Interactions of Fisheries
and Fishing Communities Related
to Aquaculture

Proceedings of the Thirty-eighth
U.S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel
Symposium
Texas A&M University
Corpus Christi, Texas
October 26–27, 2009

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-113

Interactions of Fisheries
and Fishing Communities Related
to Aquaculture

Proceedings of the Thirty-eighth
U.S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel
Symposium
Texas A&M University
Harte Research InstituteCorpus Christi, Texas
October 26–27, 2009

Robert Stickney*, Robert Iwamoto, and Michael Rust, editors
Northwest Fisheries Science Center
2725 Montlake Boulevard East
Seattle, Washington 98112* Texas A&M University

Texas Sea Grant Program
2700 Earl Rudder Freeway South, Suite 1800
College Station, Texas 77845

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-113
February 2011

U.S. Department of Commerce
Gary Locke, Secretary
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Dr. Jane Lubchenco, Under Secretary for Oceans and Atmosphere
National Marine Fisheries Service
Eric C. Schwaab, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries

Suggested citation:
Stickney, R., R. Iwamoto, and M. Rust (editors). 2011. Interactions ofFisheries and Fishing Communities Related to Aquaculture: Proceedings of
the Thirty-eighth U.S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel Symposium, Corpus Christi,
Texas, October 26–27, 2009. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA Tech. Memo.
NMFS-F/SPO-113, 97 p.
A copy of this report may be obtained from:
Northwest Fisheries Science Center
2725 Montlake Boulevard East
Seattle, Washington 98112
Or online at:
http://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/tm/
Reference throughout this document to trade names does not imply endorsement by the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA.
Cover photo of a south Texas fish and shrimp farm courtesy of Granvil Treece, Texas Sea Grant.

ii

Table ofContents

Session 1
Legal System and Structure of the Industries in Japan andU.S.
1—Economic and Social Issues Driving and Affecting theDevelopment of Aquaculture in the United States

1

2—The Legal System of Fisheries Cooperatives and the Rights
of Fishermen in Japan

3

Michael Rubino

Makoto Yamasaki

Session 2
The Human Dimension
3—Goal of Stock Enhancement, by the People, for the People

7

4—United States Shellfish Growers Perception of Risk:
Do Shellfish Growers Feel Most Vulnerable to Institutional,
Environmental, Market-Based, or Climate Change Risk?

10

5—Fishery Marketing Strategy Based on Local Production for
Local Consumption: Oysters and Sea Urchins

21

Yuichiro Fujimani

Danielle Rioux

Tsutom Miyata

Session 3
Making a Business Case
6—Commercial Farming of the Japanese Sea Urchin(Stongylocentrotus intermedius), Now a Reality

26

7—Market Survey for an Approach to Grouper Aquaculture

28

8—Large Scale Indoor Shrimp Production (over 300 metric tons

35

9—Role of Fisheries Cooperative: a Case Study of Price
Determination of Producers

37

Addison Lawrence
Takashi Iwasakiof shrimp per hectare per year)
Addison Lawrence

Toshinori Takashiiii

10—Application of a Dynamic Stochastic Adaptive
Bioeconomic Model to Evaluate the Economics of Offshore
Bluefin Tuna Aquaculture40

11—Valuation of Ecosystem Services in Restocking with Ayu(Plecoglossus altivelis) in Japan

47

Gina Shamshak

Shin-Ichiro Abe

Session 4
Industries: Local and Global
12—Implications of Aquaculture of Wild Fisheries: The Caseof Alaska Wild Salmon

54

13—Revitalizing Fishing Villages through Sightseeing
Fisheries in Japan

60

14—Technologies to Bridge the Gap Between Fisheries
and Aquaculture

66

Gunnar Knapp

Yasuji Tamaki

Cliff Goudey

Session 5
Stock Enhancement, where Capture and Culture Meet
15—A Comparison of Salmon Hatchery Programs in Alaska
and Japan

71

16—Stock Enhancement Programs of a Fisheries Cooperativeon a Brackish Lake in Japan

79

17—Enhancement of Texas Sciaenids (Red Drum and Spotted
Seatrout)85

18—Efforts Toward Stabilization of Tiger Puffer Fishery andRevitalization of Tourism Based on Puffer Stock Enhancementin the Enshu Region of Japan

93

William Heard

Satoshi Katayama

Robert Vega

Shigenori Suzuki

iv

Introduction

The U.S.-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources (UJNR) wasestablished on January 29, 1964. Since its creation, the UJNR has evolved
to become one of the oldest and most effective cooperative agreements
between Japan and the United States. In 1969, the UJNR Aquaculture Panelwas created as a vehicle for scientists of both countries to meet and discussaquaculture research accomplishments, needs, and priorities, as well as
provide opportunities for cooperative research and scientific exchange.
Under UJNR Aquaculture Panel auspices, U.S. and Japanese scientists havemet annually since 1971 without interruption. The venue for these meetings
has alternated between the two countries. The 38th annual meeting andsymposium were held October 2009 at Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi.
By prior agreement of the U.S.-Japan panels, contributors to the proceedings
were requested to submit manuscripts in the form of brief papers andabstracts.
Takaji Iida, Japan Panel Chairman
Robert Iwamoto, United States Panel Chairman

38th UJNR Business Meeting
October 2009, Corpus Christi, Texas USAv

vi

Economic and Social Issues Driving and Affecting the Development of Aquaculturein the United States
Michael Rubino
NOAA Aquaculture Program
1315 East-West Highway
SSMC3-Mail Code: F
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910
Michael.Rubino at noaa.gov
Keywords: sustainable aquaculture, fisheries management

Abstract

In the 1990s, rising demand for seafood, declining market share of domestically wild-caught fish, andincreasing imports led to renewed interest in the potential of marine and freshwater aquaculture in the
United States. In response to increased demand for seafood and a growing trade deficit in seafood, theU.S. Department of Commerce and its sub-agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), adopted broad aquaculture policies in the late 1990s. More recently, several high-profile
events, initiatives, and reports have helped shape NOAA’s expanding role in U.S. aquaculture and bring
into focus the many challenges the agency faces in fostering U.S. aquaculture as part of its stewardshipmission to manage and conserve marine resources.
From a national perspective, a compelling case can be made for developing additional domestic aquaculture capacity in the United States. Aquaculture, as a complement to wild harvest commercial fisheries,
can help meet the growing demand for seafood and help rebuild our wild fish stocks. Domestic aquaculture is also critical to maintaining an infrastructure in coastal communities to support both wild stock
fisheries and commercial aquaculture and all of the jobs associated with the seafood industry. The potential synergies–rather than competition–among those engaged in commercial and recreational fisheries,
marine aquaculture, seafood processing, and marketing are the keys to maintaining resource-dependent
coastal communities and to ensuring a lead role for the United States in the global seafood market.
In order to cultivate those synergies and advance U.S. aquaculture, NOAA is focused on four specificpriorities:• Ensure a comprehensive regulatory program for environmentally sustainable marine aquaculturethat is predictable, transparent, and reflects an ecosystem-based management approach.
• Support research and development partnerships and conduct scientific research to increase knowledge and improve sustainable technologies for commercial aquaculture and aquaculture-based
wild stock restoration.
• Support public understanding of marine aquaculture. NOAA is working to provide clear, accurate,
and up-to-date scientific information to decision makers and the public regarding the environmental, socioeconomic, and health impacts related to marine aquaculture.
• Engage in international aquaculture developments and scientific exchanges.
The challenges facing NOAA are numerous. Environmental and food safety concerns and the economic
ramifications of domestic aquaculture are the subject of much debate and widely differing views. With
all of these issues on the table, the United States stands at a critical juncture in the development andimplementation of marine aquaculture and the new economic and environmental opportunities it canhelp provide for all fisheries-dependent coastal communities.

Rubino1

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Rubino, Michael (ed). 2008. offshore aquaculture in
the united states: economic considerations, implications & opportunities (pre-publication copy). U.S.
Department of Commerce, Silver Spring, MD USA.
Available at:
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/news/econ.html
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2007.
Summary of the National Marine Aquaculture Summit. Washington, DC. Available at:
http://aquaculture2007.noaa.gov/pdf/summitsum_
web_1_08.pdf
Browdy, C.L. and J.A. Hargreaves (eds). 2009.
Overcoming technical barriers to the sustainable
development of competitive marine aquaculture in
the United States. U.S. Dept. of Commerce; NOAA
Technical Memo NMFS F/SPO- 100. Available at:
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/noaanistwpfinal.
pdf
Rubino, M.C. 2007. Remarks: Keynote for environmental impacts of coastal ocean aquaculture session.
137th Annual American Fisheries Society meeting.
San Francisco, CA. Available at:
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/afs_07_rubino.
pdf
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). 2007. NOAA 10 Year Plan for Marine
Aquaculture. Silver Spring, MD USA. Available at:
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/finalnoaa10yrrweb.pdf

2

RubinoThe Legal System of Fisheries Cooperatives and the Rights of Fishermen in Japan
Makoto Yamasaki
Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Aquaculture
Nakatsuhamaura, Minami-ise
Watarai, Mie 516-0193, Japanyama850 at affrc.go.jp
Keywords: fisheries cooperative, fishery rights, fishery cooperative act

Abstract

Japan fisheries cooperatives (FC) are organizations established under Japanese law (the Fishery Cooperative Act, 1948) to promote the development of collaborating groups among fishing communities. The
Fishery Cooperative Act aims to improve the economic and social status of these communities and increase productivity within the fishing industry. Fisheries cooperatives are formed by the associates andformal membership is controlled by the period of annual operation days. The business operations of afisheries cooperative include credit (as with banks), mutual aid (as with insurance companies), purchase
operations that fishermen require in order to sustain themselves and their activities, selling the fishingproducts, and providing management guidance.

Introduction

A regional cooperative is a social unit, and is basedon a village where a fishery has existed since theEdo period (about 300 years ago). There were 1,890
regional cooperatives in 1997, however, the number
fell to 1,191 by July 2007 through active consolidation over a 10 year period. Umbrella organizations
include the National Federation of Fisheries Cooperative Associations, prefectural federations of fisheries cooperative associations, and regional cooperative organizations.
Fishery rights are licensed by a prefectural governor and enable the holders to operate solely andexclusively within specific areas and to benefit fromrestricted access. Also, fishery rights established on
the sea surface are not subject to the norms associated with land ownership. The following three typesof fishery rights exist: 1) fixed-net fishery right,
includes the right to lay and fix nets and other fishing gear for a specified period of time at a particularlocation; 2) demarcated fishery right, permits users
to participate in aquatic animal or plant aquaculture
within a specified demarcated area; and 3) common
fishery right, permits fishing communities in a specific area to operate fisheries on a communal basis.
As for fishing communities, the most importantorganizations are fisheries cooperatives (FC) thatconsist of fishermen who are supplying fish for thenation. This paper introduces them following the

Yamasakiconsensus of the Japan panel that it is important forthis symposium theme “Interactions of fisheries andfishing communities related to aquaculture” to know
about Japanese FC, and with the hope that it will help
promote fisheries and aquaculture of the United States.

System for Becoming a Fisherman in Japan

If you want to be a fisherman in Japan, what do you
have to do? You have to be an inhabitant of a fishing village and an employee in a fishery. In addition,
you have to work more than 90~120 days per year
under a particular formal fisherman. The engagement period is fixed by each FC.
After more than one year of employment–a period
fixed by each FC as well–the village FC will judge
whether you are suitable to become a formal member of the FC. After having the approval of the FC
directorate, you become a formal fisherman in acoastal fishery.

What are the Rights of Fisherman and the FC?

Fishery rights are provided in the Fisheries Law(1949). The objective of that law is to establish a fundamental management system relative to the fisheryand to ensure fishery productivity with multiple layers of exploitation of the water and democratizationof fishery. Some types of fisheries, for example thefixed net fishery and aquaculture, cannot be successfully prosecuted unless the areas are controlled to a3certain extent. In order to adjust operations among
the operators and maintain order in the fishery, asystem of fishing rights in public waters has been established. The fishing right is a right with which one
can operate in a certain fishery exclusively in a given
area. The fishing right is established by the administrative authorities – in principle by the governors ofthe metropolis, Hokkaido or prefectures. However,the fishing right is not an unrestricted right. A certain area of water is demarcated, and for the purposeof optimum utilization of that area, the particularsof the right, such as target species, fishing seasonsand the method of catching or farming the fish are
specified. The following three types of fishery rights
exist: 1) fixed-net fishery right, 2) demarcated fisheryright, and 3) common fishery right.

Fixed-net Fishery Right

The fixed-net fishery rights include the right to lay
and fix nets and other fishing gears for a specified
period of time at a particular location. The license
period is five years. The fixed-net fishery right isprovided to those who actually operate the fixed-net
fishery, but because it will occupy good coastal fishing grounds for a considerable period of time, there
is a policy to give priority to the regional FC andother fishermen’s organizations. The purpose of thepolicy is to allow as many fishermen as possible toparticipate in the management of such fisheries.

Demarcated Fishery Right

A demarcated fishery relates to aquaculture operations within a certain delineated area. In order tomanage aquaculture it is essential to exclusively
occupy the waters due to the nature of culture activities. For this reason, the demarcated fishery right has
been established. There are three types of demarcated aquaculture:

Type 1 is aquaculture operated by setting up
aquaculture facilities within a certain area. Included are the culture of laver, oysters, pearl oysters
and others using spore or spat collectors, aquaculture of oysters, pearl oysters and others using
the hanging culture method; aquaculture of laver,kelp and other seaweeds using the surface floating
float method; and aquaculture of yellowtail, sea
bream, carp and other finfish using small net cages.
Type 2 is aquaculture operated in specified areas
surrounded by barriers. It is large- scale aquaculture for such species as yellowtail, sea bream andother finfish utilizing embankment and net partition methods.

4Type 3 is aquaculture operated in specified areas
other than those of the preceding two types. This
category includes the Jimaki culture method,which is to release shellfishes such as clams andoysters in fishing grounds and allowing them togrow naturally.
Of the demarcated fishery rights, those for largescale fish farming and pearl culture require relatively
large capital investments by persons who actuallyoperate the aquaculture sites. Thus, this entitlement
is similar to that of the fixed-net fishery right. Other
types of culture such as seaweeds, pearl oysters, oysters and finfish in small net cages are called “special
demarcated fishery right” in terms of the Fisheries
Law and the right for those types of aquaculture isgiven to the FC, and under the management of theFC, individual members will execute the fisheryright in the same way as the common fishery right.
The license period for a demarcated fishery right is
10 years while that for a special demarcated one is 5
years.

The Common Fishery Right

This right permits fishing communities to operate
fisheries in specified waters. The fishery right isdivided into five categories according to the type offishery and target fish species. The license period is
ten years.
Because the common fishery uses the public waters in common, the fishery right is managed by
the FC. In reality, the majority of coastal fishermen
make their living from this type of fishery. The FC
establishes rules for execution of the fishery right.
The rule prescribes the eligibility (qualifications) of
the person to engage in the fishery, fishing area andperiod, and fishing method.
With regard to the fixed-net fishery right and demarcated fishery right, the individual fishery operator
who obtains the license holds the rights as previously mentioned. However, for the common fisheryright and specified demarcated fishery right, thelicensed FC holds the rights.

The Functions of FC

Japan FC are organizations established under Japanese law–the Fishery Cooperative Act (1948)–to promote the development of those organizations among
fishermen. In so doing, the Fishery Cooperative Act
aims to improve the economic and social status of

Yamasakifishermen and increase productivity within the fishing industry.
The business activities of an FC include the extension of credit by banks and savings and loans; establishment of mutual aid initiatives (as with insurance companies); purchasing operations required
for acquiring and resupplying fuel, aquaculture
feed and fishing equipment that fishermen requirein order to sustain themselves and their activities;
selling fishery products; and providing management
guidance. Fishermen should not have any problem
in conducting their fishing activities and making aliving as long as they belong to a FC.
Table 1 shows the average scale of several business
operations of the FCs. For example, of the 1,160
regional FCs surveyed, 932 engaged in selling fish
products worth about $11.51 billion. Because the total value of Japan fishery in 2007 was $16.53 billion,
almost 70% of the sales of Japan fishery products
were attributed to the regional FCs.

The System of FC

There were 1,191 regional FCs in Japan in 2007 (asa result of a national campaign to have only one FC
per prefecture). There were 1,890 FCs in 1997, sosome consolidation has occurred. For example, in
Chiba prefecture, located near Tokyo, there are 57 FC
local units that are placed along the coast and rivers. All the local FCs form a prefectural federationof FCs, and all the prefectural federations form theJapan federation.

Fishery Adjustment Commission

In the Fisheries Law (1949), the Fishery Adjustment
Commission (FAC) was formed to adjust fisheries
that are composed mainly of fishery operators andemployees. The FAC deals with fisheries-related
matters that are established at the prefectural andnational government levels. The FAC was introduced as part of a series of post-war reforms to bringabout democratization of the fishing industry. The
Fisheries Law states that the function of the FAC isto ensure that, “waters are comprehensively utilized, fishery production capacity is developed, anddemocratization of fishery is promoted.” Further,
the FAC works as an organization to make rulings,
instructions and authorizations as well as one that
holds consultations and makes proposals to prefectural governors. Therefore, the FAC has extensive

Yamasaki

Table 1. The average scale of several business operations offisheries cooperatives.
Data from Fisheries Agency “Statistics tables of Fisheries Cooperatives, 2007”
Converted at U.S. $1 = ¥100.

Total number of fisheries cooperatives surveyed 1,160
CREDIT
Savings

Number of FC
Total dealings
Average dealing

237$9,145,050,000$52,560,000

Loan

Number of FC
Total dealings
Average dealing234$2,272,800,000$9,710,000

PURCHASE

Number of FC
Total dealings
Average dealing

1,009$2,219,090,000$2,200,000

SELLING

Number of FC
Total dealings
Average dealings

932$11,515,250,000$12,370,000

and powerful authorities and functions associatedwith fisheries as follows:

1. Consultations: Prefectural governors are
obliged to consult with the FAC before carryingout the planning of fishing ground management, awarding licenses of fishery rights, or
engaging in any other administrative punishments related to fishery rights.
2. Proposals: The FAC is required to submit proposals to the prefectural governor in mattersrelated to the establishment of fishing groundmanagement plans and additions to restrictions
or limitations of fishery rights after licenses areawarded. The FAC is responsible for actively
proposing matters requiring input of the prefectural governor.
3. Decisions: The FAC acts under the law as arbitrator in cases where the parties in an aquaculture dispute are unable to reach an amicableagreement. The committee also instructs fishermen to restrict or prohibit the harvesting of certain aquatic plants and animals. They can also
act on matters related to the eligibility of fisheryrights applicants.

5

Recently, the management of fisherman and FCs has
been difficult because of the low price of fish, lackof entrants into the fisheries and decreasing natural
resources, among other reasons. The exclusive use ofareas under fishery rights are under pressure fromdemands to allow the expansion of areas open to recreational fishing and leisure activities. The FCs must
adjust to such pressures that arise from citizens otherthan fisherman.

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Hiroyoshi, K., and M. Sano (eds.). 2008. Fishery
Economy-learn with arranged points. Hokuto-shobou, Tokyo. 285 p.
This is a textbook on fishery economics for university students. The content of the book includes

production structures of fisheries and aquaculture, management, consumption, marketing,processing, and fishery cooperatives. It is only
available in Japanese.
Kaneda, Y. 2005. Fisheries and fishing methods ofJapan. Revised edition. Seizando Shoten Publishing
Company, Tokyo. 214 p.

The fishing gear and methods used in Japan havebeen developed through the passage of time overthe history of its fisheries. Because a large variety
of fishing techniques exist in Japan, a strong needhas arisen to conserve fisheries resources in public
waters such as the seas, rivers, freshwater lakes, andponds. In this book, the fishing gear and methods
are outlined and the fishery management system
in Japan provided as a supplement. The parts on
fishery rights and the FAC in this paper are based on
information in this book.

6

YamasakiGoals of Stock Enhancement, by the People, for the People
Yuichiro Fujinami, Daisuke Shimizu, Yoshitomo Nagakura, Tsutomu Noda, and Hideaki Aono
Fisheries Research Agency
National Center for Stock Enhancement, Miyako Station
Sakiyama, Miyako, Iwate 027-0097, Japanfujinami at affrc.go.jp

Keywords: stock enhancement, stocking effectiveness,
Abstract

The Miyako Station National Center for Stock Enhancement has been stocking marine fish juveniles in
Miyako Bay. The center also conducts public relation (pr) activities on stock enhancement by holding
several events such as open laboratory, field study programs, and stocking experience events. Recently,
these activities have often been reported in local newspapers and on television news.
In this paper, we report on the evaluation of the effects of our pr activities by questionnaire surveys
conducted in 2004, 2005, and 2009 for checking on the awareness of 1) the term “Stock Enhancement”, 2)
existence of our hatchery, and 3) stocking of juveniles in Miyako Bay.
The results show that the percentages of people responding to the questions “I know the term stock enhancement” and “I know a hatchery for stock enhancement exists in Miyako City” were 85.1% and 70.3%,
in 2004/2005 and 72.3% and 60.7% in 2009. The awareness of levels of stocking with juveniles of fourkinds increased in this survey in 2009 compared to 2004/2005.
The goals of the stock enhancement program are enhancement of the fishery stocks and the activationof the local community (for the people). To arrive at those goals, the program should be operated withfishery workers and the local residents (by the people) because stock management and conservation ofnursery grounds where they are located close to populated areas are indispensable for its success. From
our point of view, the pr activities are effective in promoting stock enhancement by the people.

Introduction

The stock enhancement program of marine fish in
Japan has been in existence since 1963. The idea is toimprove resources in coastal areas as well as ensuring income to coastal fishery workers (Imamura
1999). For the successful operation of stock enhancement, not only stocking strategy that focuses on highquality juveniles, but also conservation of nursery
grounds and stock management are needed. Therefore, it is important to carry on the stock enhancement program with fishery workers and local residents.
At the Miyako Station, National Center for Stock
Enhancement, we have stocked various species ofmarine fish juveniles into Miyako Bay. In recent
years, 5,000 to 700,000 Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii), spotted halibut (Verasper variegates) and black rockfish(Sebastes schlegeli) juveniles are stocked every year.
The maximum contribution rate (contribution of

Fujinami et al.

stocked fish in the landings) has been estimated at
52.7% for flounder (Okouchi et al. 2004), 97.0% forblack rockfish (Nakagawa et al. 2006), 36.0% for
Pacific herring (Okouchi unpublished) and morethan 90% for spotted halibut (Shimizu unpublished).
Moreover, the maximum economic efficiency (thelanded value of stocked fish divided by the costof fingerling production) has been estimated to be
2.53 in flounder (Okouchi et al. 2004) and 1.25 inblack rockfish (Nakagawa et al. 2006). However, theeffectiveness of stocking was hardly recognized byfishery workers and local residents.
In the late 1990s, we started a public relation campaign on the effectiveness of the stock enhancement
program and the importance of nursery ground byholding several events such as open laboratory, fieldstudy programs, and stocking experience events. At
the events, we inform participants about the following in plain language: 1) how fish are hatched and7reared, 2) how and where stocked juveniles grow, 3)
why the nursery grounds are important for juvenile
growth, 4) why the marine ecosystem is importantfor creatures and how it is easily damaged by humanactivities, and 5) how stock enhancement and thestock management play important roles for sustainable fisheries.

Table 1. The awareness by Miyako residents of stock enhancement activities and existence of the hatchery for stock enhancement in Miyako City.

Stock enhancement

85.1

72.3

In this paper, we show the changes of residents’awareness of stock enhancement, and discuss the effectiveness of our pr activities.

Existence of hatchery

70.3

60.7

Awareness (percent)
2004–20052009(n=148)(n=303)

2004-2005
2009

Questionnaire surveys were conducted in 2004, 2005
and 2009 at our booth in the industry exhibition of
Miyako City. We handed the questionnaire to visitorsof the exhibition, collected the response sheets, andcompared the results between 2004/2005 and 2009.
The survey items were as follows: (Q1) Do you know
the term “stock enhancement?” (Q2) Do you knowa hatchery for stock enhancement exists in Miyako
City? Moreover, the items shown below were addedin the survey of 2009: (Q3) Do you know we stockedjuveniles of four kinds of species; (Q4) If your answer of Q3 is YES, how did you find out about it?

Occurrence (percent)

Methods

Sp ec i es
Figure 1. Changes in awareness of juvenile stocking of four
speciesResults and Discussion

Goals of Stock Enhancement

In late years, some fishery workers aware of ouractivities voluntarily began to halt landing young
black rockfish (Noda et al. 2008), or to protect her-

8

Other
Participationin PR event

Occurrence (percent)Effects of pr activities. The results showed theawareness of stock enhancement and existence ofa hatchery for stock enhancement was 85.1% andrespectively, 70.3% in 2004/2005 (n=148), and decreased to 72.3% and 60.7% in 2009 (n=303, Table
1). On the other hand, the awareness of juvenile
stocking of four species increased. In particular, thepercentage of respondents aware of Pacific herring (25.0% to 47.0%) and spotted halibut (18.2% to33.0%) almost doubled (Figure 1). Figure 2 shows
how residents came to know about our activities
in juvenile stocking. The sources were mainly local
newspapers or TV, followed by word of mouth fromfamily or friends, participation of pr events and others. Recently, our pr activities have received a highdegree of local media coverage. It is thought that is
the reason for boosted awareness of juvenile stocking.

Word ofmouth
Newspapers
or TV

Sp ec i es
Figure 2. The response to question four: “How do you know
about juvenile stocking?”

ring eggs spawned on fishing nets (Nagakura andAritaki 2009). By these stock managements, thecatch of these species increased. Increase of local
fishery stocks will not only increase fishery worker’s
incomes, but also benefit the local economy, recreational fisheries and so on. Stock enhancement is one

Fujinami et al.

effective tool for stock management and enhancement of the fishery stock. However, for the stockenhancement to be successful, mutual understanding and cooperation among local residents, fishery
workers, and researchers is indispensable, and pr
activities play an important role in developing that
understanding. Obviously, the goals of stock enhancement are growth of the stocks and to activate
the local community. To arrive at those goals stockenhancement must be performed “by” the people.
As the results, it will yield great benefits “for” thepeople.

References

Imamura, K. 1999. The organization and development of sea farming in Japan. B. R. Howell, E. Moksness, and T. Svasand, (eds.), Stock enhancement andsea ranching pp. 91–102. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
Nagakura, Y., and M. Aritaki. 2009. Current state andfuture prospects of propagation of Pacific herring inMiyako Bay. Aquacult. Mag. 573:52–55 [In Japanese].
Nakagawa M., H. Okouchi, J. Adachi, K. Hattori,
and Y. Yamashita. 2006. Effectiveness of stock enhancement of hatchery-released black rockfish,
Sebastes schlegeli in Yamada Bay, evaluation by a fish
market survey. Aquacult. 263:295–302.
National Association for the Promotion of Productive Sea (NAPPS). 2008. Seed production and releasestatistic. Tokyo [in Japanese].
Noda, T. 2008. Effectiveness of stock enhancementof black rockfish, Sebastes schlegeli, and proposal ofresource management. Proceedings of 18th Japan,
China, and Korea Fisheries Scientists’ Conference,
Overseas Fishery Cooperation Foundation of Japan,
142–150 [In Japanese].
Okouchi, H., S. Kitada, A. Iwamoto, and T. Fukunaga. 2004. The flounder stock enhancement in Miyako
Bay, Japan. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, Rome. FAO Fisheries TechnicalPaper. 429:171–202.

Fujinami et al.

9

U.S. Shellfish Growers Perception of Risk:
Do Shellfish Growers Feel Most Vulnerable to Institutional, Environmental,
Market-based, or Climate Change Risks?
Danielle Rioux
University of Washington
School of Marine Affairs
Seattle, Washington 98122
UWShellfish at gmail.com
Keywords: risk, shellfish, aquaculture, oyster, climate change

Abstract

Currently, molluscan shellfish culture comprises two–thirds of U.S. marine aquaculture. With U.S.
aquaculture expected to triple in size by 2025, it is likely that there will be marked growth in the shellfish
growing sector. In order to effectively manage an expanding shellfish growing industry, it is importantto understand the risks associated with it, as well as how they impact business decisions. There has beensignificant academic research to elucidate the scientific basis of the four main risk categories of this study,
environmental and climate change risks to shellfish, as well as market-based and institutional risk. Yet
little research has been conducted to assess how members of the shellfish industry perceive these risks,
their financial protection from them, nor growers’ perception of market demand, and their associatedbusiness decisions.
This study surveyed molluscan shellfish growers in the United States about their perception of risk totheir individual businesses, to the industry as a whole, and about their business decisions. The survey asked each grower to rate the level of risk of 30 different threats from the four main risk categories.
Shellfish growers are also asked about their perceived level of product demand, the history of their business decisions, and their plans for future change. The data from this survey have been quantitatively
analyzed to reveal statistically significant differences in where the industry feels most vulnerable, as well
as between regional business decisions.

