss of
momentum during these changes in activities. Less effective teachers, on
the other hand, tend to blend activities together, fail to monitor events
during transitions, and take excessively long to complete the movement
between segments of a lesson. Thus effective transitions help maintainstudents' attention during transition times and establish a link between
one activity and the next.
Teachers achieve transitions through cuing and interactional negotiation, which signals the beginning of a change, the reorientation of focus,
or the beginning of a new segment. The way in which teachers handle
transitions depends on the nature of the transition. For example, atransition which involves a rearrangement of the classroom from seatwork to small groups takes more time to orchestrate than a transition
between discussing one topic and another. Teachers have to consider anumber of decisions which affect how transitions will be handled:• How will the momentum of the lesson be maintained while grouping arrangements are changed?
• What will students be doing in between activities?
• When should students be told what the goals of an activity are?
Teachers report a number of solutions to these questions:
I always think ahead and plan how I will handle transition times. For
example, I might write an assignment for an exercise on the board sothat some students can start the assignment while others are still
getting their books.
I write my objectives for the lesson on the board so students can see
how the different activities in the lesson are connected.

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Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

At the beginning of each new term for each of my classes, I work out
rules and routines for things like passing out books, moving into
groups, and handing in assignments.

Discussion
1. Consider a typical lesson that you teach (or observe), such asa reading, writing, listening, or speaking lesson. What format
does this kind of lesson typically follow (Le., what typical sequence of activities makes up the lesson)? What principles or
beliefs account for this format?
2. If you are teaching a class, have you developed a personalized format for lessons you teach regularly? What does theformat consist of? Why does it have the format it does? Compare it with other formats used by teachers teaching the samekind of lesson. If you are observing a class, has the teacher
developed a personalized format for it?
3. What are the advantages for learners of using establishedlesson formats? What advantages are there for teachers? Are
there any disadvantages of using established formats?
4, Choose a method you are familiar with that has not been
discussed in this chapter (e.g., Audiolingual Method and Silent Way). What does the format for a typical lesson consistof?
5. Do you (or a teacher whose class you are observing) use routines for handling transition times? What routines are
effective?

PacingSince the formats used for most language lessons consist of a sequence of
sub-activities which address the overall goals of the lesson, deciding how
much time to allocate to each sub-activity is an important issue inteaching. Pacing is the extent to which a lesson maintains its momentum
and communicates a sense of development. How much time to allocate toeach part of the lesson is thus an important decision which teachers must
make while planning or teaching a lesson. Decisions related to pacing areimportant aspects of interactive decision making, since teaching involves
monitoring students' engagement in learning tasks and deciding when it
is time to bring a task to completion and move on to another activity
before students' attention begins to fade.

The structure of a language lesson

123

Various suggestions are given concerning pacing in articles on teacher
training. Strategies recommended to help achieve suitable pacing within
lessons often include:• Avoiding needless or over-lengthy explanations and instructions, andletting students get on with the job of learning.
• Using a variety of activities within a lesson, rather than spending
the whole lesson on one activity.
• Avoiding predictable and repetitive activities, where possible.
• Selecting activities of an appropriate level of difficulty.
• Setting a goal and time limit for activities: activities that have no
obvious conclusion or in which no time frame is set tend to havelittle momentum.
• Monitoring students' performance on activities to ensure that students have had sufficient but not too much time.
In a study of an effective ESL reading teacher, Richards (1990) identified
pacing as one of the significant features of the teacher's lessons. This
was achieved through including a variety of activities within each lesson.
The teacher provides a variety of different learning experiences within
lessons. In the lesson observed, four different activities were used, and thisvariation in activities may have contributed to the positive attitude of thestudents toward the classroom tasks as well as the active pacing of the. lesson. (p. 96)

Tikunoff (1985a) points out that pacing is sometimes teacher controlled
and at other times student directed.
In some situations, pacing may need to be completely under control of theteacher; no student may move to the next task until given instructions to do
so. In other situations, however, pacing might be negotiable, particularly ifseveral tasks are underway concurrently. In this case, an understanding must
exist of the optimal time one can spend on a task, and the time by when it isexpected to be completed. Many teachers increase options in this area by
negotiating contracts with students which include, among other things, thetime by which a task will be accomplished. (pp. 62-3)

