DRAFT – OGC’s GEOSPATIAL CLOUD WHITE PAPER

Open Geospatial Consortium
Date: 2011-04-07©

Reference number of this OpenGIS Project Document: OGC 11-036©

Category: OGC White Paper
Editor: Lance McKee, Carl Reed, Steven Ramage

OGC Standards and Cloud Computing

Copyright © 2011 Open Geospatial Consortium.
To obtain additional rights of use, visit http://www.opengeospatial.org/legal/.

Warning
This is a draft OGC White Paper. The document is available for comment.

Document type:
OGC® White Paper
Document subtype: N.A.
Document stage:
Draft
Document language: English

2011 Open Geospatial Consortium

Participating in the OGC (see http://www.opengeospatial.org/contact) provides unique opportunities
for organizations to track and influence geospatial technology and gain early understanding ofrelated business issues. There is no better way to become familiar with the OGC Web Services
standards that enable value to be derived from geospatial cloud computing solutions.

DRAFT – GEOSPATIAL CLOUD WHITE PAPER

FORWARD
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be thesubject of patent rights. The Open Geospatial Consortium Inc. shall not be held
responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
Recipients of this document are requested to submit, with their comments, notification of
any relevant patent claims or other intellectual property rights of which they may be awarethat might be infringed by any implementation of the standard set forth in this document,
and to provide supporting documentation.

Acknowledgements
The OGC would like to thank the following individuals for their comments and suggestions
regarding the content of this white paper.

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Abstract
This OGC White Paper discusses cloud computing from the perspective of OGC’s
geospatial standards development activities and standards baseline. The paper begins
with a discussion of what the cloud and cloud computing are. Unfortunately, there is still
considerable misunderstanding in the geospatial technology community regarding cloudcomputing. The paper then discusses how standards figure into the options, benefits andrisks of cloud computing for users and providers of geospatial data and software. This
perspective is important not only for those immersed in geospatial technology, but also forcloud service providers, customers and technology partners who may be unfamiliar withthe basic issues surrounding geospatial technology. This white paper does not discuss
vendor specific cloud computing platforms.

What is the Cloud and Cloud Computing?
The following is a discussion the cloud and cloud computing. These definitions areimportant as there is considerable misunderstanding in the geospatial community as towhat is cloud computing. In an October 2010 survey (unscientific) Directions magazine
asked users about their understanding of cloud computing. About 25% of the respondents
had ever heard of cloud computing and another 30% were not sure what cloud computing
is. Even more interesting is that among those that believe they know what cloud computing
is, there is still considerable misunderstanding. For example, one author suggested that asingle quad-core server running GIS software and connected to many clients via CITRIX
was a scalable cloud computing platform. This is not correct and again suggests that there
is considerable misunderstanding in the geospatial community about the cloud and cloudcomputing.
The cloud concept is not new. For decades, presentations have used a “cloud” icon to
depict the internet and/or the web. To users, the internet cloud is an amorphous
infrastructure of computers, networks, and software. Most users have no idea how theinternet or the web works. Beyond hardware and networks, standards enabled andcontinue to enable the evolution of the internet infrastructure and the world wide web.
Without standards, there would not be the internet or the web. The very first standard
developed to enable the web was TCP/IP. In the same context, the value of standards inthe growth and evolution of the cloud and cloud computing is an important concept to keep
in mind when geospatial cloud computing is discussed.
Another key aspect the cloud is client-server. Client-server applications utilize a distributed
architecture, such as the internet, in which there are providers of a resource or service,called servers, and service requesters, called clients. Typically clients and servers
communicate over a network on separate hardware, but both client and server may residein the same system. A server machine is a host that is running one or more server
programs. A client requests a server's content or service function. Clients therefore initiate
communication sessions with servers which await incoming requests. This is the definitionof client-server as used by the OGC community.
As with the “cloud”, client-server applications have been used since the 1960’s. For
example, beginning in 1965 Dartmouth College had a GE timeshare system with remoteterminal access via phone lines (300 baud!). However, not until the mid 1990’s and the first
web browsers did client-server evolve into the normal mode of operations for the vast