Introduction

In this study, shellfish growers’ perceptions of riskin the United States are analyzed. By elucidating
which specific threats the industry perceives to havethe highest associated risk, those threats may become more of a focal point in regulation and protection. Using this approach to find specific threats willallow targeted industry growth barriers to be studied and overcome.
Currently within the aquaculture industry, and shellfish culture specifically, there are few safety nets available to investors. Unlike terrestrial farms, subsidies
and government insurance programs are not broadly
available. There is a pilot federal insurance programfor cultivated clams available in four East Coast states
which is the first federal crop insurance program foraquaculture (Beach and Viator 2008). This is a small
scale program, however, and only available for clams;
thus growers who produce clams and other mollusks
may only insure part of their businesses.

10

A more recent development for the aquacultureindustry in the United States is a partner program
between the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation and approved private insurance companies
through a re-insurance program under the Federal
Crop Insurance Act (7 U.S.C. 1502 § 502). Currently,
however, in the United States the only private aquaculture insurer is Lloyd’s of London, and very few
policies have been drafted (van Anrooy 2006). It isalso important to note that extensive shellfish culture
is not considered insurable (van Anrooy 2006); likely
because assessing all of the threats is impossible.
Currently, the main way for a shellfish grower toreceive direct compensation for product loss is if theentire fishery is deemed to be a commercial fisheryfailure by the Secretary of Commerce, under the
Magnuson Stevens Act of 1976 (U.S.C.§1861 (a)), or
under the Interjurisdictional Fisheries Act of 1986
(NOAA Fisheries Office of Sustainable Fisheries 2009.

Rioux

By only appropriating money when the fishery isdeemed a failure, the risk for each individual aquaculturist is not mitigated. It is possible for money totrickle down to those affected. However, it has only
happened twice. Both Massachusetts and Maine
were considered to have fishery failures in 2005
due to a harmful algal bloom (HAB). While aid wasgiven in 2005, those helped represent only a small
percentage of aquaculture operations that have been
affected by HABs over the past 30 years, and HABs
are only one of the innumerable threats to marine
culture. Due to the requirement that the fishery must
be deemed a failure, it makes it nearly impossible foran aquaculturist to rely on government appropriations. There are many large threats to aquaculture
economics, and there is currently not an effective
way for aquaculturists to protect their investments.
There were three goals of this study:

1. Provide information that may aid in the understanding of where growers feel specificallyvulnerable, which possibly can be used to solve
this dearth of options for growers.

2. Analyze the perceived health of the industry,including perceived demand as well as associated changes in price per piece and productionlevels.

3. Assess the interest level in financial protection

from stock mortality in the industry, throughinsurance programs, as well as appraise the current types of protection used.

Methods

before they were faced with those questions. The
survey design was broken into three major components in order to efficiently answer questions related
to the first three goals of the study (Figure 1).
There were also various qualifying questions asked,
such as product produced, state in which production
happens, size of company, as well as the respondents
role in the company, and how many years they wereinvolved in the shellfish growing industry. These
questions were asked not to directly meet any of thegoals, but to enable an understanding of the diversity of respondents.
Sampling Technique—The maximum survey mailing capacity of this study was 1,000 surveys sent via
the U.S. Postal Service. To obtain lists of registered
growers in each state, a number of avenues wereused. State departments of health, fish and wildlife,
natural resources, or other government offices generally hold these lists. In the few states where that is
not the case, other contacts were used to obtain thelists. In order to create an even sample of each coastand to allow accurate statistical comparison, a limitof 333 surveys was set for the west, gulf, and east
coasts of the U.S. In the case of Florida, each addresson the list was mapped and assigned to the appropriate coast.
Data Analysis Methods—The qualifying questionsof the survey were analyzed using basic descriptive
statistics of means, percentages, and counts. The answers to the qualifying questions created an understanding of the characteristics of the respondents.

To meet the goals of the study a voluntary, anonymous mail survey was created and sent to registeredshellfish growers across the country. The first pageof the survey was an invitation to participate. Thisletter outlined the anonymity and voluntary natureof the survey, as well as the goals of the study. In theletter a request was made that the owner or manager
complete the survey, so that the answers would
reflect the thoughts of someone in a decision-making
role within the company.

Goal 1: Highest Perceived Risk
Individual Threat—The first step taken to findwhich threat in the survey has the highest associatedperceived risk within the industry was basic codingof respondent answers. The data from the risk
assessment Likert Scale questions were qualitative,
and these data were transposed into quantitative
numerical data, using the code 1 to 5, with 1
indicating very low risk and 5 very high risk.
Unknown answers were not assigned a value.

Survey Design—The survey was designed using
the basic principles of the Taylor design method(Dillman, 2007). Questions asked were worded in
an unbiased non-leading manner. The order of thequestions represented was strategic. Questions thatthe respondent would likely be least motivated toanswer were asked last, thus engaging respondents

Two methods were used to find the threat withthe highest perceived risk in each of the threat
categories. The first method used was the KruskalWallis signed rank test. The Kruskal-Wallis test is a
non-parametric test to determine whether threeor more independent samples are from the same
population, by assessing if there is a difference in

Rioux

11

the distribution of each
population (Larson,2006). The data are
first grouped into
the populations forcomparison, to determine the threat with thehighest level of associated perceived risk; theanswers for each question were a separate
population. All of thedata are thennumericallyordered as one continuous data set, and thenranked. The mean rankor each population, as
well as the test statistic isthen calculated. By calculating the mean rank,
it allows for comparison
between different sized
populations. The
calculations were doneusing the computer
software SPSS. The data
used to find the largest
threat in each category
were considereddependent data, because
they have multiple
answers made by thesame individual, as
respondents rate each threat within a category. Since
it is likely that the way respondents answer the firstquestion in the category affects how they answer
the last, the data cannot be considered independent,
which renders the Kruskal-Wallis test statistic
invalid in this case. Although the statistic calculated
from this test is invalid due to the dependencyof the data, the signed-ranks are valid and giveinformation to answer the question in goal 1. The
ranks were then verified by calculating the mean foreach of the individual threats, and the same results
were found.
The individual threat data were also analyzed tosee how evenly spread the responses were to thequestions. The spread data were also calculated to
examine if the highest risks from the previous tests
were verified by having the highest percentage of

12

Figure 1. Major components of answers to survey questions.

respondents rating them as very high risk. This wasdone by calculating the percentage of respondents
answering each possible answer for each question;that is for threat x, a percent of respondents
answered very low risk, b percent answered low
risk, etc.
To find which category of threats had the highest
level of perceived risk, a repeated Analysis of
Variance test was run using “repeated measures”
in SPSS. The test was run using the mean for eachsurvey of each category.
Goal 2: Perceived Market Health and Business
Decisions—This goal of the survey was answered
through descriptive statistics for the questions
designed to assess perceived market and industry
health. Comparisons were made between the five-Riouxyear and one–year time scales to appraise how themarket may be changing.

Table 1. Survey responses by geographic location.

Goal 3: Interest in and Current Status of Financial
Protection from Stock Mortality— This goal wasaddressed through descriptive statistics using
percent of respondents answering yes, no, or
unknown. The open-ended question, which asked
the respondent to describe how they had financially
protected their business, was qualitatively assessed.
General categories of answers were createdsubjectively, solely to discern if there were any
definitive patterns.

AlaskaWashington
OregonCalifornia
Total
Response rate

The data from the market health and businessdecisions were transposed from qualitative data
into quantitative numerical data using the code
1 for decrease, 2 for stayed about the same, and 3
for increase. Again, unknown answers were notassigned a value. Using this code, a Kruskal-Wallis
signed rank test was run between the coasts for boththe five year and one year time scale. The current
level of financial protection from stock mortality,
and interest in learning about federal and private
insurance was compared between coasts using
descriptive statistics calculated for each coast.

Results

Qualifying Questions—Geographic response
numbers are presented in Table 1. The national
response rate was 14%. The product respondent
growers produces presented in Table 2. Many
respondents grow more than one type of animal,
which is why the number of responses is higher than
the number of surveys returned. The respondents
position within the business is presented in Table
3 and the size of the businesses who responded isshown in Table 4. The final qualifying question
asked respondents to state how long they
individually had been involved in the shellfish
growing industry. The mean number of years
involved was 22 years, with the fewest amount oftime being one year, and the longest 55 years.
Goal 1: Highest Perceived Risk
Institutional Threats—In Table 5, a higher meanrank reflects a higher level of perceived risk, which
is verified through the calculated mean. This
information shows that the threat with the highest
perceived risk in the institutional threat group is stateand local regulations. The threat with the second

Rioux

West Coast		East Coast

3		Maine
45		Massachusetts
4		Connecticut
6		
Rhode Island
58
New York
18%		
New Jersey
		Maryland
Gulf Coast			Virginia
Louisiana22		
North Carolina
Mississippi
1		South Carolina
Florida7		Florida
Total
30		Total
Response rate
9%		Response rate

2
4
4
3
1
5
1
9
7
7
1
44
14%

Table 2. Survey responses by product type.

Product

Number of responses

Clams
Geoduck*
Mussels
Oysters
Scallop*
Abalone*

68
5
16
106
3
1

*Write in answer

Table 3. Survey responses by position in the business.

Position

Percent of respondents

Executive (owner, president, chair, etc.)
Manager
Other

93
6
1

Table 4. Survey responses by size of business.

Weekly production
Small (< 1,000 dozen)
Medium (1,000 to 5,000 dozen)
Large (> 5,000 dozen)

Percent of respondents
52
30
18

13

highest risk is federal environmental regulations. This
is notable because both the mean rank and calculatedmeans are very close between the highest and next
highest perceived risk. The discrete answers aregraphed as percentage of respondents answering eachrating on the Likert scale (Figure 2). That figure showsthat not only does state and local regulation have thehighest mean rank and mean, but also the highest
percentage of respondents rating it as very high risk.
Market-Based Threats—The information in the
Table 6 shows that the threat with the highest
level of associated risk in the market-based threat
category is the cost of operation. Figure 3 shows thediscrete answers and the percent of respondents whomarked each Likert scale option. Figure 3 showsthat although the threat with the highest overalllevel of perceived risk is the cost of operation,
more growers actually responded that competition

Table 6. Level of perceived risk by market-based threats.

Threat
The economic crisis
Low demand of product
Cost of operation
Theft and/or vandalism
Negative perception of aquaculture
by consumers
Competition with:
Domestic growers
Domestic wild harvesters
Imported products

Mean rank

Mean

630.33519.89683.94487.70

3.12
2.69
3.35
2.59

454.932.45

482.63379.31
529.12

2.54
2.14
2.79

Table 5. Level of perceived risk by institution threats.

ThreatState and local regulations
Federal environmental regulations
Federal human health regulations
Availability and access to growing space
Permitting process

Mean rank Mean
372.82350.58294.65281.90310.30

3.74
3.59
3.22
3.08
3.29

Figure 3. Likert scale of perceived risk by market-based threats.

highest level of perceived risk is fecal contamination.
This gives strength to the argument that these are
the two highest, because fecal contamination in parttriggers blooms of Vibrio spp. Thus by having both
rated very closely, it shows a level of understandingof the disease process within the shellfish growing

Table 7. Level of perceived risk by environmental threats.

ThreatFigure 2. Likert scale of perceived risk by institutional threats.

with imported products is a very high risk to theirbusiness than the cost of operation.
Environmental Threats—The data in Table 7 showthat Vibrio spp. have the highest level of perceived
risk. It is also noted that the threat with the second

14

Vibrio parahaemolyticus,
V. vulnificus, or V. tubiashii
MSX (Haplosporidium nelsoni)or Dermo (Parkinsus marinus)
Disease (other than above)
Harmful algal blooms
Water pollution:
PharmaceuticalIndustrial
Fecal contamination
Fertilizer run-off
Hypoxia
Introduced foreign species

Mean rank

Mean

711.393.27

699.11
617.19613.33

2.88
2.89
2.88

448.65483.60680.54626.99530.59616.40

2.27
2.58
3.14
2.94
2.46
2.85

Rioux

with the highest percentage of respondents rating it
a very high risk is storm intensity.

Figure 4. Likert scale of perceived risk by environmental threats.

industry. The discrete answers shown as percentagesof respondents answering each Likert scale rating
can be seen as Figure 4. The discrete breakdown
shows the threats with the highest percentage of
respondents rating of very high risk were Vibrio spp.
and fecal contamination.
Climate Change Threats—The data in Table 8 showthat the threat with the highest level of perceived
risk is storm intensity. The breakdown of percent
of respondents answering each Likert scale rating
is graphed in Figure 5, which shows that the threat

Table 8. Level of perceived risk by climate change threats.

ThreatOcean acidification
Sea level rise
Sea temperature rise
Storm intensity
Climate change

Sum of ranks Mean
327.49251.73285.35358.70310.51

2.96
2.39
2.62
3.19
2.82

Threat Category—A repeated ANOVA test was run
between the four threat categories to find which category has the highest level of perceived risk. These
data are shown in Table 9. A higher mean reflects ahigher level of perceived risk. The information in
Table 9 shows that the threat category with the highest level of perceived risk is institutional threats. The

Table 9. Level of perceived risk by threat category.

ThreatMean

Institutional
Market-based
Environmental
Climate

3.33
2.71
2.82
2.75

test statistic is 0.000, which reflects a significant difference in perception between the threat categories.
Goal 2: Perceived Market Health and Business
Decisions
Perceived Market Health
Change in Demand—Results for perceived change
in demand can be seen in Table 10.
Change in Price per Piece—The results for respondent businesses’ change in price per piece are presented in Table 10. The two are very similar, exceptthat more respondents claim they have increased
their price per piece in the past year than have in thepast 5 years.
Business Decisions
Past Change in Production—The data regarding
past change in production is shown in Table 10. The
results for both time periods are very similar andshow that, nationally, the industry has increased
its production in the past, although the percent ofrespondents stating that their production has increased is slightly smaller in the past year than thepast 5 years.

Figure 5. Likert scale of perceived risk by climate change threats.

Rioux

Future Change in Production—The results for
future expected change is production is reported in15

Table 10. Perceived market health.

		
Stayed about
Decreased

the same

Increased

Unknown

Change in product demand		in past 5 years
17

31

50

2

Change in product change
in the past year (n=128)

23

38

38

1

Change in price per piecein past 5 years (n=127)

24

34

42

0

Change in price per piecein the past year (n=127)

24

24

52

0

Change in production levelin the past 5 years (n=131)

18

43

39

0

Change in production levelin the past year (n=130)

19

47

39

0

Future production level in
the next five years (n=131)

36

6

44

14

Future production levelin the next year (n=131)

6

46

38

10

				
Table 10. The results show that there is an overall
expected increase in production within the industry
from the respondents. More respondents stated thatthe change in production of their business is unknown in the next 5 years than the next year, whichis expected, as it is difficult to forecast what will happen in the market in the next 5 years. By comparing
between time scales, it can be seen that more respondents expect to increase their production in the next
five years than in the next year, thus showing thatgrowers who have planned 5 or more years into the
future are expecting to expand their businesses morein the distant than the immediate future.
Goal 3: Interest in and Current Status of Financial
Protection from Stock Mortality—The first questionin assessing interest within the industry of financial protection from stock mortality from any of thethreats surveyed is to assess whether stock mortality
is a concern. Sixty-nine percent of respondents statedthat they worry about stock mortality. When asked ifthey rely on government disaster relief programs tofinancially protect their business, 67% remarked thatthey do not.

16

Growers were asked if there were a federal stockmortality insurance program, would they be interested in learning about it. Sixty-seven percent ofrespondents stated that they would, 27% would
not and 6% marked unknown. A separate question
asked about their interest in learning more about a
private stock mortality insurance program. Sixtyseven percent of respondents stated that they would
be interested, 25% would not, and 8% marked unknown. The similar results show that the interest level is not influenced by a preference for government
or private protection. Respondents were also asked
how much they would be willing to pay per animal
for coverage. The responses to this question varied
widely, with most respondents leaving the question
blank. Generally, respondents who answered would
be willing to pay less than one cent per animal.
Respondents were also asked if they were currently
financially protected. Sixty-seven percent stated thatthey were not. Those who marked that they were
protected were then asked the open-ended questionof how. The results varied widely, with many respondents stating through liability insurance, which

Riouxdoesn’t cover the crop. One respondent stated thatfederal flood insurance covers 30% of crop loss due
to flood. Five respondents stated that they were protected by the diversification of their product, threestated that they had insurance, but did not explain
what kind. Twelve respondents stated that they had
crop insurance, either through the pilot clam insurance for four east coast states, federal crop disasterinsurance, or a private company.

Discussion

The qualifying questions in the survey play an important role in assessing whether the respondent
population accurately reflects the characteristics ofthe entire shellfish grower population. Through discussions with experts on the industry, as well as representatives from within the industry, this was validated. The proportion of small to large companies,
as well as the proportion of respondents who groweach product type, are accurate for the industry as awhole. With the mean number of years in the industry by respondents at 22, the views reflected in the
results come from growers who have been in the industry long enough to have witnessed ups anddowns and have an educated opinion of its current
status. Ninety-three percent of the respondents are
the owner of their business, and thus are in a prime
decision-making role for the company.
Goal 1: Highest Perceived Risk­—The primary goalof this study was to find what threat to the shellfish
growing industry has the highest level of perceived
risk. The first step in identifying the largest perceived threat was to find which threat within eachcategory had the highest level of perceived risk.
In the institutional threat category, the highest perceived risk was associated with state and local regulations. This is particularly interesting because this is
one of the threats that varies widely depending on
location. Through discussions with growers as wellas their answers to the open ended question, the tie
that makes all state and local regulations, regardlessof the state or locale, the highest risk is the rate at
which they are changed. Growers find that state andlocal regulations are constantly changing and it isdifficult to keep up with them.
In the market-based threat category the largest perceived risk was from the current cost of operation.
The open-ended question answers helped explain

Rioux

this finding as well. A number of growers commented on fuel costs, as well as the fact that they simply
can’t get production costs down low enough to compete with imports and still make a solid profit.
The environmental threat with the highest level ofperceived risk is Vibrio spp. This does not come as asurprise as Vibrio are now found on all coasts of theUnited States, and in almost all bays and waterways
where shellfish are grown. Vibrio not only slow thegrowth of shellfish, and sometimes cause mortality,
but also render the product non-marketable, as mostVibrio spp. cause illness in humans.
The highest perceived risk of a climate change threat
was storm intensity. This is likely because storm intensity is a visible, concrete, dramatic occurrence, theresults of which are immediate. The high number ofhurricanes in most recent years, many with intensities above what has been witnessed previously is notpossible to ignore. Other climate change threats areon a slower, more constant time scale, and may not
be recognized as risks for a number of years to come.
The next step in assessing what threat poses the biggest perceived threat was to find which category of
threats holds the highest level of perceived risk. This
was the institutional threats category. It is not accurate to then assume that the highest perceived risk
within the category, state and local regulations, is thehighest overall risk. The means of all of the threats
can be compared to reveal that this is in fact the case;that is the highest perceived risk to the shellfish
growing industry is state and local regulations.
Additional questions associated with the threats
posed by climate change were asked to form an ideaof how perceptive the industry is about the potential
threats posed. With an average self-rated understanding of 3.33 on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being
complete understanding, it is now documented thatthe industry believes they have a moderate understanding. With that level of self-rated understanding,
it is interesting that the climate change threat category has a lower level of perceived risk than not only
the institutional threats, but also environmental
threats. This is likely because the threats in the latter
two categories are more immediate, and the growers
have likely been overwhelmed by the daily threats to
production and not able to look to the future and thepotential threats it may hold. With a high number of
respondents stating that they get their climate

17

change information from industry publications, a direct avenue is illuminated, and it is prudent to use
this route to get climate impact information to theshellfish growing community.

the shellfish growing industry it is not that simple
however, and access to growing space, as well as
more broodstock and processing capabilities largely
limit the capacity of individual facilities.

Goal 2: Perceived Market Health and Business Decisions—In a growing industry it is expected thatdemand will continuously increase over time, as will
price. As demand increases, the producers are expected to increase the price they charge as well as increase their level of production. This study has revealed that the growers perceive a gross increase indemand in both the past five years and the past year.
There is interesting information created by comparing the two time scales, however. In the past year amuch larger proportion of respondents marked thatthey have noticed a decrease in demand for theirproduct. In terms of a healthy and growing industry
the opposite would be expected, with the largest demand occurring most recently. In terms of demand
for shellfish, however, this can likely be explained by
the fact that the past year has been plagued by a recession, and shellfish is considered by most people
to be a luxury food item. In times of financial strife
demand for shellfish decreases because people simply can’t afford it.

The results of this survey show that as a whole thesurveyed industry has grown in the past five years
as well as the past year. Fewer respondents statedthat they have increased their production in the past
year than have in the past five years, which may be asign that the growth is slowing. The other possibility
is solely based on timelines and continuity, meaningthat the expansion of production is not necessarily
continuous but takes time and planning. Thus, an
expansion may take more than one year. This idea is
echoed in the results from how the growers expect tochange their production levels in the future. More respondents expect to expand their production size inthe next five years than in the next year. Overall,
those surveyed expect to expand their production in
the future, so we should see more domesticallygrown shellfish in our markets in the years to come.

The price per piece, which can be viewed as associated with, if not a direct derivative of the level of demand, however, shows a healthier industry. More respondents have increased their price per piece in thepast year, than in the past five years. The data alone
are a good sign, however, accompanied by the datathat more growers have noticed a decrease in demand in the past year sets up an imbalanced market
scenario. One possible explanation to the industry
overall increasing price per piece, when a larger proportion of growers have witnessed a decrease in demand, may be that the decision is not market driven.
The biggest threat in the market-based category wascost of operation, so it is possible that growers wereforced to increase their price per piece in order tomaintain their business, despite the cues from themarket. Also associated with the market are economies of scale and change in production levels. Growers were asked about how their level of production
has changed in the past. There are many factors, but
based on a very basic principle – if the cost of operation is too high per animal, increasing the production level when there are increasing economies ofscale will likely solve the problem. On the ground in18

Goal 3: Interest in and Current Status of Financial
Protection from Stock Mortality— The results ofthis study show that the majority of respondent
growers are interested in either a government or
private insurance option to help financially protect
their businesses from stock mortality. Although theamount they are willing to pay for coverage was noteffectively answered through the study, it is notedthat there is a willingness to pay. The level ofcoverage would certainly affect how much growers
are willing to spend. As for the coverage currently
used by growers, there are a few who used the pilot
program created by the USDA, as well as a few who
have found private coverage. The open-ended
questions showed that many growers have not beenable to find private coverage. Therefore, one
outcome of this study is the documented need for
information sharing within the industry or an
outside source compiling the different options
available to growers.

Conclusions

This study was created to meet three goals which
will help answer the larger question of why theshellfish production industry is not growing as
quickly as expected. State and local regulations havebeen highlighted as the largest perceived risk, and islikely due to the rate at which they change. Growers
have also clearly stated that they are interested in

Riouxlearning more about financial protection from stockmortality, whether federal or private, and it is now
clear that coverage availability is not well known
throughout the industry.
The study has also depicted what has happened
within the industry in the past, and what to expect
in the future with regard to business decisions. In thepast respondents have been expanding production,
witnessing an increase in demand, and concurrently
increasing the price per piece of the product. The
past year, however shows less growth than the past
five years. In the future we can expect expanding
production from growers overall, with 5% more
respondents claiming they expect to expand in the
future then have expanded in the past.
The respondents to the survey have been ambassadors for their industry. They have made theirconcerns known, as well as clarified changes in
production we can expect to see in the future. The
next step to making sure that the shellfish industry
in the United States may efficiently grow and help
close the gap of seafood needs is to address some of
the apprehension the growers have, focusing onstate and local regulations.

References

Beach, R.H. and C.L. Viator 2008. The economics ofaquaculture insurance: An overview of the U.S. pilot
insurance program for cultivated clams. Aquaculture
Economics and Management. 12 (1): 25–38.
Dillman, D.A. 2007. Mail and internet surveys: The
tailored design method, 2nd edition. John Wiley andSons Inc. New Jersey.
Larson, R., and B. Farber 2006. Elementary Statistics;
Picturing the World 3rd edition. Pearson PrenticeHall. New Jersey.
NOAA Fisheries Office of Sustainable Fisheries.
2009. Fishery Disaster Assistance. Online at: http://
www.nmfs.noaa.gov/mb/financial_services/
disaster.htm.
van Anrooy, R. 2006. Review of the current state ofworld aquaculture insurance. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. Number 493. FAO. Rome, Italy.
7 U.S.C. §§ 1501–1508 (2009) Federal Crop InsuranceAct.
16 U.S.C. §§ 1401–1407 (1986) Interjurisdictional
Fisheries Act.
16 U.S.C. §§ 1801–1884 (2007) Magnuson-Stevens
Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

Annotated bibliography of key works

Beach, R.H. and C.L. Viator 2008. The economics ofaquaculture insurance: An overview of the U.S. pilot

Rioux

19

insurance program for cultivated clams. Aquaculture Economics and Management. 12:1:25–38.

One important issue affecting the continued growthand success of the aquaculture industry is risk management. Aquaculture producers face a number of
production risks (e.g., weather, disease) that substantially affect their output quantity and quality. Crop
insurance is one important potential mechanism for
managing these risks, but aquaculture has historically had limited insurance availability in the UnitedStates, in part because of unique challenges associated with implementing crop insurance programs
in aquatic settings. The Cultivated Clam Pilot Insurance Program, which began in 2000 in four Atlantic
Coast states, is the first U.S. federal crop insurance
program for aquaculture. This program experienced
relatively high loss ratios in the early years of the
program, but substantial modifications beginningwith the 2004 crop year resulted in a significant
improvement in actuarial performance. Experienceswith clam insurance can provide insight into thepotential development and application of insurance
programs for other aquaculture products.

ture sector, which is reflected in the development
and increasing implementation of better management Practices, codes of conduct and codes of goodpractice, standard operational procedures, certification and traceability. Aquaculture insurance is one of
the tools used in aquaculture risk management, butthere is considerable ignorance within the aquaculture industry about its availability, the process ofobtaining insurance cover, especially on aquaculture
stock mortality, and the constraints to insurers providing its services.
This paper concludes that there is low availability of
aquaculture insurance because the risk assessment
for the industry is extremely complex, which makes
under-writing policies difficult. This is part of theinspiration for my research, as more targeted policies for specified risks the industry feels vulnerable
to, are easier to create than blanket mortality policies
currently developed.

National Marine Fisheries Service Office of Science and Technology, NOAA. 2009. Fisheries of theUnited States 2008. Pre-publication online at: http://
www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/fus/fus08/index.html
This publication is a preliminary report for 2008 on
commercial and recreational fisheries of the UnitedStates with landings from the U.S. territorial seas,
the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and on thehigh seas. This annual report provides timely answers to frequently asked questions.
van Anrooy, R., P.A.D. Secretan, Y. Lou, R. Roberts,
M. Upare 2006. Review of the current state of world
aquaculture insurance. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 493. FAO. Rome.