Pacing is identified as a basic teaching skill in manuals for pre-service
training of ESLIEFL teachers. For example, Gower and Walters (1983:43-4), in discussing classroom management, comment:
You must get the timing right. If the activity lasts too long, it'll drag. If it
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Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

finishes early, give it a further activity, related to the task. Alternatively, you
may wish to stop all the groups at that point. But don't let a group or pair sit
around with nothing to do. Generally it's better to stop an activity when it's
going well, provided it has achieved its broad aims, than to let it peter out.

Discussion
1. Do you think a lesson that has a fairly rapid pacing is necessarily better than one that does not? Why or why not?
2. Suggest one or two ways that a teacher could monitor his or
her pacing of lessons.
3. Suggest one or two ways that a teacher could improve pacingin his or her lessons.
4, Pacing is one way in which the momentum of a lesson isachieved. What other factors contribute to the momentum oflessons?

ClosureAnother important dimension of structuring is bringing a lesson to aclose effectively, Closure refers to those concluding parts of a lesson
which serve to (a) reinforce what has been learned in a lesson, (b)integrate and review the content of a lesson, and (c) prepare the students
for further learning. Several strategies are available to create an effective
lesson closure. These strategies not only help facilitate learning of thecontent of the lesson, but also allow the lesson to be seen as an integrated,,:,hole. Strategies which teachers use to achieve closure include:• Summarizing what has been covered in the lesson.
• Reviewing key points of the lesson.
• Relating the lesson to the course or lesson goals.
• Pointing out links between the lesson and previous lessons.
• Showing how the lesson relates to students' real-world needs.
• Making links to a forthcoming lesson.
• Praising students for what they have accomplished during thelesson.
The particular kind of strategy used will vary according to the type oflesson (e.g" a discussion activity or a lecture), as well as the level of theclass, For example, with a discussion activity the closure typicallyinvolves summarizing the main points brought up by the students in their

The structure of a language lesson

125

discussion, relating the discussion to lesson goals and previous learning,or applying the discussion outcomes to other sit.uations. This type ofclosure serves to summarize and synthesize ideas, points of view, generalizations, and conclusions. It is often an important part of learning since
it can "bring it all together" for students who may have been confused
during the discussion.
A different approach to closure would be appropriate in a lecture,
which is a much more teacher-centered, one-way presentation of information. Typically the closure sequence of a lecture serves to reinforce what
has been presented with a review of key points covered in the lecture. This
may include questioning by the teacher to determine how much thestudents have understood. Often the closure will include a transition to thenext lesson in which the students will be assigned a problem to think
about or a task that will help provide an entry to the next lecture.
Discussion
1. Review the list of strategies for lesson closures in this section. Can you think of other strategies of this kind? Whichstrategies do you think you use most often in the kind ofclasses you teach?
2, Suggest closure strategies that might be appropriate for thesekinds of lessons: (a) a composition class focusing on writing
cause and effect paragraphs, (b) a class debate on a topic related to the environment, (c) a reading class focusing on
strategies for faster reading.
3. You have been asked to teach a two-hour lesson for an intermediate conversation class focusing on making requests andoffers. What types of activities will you include in your lesson?
How will these activities be sequenced? What kind of opening
and closure will you use?

Follow-up activities
Journal activities
In your journal this week, describe how structuring was achieved in yourlessons or in the lessons you observed. How did the lessons open? How
were the activities sequenced? How was pacing achieved? How did thelessons close? How effective do you think the structuring of the lessons
was?

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Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

Classroom observation tasks
1. Observe a language

lesson, What strategy or strategies does theteacher use to begin and end the lesson? How is the lesson divided
into sections? Then interview the teacher about the lesson, Whatrationale does the teacher give for the lesson organization?
2. Observe a lesson from the point of view of transitions. How does
the teacher handle transitions from one sub-activity to another?
3. Observe a lesson from the point of view of pacing. Was the pacingof the lesson effective? If so, how did the teacher achieve it?
Which of the strategies given on page 123 did the teacher use?