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majority of users, especially for geospatial content. With the advent of the web, clientssuch as Mosaic or Netscape offered users access to applications on servers. No user
really knew or cared where the servers were located. They were accessible. As long as
users had internet access, they had access to these applications. Again, standards suchas HTML, HTTP, and URIs allowed this major evolutionary leap in the development of thecloud to happen.
Wikipedia provides a definition of cloud computing as, “Cloud computing is Web-based
processing, whereby shared resources, software, and information are provided tocomputers and other devices (such as smartphones) on demand over the internet”. By thisdefinition, we have been doing cloud computing since the mid-1990’s!
So what is cloud computing in 2010? The National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST) was tasked with developing a common definition for cloud computing1
From that document:
Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to ashared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage,
applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
management effort or service provider interaction. This cloud model promotes availability
and is composed of five essential characteristics.
A synopsis of these five essential characteristics are:On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing
capabilities without requiring human interaction with each service’s provider.
Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed
through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or
thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, and PDAs).
Resource pooling. Computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers
with resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according toconsumer demand. The customer generally has no control or knowledge
over the exact location of the provided resources.
Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be rapidly and elastically provisioned.
Measured Service. Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use
by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate
to the type of service.
The reader is encouraged to read the entire NIST definition for cloud computing. A key
aspect of cloud computing are pooling and elasticity. These two characteristics areespecially relevant to geospatial cloud computing.

The Cloud , value and economies of scale – The cloud today
As has been discussed, cloud computing in 2010 is the result of a natural evolution andintegration of the internet, the web, web services, and the very old client server model. At
the end of the day, the cloud and cloud computing are the result of economies of scale1

http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/cloud-computing/cloud-def-v15.doc

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applied to the provisioning of computing resources in a world of broadband Internet,“virtualization”, open Internet and Web standards, and demand for an ever increasing
number of on-line web services. To a considerable extent, the push for economies of scale
has been driven by the Web’s success, which has created demand for systems capable ofhandling thousands of transactions simultaneously with very low latency and sometimes,
high data rates.
Open Internet and Web standards are the main enablers of the interoperability that allows
very large independent data centers or “server farms” (typically operating 1,000’s or more
physical servers) to efficiently provide their vast processing power and storage capacity,
via broadband Internet, to multiple customers.
“Virtualization” refers to the creation of virtual versions of operating systems, servers,
storage and other computing resources that are hidden from the users. It supports thebusiness models of data centers because it helps make it possible for customers totransparently offload their computing tasks and databases to those remote and massive
computing facilities. Virtualization also enables data centers to internally reassign andreconfigure their processors and disks on the fly, making maximum use of thoseresources.
Consider elasticity, one of the essential characteristic of cloud computing. Manyorganizations have requirements to occasionally process massive amounts of data or
specific projects have processing requirements that are beyond the organizations
computer infrastructure to handle. In the past, the organization would either have topurchase more hardware and software or offload the processing to a contractor. Either
solution can result in large expenditures and increases the risk of failure. In contrast,
having access to a cloud computing platform that supports the organization’s applicationmeans that when sudden processing requirements are needed, this can be offloaded tothe cloud for processing. The net result is that the organization still has control of theprocessing, reduces risk, and reduces operational costs. Of course, there are now
organizations that are moving entire applications to the cloud so that they do not need todeal with hardware procurements, hardware maintenance costs, and so forth.
Therefore, by providing virtual processing on the Internet, the cloud helps companies
reduce their exposure to information technology risks, such as under-utilization, temporary
surge of computation demands or early obsolescence of purchased hardware andsoftware, and it helps them reduce operating costs such as system management, floor
space, electrical power and cooling. The cloud also gives companies the option of shifting
IT capital expenditures (CAPEX) to pay-as-you-go operational expenditures (OPEX),
which offers financial flexibility with respect to paying for and writing off IT costs.
The cloud can provide environmental value as well as cost reductions. Today’s very large
data centers offer at least a 6:1 advantage(http://mvdirona.com/jrh/TalksAndPapers/JamesRH_Ladis2008.pdf) over small data
centers in terms of economies of scale. In addition to financial savings, this translates into
reduced carbon footprints and resource use, not only through reduced cooling and power
demands, but also through an overall reduction in demand for computer hardware that has
its own environmental footprint of embedded energy and mineral resources.