Due to the rapidly changing production processes inaquaculture worldwide (e.g. submergible cages, sea
ranching, intensification, aquaponics, and recirculation systems), which sometimes increase vulnerability to disease outbreaks and which generally requirelarge investments from aquaculturists, over thelast decades the demand for insurance to share andcover the risks involved has increased significantly
within the aquaculture sector. Risk management isincreasingly gaining attention within the aquacul-

20

Rioux

Fishery Marketing Strategy Based on Local Production
for Local Consumption: Oysters and Sea Urchins
Tsutom Miyata
Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science
Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku Yokohama 236-8648, Japantmiyata at affrc.go.jp

Keywords: direct marketing, management
Abstract

Popular oyster-based dishes in Japan are fried oysters, oyster hot pot, rice seasoned with soy sauce, andboiled with oysters. These are eaten at home or at a Japanese-style bar. Since around 2000, oyster bars
have been appearing in urban areas. At the same time, oyster barbecue shacks have been increasing in
number in some fishery areas in southern Japan. These shacks have contributed to the increased priceof oysters and had an effect on fishery-related work and on other industries in the areas where theyoccur. In contrast, oyster bars rarely have a significant effect on fishery areas. Furthermore, oyster barbecue shacks are beginning to spread to the north of Japan. For this new business, it is important thatthe shacks and oyster beds are in the same area because the tourists want to eat local seafood when they
travel to the seaside. The new business is very suitable for the interest in the idea of “local production
for local consumption,” As a result, local oysters and those who harvest them have a great advantage overimported oysters and farmed oysters from other areas.
With regard to sea urchins, people in Iwate Prefecture in northeastern Japan have traditionally eaten
fresh sea urchins in the summer, thus they prefer the sea urchins actually caught in Iwate. However, sinceapproximately 2000 there has been a trade in live sea urchins produced mainly in Russia. Fast food sushi
and conveyor-belt sushi prepared from fresh imported sea urchins have created a new submarket. Iwate
fishermen were worried that local sea urchins would be forced out by Russia imports. On the other hand,processors continue to demand sea urchins caught in Iwate because of their high proportion of edible
content, freshness, and because they are locally produced. Local consumers also prefer local sea urchinsbecause of their high quality and area brand formed by a food tradition and publicity. Therefore, Iwate
producers have been able to avoid the reduction in demand for local sea urchins that occurs elsewhere in
Japan.

Introduction

The fishing industry, especially those in rural areas,
distributes fishery products to big cities via fish markets. This is the main channel for fishery products
in Japan because they are sold at a comparatively
high price in big cities. However, prices have fallen
as a result of such recent factors as the reduction inpersonal disposable income. Therefore, the fisheries
must change the existing distribution structure on
which they strongly depend. This is very difficult
to achieve because the existing distribution channels involve many stakeholders, local distributors inparticular, and are a reasonable system for the wide
dissemination of marine products. Local distributors will oppose a complete change of the distribution channel because their business will decrease.

MiyataMoreover, in Japan, the trade in marine products has
usually been based on long-term credit transaction
so the change could represent the dishonoring ofbusiness contacts.
Therefore, rather than reforming the existing channel
completely, this paper focuses on a mechanism forcreating new distribution channels and expanding
overlooked local markets. The new channels consistof oyster barbecue shacks (OBS) that offer local production for local consumption, and the overlooked
local market for local sea urchins in rural areas. The
common keywords for these case studies are “local
production for local consumption.”21

Outline of Supply and Demand for Oysters
and Sea Urchins in Japan

Figure 1. Trend indemand for native
oysters in Japan. Notethat the price is real
price, which is deflated
by consumer priceindex based on 2005.
The yield is equivalent
based on shell oyster.
Source: Annual Statistical Report of Fisheries
and Aquaculture Production (of Japan).

Price (Yen/kg)

The demand for oysters in Japan has been generally
steady with a certain degree of fluctuation over along period of time. Furthermore, the demand has
remained undiminished despite the change in thequantity of imported oysters. Specifically, imports
increased rapidly in 1999, 2000, and 2001, despite
the demand for oysters in Japan remaining steady(Figure 1).

Catch (thousand tonns)

Figure 2. Trend indemand for native
sea urchins in Japan.
Note that the priceis real price, which isdeflated by consumer
price index basedon 2005. The yield isequivalent based onshell shucked sea urchin. Source: Annual
Statistical Report ofFisheries and Aquaculture Production(of Japan).

22

Price (Yen/kg)

The demand for sea urchins in Japan increased fromthe 1960s to the 1980s, while the real price and the
supply also increased. In the 1990s, the demand began
to decrease with decreases in both the real price andthe supply. Demand is still declining according to thelatest statistical data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan for 2000–2006.
The reasons for the decline are first an increase in thequantity of imported sea urchins, second a reduction
in real disposable personal income and third, a dete-

Catch (thousand tonns)

rioration in the sense that sea urchins are luxury items
that has resulted from the increase in low-quality
imported sea urchins (Figure 2).

Research Site and Methods

OBS—The research site was in Fukuoka Prefecture
in Kyushu, which is in southwestern Japan. The
population of the prefecture is approximately 5 million and the prefecture contains two governmentdesignated cities (Figure 3).
Oyster production in the prefecture is less than 1%of the total production of oysters in Japan. Oyster
aquaculture in the prefecture began approximately
25 years ago, so it is a comparatively new business. It
was difficult for newcomers to distribute their oysters
via the marketplace. In addition, the price in market
place was lower than that of oysters in other areas.
Therefore, the main marketing channel for the local
oysters was direct marketing, including face-to-faceselling and mail order selling. Several years ago, OBS
emerged as a new business in the area after becoming popular in its birthplace, Saga Prefecture in the
Kyushu region in southeastern Japan.
Methods used in this study included face-to-faceinterviews at fisheries cooperative associations andwith fishermen, examination of the existing statistics
from three fishery cooperative associations, publicly
available statistics, and an internet questionnaire
survey of Fukuoka prefecture residents.
Overlooked Local Sea Urchin Markets in Rural
Areas—The research site was Iwate Prefecture in
Tohoku in northeastern Japan. The population of
Iwate Prefecture is approximately 1.4 million and istypically rural (Figure 3).
Sea urchin production is concentrated in the north ofJapan; Hokkaido Prefecture produces 44% of Japan’s
catch (average for 1996–2005), which constitutes thehighest yield in Japan. Second is Iwate Prefecture(11%), fourth is Aomori Prefecture (7%), and fifth is
Miyagi Prefecture (7%). The total share from thosefour is 69%. In addition, Nagasaki Prefecture in thesouth of Japan ranks third (Figure 3). The main distribution channel in the study area is mostly throughthe Iwate prefectural federation of fisheries cooperative associations. This study employed data obtained
from face-to-face hearing investigations at several
sea urchin processors and fisheries, local wholesalemarket statistics, and public statistics.

MiyataFigure 3.
Fukuoka and Iwate
Prefectures in Japan.

Results

OBS—OBS operate a self-service system where thecustomers buy shell-on oysters, charcoal, and otherfoods such as oysters in rice, oyster soup, and local
fishery products. They then barbecue the items they
have bought. OBS are run by fishermen or fisheries
cooperative associations.
There are many OBS in northern Fukuoka Prefecture. Western Fukuoka Prefecture has only a few.
OBS began to increase in the northern region after
2001. Big OBS in the region have been run by afisheries cooperative association since 2003. These
northern OBS have increased their sales volume.
The oyster yield in the northern region and the priceare increasing. This reflects the fact that the demandfor oysters is growing. In contrast, the oyster yield in
the western region remains high, but the price is unchanged. As pointed out above, the demand for oysters in Japan is not increasing, but remains steady.
There is more demand for oysters in the northern
region than elsewhere. There is considerable validity
in the belief that the high demand for the region’s
oysters can be attributed to the increasing number ofOBS.
Why are OBSs increasing?—First, OBS as a businesscategory is new. There has been face-to-face sellingof fresh seafood from the households involved with

Miyatathe fishery, but there wasno business where
customers bought very
fresh seafood and barbecued it themselves in ashack at the seaside. As aresult, OBS hardly
compete with otherbusinesses close up.
Second, the start-up costof the business is low,
because the shack is aplastic greenhouse orunused shack and thebarbecue equipment is
not expensive. Third, it iseasy to keep oysters
fresh. Live oysters intheir shells out of the water are the same as thoseliving in a water tank, so fisherman only need toplace oysters in a refrigerator to keep them fresh fora period of time. Finally, OBSs have become very
popular recently. It is not uncommon to find customers spending two hours around the entrance of an
OBS every weekend.
What is the Attraction of OBS for Consumers?—
First, OBS serve fresh local oysters along with otherfresh local marine products. According to the resultsof a questionnaire circulated by the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (Fisheries Agency 2006), when Japanese people purchasefish and shellfish they place particular emphasis on
freshness. Moreover, the Japanese have a strong
awareness of items that are locally produced for
local consumption. Thus, OBS meets the needs of thepeople. Second, many consumers visit OBS not only
to eat seafood but also as part of a short driving trip.
Therefore, it is important that OBS are located at abeautiful seaside spot where the consumers can feela sense of nature. Third, OBS provide an opportunity
for families, friends, and others to enjoy conversations while grilling and consuming their food.
Fourth, the prices of oysters and other marine
products are cheaper than at ordinary restaurants;e.g., the price at an oyster-bar is approximately $4/
oyster; a Japanese-bar charges approximately $2/23oyster, and the cost at an OBS is approximately$0.75/oyster. Finally, the local mass media report
OBS in their seasonal news every autumn, which
provides OBS with publicity.
Spread of OBSs to Other Places—In several prefectures, fishermen and fisheries have recently established or are planning to establish OBS businesses.
In particular, in northeastern Japan, those groups are
expecting to establish successful OBS businesses.
The district is a major producer of oysters in Japan. If
OBS in the district goes well, oyster aquaculture in
Japan will be impacted by the demand.

Figure 4. Trend in demand for sea urchinscaught in Iwate prefecture. Catch data
is weight with shell.
Note that the priceis real price, which isdeflated by consumer
price index based on
2005. Source: Annual
Statistical Report ofFisheries and Aquaculture Production(of Japan).

Price (Yen/kg)

Competitiveness of Local Sea Urchins in Rural
Areas—As pointed out above, the current demandfor domestic sea urchins has been in decline sincethe 1970s, due to competition from imported sea
urchins. This trend is the average for all the produc-

Catch (thousand tonns)

ing prefectures in Japan (Figure 2). The demand for
sea urchins caught in Iwate Prefecture has hardly
changed (Figure 4). Moreover, the sea urchin yield in
Iwate is the second largest in Japan.
Why is the demand in the major producing areas different from that of Japan in general? In Iwate, the local demand for sea urchins (including imported sea
urchins) is not high and the local processors are notvery good at selling their product, but the people ofIwate prefecture prefer locally produced sea urchinsover any others. Namely, they like their sea urchins
to be locally produced for local consumption.

24

Background on Local Production for Local Consumption of Sea Urchins in Iwate—In Iwate, thedemand for live sea urchins imported from Russia
has increased since around 2000 when urchins began
to be sold as processed carryout sushi at supermarkets, and conveyor belt sushi (also called sushi-goround) at restaurants. At the same time, the new submarket developed for imported sea urchins in andaround Iwate. But the local consumers desire locally
produced sea urchins because they realize that thequality is better than imported ones. Furthermore,
local medias create a personal good image throughreporting scene of catching or processing sea urchins every year. Generally, publicity is important tobuilding a brand and promoting a good image of a
product (Armstrong and Kotler 2009). Also, a brandand good image of a product is built by repeat consumer awareness (recall and recognition) of its nameand image (Kevin 2000). Therefore, in and around
Iwate, the good image of local sea urchins is mainly
the result of the publicity provided every early summer, continuing desire to eat very fresh sea urchinsand eating experience. Also, restaurant advertisingin towns is important in building both the brand andgood image. As a result, sea urchins imported from
Russia have been replaced by those caught in andaround Iwate.
Marketing/Management Strategy—Summer is themain season for catching sea urchins in Japan/Iwate,
so the sea urchin yield is small during other seasons.
Therefore, sea urchins are imported to provide astable supply throughout the year. The main exporters are Chile, Canada, the United States, Korea andRussia. To make local sea urchins available throughout the year to the people of Iwate, fishermen andfisheries have been looking at ways of supplying
sea urchins year round by employing preservation
techniques. The work is not easy because it involves
high costs and intensive labor. Furthermore, many
fishermen must agree to act in unison.
Overlooking Local Markets in Rural Areas: Iwate—
Local fishermen and fisheries in Iwate have assumed
that the local people cannot afford to buy expensive
fishery products because their income is less thanthat of urban dwellers. Therefore, they have beentransporting their fishery products from Iwate tourban areas (Tokyo, Yokohama, etc.). As describedabove, the products have been sold at a comparatively high price in the big cities. This approach has
led to the local rural market being overlooked. This

Miyatapresents the large and difficult problem of reforming the existing distribution channels (from rural tourban areas).

References

Discussion

Keller, KL. 2000. Strategic Brand Management [Japanese version]. pp. 76–86.

The demand for marine products is increasing
worldwide, thus making life more difficult for Japanese importers. Also, Japanese people are becoming
increasingly aware of safety with respect to marine
products, thus it is important that they can picture
the fishing area, the lifestyle of the fishermen andthe level of sanitary control. To this end, they wantto know the origin of the marine products they
consume. As a result, they are beginning to demand
domestic marine products and marine products fromclose to where they live.
On the other hand, fishermen and fisheries, especially those in rural areas, have distributed their fisheryproducts to big cities and have long overlooked the
local market. They have assumed that this is thebest approach, and it is difficult to reform the existing distribution channels. However recently, thesegroups have started to recognize that a business withregard to local production for local consumption isa new opportunity. This is because they can reduce
the time and cost of distribution. Furthermore, insome cases, they can sell their products at higher
prices than through the regular distribution channels to big cities via fish markets. Moreover, there
are advantages in that the fishermen and fisheries
can directly determine consumer requirements andimprove their policies with regard to sales approachand product quality.
In addition, locally produced marine products tend
to appear in the local media, because for example,
local people can feel a sense of the season when they
watch the scenery, sea urchins being caught, or scenery around the OBS. Also, this can help to establish
seasonal traditions. Publicity has a beneficial impact
on consumers and increases their recognition of local
fishery products. In contrast, the national media do
not report this type of local news every year.

Armstrong, G., and P. Kotler. 2009. Marketing (9thedition, International edition). Annual Report on
State of Fishery. 15 p. [In Japanese].

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Tsutom Miyata. 2005. Marketing strategy of shell
oyster. Journal of Regional Fisheries (Japan). 46(1)161–176.

The competitiveness of Iwate Prefectural (located innorthern Japan) shell oyster depends on the brandloyalty (industrial goods), which is formed byrelationship marketing and push strategy (one ofpromotion strategy) for jobbers and wholesaler.
There are some fascinating elements of the brand.
First, the read-time is short, second, the shell oyster
is standardized, third, the oyster is supplied stably
and so on. These practices are not easy because
fisheries cooperative association gathers the oysters
from many fishers and ships them to the destinations, in other words, the fishers have made a great
effort to do the practices.

The shell oyster has been priced stably by the brand,
and the price has brought about a motivation of fishers’ effort.
Mari Hazumi. 2007. Construction of local brand inmarine products and effects on local society. Journalof Regional Fisheries (Japan). 47(2–3) 217–234.

The purpose of this paper is how to build the brandwhich is not involved in price competition. It describes not only an individual brand but a point withadvantageous being established as a local brand.
The local brand is formed by the relation of regionalvarious resources and marine products, and the organization that manages them well is necessary. It isshown that there are three types of patterns of suchthe local brand, and verifies some cases.

Local production for local consumption of food offers benefits to consumers, because they can eat freshand delicious seafood inexpensively at the seaside
and enjoy cooking these marine products themselves. The activity will provide consumers with apleasant experience.

Miyata25

Commerical Farming of the Japanese Sea Urchin (Strongylocentrotus intermedius),
Now a Reality
Addison L. Lawrence
Texas AgriLife Research, Texas A&M System
1300 Port Street
Port Aransas, Texas 78373
smpall at yahoo.com
John M. Lawrence
Department of Comparative and Integrative Biology
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida 33620
Steven A Watts and Mickie L. Powell
Department of Biology
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham, Alabama 35294

Abstract

A sustainable successful commercial aquaculture industry in a country consists minimally of five economy-of-size profit centers. These are seedstock production (reproduction plus larviculture), production ofmarketable food animals, feed production, processing plants, and marketing companies. The Japanese
sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus intermedius) is the most important species of the commercial fisheries forthe production of uni (tongue, gonad) in Japan. Four of these five profit centers necessary for a sustainable successful commercial sea urchin farm industry already exist in Japan. However, there is no commercial dry formulated feed available for sea urchin.
A dry formulated feed for sea urchin has been developed and produced in the United States. This feed
has been used to produce commercial size gonads of sea urchin in the People’s Republic of China. Thus,
with demonstration that a commercial dry formulated feed is available for production of sea urchin, commercial farming of the Japanese sea urchin in Japan becomes a reality. Based on existing data, commercial farming of sea urchins has a potential higher rate of return than commercial farming of shrimp.
This paper will present data showing dry formulated feeds developed and produced in the USA produce
commercial size gonads for S. intermedius and S. droebachiensis. Other sea urchin species for which a
dry formulated feed has been used to produce uni are S. fransciscanus, Evechinus chloroticus, Tripneustes
gratilla, Paracentrotus lividus, and Loxechinus albus.

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Lawrence J.M., X. Cao., Y. Chang, P. Wang, Y. Yu,
A.L. Lawrence, S.A. Watts. 2009. Temperature effecton feed consumption, absorption, and assimilation efficiencies and production of the sea urchin,
Strongylocentrotus intermedius. Journal of Shellfish
Research 28 (2): 389-395
The paper gives data that uni can be produced fromthe sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus intermedius, using a
dry formulated feed. This paper is the first to report
gonad indexes of over 30% wet body weight for theJapanese sea urchin using a dry formulated feed.

26

Lawrence J.M., A.L. Lawrence, S.A. Watts. 2007.
Feeding, digestion and digestibility of sea urchins.
J.M Lawrence, ed. Edible Sea Urchins: Biology andEcology. Pages 135–159. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

This is a review paper that summarizes the available
data of feeding, digestion and digestibility in sea
urchins. It provides a summary of the requirements
for commercial production of sea urchins using dry
feeds.

LawrenceChang Y., J.M. Lawrence, X. Cao, A.L. Lawrence.
2005. Food consumption, absorption, assimilationand growth of the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus
intermedius, fed a prepared feed and the alga Laminaria japonica. Journal World Aquaculture Society. 36(1):68–75.
This paper was the first paper to show gonad production for sea urchin using a dry feed. Though the
gonad index was only 25% of the body weight, it did
show that the dry feed was better that the natural
feed. This was the first paper to suggest that a dry
formulated feed could be made to support uni production from sea urchin.
Lawrence A.L., J.M. Lawrence. 2004. Importance,
status and future research needs for formulated
feeds for sea urchin aquaculture. J.M. Lawrence, O.
Guzman (eds). Sea urchins: fisheries and ecology.
DEStech Publications pages 275–283, Lancaster, PA.

This is a review paper that reviews the history forthe development of technology to produce a dry formulated feed for the commercial production of sea
urchins. Importantly, this paper summarizes why adry feed is essential for the commercial farming of
sea urchins and why natural foods cannot be used.

Lawrence27

Market Survey for an Approach to Grouper Aquaculture
Takashi Iwasaki, Kentaro Ide, Ken-ichi Watanabe, and Hiroshi Y Ogata
Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Aquaculture
Stock Enhancement Technology Development Center
Saiki, Oita 879-2602, Japan
tak0829 at affrc.go.jp
Takuma Sugaya
Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science
Fukuura, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan
Keiichi Hirasawa and Shizumasa Onoue
Fisheries Research Institute, Oita Prefectural Agriculture
Forestry and Fisheries Research Center
Saiki, Oita 879-2602, Japan

Keywords: groupers, aquaculture, market survey
Abstract

The aquaculture industry in Japan has been stagnant due to the increase in production costs and low
market prices of the major culture species. Groupers, especially Kue, longtooth grouper [Epinephelus
bruneus] and Ma-hata, sevenband grouper [E. septemfasciatus] have been seen as high-grade commodities due to their scarcity and palatability. Thus, the groupers are a prospective new aquaculture species
in Japan. However, production and marketing strategies that would ensure successful culture have notbeen examined thoroughly. In the present study, surveys were conducted at wholesale markets and on
local farms to review the production and marketing status of cultured groupers. Trade and price trends ofcultured and wild-caught groupers were investigated at wholesale markets in Tokyo (the Tsukiji Market), Osaka, and Fukuoka. In addition, the current condition of grouper production was surveyed on fish
farms in Oita Prefecture, which is an active area of aquaculture in Japan.
The results of the investigation show that cultured groupers brought a high price of at least ¥1,500/kg at
the three markets, suggesting that grouper culture would be profitable. The amount of grouper trade at
the Fukuoka Market was largest among the three sites, although the Tokyo Market is generally the leading market for many species in Japan.
Farmers appear to have trouble due to the lack of marketing channels. Therefore, the farmers should
develop local sales channels to expand their trading ability. It is also clear that there was seasonality inthe price and availability of groupers. The seasonality is advantageous to the grouper culturist, since thefarmer can control the timing and amount of harvest according to the seasonality. On the other hand,
technical problems such as slow growth, quality control (abnormal development and dirty coloration,etc.), along with diseases appear to constrain the expansion of grouper aquaculture in Japan. These
hurdles should be overcome in order for grouper aquaculture to expand.

28

Iwasaki et al.

Introduction

Groupers, especially Kue, longtooth grouper [Epinephelus bruneus] and Ma-hata, sevenband grouper[E. septemfasciatus] are large-size marine fishes
reaching more than 1 m in total length. They arecommercially important species in Japan (Okutani
et al. 1999). These species are viewed as high grade
commodities due to their rarity and deliciousness.
Hatchery production technology development forthese groupers has been a subject of research by the
Fisheries Research Agency (FRA) of Japan and otherpublic research laboratories (Tsuchihashi et al. 2003,
Sakakura et al. 2006, 2007, Teruya and Yoseda 2006).
Recently it has become possible to produce several
hundred thousand grouper fingerlings per season.
The aquaculture industry in Japan has been stagnant due to the increase of production costs andlow market prices of major cultured species such as
red sea bream (Pagrus major) and yellowtail (Seriola
quinqueradiata). Given the current situation, farmers
are looking for a new commodity and groupers are
expected to become one of the new culture groups inJapan (Tsuchihashi et al. 2009). However, production
and marketing strategies for groupers that will ensure
success of the industry have not been thoroughly examined. Japan has no statistics of grouper production,although other Asian countries in the region havethat information. The objective of this study was todetermine the current state of grouper marketing andevaluate the potential of grouper aquaculture.

Methods

The present study was divided into the two investigations: wholesale market and local grouper-farmer
evaluations. The investigations were conducted from
October 2008 through February 2009. Primary data
were mainly collected using two methods: face-to-faceinterviews and market report examination.
Wholesale markets—The investigations were conducted at the three largest fish markets in Japan: Tokyo (Tsukiji), Osaka, and Fukuoka (Figure 1). Tokyo
is the capital city of Japan. Osaka is the largest city inwest Japan and Fukuoka is the largest city in the Kyushu region. In this survey the following points were
investigated with regard to groupers in the markets:• Volume• Price• Fish size
• Area of production

Iwasaki et al.

Figure 1. Location of wholesale markets in Japan.

Figure 2. Location of grouper-farmers in Oita Prefecture.

Investigation of local grouper farmers—The faceto-face survey was conducted with farmers who
cultured groupers at three locations: Saiki, Oita
Prefecture; Onyu Island, Yonodu and Kamae (Figure2). The southern part of Oita Prefecture is one of themost active areas of aquaculture in Japan.
In this interview survey, the following information
was gathered:• Kind of cultured grouper produced• Shipment size
• Shipment time
• Price received• Problems with grouper aquaculture

29

Results

Wholesale markets—The market reports showedthat there were about 100 metric tons of groupers in
the Tsukiji market and about 200 metric tons in the
Fukuoka market (Table 1). However, from the interview survey, dealers in the three wholesale markets
mentioned that all of the groupers (captured andfarmed) were not always circulated through the
public markets. Therefore, it seems that the actual
amount of groupers being sold is larger than thatindicated by the market surveys. Figures 3 and 4
show the changes in the monthly amount of groupers handled in the Tsukiji and Fukuoka Markets. It
is clear that the volumes and prices of groupers
tended to increase in winter, especially in December,
except in 2008 in Tsukiji. The volumes of groupers in2008 at the Tsukiji market were very low comparedwith those in 2006 and 2007. Meanwhile, the pricesof groupers in 2008 at the Tsukiji market were higher
than those in 2006 and 2007.
Table 1. Volume of groupers sold in three markets (volume in
metric tons).

Year

Tsukiji

2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Average

72.4
110.4
125.1
104.3
106.6
119.7
82.3
102.9

Osaka*

Fukuoka

Fukuoka market

Figure 4. Monthly grouper volume in the Fukuoka market.

Figure 5 shows the imported amounts of groupers by
production area in the Tsukiji and Fukuoka markets.
The prefecture names indicated in bold belong to the
Kyushu region. It is clear that the Kyushu region is avery active area for grouper trading.

—
—
—		 —
—		 —
—		 —
—		220.8—		224.6—		173.9—		206.4*Osaka data unavailable

Tsukiji market
Figure 5. Imported amounts of groupers in the Tsukiji and Fukuoka markets by production area. Prefecture names in boldface
are in the Kyushu region.

Figure 3. Monthly grouper volume in the Tsukiji market.

30

A face-to-face interview survey was conducted withwholesale dealers in the Tsukiji, Osaka, and Fukuoka
markets to investigate the current state of grouper
marketing in more detail. From Table 2 wild-caught
groupers brought higher prices than cultured ones.
However, even cultured groupers brought a price ofat least ¥1,500/kg (about $17/kg) at the three markets.
Kue was sold at a higher price than Ma-hata. Groupers at the Fukuoka market brought the highest priceamong the three markets.

Iwasaki et al.

Table 2. Price of Kue and Ma-hata sold in three markets (price inyen/kg).

Grouper

Tsukiji

Osaka*

FukuokaKue(wild caught)

5,000–7,000($55–78)

2,500–3,500($28–39)5,000–7,000($55–78)

Kue(cultured)2,500–3,500($28–39)2,000–3,000($22–33)

3,500-4,000($39–44)

Ma-hata(wild-caught)

3,500–4,000($39–44)2,000–3,000($22–33)

3,500–4,000($39–44)

Ma-hata(cultured)

1,800–2,000($20–22)1,500–2,500($17–28)

2,000–2,500($22–28)$1 = 90 yen

Marketed wild-caught groupers were mostly larger
than cultured ones in all the three markets (Table 3).
Size range of the marketed wild-caught fish was
wider in the Fukuoka Market than in the other twomarkets, that is, the Fukuoka Market traded smallsize one (1.5kg) to larger one (30kg).
Table 3. Size range of Kue and Ma-hata in the three markets.

MarketWild-caught (kg)

Cultured (kg)

Tsukiji
Osaka
Fukuoka

15–20
5–15
1.5–30

1.5–2.5
3–5
2–5

Survey of grouper farmers—Three grouper farmers
were surveyed in Saiki, Oita Prefecture. All the
farmers also cultured 1–3 year old Ma-hata and two
farmers cultured Ma-hata and Kue more than 10
years old. Fingerlings of 1–3 year old Ma-hata were
produced at the Oita Prefectural Research Laboratory and the more than 10 years old groupers originated from wild-caught fry imported from Korea or
China. In addition, the farmers cultured grouper
together with other species, such as yellowtail,amberjack (Seriola dumerili or S. lalandi), red sea
bream, striped jack (Pseudocaranx dentex) and chicken
grunt (Parapristipoma trilineatum). The famers cultured groupers for about 3–4 years and then shipped
them mainly as 1.5–2.0 kg fish. Cultured grouper of
1.0–1.5 kg sold for about ¥1,000/kg ($11/kg). Groupers of 1.5–2.0 kg sold for about ¥2,000/kg ($22/kg).
According to the farmers, the main harvest andshipping season is winter, especially December orJanuary, corresponding with the results of wholesalemarket survey.

Iwasaki et al.

Through the interview process, various problems ofgrouper aquaculture also were revealed. The firstproblem is that the culture period for grouper isrelatively long compared with other species (3 years
or more). For example, yellowtail takes about 2 years
and red sea bream 2 to 3 years. The quality of cultured fish due to abnormal development or dirty
coloration is another problem. These characteristics
in quality appear to reduce the market price of
cultured fish. In addition, the occurrence of viralnervous necrosis (VNN) is a big problem. Sometimes, VNN produces mass mortality in cultured
groupers. Finally, it seems that farmers have difficulties finding marketing channels.