Lesson-reporttask

Use the lesson-report form in Appendix 5 to monitor your teaching overa one-week period from the point of view of openings, sequencing,pacing, and closure. Compare the information you collect with anotherteacher's self-report information. How similar are the strategies you use?

Action research case study #4
Transitions during lessons
This project was conducted by a secondary school teacher in an EFL
context.

INITIAL

REFLECTION

I teach a very large English class (44 students) in a secondary school.
The students in my class are hard-working. They are very good at rotelearning, but are not used to communicative activities. Whenever I try to
set up pair work or group work, it seems that it takes the students a very
long time to reorganize and get started on the task. As a result, the bell
would often ring before students could finish the activities that I wanted
them to complete for that lesson. I feel this is because I am not managing
the transitions between activities very effectively, and thus a lot of time
is wasted.

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127

PLANNING

I decided I needed to make a plan of action to help students move more
quickly into their groups and get started on their tasks. I planned to do
two things differently in my class. First, I decided to set up permanentgroups, so that students would always know who they would be working
with. Next, I planned to monitor my instructions to make sure thedirections given to students were clear and students could understandwhat they were supposed to do.
I also set up a plan to monitor the results of these changes. I decided
that after every lesson, I would take two minutes to write down mythoughts about how effective I thought the transitions during the lesson
were and why the transition was either effective or not effective. I alsodecided to ask a colleague to come in and observe my class once a month
to see how I handled transitions, using a form that I adapted from Goodand Brophy (1987).
ACTIONThe following lesson, I discussed this problem with my students and told
them I thought sometimes it took too long to move from one activity toanother. I asked them how they felt about it, and they agreed that too
much time was wasted in class. I then told them about my idea for setting
up permanent groups, and they agreed that it was a good idea. The
students formed groups for the activity I had planned, and then when
they finished the activity I told them these would now be permanentarrangements for any group work done in class.
OBSERVATION

I kept notes over the next two weeks about the transition times in class.
From a review of these notes, it seems that the transitions were now more
effective. Students moved into their groups immediately whenever I told
them we would be doing group work, I also found that my directions
were simple enough for the students to understand, perhaps because they
were now used to the routine of doing group work and didn't need somuch explanation.
Two weeks after implementing my action plan, I asked a colleague tocome and observe my class. My colleague confirmed that students
moved quickly into their groups and that my directions were very clear.

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Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

However, the observer pointed out three other areas that could improve
the transitions in my class. First, he observed that sometimes I gave noadvance warning for the students to finish up one activity, so that it took
some groups longer to move on to the next activity. Second, he observedthat the materials students needed to use were stored in hard-to-reachplaces. Third, he observed that a few groups would finish early andwould just sit quietly doing nothing until the other groups had finishedand I gave directions for the next activity.
REFLECTION

From this information, it seems that the original plan that I had put into
operation was effective. I had achieved my objectives of moving students
into their groups more quickly and giving clearer directions. Because ofthis, students are spending more time on the activities that I assign them,and are able to complete the activities within the period of the lesson.
However, there still seems room for improvement in my classroom
management. I have developed a new plan based on the informationcollected by my colleague. First of all, I have decided to set specific time
limits for any group work that I assign to students and give them a oneminute warning signal before the time is up. Second, I plan to put anempty desk in the front center of the room, and use this desk to place all
the materials that will be needed for the lesson so that both students andmyself will have easy access to them when we need them. Third, I willplan additional activities that students can do if they finish early so thatthey will not just be sitting and waiting for the others to finish.