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Gartner Research’s October 2010 “2010 Hype Cycle Special Report”(http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1447613) reports that cloud computing overall
appears to be just topping the peak in its hype cycle and private cloud computing is stillrising. But they also note that the adoption and impact of cloud computing continues toexpand, and they include cloud computing among the transformational technologies thatwill hit the mainstream in less than five years.
Growing demand for cloud-based geospatial applications and platforms
Cyberspace increasingly mediates our awareness of real space. Since the deployment of
the first online mapping applications in 1996, Web-based map browsers, GPS enabled
2
applications, in-car navigation services, high resolution Earth imaging systems and mobile
smart phone location applications have tremendously expanded the average person’s
awareness of “maps in computers”. “Maps and apps” are very much a part of the smart
phone market phenomenon. These technologies and products have also dramaticallyincreased the volume of digital geographic (or “geospatial”) data. In fact, the rate ofcapture of geospatial data is accelerating while the complexity of the technical andinstitutional arrangements that enable this data to be produced and made useful isincreasing. Convergence of these technologies with each other and with the Web’s basetechnologies creates a fertile platform for innovation, as we are seeing. The cloud plays animportant role in innovation, because time to market for ideas is much faster when newcompanies don’t need to invest time and money in providing basic computing
infrastructure.
Convergence of technologies in the cloud and cloud computing are creating huge market
pressures and can be viewed as truly disruptive. For example, “TaylorMade was able toadopt this software so quickly because it's not hosted on the servers at its headquarters in
Carlsbad, California, but rather on remote computers in the cloud. It's a story that's
happening over and over at many large corporations”.
As with any IT community with elastic computing requirements or requirements to deploy
applications at lower costs, the conventional geospatial markets can take advantage of thecloud. Geospatial processing often involves intensive computing and very large data sets,
which explains why providers of geospatial processing resources and data resources areamong cloud computing’s early adopters. These providers apparent technical and market
success indicates that other communities of interest using geospatial technology willalmost certainly see widespread adoption of this new approach to information technology
resource allocation.
There are a number of market drivers that are increasing demand for cloud computing.
These drivers are just as important for the geospatial community as they are for thefinancial, retail, or other industries. A 2009 survey by Shavlik Technologies 3 and a 2010
Frost and Sullivan Report4 found that:• Data access and processing by all constituents;• Server and licensing consolidation;• Disaster recovery functionality;• Operational elasticity;
2

MIT Technology, Novermber 2010. http://www.technologyreview.com/business/26641/?nlid=3738
http://virtualization.sys-con.com/node/1179528
4
http://www.bradenton.com/2010/11/08/2719760/research-and-markets-cloud-computing.html
3

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Rapid scalability;
Dramatically reduced IT costs associated with cloud computing.

are the leading drivers behind new investments in virtualization and cloud computing
technology.
In the geospatial world, there are a number of applications for which cloud computing iswell suited.
• Modeling: First, the complexity of geoprocessing models requires large computing
capacities but on an intermittent basis. Examples of models heavily dependent on
the use of multiple geospatial data sources are hydrology flow models, plumemodeling, weather forecasting, and ocean current modeling.
•

Fusion: There is an exponential growth in deployed Internet-connected sensors
results in even greater exponential growth in location-referenced sensor data. At
the same time, there are massive stores of “traditional” GIS data and othergeospatially enabled resources, such as location enabled internet packets. There isa requirement to “fuse” or combine all of this sources and resources into new forms
to improve situational awareness, decision making, and consumer experience.

•Enterprises and government ministries and agencies seek to create information
through sophisticated mining based on geospatial criteria of the above-mentioned
data stores and data streams, and this often requires extraordinary compute power,
memory and storage.

•

Scientists are beginning to use these new data sources in data-driven science.
Scientists will use cloud computing for cyberinfrastructure-intensive virtual
experiments, simulations, archiving (open data will drive growth in archiving), andnetworks of geolocated sensors. Cloud-delivered ease of exploring spatial
relationships among Earth features and phenomena will likely lead to a significant
increase in such virtual exploration activity. The economics of cloud computing will
also give granting agencies an attractive alternative to funding purchases ofcomputing equipment, which in many cases is not fully utilized.

•

Demand: The highly variable (but large) number of users that require access tocomplex geoprocessing. A well known examples is indoor/outdoor navigation in a
3d environment.