Discussion

With low fish prices of major cultured fish species
and increased production costs, farmers have tried
to diversify the species available in the marketplaceby seeking new commodities. Approximately 10
years ago, the culture of Kue or Ma-hata was oncepopular in Oita prefecture (Tsuchihashi et al. 2009).
However, it declined due to the outbreak of VNN
disease. Also about 10 years ago, the source ofgroupers was wild-caught fry from China or Korea,
which is the reason why farmers kept age 10 groupers in their pens. The supply of fry was unstable
and the price was very high (¥1,000/fry or about$11). A vaccine against VNN virus is being developed (Tanaka et al. 2005, Yamashita et al. 2005), andhatchery-reared fry are replacing wild-caught ones.
It now costs about ¥300/fry ($3/fry). Thus, thepresent situation with respect to grouper culture isconsiderably ameliorated than it was about 10 years
ago.
The wholesale market survey showed that cultured
grouper bring a lower price than wild-caught fish.
Farmed fish may be inferior to wild-caught ones inquality due to abnormal development or dirty
coloration, but there seems to be another reason why
cultured grouper bring lower prices. Fish size may
be a key issue with respect to price. Generally ingroupers, the larger the size, the higher the price/
weight, and the size of cultured groupers that aremarketed tends to be small compared with wildcaught fish (Table 3). Generally, groupers have alarge head, so that if the fish size is smaller, theedible portion becomes small on a percentage ofedible tissue basis. However, even cultured groupers
bring a price of at least ¥1,500/kg ($17/kg), compared31

with yellowtail and red sea bream (about ¥700–800/kg or$8–9/kg) as shown in Figure 6.

the farmers of Kyushu should develop local sales
channels in Kyushu to expand their marketing
opportunities.
In 2008 in the Tsukiji market, the volume of groupers
decreased and the price increased (Figure 3). The
reason was that the demand for high quality fish in
China rapidly increased due to the Beijing Olympics,
and Japanese markets lost out to China markets inthe competition to purchase the fish. In the present
study, only Japanese markets were surveyed. However, groupers are popular in other Asian countries(Cesar et al. 2000), and those other markets also
should be focused as a means to increase the market
channels for cultured groupers produced in Japan.

Figure 6. Production volume and average price of marine fish
aquaculture in Japan.

The seasonality of cultured fish in the marketplace isadvantageous to grouper aquaculturists since thetime and amount of harvest from the culture system
can be controlled. Incidentally, through the interview
survey, market dealers stated the reason why grouper trading tends to peak for winter is because
groupers are often cooked for the Nabe, a Japanesestyle hot pot dish that is very popular during thecold of winter. Additionally, some Japanese people
eat Kue or Ma-hata Nabe in celebration of the New
Year.
If the problems on culture technology and marketingare solved in the near future, grouper culture could
become more profitable. To solve the problem ofslow growth, feed quality and feeding methods
should be improved. In addition, genetic improvement such as selective breeding could be effective tohelp overcome the problem. Furthermore, to expand
the production of cultured grouper, mass and stable
fry production technology should be also improved.
With respect to developing new marketing channels,
local markets need to be created. In general, theTsukiji market is the leading market for many species in Japan and the amount of grouper trade at the
Fukuoka market is largest among the three major
markets. In addition, the Kyushu region is the maingrouper production area. Therefore, as a first step,

32

Iwasaki et al.

Literature Cited

Cesar, H.S.J., K.A. Warren, Y. Sadovy, P. Lau, S.
Meijer, and E. van Ierland. 2000. Marine market
transformation of the live reef fish food trade inSoutheast Asia. H.S.J.Cesar (ed). Collected essays on
the economics of coral reefs, pp. 135–157. CORDIO,
Sweden.
Okutani T., H. Kohno, K. Shibukawa, A. Doi, P.
Musikasinthorn, and M. Mogi. 1999. The encyclopaedia of fish and seafood, Vol. 2 pp. 142–147, Heibonsya, Tokyo. [In Japanese].
Sakakura Y.S. Shiotani, H. Chuda, and A. Hagiwara.
2006. Improvement of the survival in the seven-band
grouper, Epinephelus septemfasciatus, larvae by optimizing aeration and water inlet in the mass-scalerearing tank. Fish. Sci. 72:939–947.
Sakakura Y.S. Shiotani, H. Chuda and A. Hagiwara.
2007. Flow field control for larviculture of the sevenband grouper, Epinephelus septemfasciatus. Aquaculture 268:209–215.
Tanaka, S., K. Mori, M. Arimoto, T. Iwamoto, and T.
Nakai. 2005. Protective immunity of sevenband
grouper, Epinephelus septemfasciatus, Thunberg,
against experimental viral nervous necrosis, J. Fish.
Dis. 13:69–77.
Teruya, K., and K. Yoseda. 2006. Successful mass production of early-stage larvae of kelp grouper, Epinephelus bruneus, in improved rearing conditions.
Aquacult. Sci. 54:187–194. [In Japanese].
Tsuchihashi Y., I. Kuriyama, Y. Kuromiya, M. Kashiwagi, and M. Yoshioka. 2003. Effects of water temperature, illumination, and feed oil addition on thesurvival of larvae in the mass seed production of thesevenband grouper, Epinephelus septemfasciatus.
Suisan Zoshoku 51:49–54.
Tsuchihashi, H., H. Yamashita, S. Onoue, K. Kanashiro, and H. Nakamura. 2009. Grouper aquaculture
being advanced in various regions of Japan. Aquacult. Mag. 578:15–26.
Yamashita, H., Y. Fujita, H. Kawakami, T. Nakai.
2005. The efficacy of inactivated virus vaccine
against viral nervous necrosis (VNN). Fish Path.
40:15–21.

Iwasaki et al.

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Teruya, K., and K. Yoseda. 2006 Successful mass
production of early-stage larvae of kelp grouper,
Epinephelus bruneus in improved rearing conditions.
Aquaculture Science. 54:2 187–194.

The authors examined the influence of different
water temperatures (24, 26, and 28 degrees celsius),
rotifer densities (1, 10, and 30 ind./ml), and lightintensities (<0.01, 100, 250, 500, 750, and 1,000 lx) on
feeding amount, growth, and survival rate of earlystage larvae of kelp grouper, Epinephelus bruneus, in
100 and 500 tanks. As a result of examination, authors showed that survival and growth at 26 were
better than other temperatures. The higher the rotifer
densities, the more larvae feed. Besides, the feeding
amount of larvae increased significantly in the tankswith more than 500 lx light intensity. In addition,
the authors conducted 3 trials of mass seed production of kelp grouper in 100 or 150 kl tanks. In thistrial, temperature, rotifer density, and light intensity
were regulated at 26, 20–30 ind./ml, and 1,100–2,500
lx, respectively, which were determined as the
optimal rearing conditions mentioned above. As aresult, early survival rates were improved to 50–
100%, and in the 3 tanks 359,000 juveniles (final
survival rates ranged between 20.9 and 29.6 %) mean
total length 23.9–27.2 mm were harvested finally.
Tsuchihashi, H., I. Kuriyama, Y. Kuromiya, M.
Kashiwagi, and M. Yoshioka. 2002. Control of viralnervous necrosis (VNN) in seedling production ofsevenband grouper, Epinephelus septemfasciatus.
Suisanzoshoku, Vol:50:3. pp. 355-361.

Occurrence of viral nervous necrosis (VNN) disease
is a big problem in the mass seedling production ofsevenband grouper. To prevent VNN, selection of
spawners by PCR-based detection of the nodavirus
gene, disinfection of fertilized eggs with residual oxidants in seawater, and rearing of larvae and juveniles using ozonated seawater were done. As a resultof 7 trials, all trials did not observe occurrence of
VNN.
Additionally, VNN occurred when cultivating
juveniles of sevenband grouper with the sandfiltered seawater though VNN did not occur when
juveniles were cultivated with ozonated seawater.
These methods are effective as VNN control measures in the mass seedling production of sevenband
grouper.

33

Tsuchihashi, H., H. Yamashita, S. Onoue, K. Kanashiro, and H. Nakamura. 2009.
Grouper aquaculture being advanced in various
regions of Japan. Aquaculture magazine 578:15–26.

This article introduces the approach of grouper
cultivation done in various places in Japan.
The cultivation of longtooth grouper, Epinephelus
bruneus, and sevenband grouper, E. septemfasciatus, isdone in Mie, Ehime and Oita prefectures. In Okinawa Prefecture, Malabar grouper, E. malabaricus, iscultivated. These prefectures are doing various
things to make the grouper cultivation succeed. For
instance, the workshops of grouper cultivation
method were held for farmers who try cultivatinggroupers. There were lectures in the workshop fromthe experts about fish physiology, disease, nutrition,cultivation environment, etc. In Oita Prefecture,sevenband grouper seeds are already being sold tofarmers, and the prefecture is putting out the subsidy to them. On the other hand, occurrence of VNN
or iridovirus disease becomes a big problem incultivation. Vaccine development for these diseases
is being tried. Additionally, cultivation with the close
circulation system on land is being researched. Ifthese groupers are cultivated with this system, it
might be useful also for the reduction in the cultivation cost and the decrease of the negative environmental impact.

34

Iwasaki et al.

Large Scale Indoor Shrimp Production (over 300 metric tons of shrimp per hectare per year)
Addison L. Lawrence
Texas AgriLife Research, Texas A&M System
1300 Port Street, Port Aransas, Texas 78373
smpall at yahoo.com

Abstract

The first production of shrimp in ponds occurred near Kogashima, Japan in the mid–1930s. Though thisfarm was not commercially successful, it did suggest potential for the future.
First attempts in the United States occurred in the 1950s in South Carolina. By the early 1960s, projects
were also underway in Texas and Florida. Though commercial production was initiated in the late 1960s,
the value of farmed shrimp was still less than $2 million per year in 1980. By 1990, with successful
hatchery production of specific pathogen-free postlarvae seedstock, higher quality formulated feeds, andbetter pond production methodology, shrimp farms were developing exponentially. By 2000 in the
United States, the production of farmed shrimp reached approximately $30 million per year, while thetotal for the world was more than $1 billion per year. By 2008, U.S. production decreased to less than $20
million due to increases in worldwide productivity as a result of technology transfer and longer growing
periods elsewhere.
The inability for US farmers with a limited growing season to compete with the tropics with year–roundgrowing season became evident. Evidence indicated that for the U.S. farmer to be competitive, technology would have to be developed to produce shrimp in the United States year–round, and not only on the
coast, but also inland. This demanded the production of shrimp in raceways in buildings. Economic
analyses indicated that to obtain a satisfactory internal rate of return on investment, a growth rate greaterthan 1.2 gm/week, survival above 75%, production of at least 20 gm shrimp and production levels equivalent to 150 metric tons/hectare/year had to be obtained. Initial attempts in the mid–2000s fell short ofthese goals. However, with continued advances in genetic selection of faster growing shrimp, higher
quality feeds, and raceway production methodology, predictable levels of production meeting the minimal criteria for commercial production indoors have been obtained in the last few years. At the Texas
Agrilife Research Mariculture Laboratory in Port Aransas, an equivalent production of more than 300
metric tons/hectare/year with growth rates of over 1.5 gms/wk, survival of greater than 75%, productionof more than 25 gm/shrimp are being obtained. These results will be presented. The initial economic
analyses of these data indicate that the internal rate of return will be between 30 to 60%. Thus, with thisnew technology, commercial shrimp farming in the United States and Japan is commercially feasible.

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Kuhn D.D., G.D. Boardman, A.L. Lawrence, L.
Marsh, G.J. Flick. 2009. Microbial floc generated inbioreactors is a superior replacement ingredient forfish meal or soybean meal in shrimp feed. Aquaculture: 296:51–57.

A microbial floc was generated in bioreactors using
tilapia waste and molasses to produce an ingredient.
This ingredient replaced fish meal or soybean meal inshrimp feeds, resulting in an increased growth of
more than 50%. The increased growth is critical toobtaining an adequate internal rate of return for
raceway shrimp production.

Lawrence

Lawrence A.L., F. Castille, S. Patnaik. 2008 Effects ofstocking density and water exchange on growth andsurvival of Litopenaeus vannamei in a flow throughoutdoor tank system. T.T. Rakestraw, L.S. Douglas,
L. Marsh, L. Granata, G.J. Flick, eds. Proceedings ofthe 7th International Recirculating Conference,
Roanoke, VA, July 25–27, 2008, 236–243.

This paper was the first to report up to the equivalent of 150 metric tons/ha/crop with growth rates
above 1.5 gms/week and survival above 75%. These
production levels are necessary to attain an internalrate of return above 30% for raceway production inbuildings.

35

Patnaik S., A.L. Lawrence, F. Castille. 2008. Stocking
density and feed rate effect on growth and survivalof Litopenaeus vannamei in a recirculating indoor tanksystem. T.T. Rakestraw, L.S. Douglas, L. Marsh, L.
Granata, G.J. Flick, eds. Proceedings of the 7thInternational Recirculating Conference, Roanoke,
VA, July 25–27, 2008. 226–235.

This paper showed that growth rate decreased withincreasing stocking density. These data provided thebasis for selecting the initial stocking densities which
would give both the desired production level required with the growth rate in order to obtain aninternal rate of return above 30%. The results also
indicated that an excess feed rate decreased production and that feed rates close to satiation were
optimal.
Hanson T.R., A.L. Lawrence, B.C. Posadas. 2006.
Economics of partial harvesting in super-intensive
recirculating shrimp productions raceways. T.T.
Rakestraw, L.S. Douglas, L. Marsh, L. Granta, A.
Correa, G.J. Flick, eds. Proceedings of The Sixth
International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture, July 21–23, 2006, Roanoke, VA, USA. 15–22.

This paper provides the data indicating that theconcept of partial harvest can increase production in
raceways. The spreadsheet provides the sensitivity
analyses methodology to estimate the productionlevels, growth rates, survival, and size of shrimp
necessary to obtain a desired internal rate of returnin raceways.

36

Lawrence

Role of Fisheries Cooperative:
A Case Study of Price Determination by Producers
Toshinori Takashi and Makoto Yamasaki
Aquaculture Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Aquaculture
Aquaculture Systems Division
Minamiise, Mie 516-0193, Japanttakasi at fra.affrc.go.jp
Abstract
Currently, many aquaculture sectors have financial problems induced by the escalating cost of fish feed
and gasoline, along with the declining value of aquacultured fish products. Although there is a need tomodify business management practices through cost reduction, most of the industry involves small-scalefamily businesses. In this paper, we discuss how aquaculturists in local communities have cooperated
through the local fisheries cooperatives and tried to better manage their feeding practices, harvesting,and sales.

Introduction

Many Japanese aquaculture households have faced
crises associated with their business management
practices. The crises were induced by declining priceof cultured fish products and escalating gasoline andfish feed prices. In the 1980s, the price of cultured
yellowtail was as high as ¥1,600/kg (Hamada, 2005).
However, the value tended lower thereafter year by
year. Although the price in 1993 was ¥1,200, it had
fallen to 800 in 2005. At present, the price is about¥750–850/kg. The exceptional low price is causedby several factors (Hamada, 2005). The first factor is
falling demand in the market. Second is a low pricing strategy at the retail level, such as in the supermarket. Lower retail prices mean lower prices paid
at the farm gate. Low prices have inflicted heavy
damage on the financial management of yellowtail
culturists. To increase business efficiency, fisheryhouseholds have attempted to reduce and increase
their scale of production. However, much of theaquaculture industry in Japan is relatively smallscale, often operated at the family level. Therefore,
their efforts to increase their incomes are limited.
The Japan Fisheries Cooperative Association (JFC) is
an association organized by the fishermen. There are
1,600 local fisheries cooperatives in Japan. The JFC
provides three services: providing supplies, marketing, and guidance to the members. We focus hereon the marketing and guidance service as roles ofthe local cooperatives. Recently, many aquaculture

Takashi and Yamasaki

households have been working together to improvetheir business management practices through the local fisheries cooperative.

Results

Yellowtail (Seriola Quinquerariata) Aquaculture in
Tachibana Bay—The East Tachibana Bay Fisheries
Cooperative in Nagasaki prefecture (Figure 1) has
managed yellowtail aquaculture for seven fishhouseholds in Tachibana Bay which have been
responsible for the production of 100,000 yellowtail.
To improve the efficiency of business management,
the fisheries cooperative has unified the rearing
approach, such as feeding practices and using
juveniles from the same source to produce yellowtail
with the same meat quality. Secondly, they havedeveloped new distribution routes.

Fig. 1. The islandof Kyushu showing the locationof Tachibana Bay.

37

Feeding Practices—Before improvement in management, feeding practices varied among the yellowtail
culturists, but those practices have now been unified. The farmers feed extruded pellets during thewarm seasons and moist pellets when the water iscold. They make moist pellets from raw fish suchas anchovy, mackerel and saury. When they makemoist pellets, they change the oil content in the feedseasonally to prevent the excessive accumulation oflipid.
Harvesting—Yellowtail harvest size is 3.5 kg–5.0 kg
from September to the following June. Harvesting
involves a rotation system of the fish cages so theshipping plan provides fairness among the involved
households.
Development of New Distribution Routes.—In the
big cities such as Tokyo and Osaka, the consumptionof yellowtail is high. However, the yellowtail priceis often low because there is an imbalance of supply and demand dominated by those large markets.
Therefore, in the 1990s, the distribution route waschanged from Tokyo and Osaka to Fukuoka central
wholesale to avoid competition with other regional
products.
Furthermore, local production for local consumption
is being promoted. Local distribution routes havebeen developed for such endpoints as inns, restaurants, and supermarkets. This approach enables areduction in transportation costs and distributor
margins.
The quality of meat demanded by consumers varies
regionally. However, the cooperatives don’t need tobe concerned about that because they limit the sales
market to the Kyushu region. The fish have beensold as an Unzen Brand Yellowtail.
Figure 2 indicates cultured yellowtail price and shipping amount in urban and local markets from 2006
to 2008. Both prices increased year by year. In 2008
the local market price had increased by 2.8 times
compared with the price in 2006 and exceeded theprice for the large cities. It is thought that the unit
price increment was related to development of the
Unzen brand name.

38

A

B

Fig. 2. The cultured yellowtail market price and shipping
amount in urban (A) and local area (B) for 2006, 2007 and2008.

Discussion

Improved management of yellowtail culture activities through a program developed in the fisheries
cooperative in one part of Japan is presented in thispaper. The aquaculture procedures were unified
and new distribution routes were developed. Product branding helped increase the price of yellowtail.
Although the price in the local area rose, the amountshipped locally was lower than that to urban areas.
An increase in the price of yellowtail in urban areas
is required to further increase business efficiency.
The improvements cited here have also been conducted by the fishery households in other regions
such as by the Azuma-chou Fisheries Cooperative in
Kagoshima Prefecture (http://www.azuma.or.jp/
en/index.html) and the Hiketa Fisheries Cooperative in Kagawa Prefecture. In Kagoshima Prefecture,
five fisheries cooperatives have been conducting further large-scale business management adjustments(Aquanet, 2009). The five cooperatives established
a company dedicated to that end in Kinkou Bay.

TakashiIn that case, they succeeded in cutting feeding andtherapeutics costs through bulk purchasing. Furthermore, they manage the production plan basedon market information and try to stabilize fish price.
The approaches by these fisheries cooperatives are
similar to those of the East Tachibana Bay Fishery
Cooperative.
Fisheries cooperatives have an important role to playin improving aquaculture business management
practices. Nevertheless, the financial problems foraquaculture households have not been solved. Additional business management changes are needed
to resolve the issue (Hamada, 2006). For example,
group ownership of feeding vessels and more attention to feeding effectiveness are also very importantfor business improvement.

References

Aquanet. 2009. Unification of sales and purchaseservice of five fishery cooperatives. SOBUNSHA Co.,
Ltd, Tokyo, 134:6–9. [In Japanese].
Hamada E., 2005. The problem of distribution andprice of yellowtail. Youshoku. Midori Shobo Co.,
Ltd, Tokyo, 530:20–24 (In Japanese.)
Hamada E., 2006. Current market and price problem of yellowtail, “Biology, Stock Enhancement andAquaculture of Buri (Japanese yellowtail, Seriola
quinquerariata)” (ed. by Nakamatsu M., Y. Hiyama,
K. Mushiake and E. Hamada), Koseisha-Koseikaku
Publishing Co., Tokyo, pp. 126–134 [in Japanese].

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Tasaka, Y. 1999, Study on the terms of brand Formation in young Yellowtail Aquaculture, Bull. Natl.
Res. Inst. No.13, 37–70 [in Japanese with English
abstract].

Aquaculture farmers have to possess flexibility
both in production and marketing in addition to the
production of high quality fish. The author clarified
the business terms used by middlemen in yellowtail
aquaculture. Their most important terms are “stability of supply” and “stability of wholesales price.”
They have other terms such as “price level,” ”Firmflesh,” and “Size uniformity.” Furthermore, theauthor judged yellowtail aquaculture in Japan, andmade clear several problems in this paper.

Takashi39

Application of a Dynamic Stochastic Adaptive Bioeconomic Modelto Evaluate the Economics of Offshore Bluefin Tuna Aquaculture
Gina Louise Shamshak
Goucher College
1021 Dulaney Valley Road
Baltimore, Maryland 21204
gina.shamshak at goucher.edu
James L. Anderson
University of Rhode Island
1 Greenhouse Road
Kingston, Rhode Island 02882

Keywords: aquaculture, bioeconomics, bluefin tuna, stochasticity, dynamic models
Abstract

This research presents a bioeconomic framework for assessing the economic feasibility of an offshore
bluefin tuna (thunnus thynnus) aquaculture operation by developing a dynamic stochastic adaptive bioeconomic model of such an offshore enterprise. The bioeconomic model incorporates the biological constraints of the species, the interaction of relevant economic parameters and constraints, and stochastic
sources of risk to solve for the profit maximizing behavior of a farmed bluefin tuna producer. The model
identifies the optimal harvest schedule for an offshore bluefin tuna farming facility that maximizes the netpresent value (NPV) of the operation under a variety of economic, biological, and regulatory conditions.
A variety of potential production scenarios are formulated and evaluated by comparing the expected NPV
and expected internal rate of return (IRR), as well as the distribution of those values over a 10 year operating horizon. Such a model is relevant given the growing prevalence of bluefin tuna farming worldwide,
the present lack of studies formally examining the economics of this form of production, and the uncertainty surrounding the economic feasibility and sustainability of farmed bluefin tuna production.

Introduction

Bluefin tuna (thunnus thynnus) farming is an interesting and complex form of production; however,to date there are very few published studies that
empirically examine this practice. This research is a
first step in filling this gap in the literature by establishing a bioeconomic framework for modeling the
economics of farmed bluefin tuna production.
Specifically, this research identifies the optimal harvest schedule for an offshore bluefin tuna farming
facility that maximizes the net present value (NPV)of the operation under a variety of economic, biological and regulatory conditions. Further, this research
explicitly incorporates stochasticity into the modelin order to analyze how the presence of risk alters
the optimal harvest schedule for a producer. Veryfew studies have incorporated risk into the economic
analysis of offshore aquaculture (Brown, Goller et al.
2002; Kam, Leung et al. 2003; Posadas and Bridger
2003; Jin, Kite-Powell et al. 2005) and none haveincorporated the role of risk in the analysis of the40

economics of farmed bluefin tuna production. One
major economic question stemming from this formof production is: how long should a producer retainand feed a given quantity of wild-caught bluefin
tuna before harvesting and selling those fish? That
is to say, what is the optimal harvest schedule for a
producer looking to maximize profits over a farming
season?
Incorporating Stochasticity into the
Bioeconomic Framework
In explicitly modeling the stochastic nature of production, this model incorporates the risks associatedwith the offshore production of bluefin tuna, including biological, technical, economic, and regulatory
sources of risk. This modeling approach is especially
useful given the uncertainty surrounding the values
and behavior of certain parameters associated withbluefin tuna farming. In many cases, specific knowledge of growth rates, mortality rates, input costs,
and output price are unknown. However, such

Shamshak and Anderson

parameters can be specified as stochastic within themodel in order to capture the potential effect of thesestochastic variables on the optimal harvest scheduleand overall economic performance of the operation.
The model is a useful tool for those in the farming industry as well as investors and regulatory
agencies. The model can be used to quantify the
economic benefits and tradeoffs associated with thefarming of bluefin tuna, in particular in situations
where key variables are uncertain or are assumed to
be stochastic. Furthermore, the model can be used toanalyze how various assumptions regarding growth
rates, water temperatures, prices, or costs affect the
optimal harvest decisions and the overall economic
performance of an operation.
Distinction from Previous ResearchThis research differs from previous studies in thefield of aquaculture research with regard to the treatment of stochasticity within the model. In general,many economic optimization models solve the entire
production or planning horizon once. That is to say,the optimal harvest solution is solved for acrossall periods given the assumptions and parametersthat are specified ex ante. This modeling framework
implicitly assumes that these parameters will not deviate from their ex ante values over the course of the
production horizon, which may or may not be true.
Employing Monte Carlo analysis is an improvement over models which are based on deterministic,
fixed-point estimates of key parameters because they
allow for the calculation of multiple fixed-point estimates which are chosen to hold over a production
horizon.
In contrast to models which rely on deterministic
fixed point estimates and which implicitly assume
that the farmer would not deviate from the optimal
harvest schedule in-season, the dynamic stochastic
adaptive bioeconomic model developed here explicitly incorporates the adaptive behavior of thefirm over the course of the operating horizon. In
each period, the entire operating horizon is resolved
iteratively from t = t1 to t = T. Thus, rather thancalculating and relying on one fixed optimal harvest
schedule for the entire operating horizon, the model
recalculates a new optimal harvest schedule eachperiod as new information regarding the behaviorof stochastically specified parameters changes overtime. Thus, in the first period, expectations for stochastic parameter values are formed and are used toShamshak and Anderson

solve for the initial optimal harvest schedule, and thefirst optimal solution is executed. However, at theend of the first period, the farmer observes the actual
values of the stochastic parameters, which may deviate from the expected values that were used to solve
the initial optimal harvest schedule. Using this new
information, the farmer updates the expectation ofnext period’s stochastic parameters and recalculates
a new optimal harvest schedule for the remaining
periods in the operating horizon, given that a decision has already been made for the first period. In
this manner, the farmer makes a decision period by
period as new information is observed. The farmer
is not constrained to stick to an optimal harvest
schedule for the duration of the operating horizon.
Rather, the farmer is able to resolve for the optimal
harvest schedule for the remainder of the operating
horizon each period, in an adaptive manner. Hence,
this model is dynamic, in that it solves for the optimal harvest schedule over time, it is stochastic since
it allows for the specification of stochastic parameters, and it is adaptive in that it allows a farmer toadapt to changing parameters in-season.
Such a model allows for a more realistic representation of risk and a farmer’s response to risk throughout the production horizon. Compared to a nonadaptive model that solves for the optimal harvest
schedule for the entire operating horizon once, theadaptive model’s performance is typically higher(the NPV of the adaptive model equals or exceeds
the NPV for a non-adaptive model) when operating
under stochastic situations where parameter values
change each period. The adaptive model performs
better since it can alter the optimal harvest schedule in-season. This is in contrast to a non-adaptivemodel, which is limited to a single optimal harvest
schedule based on ex ante estimates despite the factthat the values of those parameters change in-season
due to the stochastic nature of the operating environment.
Basic Discussion of the Bioeconomic Model
For a more formal presentation of the bioeconomic
model, see Shamshak and Anderson (2009). The
objective function for a risk neutral profit maximizing offshore bluefin tuna aquaculture producer isdefined as follows:

41

Max π(Eq. 3)

Subject to:Pt=
W t = f (FCR t, FR t (WT t ) )Where:
Pt

Wt
Gi,t
Ht
Nt
CHC
CVCt
FCRt
FRt
A0
Mt
N0
r

N t = N t-1(1-M t-1 ) - H t-1
N t, H t> 0
N(0)= N0

Price per kilogram of an individual bluefin tuna, as a function of the weight, gradeof the fish (Gi,t), and harvest quantity of fish at time t.
Weight of a individual bluefin tuna at time t measured in kilograms, as a functionof the feed conversion ratio and the daily feeding rate, which itself is a function ofwater temperature.
Grade of the fish at time t, where i = color, freshness, fat, and shape.
Harvest quantity of bluefin tuna at time t. This is the control variable of the farmer.
Number of bluefin at time t.
Harvesting costs ($/kg).
Aggregation of variable costs at time t ($/kg).
Feed conversion ratio at time t, which can be time invariant or a function of time.
Feeding rate at time t, which is a function of the water temperature (WT) at time t.
Total acquisition costs associated with acquiring bluefin tuna for farming.
Mortality rate at time t, which can be time invariant or a function of time.
Initial starting number of bluefin tuna.
Discount rate (weekly).