The structure of a language lesson

129

Appendix 1: Lesson beginnings - relating activities-to purpose
PURPOSESILLUSTRATIVE ACTIvrTIES

to establish appropriate AFFECTIVE FRAMEWORK
createfriendly,relaxedatmospheremusic, introductions,

greetings,

joke,chat (personal,

topical)
b

d

g

II

createsuitablephysicalenviron.

get ss to arrange
greetings,

make class enjoyable

game, lighthearted oral activity

III(inel. video)

game, paiIwork

chat (familiar questions, topical issues), controlled
activities, review, homework (because prepared).
plenarychoral activity

stimulateanything

interest

activity, go ovec homework

lively or unusual- vary the beginning!

to establish appropriate COGNITIVE FRAMEWORK

stimulateawarenessmake connections with last lesson, descnbe activities orof need (ling/cult.)

elicit relevant

linguistic

elicit relevant

experienceknow!.

objectives

for part of/wholequestions(e.g. based

brainstorming,

lesson, introduce

on picture),

topic

quiz

oral activity

questionsto encourage STUDENf RESPONSIBILITY and INDEPENDENCE
ss aware of learning

skills and strategies

consciousness-raising
activities (e.g. memorizationgame), elicitation of ss' individual strategies

to fulfill REQUIRED INSTITUTIONAL ROLE
go through (previous) homework

give feedbackbactivity, visual stimulus

get everyone involved

make

IV

listeningraise confidence

provide organizing framCYiorkbfurniture

focus attention

check on previous

give valuelearning

quiz, game, brainstorm,
check homework

for time/moneyask for sununary,questions,(This has more to do with how you start - e.g.

punctuality and relevance - than what you do)Vto overcome PRAGMATIC DIFFICULTY
mimimiseproblemsof (and for) ss arriving

late

short (e.g. revision)

activities,

chat(Reprinted with permission from 1. McGrath, S. Davies, and H. Mulphin, 1992,"Lesson beginnings," Edinburgh Working Papers in Applied Linguistic, Department of Applied Linguistics/Institutefor Applied Language Studies, University of
Edinburgh, Scotland.)130

Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

Appendix 2: Sequence of activities in acommunicative lesson

8

Giving opinions, agreeing anddisagreeing, discussing

8.1

Conversation
Sue:
Ken:
Sue:

Mary:
Ken:
Sue:
Ken:
Sue:

La

Well Ken, if you ask me, there's too much violence on television,
Why, killing seems normal now.
Uh Sue, I'm not sure if I agree with you. I've never read any proof
that supports your claim.
Oh Ken, it's common sense. The point is, is if you keep seeing
shootings and muggings and stranglings, you won't care if it happens
on your street.
I think that's interesting.
Maybe, but
I've never met people that are that apathetic about
violence.
Oh I'm sorry, I don't see what you mean. Would you mind ex,
plaining that point?
Let me put it another way, Sue. The people on my street - they're
not influenced by what happens on television.
Oh, but people may care about violence on their street, but notabout violence in general.

Mary:

Wouldn't you say thattelevision is just a passive way of letting
off steam'
Oh Ken, that's exactly what I mean' People watching violence tocool off proves my point - they get used to violence!
I think that's a good point, Sue. I mean, Ken, don't you see what

Sue:
Mary:
Ken:

she's saying'
Yes' There's got to be a better way to cool off'
I agree. Well, like talking with friends, or sports, or reading, or .
I agree with you, Mary. Anyway, TV's really boring, so why argue

Ken:
Sue:

about
Sue:
Mary:

it'

[laughs I I agree with you there.
[laughs I That's true.

(Reprinted with permission from L. Jones and C. von Bayer, 1983, Functions ofAmerican English, pp. 43-5, published by Cambridge University Press.)

The structure of a language
8.2

Presentation: giving opinions

lessonS

When you are taking part in a discussion it is useful to have techniques
up your sleeve for getting people to listen to you and to give yourself
thinking time while you arrange your ideas. Here are some useful opening
expressions(they get more and more formal as you go down the list):
INFORMAL

FORMALIf you ask me
You know what I think' I think that.
The point is
Wouldn't you say that?
Don't you agree that.
?
As I see it .
I'd iust like to say that I think that.
I'd like to point out that.

Decide with your teacher when these different expressions would beappropriate.
Do you agree with the order they have been put in' Can you
suggest more expressions?