In summary, from a geospatial processing perspective, a standards based cloudcomputing platform resolves critical issues concerning the performance of applications andmodels. These issues include availability of sufficient computational resources to solve
given computational problems in a timely manner. Performing remote functionality in acloud infrastructure means that the service (cloud) consumer is able to allocate as muchresources as required (e.g. sufficient disk storage, network bandwidth or amount of CPUs)
and therefore can expect a process to be performed according to specific Quality ofService (QoS) parameters (e.g. to be finished in a specific time period)5. The allocation of
sufficient hardware resources in advance can either be done manually by the cloudconsumer or realized through defined set of rules according to which the cloud5

http://www.geoinformatik2010.de/public/abstracts/foerster.pdf

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infrastructure has to allocate automatically additional computational resources (e.g. in thecase of high request rates of a web service).
Standards add value in the cloud environment
One of the big issues facing the continued growth of cloud computing are industry
standards that will enable cross platform interoperability, consistent security mechanisms,
and content sharing. This is why the Open Cloud Consortium 6 formed in 2010. AS their
mission states:
The Open Cloud Consortium (OCC) is a member driven organization that supports
the development of standards for cloud computing and frameworks forinteroperating between clouds, develops testbeds for cloud computing, andsupports reference implementations for cloud computing.
The OGC mission and vision is very similar but with a focus on geospatial standards thatenable geospatial content sharing, integration of geospatial services into a variety of
infrastructures, and so on. From this perspective, a number of OGC standards are alreadycloud computing ready.
Some of the geospatial applications and platforms currently offered as cloud-based Web
services are dependent on proprietary interfaces and encodings, but most of these also
depend on open interfaces and encodings. Openness fosters innovation, expands
markets, and creates new opportunities and efficiencies for both providers and users. Thiscan be seen in the Web itself, which is based on open standards, and it can be seen incloud-based geoprocessing. The success of the early geospatial cloud offerings validates
the OGC’s 16-year effort to develop a framework of open and freely available geospatial
interface and encoding standards and related best practices.
OGC standards empower technology developers to make geospatial information andservices accessible and useful with any application that needs to be geospatially enabled,
whether or not these services are provisioned via the cloud. Standards provide layers of
abstraction that hide implementation details. That is, they enable easy interoperability and“loose coupling” as opposed to one-to-one integration and “tight coupling.” The existenceof a well-used foundation of international industry standards means that geospatial
technology providers can focus their efforts on applications instead of basic service
infrastructure. Users benefit from increased product choices, including niche products
developed to be used on top of platform products that offer open interfaces.
Profusion of standards-based services enables developers to efficiently turn workflow use
cases into service chains. Services hosted at the Software as a Service (SaaS) level on
the cloud can implement OGC standards, enabling other services to link to, and thus “bind”
to them, and enabling them to bind to other services. GIS, Earth imaging systems,
location service systems and others can be hosted at the Platform as a Service (PaaS)
level on the cloud. Here, too, service-to-service binding takes place, but throughapplication programming interfaces (APIs) that reside on top of more comprehensive
software architectures.

6

http://opencloudconsortium.org/

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Inside and outside the geospatial domain, change involves risk, so most technology
providers and enterprises are evaluating cloud computing carefully, moving applications tothe cloud slowly and experimentally. One thing potential cloud customers worry about isthe availability and viability of cloud vendors, so they want cloud vendors to provide
standard interfaces and encodings that make solutions less dependent on a particularprovider. Providers are, thus, naturally claiming commitment to open standards(http://itmanagement.earthweb.com/netsys/article.php/3830701/Cloud-Computing-FirmsYes-to-Open-Standards.htm
Customers like the idea that cloud computing lends itself to rapid configuration andreconfiguration of value chains in a “cloud ecosystem”(http://www.appirio.com/ecosystem/). In this environment customers and providers can mix
and match services of many kinds: SaaS, PaaS and Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS). To
accommodate multiple SaaS providers, PaaS and IaaS providers tend to offer open,
industry standard ways to connect to their services. Major IT companies’ main cloudofferings may be monolithic, one-stop-shopping clouds for their customers, but all cloudproviders rely on basic Internet and Web standards and also new virtualization standards;
these standards are key elements of customers’ and providers’ competitive strategies.
Providers understand that their customers want the freedom to avoid lock-in, that is, theywant to be able to choose services and switch from one to another on short notice. This is
one of the cloud’s big attractions, and customers want it to apply to geospatial applications.
Look to the value chain
In cloud computing, standards play a particularly important role because they enable links
in value chains through interoperability and choice:•••Standards provide flexibility to do business with a new cloud provider without
excessive effort or cost.
Standards enable multiple cloud providers, including niche providers, to work
together to deliver value-added solutions. When their systems encounterunexpected demand, for example, cloud providers can shift loads to theircompetitors.
Standards enable cloud providers to more easily meet the varied needs of different
customers.