The optimal harvest schedule is solved for by maximizing the above objective function numericallythrough the use of a non-linear constrained optimization (Sequential Quadratic Programming) algorithm found within Matlab’s Optimization toolbox.
The time step for the model is weekly.

Model Implementation

The bioeconomic model has been developed andcoded to be highly adaptable. All the key parametersand equations in the model can be customized by
the user to reflect different locations, scenarios, andstarting values. This makes the model capable ofanalyzing offshore bluefin tuna farming anywherein the world. Ultimately the model will be used toanalyze the economic feasibility of farmed bluefin
tuna production in the United States; however, for
now the model as parameterized is very general inorder to demonstrate the model’s performance andkey features.
In the analysis that follows, the model has been
parameterized with data acquired from an actual site

42

visit to a farming facility in Cartagena, Spain, dataobtained from consultation with experts in the field,
and data from available peer-reviewed and grayliterature. In future applications of this model, thesevariables will take on site-specific values; however,for now the values for key variables including theavailable quota, starting weight, and water temperature regime have been posited to demonstrate theperformance of the model. The values of key model
starting parameters are specified in Table 1. It is assumed that there is always a market for bluefin tunaat the estimated prices. Net returns are calculated
before taxes are taken into account.

Preliminary Results from the Model

The power of the dynamic stochastic adaptive
bioeconomic model is that under situations whereparameters are not known with certainty, the adaptive nature of the model allows the farmer to adjust
to deviations from parameter estimates that were
specified ex ante. This ability to adjust to stochasticity in-season allows the farmer to identify a harvest
schedule that is either equal to or superior to an opti-

Shamshak and Anderson

Table 1. Key model parameters.		
Parameter

Value

Units

W0
120
Kilograms (kg)			Available quota
800
Metric tons (mt)
			
N0
6,666
Number of fish			Stocking density
1,200
Kg/m3
Feed cost$0.50
USD/kg
FCR
20
NumberAcqusition costs$9.00
USD/kg			Towing costs$6,000.00
USD/day			Towing days
45
Days
			
Vessel payload
100
Metric tons (mt)
Vessel speed
10
Knots/hour
Distance
10
Nautical miles
Fuel cost$3.00
USD/gallon
CHC
$1.00
USD/fishManagerial labor$40.00
USD/hour
Skilled driver labor $30.00
USD/hour
General labor$20.00
USD/hourr
5%
Percent/year			i
7%Percent/year			Description
Starting weight of wild bluefin tuna
at t0
Quota of Atlantic bluefin tuna
available for farming purposes
Starting number of wild bluefin tuna
at t0
Stocking density in pens
Feed costs
Feed conversion ratio
Cost per kg of wild bluefin tunacaught by purse seiners
Cost per day paid to tug boats to tow
wild bluefin tuna back to farm site
Number of days required to tow thefish to the farm site
Payload of the vessel
Vessel speed per hour
Distance of pens from shore
Vessel diesel fuel cost per gallon
Harvesting cost per fish
Managerial hourly rate
Skilled driver hourly rate
General labor hourly rate
Annual discount rate (converted toa weekly discount rate in the model)
Annual interest rate of loan used tofinance initial capital expenditures				

mal harvest schedule identified through a non-adaptive model. Further, it is more realistic to model the
behavior of a farmer in this manner because farmers
are continually observing and adjusting production
decisions in response to changes in key parameters.
In the model presented here, two parameters aredefined as stochastic: the weekly mortality rate
and the weekly water temperature for the assumed
location. Both variables will be defined by triangle
distributions to capture the underlying stochasticity
associated with those key parameters. In the case of
the mortality rate, the farmer will form an expectation of the expected weekly mortality rate in order tosolve for the optimal harvest schedule. At the end of
the period, the farmer observes the actual mortality
rate and incorporates this new information into thebioeconomic model by updating the expectation fornext period’s mortality rate. This new expectation isthen used to solve for the profit maximizing harvest

Shamshak and Andersonschedule for the remaining periods. The mannerin which the farmer updates expectations can beformulated to be as simple or as complex as the user
desires. In this specification of the model, the farmer
updates expectations through a simple averaging ofobservations over the course of a farming season.
Stochastic water temperatures are incorporated
into the model as follows. The farmer’s expectationof weekly water temperatures over the course of a
farming season will be the mean observed watertemperature based on the average of five years ofactual water temperature data. This information will
be used to define the farmer’s expectation of growthover a farming season, which ultimately influences
the optimal harvest decision of the farmer. However, actual weekly water temperatures will be drawn
from a triangle distribution and these values will determine the actual growth of the fish over the courseof a week, which may or may not deviate from the43expected growth of the fish for that period. Thus,
the model will update the actual growth of the fish
week to week to reflect actual growth as opposed to
expected growth over a period. In future applications of this model, additional parameters can be
specified as stochastic, including economic variables
such as price and feed costs.

Figure 1. Optimal harvest schedules based on 100 runs.

Figure 2. Expected net present value of a 10 year farming operation.

The bioeconomic model was run 100 times to simulate 100 different bioeconomically optimized farming
seasons and their associated revenues, costs, andoptimal harvest schedules. Figure 1 presents the
optimal harvest schedules associated with 100 runsof the model. Since the bioeconomic model is a finite
horizon model, each farming season is independent.
Thus, each of the 100 runs can be viewed as a possible yearly outcome for a farmer. From these 100
possible yearly iterations, the bioeconomic model
then randomly chooses 10 iterations from this larger
set of 100 iterations to construct one possible representation of a 10 year operating horizon in orderto solve for the expected NPV and expected IRR.
This process of selecting 10 random yearly iterations to calculate the expected NPV and IRR values
to simulate the performance of a 10 year operationis repeated 100 times. Figure 2 and Figure 3 present
histograms of the expected NPV and expected IRR
for an enterprise operating over a ten year horizon
under the assumed parameter values. It should be
noted that the results presented here are based on avery general and hypothetical rendering of a possible farming operation and are intended to demonstrate the model’s performance; therefore, the results
do not necessarily reflect prevailing industry returns.

Conclusions

Figure 3. Expected internal rate of return for a 10 year farming
operation.

44

This research establishes a bioeconomic framework
for modeling the economics of farmed bluefin tunaproduction through the use of a dynamic stochastic adaptive bioeconomic model. Under stochastic
conditions, the adaptive model is able to provide
results that are superior to non-adaptive models that
do not allow an operator to adapt in-season. The
application of this bioeconomic model to offshore
bluefin tuna farming allows for the quantification
the economic benefits and costs associated with thefarming of bluefin tuna, in particular the impact on
the optimal harvest decision in situations where key
variables are uncertain or are known to be stochastic.
As better data becomes available, the model can be
refined to reflect more sophisticated formulations andShamshak and Anderson

relationships among key variables. Regardless, thismodel is a first step in quantifying and empiricallymodeling the economics of this form of production.
The next step of this research is to apply site-specificproduction parameters to the bioeconomic model
to assess the economic feasibility of this form of
production on the U.S. East Coast under a variety of
economic, biological and regulatory conditions.

References

Block, B. A., and H. Dewar, et al. 2001. Migratory
movements, depth preferences, and thermal biologyof Atlantic bluefin tuna. Science 293(5533): 1310–
1314.
Brown, J. G., and C. C. Goller, et al. 2002. Economics
of cage culture in Puerto Rico. Aquaculture Economics& Management 6(5-6): 363–372.
Clean Seas Tuna Limited. 2008. European
breakthough on bluefin tuna boosts clean seas’artificial breeding regime. Online at http://
www.cleanseastuna.com.au/documents/nrEuropeanresearchsuccess.pdf
Clean Seas Tuna Limited. 2008. Southern bluefin
tuna larvae born in world-first artificial breeding
regime. Online at http://www.cleanseastuna.com.
au/documents/nr-SBTlarvae5308.pdf
Jin, D., and H. Kite-Powell, et al. 2005. Risk
assessment in open-ocean aquaculture: A firmlevel investment- production model. Aquaculture
Economics & Management 9(3): 369–387.
Kam, L. E., and P. Leung, et al. 2003. Economics
of offshore aquaculture of Pacific threadfin(Polydactylus sexfilis) in Hawaii. Aquaculture 223(14): 63–87.
Magnusson, J. J., and B. A. Block, et al. 1994. An
assessment of atlantic bluefin tuna, National
Academy of Sciences.
Posadas, B. C. and C. J. Bridger. 2003. Economic
feasibility of offshore aquaculture in the gulf of
Mexico. The World Aquaculture Society. Baton
Rouge, LA.
Sawada, Y., and T. Okada, et al. 2005. Completionof the Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis(Temminck et Schlegel), life cycle. Aquac. Res. 36(5):413–421.
Shamshak, G. L. and J. L. Anderson. 2009. Dynamic
stochastic adaptive bioeconomic model of offshore
bluefin tuna aquaculture. Aquaculture Economics &Management 13(2): 155–175.

Shamshak and Anderson

45

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

1.) This research report provides an assessment ofPacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis, farming as itis presently practiced in Ensenada, Mexico. This final
report is available online: http://digitalcommons.
uconn.edu/ecostam_pubs/1
Zertuche-Gonzalez, J., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, J. Vaca
Rodriguez, R. del Moral Simanek, B. A. Costa-Pierce,and C. Yarish. 2008. Marine science assessment of
capture-cased tuna, Thunnus orientalis, aquaculturein the Ensenada region of northern Baja California
Mexico: Final Report of the Binational ScientificTeam to the Packard Foundation: 94.

2.) The following are a collection of papers focused
specifically on farmed Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus
thynnus, production in the Mediterranean. Growth
rates, mortality rates, feeding regimes, size at capture, size at harvest, and other production parameters specific to bluefin tuna farming as it is currently
practiced in the Mediterranean are available in these
papers.
Aguado-Gimenez, F., and B. Garcia-Garcia. 2005a.
Changes in some morphometric relationships in
Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus (Linnaeus,
1758), as a result of the fattening process. Aquaculture 249:303–309.

Katavic, I., V. Ticina, and V. Franicevic. 2003. Rearing of small bluefin tunas, Thunnus thynnus, in the
Adriatic Sea- Preliminary study. Proceedings of the
Symposium on Domestication of the Bluefin Tuna,
Thunnus thynnus, Cartagena, Spain, Cahiers Options
Mediterraneennes.

Katavic, I., V. Ticina, L. Grubisic and V. Franicevic,(eds). 2003. Tuna farming as a new achievement in
Mariculture of Croatia. Workshop on Farming, Management and Conservation of Bluefin Tuna. Istanbul,
Turkey, Turkish Marine Research Foundation.
Ticina, V., I. Katavic, and L. Grubisic. 2007. Growthindicies of small northern bluefin tuna, Thunnus
thynnus L., in growth-out rearing cages.” Aquaculture 269:538–543.

3.) The following paper develops a bioeconomic
production model that is applied to farmed salmon
and cod production. While this paper does not focus
specifically on farmed bluefin tuna production, themodel and the manner in which it incorporates risk
could be generalized to other forms of production.
Jin, D., H. Kite-Powell, and P. Hoagland. 2005. Risk
assessment in open-ocean aquaculture: A firm-level
investment- production model. Aquac. Econ. Manage. 9(3): 369–387.

Aguado-Gimenez, F., and B. Garcia-Garcia. 2005b.
Growth, food intake and feed conversion rates in
captive Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus (Linnaeus, 1758), under fattening conditions. Aquaculture Research 36:610–614.

Ikeda, S. 2003. Market and domestic production ofcultured tuna in Japan-cultured tuna in the Japanesemarket. Proceedings of the Symposium on Domestication of the Bluefin Tuna, Thunnus thynnus, Cartagena, Spain, Cahiers Options Mediterraneennes.
Katavic, I., V. Ticina and V. Franicevic. 2002. A preliminary study of the growth rate of bluefin tunafrom Adriatic when reared in the floating cages.
ICCAT Collective Volume of Scientific Papers 54(2):472–476.

Katavic, I., V. Ticina, and V. Franicevic. 2003a. Bluefin
Tuna, Thunnus thynnus L., farming on the Croatiancoast of the Adriatic Sea-Present stage and futureplans.” Cahiers Options Mediterraneennes 60:101–
106.

46

Shamshak and Anderson

Valuation of Ecosystem Services in Restocking
with Ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) in Japan
Shin-ichiro Abe
Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science
Freshwater Fisheries Research Division
Komaki 1088, Ueda, Nagano 386-0031, Japan
shinabe at affrc.go.jp
Yasuji Tamaki
Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science
Fisheries Economy Division
2-12-4 Fuku-ura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan
Kei’ichiro Iguchi
Fisheries Research Agency
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science
Freshwater Fisheries Research Division
Komaki 1088, Ueda, Nagano 386-0031, Japan
Keywords: ayu, economics, ecosystem services, restocking, rivers

Abstract

The amphidromous fish, ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis), is an important fishery resource providing bothcommercial and recreational benefits to local communities in Japanese hilly and mountainous areas.
However in most rivers flowing in these areas fishing for ayu is expensive due to the requirement of
restocking with young fish because dams often impede their upstream migration from the sea. This
study evaluated several non-market services provided from restocking with ayu to reveal these benefits
that would otherwise remain hidden or unappreciated. Results of the contingent valuation showed thatsatisfaction derived from residence near rivers inhabited by ayu was equivalent to ¥58,440 (US $613.20) in
annual payment per person. In addition, participation in activities related to ayu, such as releasing, lessons in angling, and observations of river organisms, would be of interest to many Japanese people andthe benefit from one–time participation was estimated to be about ¥1,700 ($18) per person. Furthermore,
restocking and fishing have a function of reducing the effects of eutrophication by preventing benthic
algal blooms and by removing nutrients from the water. In terms of running costs of the sewage system,
the annual benefits of the two functions of preventing benthic algal blooms by ayu-grazing and removing nutrients by fishing varied in rivers from ¥8.1 to ¥48.2 million (from $85 to $503,000) and from ¥0.3 to¥213 million (from $3,600 to $2.2 million), respectively.

Introduction

Rivers and streams confer commercial and recreational benefits to human society through providing
freshwater fishing, although human activities oftencause fundamental changes in the fish community
through river modification. Damming drasticallychanges the fish community in the above-dam areas(Katano et al. 2006). In Japan, ayu (Plecoglossus
altivelis, Temminck et Schlegel) is one of the fisheryresources most severely damaged by dams. Ayu isan amphidromous fish migrating from the sea to

Abe et al.

rivers annually. In early spring, ayu juveniles go up
streams from the sea and grow by feeding on benthic
algae until they mature and then die in the autumn(Tsukamoto and Uchida 1992). Damming cuts off
upstream recruitment of the juveniles migratingfrom the sea and leads to the local extinction of ayu
populations in above-dam areas. Therefore, in mostof the rivers and streams flowing through Japanese
hilly and mountainous areas where many dams andweirs have been constructed, freshwater fishery47

cooperatives restock streams with ayu-young tomaintain the fishery.
The action of restocking a stream with ayu not only
meets the commercial and recreational fisherydemands, but also restores functions of freshwater
ecosystems by reintroducing locally extirpated fish.
Freshwater ecosystems have functions of providing
many diverse goods and services to human society(Wilson and Carpenter 1999) and these functions are
mediated through the component organisms of theecosystems. However, the ecosystem goods andservices are not usually commercially evaluated andthus are seldom considered in policy decision-making. Restocking a stream with ayu will also yield
benefits to the local community by restoring ecosystem functions, although these benefits may not beuniversally appreciated.
This study evaluated several non-market services
provided from the action of restocking a stream withayu. The services were evaluated in terms of thesatisfaction derived from the presence of ayu, prevention of algal blooms, nutrients recycling, andenvironmental education. In this study we tried todetermine a price for these services and examine thesocial benefits of the restocking action.

Value Derived from the Presence of Ayu

Before estimating the value derived from the presence of ayu, the impression of the species thatJapanese people have was investigated using an
Internet communication service questionnaire in
November 2007 (Yahoo Japan Value Insight Inc.,Tokyo). We asked 1,000 respondents about 1) preferences regarding the taste of ayu, 2) preferences about
the presence of ayu in streams, 3) their experienceangling for ayu, and 4) what image they had in theirmind about ayu. Results showed that 80% of the
respondents liked the taste of ayu and some 70%
desired having ayu in the rivers near their house(Figure 1). In addition most respondents (91%) had
an image in their mind that ayu inhabited clear
streams and nearly half of the respondents who had
no experience angling for ayu replied that they
wished to go fishing for ayu in the future.
Next, the economic value of the presence of ayu instreams was estimated using the contingent valuation method (CVM). CVM is one approach to determine the economic value of non-market goods andservices by asking people directly about the amountof money that they were willing to pay (willingness
to pay, WTP) for specific improvements in goods orservices (NOAA 1993). We asked WTP to rent a
house (flat) near therivers inhabited by ayu.
A useable sample of
1,000 respondents was
obtained using theinternet communication
service. Some 22% of the
respondents refused theextra payment (i.e. WTP
was ¥0). Results showedthat the mean WTP permonth and per year were
¥4,870 ($51.10) and¥58,440 ($613.20).

Figure 1. Results of the questionnaire survey about their preferences regarding ayu. The survey
was conducted to ask questions to 1000 respondents using an internet communication service.

48

Estimated WTP would
include both use values
as well as nonuse values(e.g., the satisfaction ofpeople derived fromknowledge that ayu
exists). For example,
WTP was greater in 		
people who had experience angling for ayu or

Abe et al.

felt they would like to fish for ayu than people who
had no desire to fish for the species. In addition,
WTP was greater in people who liked the taste of
ayu than those who did not like it. Furthermore, it
was clear that the value of the presence of ayu would
be affected by the condition of streams because
many Japanese people have a mental image that ayu
inhabit clear streams.

Function of Preventing Benthic Algal Blooms

Of the environmental problems spoiling the beautyof rivers and stream in Japan, eutrophication is oneof the most serious human impacts on freshwaters.
Eutrophication causes benthic algal blooms instreambeds which negatively affect the aesthetics ofrivers and streams (Minagawa et al. 2006, Figure2a,b). Ayu have a great ability to restrict benthic algal
growth by grazing (Figure 2c). Therefore, restocking
a stream with ayu has a function of also improving
the riverine beauty by controlling benthic algal
blooms in streams where excessive nutrients aredischarged from anthropogenic sources.
We evaluated the function of preventing benthic algal
blooms in fishing areas for ayu in the Masegawa,Uketogawa, Yahagigawa and Uonogawa streams in2008. The fishing areas evaluated were located inabove-dam areas maintained by restocking. Economic values were expressed as the running costs of the
sewage system to keep the same benthic algal biomass as that in the presence of ayu by lowering thephosphorus concentration, which is usually theprincipal factor limiting benthic algal growth instreams. Evaluation involved two steps.
Step 1. Estimation of the benthic algal biomass inthe presence and absence of ayu
To make this estimate the algal biomass (chlorophyll
a content) and biomass-specific primary productivity(BSPP) were measured in the field using the halfrock scrape technique (Stevenson 1990). Benthic
algal biomass in the presence of ayu was expressedas the mean biomass in the field. The biomass in theabsence of ayu was expressed as the maximum
biomass of benthic algal mats because if ayu wereabsent in streams, the algal mats would increase
their biomass exponentially until reaching a maximum. The maximum biomass was estimated fromthe relationship between the benthic algal biomass
and BSPP. BSPP decreases lineally with increasing
benthic algal biomass; therefore, maximum biomass
was estimated as the biomass in which BSPP waszero (Abe et al. 2002).
Step 2. Estimation of the necessary reduction ofphosphorus and the costs
The necessary reduction of phosphorus (R) to keep
the same biomass as that in the presence of ayu wascalculated using the following equation:
R = (TPa - TPp) × d × L,
where TPa and TPp are the total phosphorus concentrations (μg l-1) that would achieve the benthic algal
biomass in the absence and presence of ayu, d isdischarge (m3 day-1) and L is the growth periods of
ayu from April and September (183 days). TPa and
TPp were estimated using the equation developed by
Chételat et al. (1999):
Log TPa (p) = (Log Ba (p) - 0.490)/0.905,
where Ba (p) is the benthic algal biomass in the absence (presence) of ayu (mg chl. a m-2).

Figure 2. Views of streambeds with thin (a) and thick (b) benthic
algal mats. Benthic algal biomass (c) established experimental
streams with different densities of ayu (0 to 8 indiv. m-2) after
2 weeks from stocking the streams with ayu. The biomass isexpressed as the ash free dry mass. Vertical bars indicate thestandard error.

Abe et al.

Economic values were calculated by multiplying therunning cost (¥147.5 million per metric ton of phosphorus) by the necessary reduction of phosphorus.
The necessary reduction of phosphorus ranged from0.06 to 0.33 t per year per stream. The economic
values attached the function of preventing benthic

49

algal bloom varied in streams from ¥8.1 to ¥48.2
million (from $85 to $503,000) per year per stream
and had a tendency to increase with the discharge
and nutrient status of the streams (Figure 3).

al of 16.1 kg to 10 t of nitrogen. Thus, the economic
value ranged from ¥0.3 to ¥213 million (from $3,600
to $2.2 million) per year per river system. In thisstudy the annual products of recreational ayu fishingwere not included. Angling for ayu is a popularsport activity among the Japanese people (3.4 million
people in 2003 according to the 11th fishery census
conducted by Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, andFisheries of Japan). Thus, the function of nutrient
removal would be underestimated in this study.

Environmental Education

Figure 3. Economic value attached to the function of preventing
benthic algal blooms in the four rivers restocked with ayu. Discharge, necessary reduction of phosphorus, and costs of sewage
are indicated.

Function of Nutrient Cycling

Fishing has a function of recycling nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from streams to the humansociety (Abe et al. 2006). Excessive nutrients discharged from anthropogenic sources cause eutrophication. In a sense, these nutrients are accumulated inbenthic algae and then fish. Therefore, ayu angling isa method of removing the nutrients from stream
water and then effectively utilizing them.
The economic value of this function was estimatedas the running cost of the sewage system to remove
the same amount of nitrogen contained in the annual
production of ayu. The economic value was estimated from the annual catch of ayu, the percentage ofedible mass (55%), and the nitrogen content (2.93%)
of ayu against the running costs (¥21.3 million per
metric ton of nitrogen). We could not obtain the dataof annual catch in the local fishing areas that were
restocked, so we used the data of annual catch inriver systems, which are annually reported by the
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries ofJapan.
In 2006 the annual production of ayu varied in river
systems from 1 to 621 t, corresponding to the remov-

50

Recently, members of freshwater fishery cooperatives have been active in environmental education
through releasing young ayu into streams or observing stream life with children (Tamaki 2007). In
addition, some local groups give courses in ayu
angling for beginners. These events provide an
opportunity for getting close to stream life andthinking about human impacts on the natural environment. We estimated the economic values of
events that involved releasing ayu into a river, shortcourses in ayu angling and observations of stream
organisms using CVM.
First, the demand for these events was investigatedby surveying 1,000 adult men and women using an
Internet communication service (Yahoo Japan Value
Insight Inc., Tokyo) in December 2008 whether theywould let their children or grandchildren participate
in the events. The results of the survey showed that
more that 90% of the respondents took an interest in
the events (Table 1). Next, we asked WTP as an
expense to join or a transportation expense. WTP forthe events was estimated at ¥1,640 to ¥1,717 (from$17.2 to $18.0) per person per event (Table 1).

Table 1. Economic value of releasing ayu into a river, shortcourse of ayu-angling, and observation of stream life as an educational opportunity for children. Economic values are estimated as the mean values of the willingness to pay as an expense tojoin1 or as the transportation expense2.

Event

Participation (%)
Yes NoWillingness to pay

Releasing ayu into a river1

92 8¥1,665 ($17.50)

Short course of ayu-angling1

91 9¥1,640 ($17.20)

Observation of stream life2

93 7¥1,717 ($18.00)

Abe et al.

Discussion

In this study we put a price on several non-market
services provided by restocking a stream with ayu(Figure 4). From the questionnaire surveys, it wasrecognized that Japanese people have high use andnonuse values for ayu. The presence of ayu provides
the opportunity for environmental education and afeeling of satisfaction for many people. Furthermore,
many people associate beauty of the natural environment with ayu, while ayu also enhance the beautyof rivers by preventing benthic algal blooms andrecycling excessive nutrients from streams to humansociety via fishing.

in number of ayu anglers, the retirement of elderly
persons and expensive fishing gear for beginners are
considered to be the main causes of the reduction. To
utilize the functions associated with ayu practically,
it is important to create conditions that allow elderly
persons and beginners to fish easily.
This study evaluated the functions of a freshwater
fishery that is not commercial in nature. To make thebest use of these functions, it is necessary to propose
the ideal fishery management strategy and to findthe social and geographical conditions that will enhance the functions. Finally, we have great expectations that the social benefits derived from stream life
and a controlled freshwater fishery as estimated inthis study will allow previously ignored factors to beincorporated into decision making in river management projects.

Figure 4. Price of ecosystem services provided by restocking a
stream with ayu.

High use and nonuse values for ayu suggested
that the action of restocking a stream with ayu willproduce benefits in enhancing the attraction of local
areas. In fact, ayu have been used as a tourist attraction in many places. Traditional ayu fishing using
cormorants or a trap called “yana” and fresh ayu
dishes are a major attraction for tourists and residents as summer activities. However, the attractionof ayu may change in response to riverine beauty
because many Japanese people have a mental image
that ayu inhabit clear streams. To enhance the attraction of ayu, it is important to maintain the environmental quality of streams and rivers.
The results of the questionnaire survey showed that
there are many people wishing to become ayu anglers in Japan. Increasing the number of anglers will
enhance the benefits attached to restocking a stream
with ayu, whereas the number of ayu anglers has
decreased gradually year by year. Although there arevarious opinions about the cause of the reduction

Abe et al.

51

References

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Chételat J., F.R. Pick, A. Morin, and P.B. Hamilton.
1999. Periphyton biomass and community composition in rivers of different nutrients status. Can. J.
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 56:560–569.

Freshwater fisheries have a function of removing
nitrogen and phosphorus from inland waters where
the excessive nutrients are discharged from humansociety. This study estimated the economic value
attached to this function of Japanese freshwater
fisheries using the replacement cost method. The
economic value was estimated as the running cost of
a sewage system to remove the same amount of thenutrients contained in annual products of freshwater
fisheries. In addition, the efficiency at which freshwater fisheries removed the nutrients was expressedas the percentage of the amount of the nutrients contained in the annual products to the annual loadingof the nutrients in 23 rivers and nine lakes in Japan.
The amount of the nutrients removed by freshwater fisheries was highest in 1981, reaching 1,132 t ofnitrogen and 105 t of phosphorus, and evaluated at¥23.3 billion as the economic value. However the
economic value was reduced to ¥9.1 billion in 2003
with the decreasing annual catch. Furthermore,
freshwater fisheries removed phosphorus at a higher
efficiency than nitrogen in the rivers and lakes. The
highest efficiency was estimated in the Ogawara
Lake.

Abe S., T. Nagumo, and J. Tanaka. 2002. Analysis
of benthic algal biomass accrual using the logistic
model. Japanese J. of Limnol. 63:209–213 [in Japanesewith English abstract].

Katano O., T. Nakamura, S. Abe, S. Yamamoto, and
Y. Baba. 2006. Comparison of fish communities
between above- and below-dam sections of small
streams; barrier effect to diadromous fishes. J. Fish
Biol. 68:767–782.
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). 1993. Report of the NOAA panel on
contingent valuation. U.S. Federal Register 58:4602–
4614.
Stevenson R.J. 1990. Benthic algal community dynamics in a stream during and after a spate. J. North
Amer. Benth. Soc. 9:277–288.
Tsukamoto, K., and K. Uchida. 1992. Migration
mechanism of the ayu. In V.I. Ilyichev, and V.V.
Anikiev (eds.), 145–172. Oceanic and anthropogenic
controls of life in the Pacific Ocean. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Netherlands.
Wilson, M.A., and S.R. Carpenter. 1999. Economic
valuation of freshwater ecosystem services in the UnitedStates: 1971–1997. Ecological Applications
9:772–783.

52

Abe S., H. Saito, H. Sakano, and Y. Tamaki. 2006.
Economic evaluation of freshwater fisheries providing the function of nutrient removal from inland waters in Japan. Aquacult. Sci. 54:553–560 (in Japanesewith English abstract).

Minagawa T., S. Fukushima, and Y. Kayaba. 2006. A
study on visual assessment of periphyton for flow
management. Civil Eng. J. 48:58–63 [in Japanese].