8.3

Exercise
Make up conversations from the cues below, using expressions
8.L, Follow this pattern:

S

A:
B:
A:
B:

How do you feel about big dogs'
Well, if you ask me, big dogs are a nuisance,
Why do you think that'
Because they eat a lot of food, and run aroundwanted, and .

big dogs
cats
daycarewomen drivers
capital punishment

where they'renotforeign travel
learning a foreign language
downtown
parking spaces
transistor radios
children

Try to use new expressions

8.4

presented ineach time!

ExerciseWork

in groups

vacationsbirthdays
Christmas
politenesslotteries
Reportof three. Find out each other's

opinions

on these subjects:

in anothergroup.

inflation
air travel
television
winter sports
commUnIsm

your partners'

opinions

to the students

131

132

Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

Appendix 3: Sequence of activities in a process
writing lesson
Part I Introduction to Writing Processes:
Writing from Observation and Experience
1
Unit 1 Getting to Draft
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Unit 2

3

1 Preliminaries 4
Getting Ideas 7
3 Preparing for a Draft 28
4 Writing a First Draft 47
2

Working with a Draft

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

5 Focusing on Main Ideas 64
6 Developing and Shaping Ideas 82
7 Beginning and Ending Drafts 105

Unit 3 Reworking the Draft
Chapter
Chapter

63

8
9

121

Revising 122
Polishing Revised Drafts

135(Reprinted with permission from 1. Leki, J989, Academic
Tasks, p. xi, St. Martin's Press, New York.)

Writing-TechniquesandThe structure of a language lesson

133

Appendix 4: Sequence of activities in a reading
lesson
UNIT ONEA Place of Your Own

Section 1 Leaving Home
What do you think?
Young school leavers in Britain sometimes leave home tolive elsewhere. Why do you think this happens? Do you
think it is common? Note down your ideas briefly.
The extract below comes from an article in a magazine for young people in Britain about toleave school.
2

What are the advantages and disadvantages of living at
home once you are grown up? Consider especially thefollowing: - comfort- expense- independence- friends

3

Next, make your own personal list of advantages
and disadvantages.

4

Now read the first three paragraphs and note the advantages
and disadvantages of living at home which are mentioned.
Did you think of these?
A person's home is as much a reflection of his personality as
the clothes he wears, the food he eats and the friends withwhom he spends his time. Depending on personality, howpeople see themselves and how they allow others to see
them, most have in mind an 'ideal home', But in general, andespecially for the student or new wage earners, there arepractical

limitationsof cashand locationon achieving

that

idea.
Cash shortage, in fact, often means that the only way of
10

15

getting along when you leave school is to stay at home for awhile until things improve financially.
There are obvious
advantages to living at home - personal laundry is usually still
done along with the family wash, meals are provided andthere will be a well-establishedcircle of friends to call upon.
Parents are often quite generous in asking for a minimum
rent, and there is rarely the responsibility
rates etc.

for paying fuel bills,(continued)

Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

134

UNIT ONEOn the other hand, much depends on how a family gets on.
Do your parents like your friends? You may love you family20

but do you like them? Are you prepared to be tolerant whenyour parents ask where you are going in the evening andwhat time you expect to be back? Do they mind if you want tothrow a party? If you find you can't manage a workable
compromise, and that you finally have the money to leave,
how do you go about finding somewhere else to live?

25

5

How do you find somewhere else?
Think of three possible ways of finding a place to live.

6

Now read on.
If you plan to stay in your home area, the possibilities areprobably well-known
to you already. Friends and the local
paper are always a good source of information. If you aregoing to work in a new area, again there are the papers - andthe accommodation
agencies, though these should beapproached with caution. Agencies are allowed to charge afee, usually the equivalent of the first week's rent, if you takeaccommodation
they have found for you. But some lessscrupulous operators may charge you a fee to look at
accommodation
which may be already occupied when you get

30

30

there!
For students, many colleges, polytechnics and universities
have accommodation
officers who will do the necessary
hunting. This is a difficult job in some areas where there is alarge student population with scant residential provision andfew locals who are keen to take students as tenants orboarders. But what sort of accommodation
is available?

40

7

Before reading further, list the different kinds ofaccommodation you think might be available for young people in Britain.