Security, virtualization, and service level agreements are some of the areas whereinteroperability is essential to cloud value chains. Location is another, because some of theservices bought and sold in complex and dynamic cloud service value chains require ordeliver geospatial information. Location services can be simple or complex, from "where I
am" in a tweet to "which satellite can scan this flood zone soonest and will the airport beaccessible by road at 09 00hrs?" Designers of cloud services need to think about thestandard interfaces, encodings and best practices that enable "where" information to passbetween systems. Here “systems” means cloud service frameworks and also customer
applications that support decision-making based on the location, motion and proximity ofpeople, places, things and phenomena (such as temperature).
Information system architects should be aware that even the simplest location parameters
can be passed in many different and incompatible ways. Simple latitude/longitude location,for example, can be passed in RSS (Really Simple Syndication) messages in at least three
ways. Though most GPS-based navigation and location services now use spatialreference systems based on the “WGS-84” mathematical model of our not-perfectly
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spherical Earth, there are important datasets that use other models, and there are literally
thousands of spatial reference systems in use around the world. Interoperability is mademore difficult by the fact that there are multiple technologies for representing location
information (raster, vector, triangulated irregular networks, point clouds, computer-aided
design Euclidean geometry and others). Semantics are a big issue, because different user
communities define and name spatial features differently (“Is it a cul-de-sac or a deadend?”). And there are many different proprietary interfaces, encodings and formats used in
vendors’ GIS (geographic information systems), location services, Earth imaging, facilities
management and navigation products.
Whether simple or complex, if services can't exchange location information, the cloudservice value chain breaks. (This is mostly a problem for SaaS and PaaS, and not for
IaaS, because infrastructure resides at an architectural level below most geospatial
communications.) Communication among software and data services usually requires thatapplications share common interfaces and encodings, and sometimes this requirement
extends to the software platform that supports the applications. The geospatial interface
and encoding standards developed in the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), often incoordination with other standards organizations, provide these open interfaces andencodings.
Is it GIS?
Prior to the wide use of OGC’s geospatial interface and encoding standards, most
geospatial information was confined within Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and
Earth imaging systems and their specialized spatial databases and the networks of users
who used software from the same vendor. Open OGC standards first enabled different
vendors’ GISs to exchange instructions and data. Then they enabled database software
vendors to accommodate all types of spatial data in their products, and they enabled
improved “fusion” of vector and raster spatial data types.
The geospatial standards framework has continued to evolve and expand to support
mobile communications, map browsers and sensor webs. (Every sensor – including video
devices, cell phones, wearable medical monitors, vehicle pollution controls, RFID chips,
etc. – has a location, and location often matters). As a result, though there is still a growing
need for the kinds of complex spatial processing conceived, packaged and marketed as
GIS, there is an exploding need for spatial data and simple kinds of spatial services, suchas “Get a map,” “Where am I?”, “Where is the nearest pizza shop?”, and “Is it safe to dig
here?” These are now typically provided without a GIS. The geospatial industry –previously referred to universally as the GIS industry – is undergoing rapid change
because a growing number of user communities need a growing number of geospatialservices, and all such services, from simplest to most complex, can now potentially beoffered as Web services that plug into otherwise non-spatial applications.
These Web services can now be conceived, packaged, marketed – and sometimes mostefficiently delivered – as cloud services. OGC Web Services (OWS) standards provide thecommon “glue” that makes geospatial Web services practical as geospatial cloud services.
In the new context of Web services, there is a much freer flow of location information
between domains. Previously this information exchange depended on batch conversion offiles between different spatial formats. GIS practitioners are getting used to the new reality