Preference for streambed conditions was inquired of
91 test respondents (a teen to persons in their sixties)
who were shown streambeds with different benthic
algal biomass levels in an experimental stream andthe Sinsakaigawa stream. The results showed thatstreambeds with lower periphyton biomass weremore visually attractive and a permissible amount
was below 5 g m-2 in ash free dry mass (20 mg m-2 inchlorophyll a).

Abe et al.

Tamaki Y. 2007. Case study of valuating the multiple
functions of freshwater fisheries and fishery villages
in Japan. J. North Japan Fish. Econ. 35:215–226 (inJapanese).

Freshwater fishermen’s activity were investigated bya questionnaire survey for 895 Japanese freshwater
fishery cooperatives in December 2005 in Japan. The
questionnaires were collected from 342 cooperatives(38% of the total). Economic values of their activities to preserve the environments (e.g., riversidecleaning, extermination of alien fish, and watching for water quality and unlawful dumping) were
estimated as labor costs and evaluated at ¥2,166 to¥3,248 million. Economic values of their activities toexterminate alien fish were evaluated at ¥368 to ¥552
million as labor costs, though the nonuse benefits ofexterminating exotic fish that Japanese people hadwere estimated at ¥29.9 to ¥108.4 billion by the contingent valuation method in a questionnaire survey
in December 2005 using an Internet communication
service. In addition, the economic values of two
anonymous riverine fishing spots were estimated at¥250 and ¥229 million by the travel cost method.

Abe et al.

53

Implications of Aquaculture of Wild Fisheries:
The Case of Alaska Wild Salmon
Gunnar Knapp
Institute of Social and Economic Research
University of Alaska Anchorage
3211 Providence Drive
Anchorage, Alaska 99508 USA
Gunnar.Knapp at uaa.alaska.edu

Keywords: Wild salmon, Farmed salmon, Alaska salmon
Abstract

Worldwide aquaculture production is growing rapidly. The experience of Alaska with wild salmon Oncorhynchus spp. suggests that aquaculture may have significant and wide-ranging potential implications
for wild fisheries. Salmon farming exposed wild salmon’s natural monopoly to competition, expanding
supply and driving down prices. Wild salmon has faced both inherent as well as self-inflicted challenges
in competing with farmed salmon. The economic pressures caused by competition from farmed salmon
have been painful and difficult for the wild salmon industry, fishermen, and communities, but thesepressures have contributed to changes that have helped make the salmon industry more economically
viable. Farmed salmon has greatly expanded the market and created new market opportunities for wild
salmon. Farmed salmon has benefited consumers by lowering prices, expanding supply, developing new
products, and improving quality of both farmed and wild products. Salmon farming has had no apparent
direct effects on Alaska wild salmon resources, but could have indirect effects on wild salmon resourcesthat might be positive or negative. The experience of Alaska wild salmon suggests that anyone interested
in wild fisheries should pay close attention to what is happening in aquaculture. No wild fishery market–
especially for higher-valued species–should be taken for granted.

Introduction

An aquaculture revolution is happening in the world
seafood industry. Aquaculture accounts for an evergrowing share of world seafood production. One of themost important questions facing wild fisheries is how
they will be affected by the development of aquaculture.

In recent years annual Alaska salmon harvests haveaveraged about 350,000 metric tons. Over the past two
decades, harvests in most Alaska salmon fisheries havebeen very strong. Alaska wild salmon fisheries are certified as sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council.

Salmon Onconhynchus spp. are species for which thegrowth in aquaculture production has been most dramatic. Alaska is the world’s largest producer of wild
salmon Onconhynchus spp. Between 1980 and 2004,
farmed salmon’s share of world salmon supply grewfrom 2% to 65%, and Alaska’s share fell from 42% to 15%(Figure 1).
The experience of the Alaska wild salmon industry
during this time provides insights into how aquaculture
may affect wild fisheries. In this paper, I first briefly
describe the Alaska salmon industry. I then suggest 10
lessons from the experience of the Alaska wild salmon
industry about how aquaculture may affect wild fisheries.

54

Figure 1. Growth in world farmed salmon supply from
1980–2007.

KnappFive species of Pacific salmon are harvested in Alaska.
Pink salmon O. gorbuscha accounts for the largest shareof volume, followed by sockeye O. nerka, pink, chum O.
keta, coho and chinook O. tshawytscha. Sockeye salmon,
which commands much higher prices than pink orchum, accounts for the largest share of ex-vessel value.
Alaska wild salmon are processed into four major
primary products: frozen salmon, canned salmon, fresh
salmon, and salmon roe. These products are sold inworldwide markets. In recent decades the most valuable
markets have been the Japanese frozen salmon market(sockeye salmon), the European and U.S. canned salmon
markets (sockeye and pink salmon), the U.S. market for
fresh and frozen salmon, and the Japanese market forsalmon roe.
Alaska wild salmon are harvested in 26 gear and areaspecific fisheries by small boats utilizing four major
types of fishing gear (seine, drift gill net, set gill net,
and troll). Participation is restricted by a limited
entry management system. About 20,000 fishermen
work seasonally in Alaska. Alaska’s coastal communities are heavily dependent on salmon fishing forfishing and processing jobs and for tax revenues.
There is no salmon farming in Alaska. All finfish
farming is banned in Alaska, partly to protect wild
salmon resources and partly to protect fishermen
from economic competition from farmed salmon.1
For many or most Alaska salmon fishermen, salmon
fishing is more than just a job. They love salmon
fishing in part because it allows them the chance towork and live independently in remote places ofgreat beauty. In the late 1980s, Alaska salmon fishermen enjoyed not only these benefits but also unprecedented higher prices and incomes.

Ten Lessons from the Experience of the Alaska
Wild Salmon Industry

1. Aquaculture can have rapid and dramatic negative effects on markets for wild fisheries.
Competition from farmed salmon was the most important cause of a dramatic decline in Alaska salmon
prices from the late 1980s to 2002. By 2002, real
(inflation-adjusted) ex-vessel prices for most Alaska
salmon species had fallen to about one-third of average prices during the 1980s (Figure 2)2.

Figure 2. Ex-vessel prices of Alaska salmon from 1980–2002.

For example, during the 1990s, farmed salmon rapidly replaced wild sockeye as the dominant productin the Japanese market. As the total supply of salmon to the Japanese market increased, the Japanesewholesale price of Alaska sockeye salmon declined
dramatically (Figure 3). As the wholesale price in Japan declined, the price to the Alaska fisherman also
declined (Figure 4).

1 Although salmon farming is banned, Alaska does have a large-

scale salmon hatchery program. Hatchery releases account for
about one-third of Alaska salmon harvests.

Farmed salmon was not the only cause of the decline in prices
for wild Alaska salmon. Many other factors also contributed tothe decline, including large Alaska salmon harvests, growing
exports of Russian salmon, a recession in the Japanese economy,
and stagnant consumer demand for canned salmon.
2

Knapp

Figure 3. Japanese frozen salmon imports and wild sockeye
wholesale prices (1986–7 through 2004–5).

55

It is typical and natural for people who are suffering
economic harm from competition to look for someone to blame—and to ask their government to help
and protect them. However, when you are facing
competition, I think that the only real long-term solution is to understand better what your customers
want and to work even harder to provide them what
they want.

Figure 4. Japanese wholesale prices and Alaska ex-vessel prices
for sockeye salmon for the period 1986 through 2004.

2. Changes caused by competition from aquaculture may be painful and difficult for those who
depend on wild fisheries.
There were many difficult adjustments for Alaska
fishermen as they experienced increasing competition from farmed salmon. As salmon prices declined
so did incomes, as did the value of fishing boats andlimited entry permits. Many fishermen lost theirmarkets as declining profits resulted in the closingof many processing plants. Fishing communities
experienced a loss in fishing taxes and population
as processing plants closed and fishermen moved
away. There were also social stresses, such as alcoholabuse. The political influence of the salmon fishingindustry declined, and pressures grew to reallocate
salmon from commercial fisheries to other uses
such as sport fishing. Many Alaska salmon fishermen blame these problems upon competition fromfarmed salmon. They view farmed salmon as aninferior product that has harmed them. They believethat salmon farming in other places is harmful to theenvironment and unfairly subsidized. Car bumper
stickers such as these are commonly seen:

3. In an increasingly globalized economy, the market effects of aquaculture on wild fisheries occur
regardless of where the aquaculture is happening.
Alaska wild salmon are sold in global markets. The
decline in Alaska sockeye salmon prices was caused
by farmed salmon production in a foreign country
for export to another foreign country (Chilean andNorwegian exports of farmed salmon and trout toJapan). Banning salmon farming in Alaska didn’t
keep it from happening. Banning U.S. farmed salmon imports wouldn’t have kept it from happening.
4. Wild fisheries may face significant inherent challenges in competing with aquaculture.
These challenges derive from the fact that aquaculture producers have much greater control overproduction. Inconsistent and unpredictable supply
makes it much more difficult for wild salmon producers than for farmed salmon producers to meetbuyers’ supply needs and to plan for marketing.
Alaska wild salmon catches vary widely from year
to year, and often vary widely from the pre-season
catch predictions. In contrast, salmon farmers know
exactly how many fish they will have to process
and to market–and can choose when to process andmarket them.
The seasonality of wild salmon fisheries increases
production costs relative to farmed salmon, andmakes it relatively more difficult to market wild
salmon. Sometimes so many wild salmon are harvested in a day that there is no practical processing
option other than canning. There aren’t enoughplanes to fly the salmon to a fresh market, and there
aren’t enough freezers to freeze them. Wide variationin sizes and quality increases costs of processing andmarketing wild salmon relative to farmed salmon.
5. Competition with aquaculture exposes not only
inherent but also “self-inflicted” challenges in wild
fisheries.
There are significant quality problems in many
Alaska salmon fisheries resulting from practices at

56

Knapp

many different stages of fishing, tendering, and processing. These include, for example, bruising which
occurs as fish are removed from gillnets, poor handling as fishermen focus on working fast rather thanhandling fish carefully, long delivery times between
when fish are caught and when they are processed,
and lack of refrigeration or icing on fishing boats. In
some Alaska salmon fisheries there are many moreboats fishing than are needed to catch the fish.
Competition with aquaculture exposes these self-inflicted problems. When customers for Alaska salmon
have alternative sources of supply, they are lesswilling to accept quality problems with Alaska wild
salmon. When prices fall, it is harder to ignore how
traditional ways of fishing add to costs.
6. Economic pressures caused by aquaculture may
contribute to changes which make wild fisheries
more economically viable.
In the Alaska salmon industry, as fishermen andprocessors have left the industry, costs have fallen
and efficiency has increased. Quality has improvedin many fisheries. Marketing efforts have expanded.
The salmon industry has worked harder to understand and meet the needs of customers.
7. Over the longer term, aquaculture may benefit
markets for wild fisheries by expanding markets
and creating new market niches for wild fisheries.
As salmon farmers have expanded world supply of
salmon, they have also greatly expanded world demand for salmon. Salmon farming has made salmon
much more widely available–in more countries andmore stores, throughout the year. Salmon farming
has created new salmon consumers and new productforms. Growing demand is creating growing nichemarket opportunities for high-quality wild salmon.
Since 2002 strong demand has contributed to a rebound in prices for both farmed salmon and Alaska
wild salmon.
8. Aquaculture benefits consumers by lowering
prices, expanding supply, developing new products, and improving quality of both farmed andwild fish.
Since the development of salmon farming, both
farmed and wild salmon have become cheaper andavailable more consistently, over a far larger geographic region, in more stores and restaurants and in
more product forms.

Knapp

9. Aquaculture may have both direct and indirect
effects on wild fishery resources, which may beeither positive or negative.
The experience of Alaska wild salmon suggests thataquaculture may affect wild fishery resources inseveral different ways. Salmon farming critics havepointed out the potential for salmon farming to introduce diseases among wild salmon populations, orfor escaped salmon to introduce non-native salmon
species or to affect wild salmon genetic diversity.
However, because there is no salmon farming in
Alaska, none of these direct effects have occurred in
Alaska.
Aquaculture proponents have suggested that fish
farming may benefit wild fishery resources by lowering prices and thus fishermen’s incentives to overexploit wild fishery resources. However, because
Alaska salmon fisheries are well-managed, they
are not over-exploited, and there is little evidence
that lower prices have significantly reduced fishingcatches or benefited salmon resources.
A potential indirect effect of competition from
salmon farming is that lower salmon prices may
reduce economic and political incentives to protect
salmon resources and the environment on which
they depend. When Alaska wild salmon were very
valuable, there was a very strong commitment protecting salmon resources and the environment uponwhich salmon depend. But as the economic value of
salmon has fallen, funding for salmon management
and research has fallen, and there is greater support
for proposed mining and oil development projects insalmon producing regions.
10. The experience of Alaska wild salmon suggeststhat anyone interested in wild fisheries should pay
close attention to what is happening in aquaculture. No wild fishery market–especially for higher
valued species–should be taken for granted. Aquaculture will continue to grow rapidly because it canmeet market demands for predictable, year-roundand growing supply of high-quality seafood. The
challenges to wild fisheries posed by aquaculture
will increase over time.
Effects of Salmon Farming on the Alaska Salmon
Industry: Two Contrasting Perspectives
It is useful to contrast two different perspectives
about how the Alaska wild salmon industry has
been affected by salmon farming. The first perspec-57

tive, which I call the “popular/green/Alaskan”
perspective, is often reflected in the press and iscommonly heard in Alaska:

References/Suggested Reading

My own perspective, which I call the “economic
perspective,” is different:

Knapp, G. 2008. Potential economic impacts of U.S.
offshore aquaculture. NOAA Aquaculture Program,
Offshore Aquaculture in the United States: Economic
Considerations, Implications & Opportunities (Prepublication copy): Online at
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/news/econ.html

Unfairly subsidized and inferior farmed salmon
harmed the environment and wild stocks in
producing nations, and flooded world markets,
depressing wild salmon prices and significantly
harming Alaska fishermen and fishing communities.

Salmon farming exposed a “natural” monopoly
to competition, benefiting consumers by expanding availability, lowering prices, spurring innovation and market development, andleading to a more efficient wild salmon industry
more focused on meeting market demands.

I do not mean to imply that competition from
salmon farming has been easy for the Alaska salmon
industry. It has not. It has been very difficult. But inthe end, I think the Alaska salmon industry can andwill change, survive, and compete successfully inthe very different world salmon market that salmon
farming is creating–and will better serve the world’s
consumers.

58

Asche, F., A.G. Guttormsen, T. Sebulonsen and E.H.
Sissener. 2003. Competition between farmed andwild salmon: The Japanese salmon market. Centre
for Fisheries Economics, Institute for Research in
Economics and Business Administration, Bergen,December 2003. Working Paper No. 44/04. Online
at http://bora.nhh.no:8080/bitstream/2330/418/1/
A44_03.pdf

Knapp, G., C.A. Roheim and J.L. Anderson. 2007.
The great salmon run: Competition between wild
and farmed salmon. TRAFFIC North America. Executive Summary online at:
http://www.traffic.org/fish.
Full report available online at:www.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/iser/people/knapp

KnappAnnotated Bibliography of Key Works

Knapp, G. 2008. Potential Economic Impacts of
U.S. Offshore Aquaculture. In NOAA Aquaculture
Program, Offshore Aquaculture in the United States:
Economic Considerations, Implications & Opportunities (Pre-publication copy):
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/news/econ.html
Knapp, Gunnar; Cathy A. Roheim; and James L. Anderson. 2007. The Great Salmon Run: Competition
Between Wild and Farmed Salmon. 301pp. TRAFFIC
North America. Executive Summary available at:
http://www.traffic.org/fish.
Full report available at:www.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/iser/people/knapp
Asche, Frank; Atle G. Guttormsen; Tom Sebulonsen;
and Elin H. Sissener. 2003. Competition between
farmed and wild salmon: The Japanese Salmon
Market. Centre for Fisheries Economics, Institute for
Research in Economics and Business Administration,
Bergen, December 2003. Working Paper No. 44/04.
http://bora.nhh.no:8080/bitstream/2330/418/1/
A44_03.pdf

Knapp

59

Revitalizing Fishing Villages Through Sightseeing Fisheries in Japan
Yasuji Tamaki
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science
Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku
Yokohama, 236-8648, Japan
tamakiy at affrc.go.jp

Keywords: sightseeing fisheries, marine tourism
Abstract

In Japan, the use of beach seining, set netting, gill netting, small-scale trawling, and the use of basket nets
or pots are major types of sightseeing fisheries. Aquaculture also promotes exchange between urban andfishing villages. This paper introduces a case study in Japan and discusses the role that sightseeing fisheries
serve in the revitalization of fishing villages.
Sightseeing fisheries can be divided into three categories according to participation. First is on an individual basis. This type includes trips that do not use fishing boats, but collect shellfish and seaweed; trips
offered for fishery experience using small boats; and trips that provide individuals with omnibus-styleboarding on large ships to experience large-scale set net operations. The second category is families andsmall groups. This type operates small-scale trawl nets and small-scale set net fishing on a charter basis inwhich the customer keeps all that is caught and uses ships that can accommodate a fair number of people.
The final category is large groups. Its main operational areas are those that require large numbers of participants, like beach seining; those that do not use ships, such as barrier net fishery; and large-scale set net
fishery operations on a charter basis.
The individual category is the cheapest and is often provided free to overnight guests as a courtesy. For
families and small groups, the price will be at the same level as for a day’s income from fishing or higher,
since the catch is given away to the customers. The large group category carries the highest overall charge,
since it requires manpower, but when recalculated on a per-person basis it turns out to be comparably inexpensive.
Sightseeing fisheries can bring in larger incomes for shorter operating hours and smaller landings thancommercial fishing. This lowers the risk of overfishing and the consequent depletion of marine resources.
In addition, it lightens the workload of the workers. It can also have an overall effect on the local economy
by increasing sales of alcohol and other beverages. This type of project can also have a promotional effecton consumers by encouraging them to consume more fish. One of the goals of a sightseeing fisheries business is to educate the consumers about how the fish and shellfish we consume daily are caught.

Introduction

Fisheries in Japan are now faced with serious problems such as declining profitability, decreasing
numbers of fishermen and an increasing proportionof aged fishermen. In 2003 the number of workers incoastal fisheries had declined by 12% over a periodof five years, falling nearly 200,500. The Fisheries
Agency predicted that the number will fall to 117,000
in 2017 (Figure 1). Forty-six percent of male fishermen were aged 60 or older in 2003 (Figure 2).

than fishing have been made by fishery cooperatives
and fishermen. This paper is intended to outline
revitalization programs taken in those fishing communities through sightseeing fisheries and to evaluate the outcome from those programs. The results
are based on an interview investigation in the fishingcommunities, by examining documents, and a searchof the Internet.

Given the serious situation, in order to revitalize
fishing communities, diverse efforts in fields other

Revitalization of fishing communities through the development of sightseeing fisheries can benefit through60

Results

TamakiFigure 1. Change and prediction of number of coastal fishermen.
Source: Fishery Census (MAFF 2005) and Production structure and the management prospects of fishery (Fisheries Agency 2007).

in the industry while requiring shorter operating
hours and smaller landings. This lowers the riskof overfishing and depletion of marine resources,
while lightening the workload of the workers. It canalso have an overall effect on the local economy byincreasing sales of alcohol and other beverages. This
type of project can also have a promotional effect on
consumers by encouraging them to consume more
fish. One of the goals of a sightseeing business is to
educate the consumers about how the fish and shellfish we consume daily are caught.
Table 1 shows the number of municipalities engaged
in sightseeing fisheries. Two hundred municipalities are engaged in shore seine fisheries, while set
nets are second with 97 municipalities. Aquacultureis the third with 73 municipalities. Gill netting andsmall scale trawling come next. Figure 3 shows the

Table 1. Number of municiplaities engaged in fisheries experience(revised Tamaki 2007a).
Figure 2. Change of the male fishermen ratio over 60 years old.
Source: Fishery Census (MAFF 2005).

a direct economic effect from user fees and fromvisitor expenditures not directly related to fisheries.
Another advantage is to help city dwellers to better understand fishing and fishing villages. The two
economic effects can be classified as facility-oriented
measures and activities without specific facilities(revised Tamaki 1996).
Facility-oriented measures contain management ofmarinas and yacht harbors, inns and private guest
houses, direct sale outlets for fishery products, seafood restaurants, fishing cages (fishing ponds) andrafts, glass boats, and fisheries processing experiences. Activities without specific facilities include
guides for recreational fishing, guides for recreational clam digging, diving services, whale and dolphin
watching, and sightseeing associated with commercial fisheries and aquaculture.
In this paper, I focus on sightseeing. There are many
economic impacts associated with this activity.
Sightseeing in relation to fisheries and aquaculture can bring in larger incomes for those involved

Tamaki

Fishing method
Shore seine fishery
Set net fishery
Aquaculture
Gill net fishery
Small scale trawl fishery
Shellfish and seaweed collection*
Barrier net fishery
Cage fishery
Squid fishery
Octopus pot fishery
Longline fishery
Sea bream surrounding seine fishery
Dip net fishery
Seine fishery
Drift net fishery
OthersNo. of municipalities
200
97
73
52
36
29
22
20
18
15
8
8
7
4
4
23

*Excluding recreational clam digging(revised Tamaki 2007a)

Figure 3. The ratio of number of participants in sightseeing
fishery programs in Japan (revised Tamaki 2007a).

61

ratio of the number of participants in sightseeing
fishery programs. The shore seine fisheries lead with
58%, followed by barrier nets at 13% and small scale
trawling at 10%.
Shore Seining—This type of fishery is rarely economically viable as a fishery business in Japan, so it
is usually operated solely as a tourist attraction. It is
not classified as a recreational guide boat business inJapan. If there is a beach, all that is needed are a net
and a boat for placing it. Wild catches continue tofall, so expenditures for purchasing fish to put into
the net have become a necessity. Of the 23 locations I
visited for interviews, only two were operating theirshore seining activity on a commercial basis. Two
were catching wild fish, so they did not need to purchase fish, while the remaining 19 were all puttingpurchased live fish (mainly cultured red sea-bream)
into the net. The operation fee of each ranged from
¥35,000–300,000. Nets were usually purchased using
subsidies from the local prefecture and municipalities. Some seiners offered up to 50 to 60 events per
year, while 60% of those offered fewer than 10.
There are two types of shore seine fisheries. Thosenear large cities have customers that are day-trippers, with most coming from local elementary andjunior high schools. Thus, there is no problem associated with a shore seining fishery being the only fishing experience available. The second type is foundon isolated islands where the bulk of the participants
are overnight guests on junior high and high school
excursions. In the case of isolated islands, it is necessary to combine various other options in addition to
shore seining.
Set Net Fisheries—There are a number of set net
fisheries that have provided sightseeing opportunities. With respect to large-scale set net fisheries,
the visitor pays a fixed rate per person and boards
the fishing boat or a different boat and watches thewhole fishing process from close at hand. In somelocations, a gift of fish or a light meal after the tour
is included in the cost. In Hokkaido, sightseeing of
salmon set nets is carried out. Almost all salmon are
hatchery-produced and then released. Since a largescale set net fishery can expect large landings, earnings from offering a fishing experience are marginalcompared to those from sales of fish. However, if thecatch is huge, having customers on board walking
around can become a burden. Moreover, due to theauction times at fish markets and the side businesses

62of set net fishery operators, the nets are landed earlyin the morning, making it difficult for customers
to take part unless they are staying overnight. The
number of annual participants varies greatly due tothese constraints. According to Matsuura (2002), of
the 30 interviewed municipalities that were offering a set net sightseeing experience, the maximum
number of customers was 700 and the minimum wasaround 10. There were only 8 municipalities that had
more than 100 customers.
The second type of set net fisheries is small in scale.
In that case the boat is chartered on a per-boat basis
and the customer usually takes back everything thatis caught.
Gill netting—Gill netting activities can often be
viewed by tourists free of charge. The presence of alarge number of tourist lodgings offering this type ofexperience can be explained, presumably, by the factthat the gill nets are usually set up in the afternoon
and landed in the early morning, making it possible
to have the fishery located adjacent to the lodgings.
Moreover, setting up and releasing fish from the net
are easily managed fishing experiences.
Small-Scale Trawling—This type of sightseeing
fishery occurs in 36 municipalities, 80% of which are
distribute in the Seto-Inland Sea and other placesin the bay area (Tamaki 2003). In the Seto-InlandSea, kuruma prawns, swimming crabs and flounder
fingerlings are stocked. Customers prefer these highvalue species. Trawlers sail in the morning, operate
until noon, return to port and then provide lunch
either on board or at a resting place on shore. They
usually allow the customers to take home all thefishes caught during the operation. Some small-scale
trawlers offer recreational fishing as part of the package. To cope with unexpected low catches during
the tour and for meal preparations, in some areas
the fishermen sail out prior to boarding customers
and catch fish in advance, while some others holdthe catch from the previous day. In most areas offering small scale trawling for sightseers, the fishery
was operated with only one fisherman, while infour towns it was operated by a husband and wife
team. The busiest time for most municipalities wasfrom June to September, and about half did not offersightseeing opportunities during the winter season
when the sea was likely to get rough. Those offering
an all-year-round service had fewer customers during the winter season. The typical price ranged fromTamaki¥50,000–60,000 for a fixed number of participants,
with an extra charge for each additional person. Average cost per customer was about ¥6,000.

lunch of cuttlefish on the beach after the fisheryexperience. A tourist-oriented octopus pot fishery is
also available.

As a public relations campaign, invitations were sentout to the media so the opening ceremony could
be broadcast, handouts were distributed in urban
areas within the prefecture and cooperation with
tourist associations and municipalities was sought.
As for school excursions and field trips for juniorhigh schools, some fishermen pursued the businessaggressively, while others distanced themselves
for fear that it might be too dangerous for children
and that they did not have enough ships to handle
everyone who might be interested. However, when
they did accept children, they usually charged half
the normal price, made only one trawl and retained
the catch.
There are some conditions that need to be met forsuccessful sightseeing in conjunction with a small
scale trawl fishery:

Categories of Visitors Partaking of Sightseeing
Fisheries—There are three categories associatedwith those involved in sightseeing fisheries: individuals, families and small groups, and large groups.
Individual opportunities for sightseeing include
trips that do not use fishing boats but collect shellfish and seaweed, trips offered by tourist lodging
facilities for experiences using small boats and trips
that provide individuals with omnibus-style boarding on large ships to experience large-scale set net
operations. Families and small groups can be accommodated by small-scale trawl and set net fisheries ona charter basis, in which the customer keeps all thatis caught and uses ships that can handle a fair number of people. Finally, for large groups, the main opportunities are shore seine fisheries and others that
do not use ships, such as barrier net fisheries andlarge-scale set net operations using charter boats.

1. Landing yield per day during the height of the
tourist season from June through October isunder ¥40,000–50,000 .
2. Fishing grounds should be in the inland sea
or inner bay area where waves tend to remain
moderate, even in rough weather.
3. There should be a facility for taking telephoneinquiries and reservations during the season.
4. Fishing trips can be operated when demand ishigh on both weekends and holidays.
The fishery operator should have the necessary
customer relation skills to deal with customers.
5. Parking spaces should be available near theport, since customers usually come by car sothey can take home their catch.
6. The fishing locations should be easily accessible
from large cities.

Basket and Pot Fisheries—These types of fisheries
do not harm the captured species, so unlike gill nets
fisheries, the catch can be left inside the apparatus
with the expectation that it will be alive when thenets or pots are raised. On Kamagari Island off thecoast of Hiroshima Prefecture, the local tourist lodgings put up about 100 customers per day, mainly
during the weekends in May and June, to experience
cuttlefish cage fishing. The fishery offers tourists
the experience of catching broad-mantle squid andgolden cuttlefish that come to spawn on the twigs set
in the cage. Sightseers are charged ¥5,000 for adults
and ¥3,500 for children and are offered a full course

TamakiAquaculture—Sightseeing in association with aquaculture can involve:• Watching feeding (fish)• Observing a culture operation (bivalves, seaweed)• Observing cultured creatures suspended in thesea (bivalves, seaweed)• Watching the insertion of a nucleus in pearl
oysters

Aquaculture facilities are often owner operated andmanaged. For example, an oyster owner may purchase ropes that have oyster spat attached to them,hang the ropes and harvest the oysters when theyreach market size. In the case of pearl oysters, theowner may insert nuclei in pearl oysters, allow themto grow and then recover the pearls that are formed.
Table 2 shows the number of fishery districts thathave sightseeing aquaculture and aquaculture activities along with the number of owner-managementsites. Oysters are the most common species involvedin both activities.
Other examples of relationships between urban andfishing communities include small restaurants thatserve grilled cultured oysters in Kagawa, Okayama,
Fukuoka, Saga, Nagasaki and Miyagi prefectures. In
Mie and Hyougo prefectures, fishermen provide cul-63

Table 2. The number of fishery districts that carry out sightseeing
aquaculture and number of owner -management sites.