8

Now read on, ticki ng off the items on your Iist as they are
mentioned and adding any you had not thought of.
If you like the idea of living with a family (other than yourown), or in a small house where there are a few otherboarders, digs might be the answer. Good landladies - those
who are superb cooks, launderers and surrogate mothers, arefigures as popular in fiction as the bad ones who terrorise
their guests and overcharge them at the slightest opportunity.

45

The truth is probably
50

somewhere

between the two extremes

If you are lucky, the food will be adequate, some of yourlaundry may be done for you and you will have a reasonableamount of comfort and companionship.
For the less fortunate
digs may be lonely, house rules may restrict the freedom toinvite friends to visit, and shared cooking and bathroom
facilities can be frustrating and row-provoking
if tidy anduntidy guests are living under the same roof.

55

2

The structure of a language lesson

135

UNIT ONE60

The same disadvantages
can apply to flatsharing,with theadded difficulties
which arise from deciding who pays forwhat, and in what proportion.
One person may spend hours
on the phone or wallowing
in deep, hot baths, while anotherrarely makes calls and takes cold showers. If you wantprivacy with a guest, how do you persuade the others to goout; how do you persuade them to leave you in peace,
if you are a student and want to study.
especially65

Conversely,70

be someone to talk to and go out with, and the chores, intheory, can be shared. Even so, if you value privacy and aplace of your own where you can put up your own posters,
play your favourite music, etc, perhaps it would be better tolook for a bedsitter or a flat of your own.

flat sharing can be very cheap, there will

alwaysThe beauty of a bedsit is its simplicity.
It is relatively cheap,
easy to keep clean, economical
to heat since it is usually a75

80

single room, and at its best a 'cosy' place to live. At its worst,
the bedsit can be cramped and impregnated with cooking
smells or cluttered with damp washing. It can also be very
lonely if you are not naturally sociable and have moved to
new area.

a

A flat will usually give you more space, but you will have to
pay for it, and, like the bedsitter, it can be a lonely start in a
extra expense of a flat can be minimal. You will probably haveyour own washing and cooking facilities, and if the flat is not
furnished, there is the fun of going to auctions and junk shops
to choose your own furniture.
from Prospect

1977

Check your understandingKEY

9 Answer these questions. First locate the right part of the text,
and then read that part carefully.
a) What are the disadvantages of a bedsitter?
b) Name two problems flatsharers might have.
c) What do living in good digs and living at home have incommon?
d) For what kind of person might a bedsitter be a bad thing?
e) What kind of person might prefer a bedsitter to a shared flat?

KEY

10 Which of the following

six statements do you think best sums
up the author's point of view?
i) There are few advantages in living at home after
leaving school.
ii) Accommodation agencies are the best source of help
when looking for somewhere to live.

(continued)

136

Reflective teaching in second language classrooms

UNIT ONEjii) If one cannot live at home the best arrangementfind a good landlady_is toiv) One should carefully consider the advantages anddisadvantages of all kinds of home before making adecision.
v) Living away from home is very lonely.
vi) Finding a flat of your own is the best solution

Whatof all.

do you think?

Is the situation described in the extract similar to that inyour country? 00 young people move away from home,
and if so, where do they move to?

(From P. Barr, J. Clegg, and C. Wallace, 1981, Advanced
Longman, Essex.)

Reading Skills, pp. 1-4,

The structure of a language lesson

Appendix 5: Lesson-reportof lessons
CLASS

137

form for structuring

_

DATE

_

GOALS AND CONTENT OF LESSON_OPENINGS
The activity I used to open the lesson was
The purpose of this activity was
The effectiveness of this opening was:a) very effectiveb) moderately effectivec) not very effective__

SEQUENCING
The lesson contained the following sequence of activities:_

The purpose of sequencing the lesson in this way was:_The effectiveness of this sequence was:a) very effectiveb) moderately effectivec) not very effective
PACING:
Strategies I use to achieve pacing were
The effectiveness of this strategy was:a) very effectiveb) moderately effectivec) not very effective_

CLOSURE:The activity I used to end the lesson was
The purpose of this activity was
The effectiveness of this closure was:a) very effectiveb) moderately effectivec) not very effective__