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of using “services” instead of “files”, and file management expertise is becoming lessimportant in their work. Even the term geospatial is yielding to the more general terms
spatial and location, as efforts to remove the technical barriers between indoor andoutdoor location gather momentum. Spatial data has become just another data type, usefulin all kinds of applications.
Spatial Data as a Service (DaaS)?
Spatial data is usually expensive to collect and manage, and its value usually increases
with the number of people who can use it. The cloud reduces the cost of data distribution,
through what is sometimes described as “Data as a Service (DaaS)”. This offers
governments and businesses a way to increase the return on their expensive spatial data
investments by making the data available for more applications.
Technically, however, the term DaaS is misleading. In a review of this paper, Doug Nebert,
chief architect for the US Federal Geographic Data Committee’s GeoCloud Sandbox
Initiative (see below), explained, “DaaS is a recent invention that is not resident in thecloud IaaS/PaaS/SaaS service stack. It does not have a clear definition, other than being
just another application providing data access services, which our (GeoCloud Sandbox)
PaaS offerings do. It is inaccurate to describe Google and Bing as offering DaaS, since
they are not providing access to data, but rather visualizations of data. They allow users toserve and integrate their own KML files (through proprietary APIs), but only a tiny minority
of information is actually served by these giants as data in KML.”
Keeping in mind that DaaS is actually SaaS that delivers data, it is nevertheless true thatsources of data, free or otherwise, can become more useful when they are accessible
through Web services and provisioned on the cloud for reliability and performance. Google
Public Data Explorer (http://www.google.com/publicdata/home) and Wolfram Alpha(http://www.wolframalpha.com/), for example, provide ways to utilize a wide range of free
Web-accessible datasets in various ways, including map displays and limited spatial
analysis.
Cloud-based services can help businesses unlock the value of their data assets, utilizing
location intelligence applications to derive insight that improves competitiveness andbusiness performance. SaaS applications can make corporate data available to more
applications and more users within the company and make corporate data available in thesame user environment as other kinds of data from other sources.
The FGDC GeoCloud Initiative
Similarly, governments want their investments in data to provide the greatest possible
value to the taxpayers. Cloud computing efficiently leverages the investments thatgovernment agencies have made in OGC standards development and service oriented
spatial data infrastructure (SDI) architecture development over the last decade.
The US Federal Geographic Data Committee’s GeoCloud Sandbox Initiative is a one-year
initiative to explore the hosting of government geospatial data and geospatial services invendor-provided and agency clouds. The FGDC’s goal is to identify requirements-driven
solution architectures for geospatial data and services and to document scalability,
reliability, costs and redundancy. Data services will be provided first, then processing

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services, and then solutions as part of realizing a Geospatial Platform environment thatcoordinates access to geospatial assets in a broad portfolio across government.
The GeoCloud Sandbox initiative is part of a larger initiative in the US Government tomodernize government IT strategies. The GeoCloud Sandbox will use the US General
Services Administration’s apps.gov IaaS services that provide what is essentially cloudbased “shared hosting” of networks, raw computers, and associated operating systems.
On top of that infrastructure, the GeoCloud Sandbox intends to pilot the deployment ofcandidate services or solutions architectures (suites of software) to provide common
geospatial capabilities for government agencies. Another objective is to monitor the realcosts of operational hosting for different configurations to inform agencies about
appropriate options for data and services deployment. The expectation is that agencies will
be able to reduce the cost and complexity of buying and managing hardware and software.
Spatial data infrastructure initiatives in other parts of the world will likely begin similar
initiatives to investigate the value of moving government geospatial resources to the cloud.
INSPIRE (INfrastructure for SPatial InfoRmation in Europe), for example, requires
guaranteed response times for specific queries, and the cloud provides scalable andaffordable solutions capable of meeting such requirements.7 The economics of information
technology management compel government data managers to consider the IT
performance improvements and management time and cost savings that are potentiallyavailable with cloud computing.
One example of this in Europe is the European Space Agency (ESA) G-POD Cloud
project8. Initiated in July 2010, it aims at validating the idea that cloud computing can beused efficiently to process large amounts of earth observation data. Taking advantage ofthe inherent transportability of ESA Grid (G-POD) processing jobs, it coupling G-POD withcloud resources to perform complex EO data processing jobs in a sustainable and costeffective way. While the G-POD infrastructure uses mainly Grid protocols, models andresources for processing and data access, the basic commitment to application
encapsulation and virtualization has made porting to the cloud relatively easy.
Reasons for caution
Businesses and agencies, large and small, may see the cloud as the future, but most areentering into this domain one step at a time, assessing possible problems, as well as
opportunities.
Pricing and service level agreements are one issue. Is there a good match between youractual usage patterns and the cloud services that are offered? If a cloud provider, forexample, is billing by the full hour for pay-as-you-use, and you’re using the service for only
a few minutes out of the hour, your use may not justify the cost.
Perhaps the most commonly cited concern is security. Cloud service providers may offer
better security at a lower cost than many small and medium size businesses might be able
to contract otherwise. Nevertheless, customers should learn about the security of
7“Towards Spatial Data Infrastructures in the Clouds” Bastian Schäffer, Bastian Baranski, Theodor Foerster