Species
OysterScallop
Sea mustard
Sea bream
Yellowtail
Sea squart
Tuna
Laver seaweed
Nemacystus algae
Pearl
Kelp
Tiger puffer
Amberjack
AbaloneBlack lockfish
Kuruma prawn
Other fish

Sightseeing
aquaculture

Owner sites

12
9
7
6
4
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
5

16
2
5
1
1
0
0
0
0
7
4
1
0
2
1
1
0

tured fish to stock cages and fish ponds. In Ishikawa
prefecture, oyster culture rafts are provided for sport
fishing. In Shimane Prefecture, a fishery cooperative
takes anglers aboard recreational fishing boats to thewaters near their aquaculture grounds. In freshwater, fishery cooperatives release cultured fingerlings
for sport fishing (revised Tamaki 2007).

If the sightseeing fishery is located on an isolatedisland, luring ordinary visitors by making the fisheryexperience the key attraction is not likely to succeed; therefore, it is recommended that programs
should be developed that can be offered along withother tourist attractions, to devise programs tailoredto school excursion needs and to prepare backup
plans, such as food preparation and cooking experiences that can be conducted indoors in case of bad
weather.
Those interested in developing sightseeing fisheries should be careful not to rely too heavily on
the efforts of particular groups or members of thegroup. Work on a volunteer basis does not last long.
Hard workers should be paid. Making good use of
subsidies and grants may be necessary, but carefulconsideration should be paid so as not to overinvest.
Starting with a small initial investment and enlarging it as the business develops is the most prudent
way to proceed.
With regard to marketing, there are a few questions
that should be addressed:• How far can our market reach?
• When and whom should we target?
• What kinds of transportation will they use?
• What should be with respect to public relations?

Discussion

To be able to launch an urban-rural interchange project such as sightseeing fisheries it is first necessary
to identify the local resources. Questions to be asked
are:• What are our marine resources?
• What are our strengths compared to other areas?

The four most basic concepts for the utilization of
local resources are selling fisheries products, serving
seafood, showing fisheries activities, and providing an experience. Learning from successful cases isimportant; however, it takes more than mimicry to
succeed.
To develop prospective customers based on regional
characteristics, there should be fishing communities
located fairly close to highly populated areas. Most
visitors are day-trippers, so it may be useful to target
local elementary and junior high schools.

64

References

Matsuura, T. 2002. Relation between characteristic offixed shore net fishing village and formation condition for sightseeing fixed shore net, Bull. Fish. Res.
Agen. 5:55–67. [In Japanese.]
Tamaki, Y. 1996. Revitalization of fishing communities in Japan, reconciling pressures on the coastalzone fisheries and aquaculture, Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development, pp.
85–97.
Tamaki, Y. 2007. Direct payment system to promote the appropriate management of aquaculture
grounds, Bull. Fish. Res. Agen. 19:131–141.

TamakiAnnotated Bibliography of Key Works

Tamaki, Y. 2003. Evaluation of the fishing village
activation effect by a fishing ground creation and urban interchange. Bull. Fish. Res. Agen. No. 8:22–111[In Japanese].

In recent years, the number of guests for an experience fishery has decreased due to a depressed
economy. On the other hand, the number of schoolsthat provide a fishery experience as a general learning activity has increased.

The author did a chief ingredient analysis using six
indices related to economic performance and six indices related to fishery performance. As a result, twochief ingredient scores to represent the vitality of thefisheries and economic vitality were calculated. Using these scores, Japanese coastal municipalities are
divided into five types.
As one of the regional activation methods, fishingground creation through artificial reef establishment should be widely enforced. The author did an
example analysis of an artificial reef. Fishermen in
the example develop a resources management plan
spontaneously and restrict the fishing season andfishing method with this example of establishing an
artificial reef. It became obvious that this approach
would lead to effective utilization of an artificial
reef. In the analysis, the establishment of an artificial
floating reef brought about a direct effect by increasing catch quantity and revealed many indirect
effects such as an increase in profits of a fisheries
cooperative association, oil reduction by fishermen,
operating hour reduction, and extension of the fishing season. The result, establishment of a floating
artificial reef returned 2~5.6-times the cost neededfor establishment and maintenance.
In isolated islands, fisheries play a large part in aregional economy. While bottom fish resources decrease, collection of migratory fish through establishment of an artificial floating reef is valid as a regional
activation measure.
A fishing village has various valuable regional
resources that don’t exist in a city. The author did astatistical analysis and questionnaire survey analysis
about the ability of a fishermen’s inn to become anucleus of an interchange between the fishing community and a large city. The number of people andmenu that a single inn can provide is limited. However, the inn can meet various other needs of urban
residents by using the fishing village as a whole andthe tourist opportunities provided therein. Further,
the author analyzed fishing village opportunities inrelation to local fishing methods.

Tamaki65

Technologies to Bridge the Gap Between Fisheries and Aquaculture
Clifford A. Goudey
C.A. Goudey & Associates
21 Marlboro Street
Newburyport, MA 01950
cliffgoudey at gmail.com

Abstract

The conflicts between fisheries and aquaculture range from mere perceptions to legitimate issues. This
paper discusses and dismisses many of the traditional arguments against aquaculture that seem toemanate from the wild-harvest sector. A basis for overcoming the remaining issues is presented using
offshore aquaculture technologies that provide a logical basis for cross-sector cooperation.

Introduction

In many cases, the growth of aquaculture is perceived to be at the expense of traditional fisheries
and as a result, conflicts have arisen between these
two sectors of the seafood industry. Opposition fromfishermen has come in spite of explicit attempts
to involve them in new aquaculture projects andthrough retraining programs.

Conflicts—Real or Imagined?

Fisheries/aquaculture conflicts come in many forms
with some being real and some merely constructsof those opposed to aquaculture for other reasons.
Much has been made of the concern over price andmarket competition. There may have been a day
when this was a legitimate issue. However, nearly
all seafood markets are driven by global market
prices and the growth of local aquaculture would
have little direct effect on local prices. Indeed,
there is good reason for fish farmers to focus on
supplying product at low points in the cyclic supplyof wild-caught fish in order to fetch a better price.
In doing so, the farmed product maintains market
opportunity that would be at risk of dwindlingunder an uneven supply scenario.
Environmental concerns are often cited as reason
for opposing aquaculture. In particular, the use of
forage fish, the risks of escapes, and habitat impacts
seem to be a common theme within these arguments. However, most forage fisheries are managed
and their abundance is heavily dependent on environmental variables and natural cycles rather thanpressure from industrial fisheries. In addition, theimpacts from escapes have little evidence to support
the idea of escaped fish ever displacing or interbreeding with a local stock. Other than the econom-66

ic loss to the fish farmer and a sudden boost in local
angling, these risks remain conjecture.
Discharges from aquaculture operations can cause
localized impacts, as with most human activities,
fishing included. However, these effects are very
limited in area and generally confined to the seabeddirectly beneath a net-pen operation. Furthermore,
the measurable impacts rapidly diminish once theoperation ceases or the site is allowed to fallow.
Site selection is an important part of keeping these
impacts at an acceptable level and in general, higherenergy sites are preferable.
The competition for space is more imagined thanreal. The space required of aquaculture is small,
representing less that one percent of the area needed
to produce the same amount of fish within a wild
system. In addition, since most wild fish migrate,
an area rendered unfishable due to the presence ofan aquaculture operation is of little consequence.
Indeed, biological monitoring activities undertaken
in compliance with aquaculture permit requirements
almost universally report an increase in the abundance and diversity of wild fish as a result of theplacement of the culture operation. This is especiallytrue in oceanic waters where the nutrient stream
from the cultured biomass is assimilated by the local
ecosystem and results in a productivity boost across
many trophic levels.
The competition for workers may represent a realbasis for conflict, but less so for the fishing crew andmore so for boat owners and the leaders of commercial fishing organizations. The former would prefer
not to lose skilled workers to a competing seafood

Goudeysector. Industry spokespersons always seem to oppose anything that might reduce their constituency.
The growth of the aquaculture sector, even though
it presents a new and motivated voice for caring forour oceans, might be viewed as a diminishment of
the political or economic clout currently enjoyed bycommercial and recreational fishing sectors.

Offshore fish farming can require sporadic but longand multiple days away from home–something fishermen are used to. Fishermen are not risk averse, a
trait essential in aquaculture. What are needed torealize the potential synergies are technologies thatutilize fishing assets and operational paradigms that
exploit fishermen’s skills and their work ethic.

So in general, there is little basis for the opposition
to aquaculture that is often attributed to the fishingindustry. The explanation for the notion may berooted in the early introduction of forms of aquaculture that failed to present attractive opportunities forfishermen. Land-based and sheltered-water aquaculture can take little advantage of fishermen knowledge of the sea and presents a mismatch of skills.
Furthermore, these near-shore operations cannot
make economical use of their existing investments inoperational assets such as vessels.

Another example of offshore fish farming technology
is the Aquapod, a spherical sea cage. The geodesic
design provides a cost-effective culture volume overa range of cage sizes from 115 to 11,000 m3. Figure 2
is a photo of a 3,600 m3 Aquapod being assembled inSouth Korea.

The Fishing/Aquaculture Nexus

By factoring fishermen’s existing skill sets andextant capital investments into the aquaculture
conversation, not only can we reduce the conflicts
between these sectors, but we can also provide
benefit to both sectors from a synergy that provides
stronger seafood markets and more viable businessventures.
Offshore aquaculture requires navigation,
seamanship, rigging, net mending, and gear
deployment and retrieval skills – all essential tosuccess at high-energy aquaculture operations.
Figure 1 shows an example of fish farming
technology suitable for an open-ocean setting.

The deployment, towing, placement, and integrationof such a cage in an ocean setting demands many of
the skills that are also pre-requisites for fish farming.
Offshore aquaculture, more than any other form, offers business opportunities for fishermen. Not only
can fishermen provide essential logistics support
for such operations, but they can also be pivotal insite selection, environmental data collection, facility
installation, and environmental monitoring. Fishermen can also identify species opportunities andprovide insight on seasonality, pricing trends, assist
in marketing, and perform broodstock collection.
The emerging concept of mobile cage operations
may present a compelling opportunity for fishermen
to get directly involved in fish farm ownership andoperation. The far-flung nature of these operations
will require mobility and a level of regional ocean
knowledge that is held by few besides fishermen. An
operational paradigm that would especially benefit
from fishermen involvement is mobile, high-seas
operations.

Figure 1. (Left) A typicaloffshore array of submersible cages–SeaStations from
OceanSpar, Bainbridge Island,
WA. The photo at right is asurfaced 6400 m3 cage.

Goudey67

Figure 2. A 3600 m3 Aquapod™ duringassembly.

During sea trials of this system in Culebra, Puerto
Rico, speeds in excess of 0.25 m per sec were obtained with a power of only 10.4 kW.
Opportunities for such types of operation exist globally, wherever oceanic currents provide the conveyer
from source to market. Figure 4 shows an excellent
example of this, where the Caribbean current provides a ready path from the Windward Islands to
Miami.

Re-purposing Trawlers

Consider the plight of overcapitalized fisheries–one
example being the shrimp trawling fleet in Ecuador. On Sept. 11, 2009, Fish Info & Services Co. Ltd.
published a story titled, “Final countdown for trawl
fishing.” In the story we read, “Shrimp trawl fishingfleet will gradually disappear from Ecuadorian waters in a span of three years, announced the Subsecretariat of Fisheries Resources (SRP).
“The primary target of this measure is to protect
the future of bioaquatic resources in the zone where
those vessels operate, explained the head of the SRP,
Guillermo Moran.

Figure 3. A self-propelled Aquapod™
during sea trials.

“What the national government is looking for isthe application of ordinance policies that guarantee
responsible fishing and respect for the species andtheir habitats, the official contended.
“In addition, the executive branch plans on funding
the scrapping of the fleet, investing USD 40 million
in fishing gear, purchasing vessels and re-training,among other things, he indicated.

Figure 4. Oceanic currents present trade routes for mobile fish
farming.

The concept of self-propelled, mobile sea cages wasdemonstrated recently in a NOAA-sponsored project. Pictured in Figure 3, a 3,250 m3 Aquapod was
outfitted with a pair of 2.4-m diameter thrusters.

68

Later in the story we read, “The state will buy the
trawl fishing vessels and sink them,” Moran disclosed (see Figure 5). This scenario is being playedout in other fisheries and in other countries resulting
in huge social costs and a squandering of tangible
resources. It would be far better to use these fishingassets in other more sustainable activities, such as
offshore aquaculture.
The re-use of such fishing trawlers as aquaculture
service vessels is simple enough to conceptualize but
required the right grow-out systems and the proper
incentives. For example, utilizing small to modest
size cages (200–500 m3) and low-volume, high-density culture methods, a strong case can be made.

GoudeyFigure 5.
A typical
Ecuadoriantrawler.

Figure 6 shows a cluster of recently assembled andlaunched Aquapods in Panama. There are two sizes
in the figure: one 225-m3 cage in the foreground andtwo 115-m3 cages in the background.

Figure 6. Micopods™ in Panama.

These cages offer both a convenient size and a levelof robustness that enables whole-cage harvesting,eliminating one of the most vexing problems in cage
based fish farming, that of partial harvest.
In Figures 7 a–c, the concept of the repurposing of a
trawler to handle such cages is portrayed.

Conclusions

The key to reducing fisheries/aquaculture conflicts
is to bring fishermen into the aquaculture sector sothey can directly profit from it. This will be possible
if that form of aquaculture values their knowledge
and skills and allows them to utilize their investment in operational assets.
Through the use of existing and emerging offshore
aquaculture technologies, we can unite the sectors
and demonstrate that seafood production can beramped up, providing high-quality protein to theworld’s population and offering solid economic opportunities to both fishermen and fish farmers andthe coastal communities that depend on them.

Figure 7a. The Aquapod is secured to a robust A-frame using thefive bridles from its single-point mooring.

Figure 7b. Tight to the A-frame, the cage is pivoted over thedeck of the service vessel.

Figure 7c. Secured over the deck, the stock is emptied into thehold, the cage is pressure washed, re-stocked, and re-deployed.

Goudey69

References

OceanSpar website. Online at http://www.
oceanspar.com
Loverich, G.F., K.T. Swanson and C.A. Goudey. 1997.
Anchorable mobile spar and ring fish pen. U.S. Patent 5,617,813.
Goudey, C.A. et al. 2007. Automation of Aquapodrotation for harvest and maintenance. Caribbean &Latin American Aquaculture. Nov. 8, San Juan.
Ocean Farm Technologies website. Online at
http://oceanfarmtech.com
Goudey, C.A. 1998. Model tests and operational optimization of a self-propelled open-ocean fish farm.
Proceedings Offshore Technologies for Aquaculture,
A. Biran. Haifa, ed. Israel.
Goudey, C.A. 2009. Innovation in high-seas aquaculture using mobile cages. Accenture Innovation
Forum 2009, 24 January, Frankfurt, Germany.
University of Miami website. Online at
http://oceancurrents.rsmas.miami.edu/caribbean
Fish Info & Services Co. Ltd website. Online at
http://fis.com/fis/worldnews/worldnews.
asp?l=e&ndb=1&id=33786
Schmittou, H.R., M.C. Cremer, and J. Zhang. 2004.
Principles and practices of high density fish culture
in low volume cages. Online at
http://www.soyaqua.org/asaimusbtech/lvhdcagemanual/prefacetoc.pdf

70

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Goudey, C.A. 1998. Model tests and operational optimization of a self-propelled open-ocean fish farm.
Proceedings Offshore Technologies for Aquaculture,
A. Biran. Haifa, ed. Israel.

This paper describes scale-model tests of a self-propelled sea cage conducted at the U.S. Navy’s David
Taylor Model Basin. Test results include cage speed
vs. power and drifting behavior vs. sea state. Performance predictions are discussed including maneuverability and the energy implications of intermittent powering in predictable ocean currents.
Smolowitz, R., C.A. Goudey, S. Hendriksen, E.
Welch, K. Riaf, P. Hoaglund, H. Kite-Powell, and D.
Leavitt. 1998. Sea scallop enhancing and sustainable harvesting, the seastead project. Report from
Westport Scalloping Corp. to NOAA Award No.
66FD0027.

This report presents the findings of a two-year project aimed at evaluating the idea of sea scallop culture in an offshore setting. The SeaStead project was
conducted in a 9 square mile area south of Martha’s
Vineyard, Massachusetts. It became the first commercial aquaculture operation in U.S. federal waters. Culture experiments included suspended cage
culture, bottom cage culture, and bottom seeding.
The growth results and economic potentials of eachmethod are compared. The project was responsible
for the identification of large scallop sets in the New
England groundfish closed areas, which resulted in
the development of rotational management schemes
for that fishery.

GoudreyA Comparison of Salmon Hatchery Programs in Alaska and Japan
William R. HeardNOAA/NMFS Alaska Fisheries Science Center
Auke Bay Laboratories
17109 Pt. Lena Loop Road
Juneau, Alaska 99801
bill.heard at noaa.gov

Keywords: salmon hatcheries, fisheries, Japan, Alaska
Abstract

Japan and Alaska have two of the largest and most developed Pacific Rim salmon Oncorhynchus spp.
hatchery programs. These programs vary considerably in complexity with diverse objectives and operational procedures but still have many similarities. Alaska’s modern salmon hatchery system started in
the 1970s and grew out of depressed fisheries that reached record low harvest levels. At the same time acentury old Japanese salmon hatchery system was undergoing dramatic improvements in performancewith record high marine survivals of young salmon, increased releases of up to 2 billion juveniles per
year, and returns of adult chum salmon ranging from 40 to 60 million fish annually. These impressive
results caught the attention of emerging Alaska salmon hatcheries, consequently, considerable Japanese
influence is found within the Alaska salmon hatchery system. Similarities between the two systems involve hatcheries operated by private fishermen groups where salmon catches are taxed under a user-pay
system to help defray cost of hatchery operations. Both systems focus on pink or chum salmon production and utilize extensive short-term rearing of fry to improve marine survival.
Important exchanges between Japanese and Alaska scientists, fishermen, and industry helped forge someof these similarities in the two hatchery programs. There also are differences between salmon fisheries
in the two countries. Commercial salmon fisheries in Japan are largely dependent on hatcheries while
Alaska fisheries depend on a careful balance between wild and hatchery production.

Introduction

Japan and Alaska have two highly successful hatchery programs for Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp.
These two programs while varying considerably incomplexity with diverse objectives and operational
procedures still have many similarities in common.
This report briefly examines certain aspects of thesesystems with a focus on the similarities along withsome of the differences between hatchery programs
and salmon fisheries in the two countries.
Similarities in the two systems include primary operation of hatcheries by groups of fishermen, prefectural fisherman cooperatives in Japan (Nasaka 1988)
and regional aquaculture associations in Alaska(McGee 2004). In both countries commercial salmon
catches are taxed under a use-pay system to help defray the cost of operating hatcheries. A large portionof salmon hatchery production in both countries isfocused on pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and chum(O. keta) salmon and both countries utilize various
methods for short-term rearing of fry of these spe-

Heardcies to improve marine survival. In Japan additional
hatchery programs involves cherry (O. masu) salmon
and a limited amount of sockeye (O. nerka) salmon
hatchery production. In Alaska additional hatcheryproduction is focused on sockeye, coho (O. kisutch)
and Chinook (O. tshawytscha) salmon.
While there are many similarities between hatchery programs and commercial salmon fisheries inJapan and Alaska, there also are significant differences. Japan’s salmon fisheries are largely dependent on hatchery production. Many wild or native
populations in Japan have been severely reduced
or eliminated with weirs across the stream mouth(for collecting hatchery brood) and widespread egg
transplants between hatcheries and fry plants indifferent streams. More recently, however, Japanesescientists have begun programs to reestablish self–
perpetuating natural runs of salmon and to reexamine potential roles of natural production in some rivers (Kaeriyama and Urawa 1992, Morita et al. 2006,
Miyakoshi et al. 2009).

71

In contrast Alaska’s salmon production is based ona structured balance between wild and hatchery production with a priority focus given to protecting andmaintaining wild stocks (Heard et al. 1995, Homes
and Bukett 1996, Heard 2003, McGee 2004, Smoker
and Heard 2007). Many Alaska hatcheries are located on non-anadromous streams or water sources andegg transfers are limited to local hatcheries within
a limited region where brood stocks originate fromwild stocks in the same region.
Most commercial fisheries for pink or chum salmon
in Japan utilize coastal trap nets operated by prefectural cooperatives while Alaska fisheries utilize
a wide variety of commercial gear types including
drift gill nets, set gill nets, purse seines, troll, and ina few instances fish wheels on large rivers.

Hatcheries in Japan and Alaska

Japanese salmon hatcheries have had a long history
with a significant milestone occurring with development of the national Chitose Salmon Hatchery on
a tributary of the Ishikari River in Hokkaido in thelate 1880s (Moberly and Lium 1977, Kobayashi 1980,
Kaeriyama 1989). Over much of the next century,
many private and a few public hatcheries were builton Hokkaido with lesser numbers being built on
northern Honshu. During much of this period, especially between 1900 and 1970, the average number ofadult chum salmon returning to Japan remained atabout 3 million fish per year (Kobayashi 1980, Kaeriyama and Urawa 1992).
Beginning in the 1970s, however, average return
rates of released juvenile chum salmon in Hokkaido
began increasing significantly from around 1 percent or less to more than 2 percent. This increase inreturn rates was occurring concomitantly with rapid
increases in the numbers of juvenile chum salmon
released from hatcheries throughout Japan. A consequence of these developments is that by the 1980s
and continuing to the present, Japanese salmon
hatcheries have been highly successful in releasing around 2 billion juveniles per year with annual
harvest of adult chum salmon reaching 40 million to
60 million fish (Kaeriyama and Urawa 1992, NPAFC
2008).
According to Nasaka (1988) there were 148 salmon
hatcheries on Hokkaido and 165 hatcheries on Honshu in 1986. The hatcheries on Honshu were all operated by private fisheries cooperatives while those on

72

Hokkaido were a mixture of national government,
prefectural government, and private hatcheries.
More recently Morita et al. (2006) reported there
were 16 national, three prefectural, and 117 private
hatcheries on Hokkaido.
Alaska also has a long history of salmon hatcheries,
beginning in the late 1800s. Many of these early day
Alaska hatcheries ceased to operate by the 1930s forlack of funding support or from failure to successfully demonstrate their effectiveness. The early Alaska
hatcheries focused mostly on sockeye salmon that
required a more complex freshwater biology thanpink or chum salmon. A detailed account (Roppel
1982) reviews many of the political and philosophical issues associated with Alaska salmon hatcheries
during this early period.
Modern Alaska hatcheries began in the 1970s after
salmon harvest reached record low levels. A program created by the Alaska State Legislature in 1971
was intended to rehabilitate depleted salmon fisheries and indirectly help rebuild depressed runs bytaking some fishing pressure off of wild stocks. The
Alaska hatchery program was not designed to rehabilitate depressed wild stocks of salmon by supplementing or integrating wild runs with hatchery fish.
A new division within the Alaska Department ofFish and Game (ADF&G), the Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement, and Development (FRED) Division, was charged with developing new hatcheries
within a coordinated salmon enhancement program
designed to protect wild salmon stocks. To accomplish this lofty goal, policies were put in place that
required a rigorous review of potential hatcheries that considered genetics, pathology, location ofhatcheries relative to adjacent wild stocks, use of
local brood stocks, marking of hatchery fish, and research on basic problems that might limit sound development of hatcheries (Meyers et al. 1988, Davis etal. 1989, Homes and Bukett 1996, McGee 2004).
Additional legislation also authorized the concept ofprivate-non profit (PNP) hatcheries and the formation of regional aquaculture associations. Overthe next several years a large hatchery program
emerged in Alaska consisting primarily of state and
PNP hatcheries, although one federal hatchery is
located on the Annette Island Reserve and anotherexperimental federal hatchery is located at a NOAA
Fisheries Marine Station. Initially ADF&G operatedHeard

a number of state hatcheries that have since been
contracted to be run by regional aquaculture associations.
Presently there are five active regional aquaculture
associations in Alaska operating salmon hatcheries.
These include two in the Southeast Alaska region,
one each in the Prince William Sound, Cook Inlet
and Kodiak regions. Collectively these associations
operate 17 hatcheries including several former state
hatcheries now under contract to the associations.
Not all PNP hatcheries are required to be part ofregional associations. Alaska statutes allow for individuals or small corporations to build and operatehatcheries at specified sites with production levels
that are carefully reviewed and approved throughdetailed regional planning processes with oversightby ADF&G. There are 11 non-association hatcheries
in the southeast region, the largest is Douglas Island
Pink and Chum (DIPAC) that operates 3 of these
11 hatcheries. There are two non-association PNP
hatcheries in other regions plus an ADF&G hatcherycomplex in the Cook Inlet region. Collectively there
are 31 active production salmon hatcheries in Alaska
under ADF&G oversight (White 2009).
Since development of the modern salmon hatchery
program in Alaska, beginning in 1988 commercial
landings of salmon have ranged from 100 million
to 221 million fish per year with an average annual
harvest of 165 million salmon. Because of the welldeveloped hatchery marking and fishery harvest reporting system, fishery managers in Alaska are able
to separate the proportion of the commercial catchfrom hatchery and wild origins (White 2008). Overthe past 21 years the proportion of hatchery-origin
fish in the total Alaska commercial salmon catch has
ranged from around 15 percent to almost 40 percent(Figure 1).

Japanese Influence on Alaska Hatcheries

The coincidental timing of two important factors hada significant influence on salmon hatchery development in Alaska. These two factors include the sharp
and sudden improvement in return rates of juvenile
chum salmon released from Japanese hatcheriesoccurring at the same time Alaska was beginning todevelop its own hatchery program. The successes ofJapanese hatcheries, including impressive returnsof chum salmon, caught the attention of Alaskans
charged with planning and developing policy for

Heard

Figure 1. Total number of commercially caught Alaska wild andhatchery salmon and ex-vessel value of catch, 1988–2008.

hatcheries. Several important visits and exchanges
between Japanese and Alaska scientist and policy
people, including some through auspices of U.S.
Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources,
occurred during this period.
One visit occurred in the spring of 1976 when an
ADF&G biologist and engineer visited 15 hatcherieson Hokkaido and 5 on Honshu, taking notes on all
biological aspects, engineering specifics, and equipment used in each hatchery (Moberly and Lium1977). Another visit occurred in 1982 when four
Alaskans under auspices of then Gov. Jay Hammond’s Fishery Council attended the 11th UJNR
Meeting on Salmon Enhancement. The four Alaskans
included the Governor’s chief of staff, a commercial
fisherman, and two fishery scientists. They participated in the two-day UJNR Symposium in Tokyo,
then a 7-day UJNR field trip that involved 18 visits
to different hatcheries, other facilities, or specificgroups on Hokkaido and Honshu.
From 1992–1994 another ADF&G scientist spentparts of 3 years in Japan learning the language whileworking and visiting at several Hokkaido salmon
hatcheries and fishery offices. He documented
details of these visits that included many informal
discussions with staff from federal, prefectural, local
cooperatives, trading companies, processors, andacademic institutions. This dedicated effort successfully provided Alaska with a broad generalized
understanding and appreciation of Japanese salmon
hatchery programs and commercial salmon fisheries.
In 1993 the 22nd UJNR annual meeting was held
in Alaska. The program included a 10-day agenda

73Discussion

with plenary sessions and symposia in Homer and
Seward along with field trips to hatcheries andother fisheries facilities in the Southcentral part ofthe state. Theme of the symposium, Interactions
Between Cultured Species and Natural Occurring
Species in the Environment, along with field trip
visits to facilities, provided both U. S. and Japaneseparticipants with the opportunity to hear and see
first hand many of the key issues, both positive andnegative, about Alaska’s salmon hatcheries and enhancement programs. There were many exchanges
and viewpoints discussed about similarities anddifferences between Japanese and Alaska hatcherysystems during this meeting.