8 csse.usc.edu/gsaw/gsaw2010/s11d/brito.pdf

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prospective data centers and ask whether cloud service providers conduct backgroundchecks of employees and provide adequate security training and IT auditing. Cloud
vendors may use third parties to host data centers and hardware, and this increases
security risks. They should also be aware of the terms and conditions – what are they
signed up for?
What’s needed and what’s next?
The cloud is based on a standards framework for service oriented architectures thatprovides for “publish, find, bind”:
1. Publish: Resources can be hosted and their description, network location andinterfaces can be published in standards-based registries or catalogs.
2. Find: Client applications can search the registries or catalogs to find a resource.
3. Bind: The client application can invoke the server through standard interfaces.
What’s missing in this scheme is “Agree.” The “Publish” activity needs to be able to provide
metadata describing, for a particular service or data resource, details about authentication,authorization, confidentiality, integrity, non-repudiation, protection and privacy. Servers
need to be equipped to manage these issues, and owners of data and services need thetools and understanding necessary to configure controls.
The OGC has done some of the technical standards work that provides the foundation for“agreement management” that will bring us closer to full realization of geospatial cloud
applications:•

The Geo Rights Management Domain Working Group (GeoRM DWG)
(http://www.opengeospatial.org/projects/groups/geormwg) has produced theGeospatial Digital Rights Management Reference Model (Abstract Specification
Topic 18). The mission of the GeoRM Working Group is to coordinate andmature the development and validation of work being done on digital rights
management for the geospatial community. The reference model has been
approved by the OGC membership, who will use the GeoDRM RM in developing
OGC standards for open interfaces and encodings that will enable diverse
systems to participate in transactions involving geospatial data, services andintellectual property protection.

•

The Security DWG (http://www.opengeospatial.org/projects/groups/securitywg)
is a forum for discussing topics related to authentication, access control andsecure communication.

•

The OGC GeoXACML Standards Working Group(http://www.opengeospatial.org/projects/groups/geoxacmlswg) developed
GeoXACML, which is based on the OASIS XACML standard. XACML(eXtensible Access Control Markup Language) was developed by OASIS (theOrganization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards).

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The Workflow DWG(http://www.opengeospatial.org/projects/groups/workflowdwg) addresses
geospatial workflow issues, including security and licensing issues such as dataencryption, authentication, and provenance tracking. Members of the Workflow
Management Coalition http://www.wfmc.org/, an OGC Alliance Partner,
participate in the OGC Workflow DWG as part of their effort to foster open
standardized workflow methods.

Also, in 2009 the OGC Board of Directors created the OGC Spatial Law and Policy
Committee (http://www.opengeospatial.org/pressroom/pressreleases/964) to provide anopen forum for OGC members' legal and policy advisors to discuss the unique andincreasingly critical legal and policy issues associated with spatial data and technology.
Conclusion
OGC Web Services (OWS) standards were developed to make geospatial data andservices an integral part of Web-based distributed computing, and so these standards areready-made for cloud computing. They define the open interfaces and encodings that areneeded to successfully host all types of geoprocessing on the cloud. This provides avariety of opportunities for large and small enterprises, government agencies focused onbuilding spatial data infrastructures, and traditional vendors of geospatial software anddata. The efficiencies afforded by the cloud computing model will contribute to growth inmost geospatial market sectors, including mass market consumer applications, sensor
webs, location services, Earth observation data markets, CAD/geospatial 3D modeling,
and municipal management.
Though many data and service providers are making a move into cloud computing, most
adopters are moving cautiously, testing the various advantages over previous provisioning
models and looking for assurances regarding licensing and security of data hosted bycloud providers.
Much remains to be done. Science, commerce, government, education and everyday
casual users cannot benefit fully from today’s technical information infrastructure until thesocial, institutional, behavioral and commercial parts of the information infrastructure havematured. The human aspects of the infrastructure will become easier to deploy assolutions and tools become available that implement emerging interface and encoding
standards for service chaining, data licensing, rights management, pricing and ordering,and order fulfillment. If participants in related standards efforts work from a complete set of
requirements, and if they coordinate their efforts to avoid standards gaps, redundancies
and inconsistencies, the convergence of technologies involved in cloud computing andgeospatial data management will likely yield numerous benefits for society.

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OGC Document 11-036