Over the past three decades the annual numbersof juvenile salmon originating from hatcheries thatare released into North Pacific Rim waters haveincreased significantly. The estimated numbers of
released juveniles increased from 2.3 billion in 1976
(McNeil 1979) to 4.4 billion in 1985 (McNeil 1988).
Heard (1995) estimated the number had increased to
5.5 billion by 1992 and recommended the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC) initiate
protocols to provide annual documented updates ofthese releases. The NPAFC Secretariat now provides
estimates of juveniles released in reports of its annual meetings. In 2008 estimated releases of juvenile
salmon was 5.1 billion with roughly 70% originatingfrom hatcheries in Japan and Alaska (Table 1).
In 2007 the commercial catch of salmon around theTable 1. 2008 Pacific Rim hatchery releases of salmon fry and smolts1

Sockeye

Pink

Chum

Coho

Chinook

CherryTOTALCanada219.66

2.15

81.64

10.62

37.56

—

371.58

Japan

0.37

141.81

1,890.49

—

—

13.72

2,046.39

Korea

—

—

16.55

—

—

0.02

16.57

Russia10.30

401.03598.33

4.99

0.78

1.63

927.06

US(Alaska)(WOCI2)

66.12
60.40
5.27

823.33822.800.53

603.61567.50
36.11

67.24
24.70
42.54

198.41
11.40
187.01———

1,758.71
1,486.80
271.91

TOTAL

296.491,388.32

3,100.61

82.84

236.7515.37

5,120.30

1 From NPAFC, 2009

2 Washington, Oregon, California, and Idaho

Table 2. 2007 Pacific Rim commercial salmon catch in tons1

Sockeye

Pink

Chum

Coho

Chinook

CherryTOTALCanada1,760

11,197

4,861

812

1,324

—

19,954Japan

1

21,380198,260

16

45

1,133

220,835

Korea

—

—

146

—

—

—

146

Russia30,082259,829

54,272

3,711

801

11

348,706

US(Alaska)(WOCI2)

126,800
126,800—

228,993
228,9911

59,201
59,201—

11,290
11,130
161

5,000
3,916
1,084

—
—
—

431,283
430,038
1,246

TOTAL

158,642

521,399

316,740

15,829

7,169

1,144

1,020,923

1 From NPAFC, 2008

2 Washington, Oregon, California, and Idaho

74

Heard

Pacific Rim exceeded 1 million tons for the first timein history (Table 2). The catch from Alaska and Japanaccounted for two-thirds of this amount. In Japan
90% of the harvest was chum salmon, presumably
originating from hatcheries, while chum salmon represented only 14% of the total Alaska salmon harvest
in 2007 with 67% of this amount originating fromhatcheries. In 2007 pink salmon represented 53% byweight of the total commercial Alaska catch, with
43% of this amount originating from hatcheries.
Nasaka (1988) indicated Japanese programs emphasize collecting eggs from the early portion of runs
while the skin color of hatchery chum salmon remains silver bright. Salmon derived from these eggs
tend to return early producing bright fish which are
preferred by consumers, therefore, variable market
demands for different qualities of hatchery salmon
can influence hatchery practices and policies. Morerecent anecdotal reports suggest many late run
mature (darker) Japanese chum salmon are sold toChina for economic consideration along with theincreased Japanese preference for bright early run
fish. For the most part Alaska hatcheries attempt
to maintain the run timing of their brood stocks bycollecting eggs proportionally from throughout thereturning runs.
Regarding consumer preferences and economics
related to either hatchery or wild salmon fisheries,
many factors can influence market demand. Kaeyriyama and Urawa (1992) reported on instability inmarkets relating to oversupply and lower quality ofchum salmon causing prices to drop by more than
20% in one year. The ex-vessel value of commerciallycaught Alaska salmon over the past 2 decades
has fluctuated greatly with little or no correlation
between the amount of salmon caught and the resulting value of the catch. A sharp decline in valueof the Alaska salmon catch beginning in 1989 andcontinuing through 2002 occurred during periods
when catches averaged 169 million salmon per year
(Figure 1).

hatchery salmon ever year since 2000 and shows no
indication of slowing down.
Undoubtedly this trend in farmed salmon production will continue to influence hatchery practices
and programs in both Japan and Alaska together
with other important issues, including ocean carrying capacity for salmon and concern over potential
detrimental interactions between hatchery and wild
stocks.

Figure 2. Total world supplies of farmed salmon and salmoncaught in wild capture fisheries, 1985–2007.

Although many factors can influence the economic
viability of salmon fisheries, and indirectly hatchery programs in both Japan and Alaska, none likely
are more significant than worldwide productionof farmed salmon. Farmed salmon production has
steadily increased since mid-1980s, reaching 1.5 million tons in 2007 (Figure 2). Farmed salmon production has exceeded capture fisheries for wild and

Heard

75

References

Davis, B., B. Allee, D. Amend, B.Bachen, B. Davidson, T. Gharrett, S. Marshall, and A. Wertheimer.
1985. Alaska Department of Fish and Game genetic
policy. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement andDevelopment, Special Report. Juneau.
Heard, W. R. 2003. Alaska salmon enhancement: A
successful program for hatchery and wild stocks,
p. 149–169. Y. Nakamura, J. P. McVey, S. Fox, K.
Churchill, C. Neidig, and K. Leber (eds.), Ecology of
aquaculture species and enhancement of stocks, Proceedings of the 30th U. S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel,
3-4 December 2001. Florida Sea Grant TP-128, Mote
Marine Lab, Sarasota, FL.
Heard, W. R. 1995. An estimate of total 1992 hatcheryreleases of juvenile salmon, by country, into watersof the North Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas. (North
Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Doc. 154.)
Auke Bay Fisheries Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA, 11305 Glacier Highway, Juneau,
99801.
Heard, W. R., R. Burkett, F. Thrower, and S. McGee.
1995. A review of Chinook salmon resources inSoutheast Alaska and development of an enhancement program designed for minimal hatchery-wildstock interaction. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Symp.15:21–37.
Homes, R. A., and R. D. Burlett. 1996. Salmon stewardship: Alaska’s perspective. Fisheries 21:36–38.
Kaeriyama, M. 1989. Aspects of salmon ranching inJapan. Physiol. Ecol. Japan, Spec. Vol. 1:625–638.
Kaeriyama, M., and S. Urawa. 1992 . Future researchby the Hokkaido Salmon Hatchery for the proper
maintenance of Japanese salmonid stocks. In Y.
Ishida, K. Nagasawa, D. Welch. K. W. Meyers, and
A. Shershnev (eds.), Proceedings of the international
workshop on future research in the North Pacific
Ocean. p. 57–62. Spec. Pub. Nat. Res. Ins. Far Seas
Fish. 20. Shimizu Japan.
Kobayashi, T. 1980. Salmon propagation in Japan.
J.E. Thorpe (ed.). Salmon ranching, p. 91–107. Academic Press; London.

76

McGee, S. 2004. Salmon hatcheries in Alaska—Plans,permits, and policies designed to provide protection
for wild stocks. Am. Fish. Soc. Symposium 44:317–
331.
Mc Neil, W. J. 1979. Review of transplantation andartificial recruitment of anadromous species. 547–
554. TVR. Pillay and W.A. Dill, (eds.). Advances in
Aquaculture, FAO, Fishing News Books Ltd., Farnhanm, England.
Mc Neil, W. J. 1988. Afterward. W. J. McNeil, (ed.).
Salmon production, management, and allocationbiological, economic, and policy issues. p. 187–188.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
Meyers, T., P. Krasnowski, D. Amend, B. Bachen,J, Cochran, K. Kauck, K. Rawson, and R. Saft. 1988.
Regulation changes, policies, and guidelines for
Alaska fish and shellfish health and disease control.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division ofFisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement and Development, Special Report. Juneau.
Miyakoshi, Y, H. Urabe, and M. Nagata. 2009. Current status of naturally spawning chum salmon populations in the Hidaka region, Hokkaido, northern
Japan. Poster presented at the State of The Salmon
Conference, 2–5 February 2009, Vancouver, B.C.
Moberly, S. A., and R. Lium. 1977. Japan salmon
hatchery review. Alaska Department of Fish andGame, Division of Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement, and Development. Juneau.
Morita, K., T. Saito, Y. Miyakoshi, M. Fukuwaka, T.
Nagasawa, and M. Kaeriyama. 2006. A review ofPacific salmon hatchery programmes on Hokkaido
Island, Japan. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 63:1353–1363.
Nasaka, Y. 1988. Salmonid programs and public policyin Japan. W. J. McNeil (ed.) Salmon production,
management, and allocation—biological, economic,
and policy issues. p. 35031. Oregon State University
Press; Corvallis.
NPAFC (North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission) 2009. Records of the 17th Annual Meeting 2–6
November 2009 in Niigata, Japan. Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada.

Heard

NPAFC (North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission) 2008. Records of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting,
17–21 November in Seattle, WA. Vancouver, B.C.
Canada.
Roppel, P. 1982. Alaska’s salmon hatcheries, 1981–
1959. Alaska Historical Commission Studies in History No. 20.
White, B. 2009. Alaska salmon enhancement program 2008 annual report. Alaska Department of Fish
and Game Fisheries Management Rep. 09-08. Division of Sport Fish, Research and Technical Services,
333 Raspberry Road, Anchorage, 99518.
White, B. 2008. Alaska salmon enhancement program 2007 annual report. Alaska Department of Fish
and Game Fisheries Management Rep. 08-03. Division of Sport Fish, Research and Technical Services,
333 Raspberry Road, Anchorage, Alaska 99518.
Smoker, W. W., and W. R. Heard. 2007. Productivityof Alaska’s salmon hatchery ocean ranching program and management of biological risks to wild Pacific salmon. T. M. Bert (ed.), Ecological and genetic
implications of aquaculture activities. Kluwer Academic Publications, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Annotated Biblography of Key Works

Kaeriyama, M. 1989. Aspects of salmon ranching inJapan. Physiol. Ecol. Japan, Spec. Vol. 1. 625–638.

The author reviews the origins and history of thedevelopment of Japan’s current salmon hatchery
program and the fisheries that harvest these fish.
The first large scale salmon hatchery system in Japanbegan in 1888 when the national Chitose Central
Salmon Hatchery was established on a tributaryof the Ishikari River in Hokkaido. After this manyother hatcheries were built and the numbers of juvenile chum salmon released increased significantly.
From the late 1800s to 1970s annual catches of chumsalmon in Japan ranged from 1 to 5 million and averaged about 3 million fish. Since 1971 annual catches
have increased exponentially to 30 million fish as aresult of increased hatchery efficiency and new technology combined with intensive scientific research.
The key factor in this dramatic change in success of
the Japan’s salmon hatcheries was development of apost-emergent fry feeding program whereby fingerlings are fed in hatcheries to a size greater than 5 cm
in fork length and allowed to migrate seaward when
sea temperatures and salinities are favorable for
rapid growth to a post-fingerling stage. The author
carefully reviews migration and release patterns ofjuvenile chum salmon along with the return rates
for numbers of adult returns for different regions of
Hokkaido and Honshu. Size and timing for optimal
juvenile releases varies according to different regions
associated with prevailing sea conditions in eachregion.
Kaeriyama, M., and S. Urawa. 1992. Future researchby the Hokkaido Salmon Hatchery for the proper
maintenance of Japanese salmonid stocks. Y. Ishida,
Y. K. Nagasawa, D. Welch, K. W. Myers, and A.
Shershnev (eds.). Proceedings of the International
Workshop on Future Salmon Research in the North
Pacific Ocean. pp. 57–62. Special Pub. Nat. Res. Inst.
Far. Seas Fisheries. 20. Shimizu, Japan.

These authors review how the dramatic successes
in hatchery technologies have caused exponential
increases in Japanese chum salmon stocks in recent
decades. However, these successes in the Japanesesalmonid enhancement program have raised newquestions including density-dependent effects on decrease in body size of chum salmon, dependence on
intensive hatchery production of chum salmon withloss of wild or native populations, and economics

Heard

77

of lower prices paid to fishermen due to increased
supplies of salmon in markets. Japanese consumers
expect a high quality product such as fatty chumsalmon (bright, early run fish), and because of lower
quality (darker, late run fish) price of returning
chum salmon dropped by more than 20% in one
year. Many native chum salmon populations in Japan have been eliminated by the extensive hatchery
program caused, in part, by egg transplants between
hatcheries. Other effects include changes in run
timing and reduction in genetic variability due toartificial selection in hatcheries. The authors propose
a number of new research strategies for Japan andelsewhere to begin addressing these problems.
McGee, S. 2004. Salmon hatcheries in Alaska–Plans,permits, and policies designed to provide protection
for wild stocks. Am. Fish. Soc. Symposium 44:317–
331.

The author provides a detailed overview of development of modern salmon hatcheries in Alaska thatbegan in the 1970s to rehabilitate depleted salmon
fisheries. This program was designed to protect
Alaska’s wild salmon stocks through a rigorous permitting process that considers genetics, pathology,
management reviews, policies with priorities given
to wild stocks, requiring hatcheries to be locatedaway from significant wild stocks, use of local broodstocks, requirements for marking hatchery fish, andstudies on hatchery-wild stock interactions. The author reviews specific Alaska statutes and regulations
that provide oversight for these hatcheries. Detailsof the planning and permitting process are reviewedthat includes steps taken to determine production
limits by species for individual hatcheries. The
program is comprised of state, federal, and private
non-profit (PNP) hatcheries with most hatcheries
operated by PNP regional aquaculture associations.
In 2002 hatcheries accounted for 22% of the salmon
harvested commercially in Alaska. Alaska hatcheries
produce approximately 1.5 billion juvenile salmon
annually, the majority of which are pink and chumsalmon. Potential impacts of hatchery salmon on
wild salmon stocks is a contentious and debated issues in Alaska. Interaction between hatchery salmon
and relatively smaller populations of wild salmon
are unavoidable, however, obvious adverse impacts
from hatcheries on wild salmon are not evident.

78

White, B. 2009. Alaska salmon enhancement program 2008 annual report. Alaska Dept. Fish andGame, Fishery Management Rep. 09-08. Divisionof Sport Fish, Research and Technical Services, 333
Raspberry Road, Anchorage, 99518. 47 p.

This document summarizes results of the 2008
salmon enhancement program in Alaska. A total of
39 tables and 4 figures cover details of egg takes, released juveniles, and total returns attributed to each
Alaska hatchery and enhancement project in 2008.
The data provided includes adult salmon caught byspecies in common property and cost recovery fisheries along with brood stock numbers and escapements for each of the four major hatchery regionsin the state (Southeast, Prince William Sound, Cook
Inlet, Kodiak). In 2008 1.4 billion juvenile salmon
were released from Alaska hatcheries, mostly pink
and chum salmon. There were 133 million salmoncaught in the common property commercial fisheryand an estimated 45 million or 34 % were producedby the salmon enhancement program. Enhanced
salmon provided an estimated $110 million or 29%of the exvessel value of the commercial common
property harvest. PNP hatcheries recover theiroperational cost from a special harvest of returning
adult fish called a cost recovery harvest. This salmon
enhancement program (ocean ranching of salmon)
employs hundreds of Alaskans in seasonal and fulltime employment and is the largest agriculturalindustry in Alaska.

Heard

Stock Enhancement Programs of a Fisheries Cooperativeon a Brackish Lake in Japan
Satoshi Katayama
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science
Nagai, Yokosuka
Kanagawa 238-0316, Japanskata at affrc.go.jp

Keywords: Brackish clam, pond smelt, glassfish, Lake Ogawara
Abstract

Lake Ogawara is a brackish water lake located on the Pacific side of northernmost Honshu, Japan thatcovers an area of 63.3 km2. The northern section of the lake is connected to the Pacific Ocean by a 6 kmlong river, through which sea water is brought into the lake by tidal flow, making the lake somewhat
salty, 0.8–1.0 ppt. Harvest of pond smelt, (Hypomesus nipponensis), glassfish, (Salangichthys microdon),and the brackish clam, (Corbicula japonica), between 2002 and 2006 averaged 445, 420, and 2,156 tons per
year, respectively.
Active stock enhancement has been conducted for the clam. Because the clam requires brackish water atthe egg and the larval stages, the juveniles are distributed exclusively in the north part of the lake. A fisheries cooperative on the lake intensively carries out transplantation of the clam from the nursery ground(north) to the productive fishing ground (south).
For stock enhancement of the fishes, the fisheries cooperative employs two strategies based on intensive
ecological surveys. One is the closed season for fishing during the spawning seasons, and another is lakepreserves in the spawning areas. The latter is particularly important because the fish spawning grounds
overlap the fishing ground for clam digging.
Environmental characteristics of the lake are related to life histories of the species, for example, oligosaline conditions are essential for ontogenetic development of the clam. Parts of the populations of pond
smelt and glassfish display anadromous migrations through the out-flowing river, and a part of the pond
smelt population spawns in the inflowing river. Fishermen have strong consciousness of the environments not only of the lake, but also adjacent areas. The cooperative leads local administration in environmental protection of the lake. Introductions from other habitats have not been carried out. The cooperative, however, maintains high fisheries production through efficient fisheries management.

Introduction

The objectives of fisheries management are to
maximize yield and maintain a minimum spawning stock. Because fishing efforts tend to increase
through competition among fishermen, the cooperation of fishermen is essential to conduct fisheries
management and implement regulations. Also, suchstock enhancement actions as hatchery-releases,transplantation, and conservation of fishing andnursery grounds need the cooperation of fishermen.
This paper introduces several strategies of fisheries
management by fishermen and a fisheries cooperative association on a brackish lake in Japan.

Katayama

Lake Ogawara

Lake Ogawara is a brackish water lake located on
the Pacific side of northernmost Honshu, Japan, andcovers an area of 63.3 km2 (Figure 1). The northern
section of the lake is connected to the Pacific Ocean
by a 6 km-long river. Sea water enters the lake bytidal flow, making the lake somewhat salty, 0.8–1.0
ppt throughout the year. The chemocline lies at 15 m,
separating the circulation between surface and deep
layers (Kawasaki and Ito 1995). The occurrence ofoxygen depleted water in the deep layer has becomea serious problem in recent years.

79Brackish clam
Figure 1. Map showing thelocation of Lake Ogawara.

This clam inhabits estuaries and brackish lakes. It
is widely distributed in Sakhalin, the Korean peninsula, and the Japanese Archipelago. This clam
hatches around June, grows to 15 mm shell length,
and matures in two or three years. Commercial
harvest by digging rose remarkably in 1970s (Figure2) due to increased fishing effort. Harvest stabilized
at more than 3,000 tons until mid-1990s. Since then it
has fluctuated and has now declined to around 2,000
tons.
A stock enhancement strategy has been employed
for the clam. It is known that oligosaline conditions
are essential for ontogenetic development of thelarval stages. After settlement, it needs low salinity
for eutrophic conditions to grow. The juveniles are
distributed exclusively in the salty north part of thelake, because the clam requires brackish water atthe egg and the larval stages. Otherwise, the clam
rapidly grows in the south part of the lake where it
is eutrophic, providing high biological productivity
for growth of the clams.

Only one fisheries cooperative regulates the work of
about 400 fishermen. Average harvests of the brackish clam, (Corbicula japonica); pond smelt, (Hypomesus
nipponensis); and glassfish, (Salangichthys microdon),between 2002 and 2006 were 2,046, 445, and 420 metric tons a year, respectively. The production of fisheries resources in Lake Ogawara accounts for a highproportion of each of the species named, in Japan.

Figure 2. Change in fisheries catch (tons) of brackish clam Corbicula japonica in Lake Ogawara.
Data: Fishery statistics of Japan, Statistics and Information Department, Ministry ofAgr. Fore. and Fish., Japan.

80

The fisheries cooperative on the lake has intensively
carried out transplantation of young clams fromthe nursery ground (north) to the fishing ground(south). The transplantation contributed to the maintenance of high fisheries production until the mid1990s. The catch then declined due to deteriorationof the limnological conditions.

Pond smelt and glassfish

The pond smelt is a euryhaline fish that inhabits
fresh, brackish, and coastal waters throughout theJapanese archipelago (Hamada 1961, Saruwatari etal. 1997). The phenotypic plasticity of pond smelt
is the major driving force in the highly successful
artificial propagation of the species in the JapaneseArchipelago. Eyed eggs have been transplanted into
numerous lakes, ponds, and reservoirs throughout
Japan, but Lake Ogawara has never received egg
transplantation from other areas.
Glassfish inhabit waters of various salinities from theJapanese Archipelago to Sakhalin, Pusan to Vladivostok (Uyeno and Aizaki 1984.). The species is anannual fish with a small, slender, translucent body
approximately 10 cm long. Egg transplantation has
been carried out due to its fragility.

KatayamaFisheries for pond smelt and glassfish are conducted
mainly with purse seines. Commercial catches ofthem had increased until early 1980s. After the mid1980s, the catches fluctuated synchronously in relation to the limnological conditions. Significant drops
in production occurred during some years (Figure 3).
To develop strategies for management of the fisheries, I worked with the cooperative and examined
the relationship between life history and the lake
environment. We analyzed migration patterns using
the strontium calcium ratio in otoliths (Katayama etal. 2000, 2008). Typical Sr/Ca ratio profiles from thecore to the edge of otoltith are shown in Figure 4.
The profiles are constructed in relation to back-calculated standard body length. A high ratio means thatthe fish lived in the saline environment. For both
species, there were two patterns; the first is stable
at a low level for the entire time series, indicating a
resident form. The second displays a dramatic increase and maintains that high level. That was called
the anadromous form. I detected the evidence ofcoexistence of residence and anadromy of pond smelt
and glassfish within Lake Ogawara through otolith
analyses. Based on these results, we recommend a
secure means of the migration for the fish between thelake and the sea.
The fishermen and I worked together to find thespawning grounds of the fishes (Katayama 2001,
Sakaki et al. 2008). We discovered their adhesive
eggs on the surface of gravel in the shallow water
areas (Figure 5). The spawning grounds of pond
smelt were found not only in the lake but also in the
inflowing river. We told the fisheries cooperative
about the river spawning grounds and asked themnot to exploit the river.
The spawning grounds of pond smelt and glassfish
in the shallow water areas in the lake overlappedwith the clam fishing ground. The fisheries cooperative coordinated a discussion among the fishermen,
set a closed season for digging clams during the fish
spawning, and established preserves of the spawning areas.

Current problems

In recent years the catches of clams, pond smelt andglassfish have become unstable and decreased suddenly. This phenomenon could be affected by the
spread of oxygen-depleted water and the exceedingly eutrophic conditions.

Katayama

Figure 3. Change in fisheries catches (tons) of pond smelt (Hypomesus nipponensis), and glassfish (Salangichthys microdon) in
Lake Ogawara.
Data: Fishery statistics of Japan, Statistics and Information Department, Ministry ofAgr. Fore. and Fish., Japan.

Figure 4. Sr/Ca ratio profiles from otoliths of pond smelt andglass fish.

Figure 5.
Egg distributionsof pond smelt(triangles) andglass fish (circles)in and around
Lake Ogawara.

81

The fishermen have a strong environmental ethic
associated with the lake and adjacent areas. The cooperative leads the way in environmental protectionof the lake and sets the agenda for environmental
preservation of fisheries in Lake Ogawara. Members
examine data on water quality and water budget,
assess the environmental conditions, and discuss
further management strategies.
All the programs mentioned above are based on
actions of the fishermen and the cooperative. It is
fortunate that one cooperative regulates the entire
fisheries that are undertaken in the lake. Beside that,stable income from stable catches induce support for
fisheries management. Introductions of animals fromother habitats have not been carried out. Fisheries
management of the lake is conducted with guidancefrom fisheries scientists.

References

Hamada, K. 1961. Taxonomic and ecological studiesof the genus Hypomesus of Japan. Memories of theFaculty of Fisheries Hokkaido University. 9:1–56.
Katayama, S., R.L. Radtke, M. Omori, and D.S. Shafer. 2000. Coexistence of anadromous and resident
life history styles of pond smelt, Hypomesus nipponensis, in Lake Ogawara, Japan, as determined byanalyses of otolith structure and strontium:calcium
ratios. Env. Biol. Fishes. 582:195–201.
Katayama, S. 2001. Spawning grounds and reproductive traits of anadromous and resident pond
smelt, Hypomesus nipponensis, in Lake Ogawara,
Japan. Fish. Sci. 67:401–407.
Katayama, S., M. Sakaki, A. Tsurugasaki, and K.
Numabe. 2008. Anadromous migrants Shirauo Salangichthys microdon, in Lake Ogawara, as determinedby otolith microchemistry analysis. Aquaculture Sci.
56:121–126.
Kawasaki, T., and K. Ito. 1995. Conservation of theenvironment and intervention by man–a case studyon Lake Ogawara. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Conservation and Management of Lakes, Kasumigaura, p. 196–198.
Sakaki, M., S. Katayama, A. Tsurugasaki, and K.
Numabe. 2008. Spawning ground of Shirauo Salangichthys microdon, in Lake Ogawara, Northern Honshu, Japan. Aquaculture Sci. 56:139–140.
Saruwatari, T., J.A. López, and T.W. Pietsch. 1997. A
revision of osmerid genus Hypomesus Gill (Teleostei:
Salmoniforms), with the description of a new species
from the southern Kurill Islands. Species Diversity.
2:59–82.
Uyeno T., and M. Aizaki. 1984. Salangichthys microdon. H. Masuda, K. Amaoka, C. Araga, T. Uyeno,
and T. Yoshino (eds.), In The fishes of the JapaneseArchipelago. p. 34. Tokai University Press, Tokyo.

82

Katayama

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Katayama, S., R.L. Radtke, M. Omori, and D.S. Shafer. 2000. Coexistence of anadromous and resident
life history styles of pond smelt, Hypomesus nipponensis, in Lake Ogawara, Japan, as determined byanalyses of otolith structure and strontium:calcium
ratios. Env. Biol. Fishes, 58(2):195–201.

Anadromous and resident forms of pond smelt,(Hypomesus nipponensis), were found to occur insympatry in Lake Ogawara, Japan. Profiles of Sr/Ca
ratios from individuals could be grouped to two patterns (1) a ‘resident’ pattern with low Sr/Ca ratiosfrom core to edge and (2) an ‘anadromous’ patternwith relatively low Sr/Ca ratios near the core withabrupt increases in ratios at a location approximately
0.3 mm from the core. Spawners smaller than 60 mm
standard length (SL) were resident, between 60 to
80 mm were mixed resident and anadromous, andlarger than 80 mm were anadromous. Anadromous
individuals first migrated after 40 to 82 days fromhatching (mean ± sd, 59.1 ± 13.5 d) and 14.6 to 30.9mm SL (22.2 ± 5.3 mm). There was no difference in
SL between resident and anadromous individuals
during age at first migration, suggesting that size
may not be the mechanism for divergence of alternative life history styles.
Katayama, S. 2001. Spawning grounds and reproductive traits of anadromous and resident pond
smelt, (Hypomesus nipponensis), in Lake Ogawara,
Japan. Fish. Sci. 67(3):401–407.

The objective of this study was to reveal the spawning grounds and reproductive characteristics ofanadromous and resident pond smelt, (Hypomesus
nipponensis), coexisting in Lake Ogawara. Life history styles of females shedding in spawning grounds
in the lake and its inflowing rivers were differentiated by otolith increment analysis. Size, dry weight,
and water content of mature oocytes and fecundityof fish were compared between resident and anadromous fish. Both anadromous and resident fish
spawned in the lake. In contrast, no resident fish
were found in any of the inflowing rivers, where
only anadromous fish spawned. Regression of fecundity against standard length was discontinuous withan inflection point at 63.8 mm, which is the bodysize that differentiates large anadromous spawninggroups from small resident spawning groups. Mean
oocyte diameters were not significantly different
between resident and anadromous fish. The eggs of

Katayama

resident fish had significantly more water content
and a significantly lower dry weight than those ofanadromous fish. These differences might influence
the growth and developmental processes of progeny.
Katayama, S., M. Sakaki, A. Tsurugasaki, and K.
Numabe. 2008. Anadromous migrants shirauo(Salangichthys microdon), in Lake Ogawara, as determined by otolith microchemistry analysis. Aquaculture Sci. 56(1):121–126.
To reveal the life history pattern of shirauo, (Salangichthys microdon), in Lake Ogawara, we examined
otolith Sr/Ca ratios in individuals from Lake Ogawara (n = 12) and its tributary, the Takase River (n= 6). Sr/Ca ratios were observed in two types ofpatterns: a resident pattern with low Sr/Ca ratio
from core to edge, and an anadromous pattern withabrupt increases in Sr/Ca ratio. Back-calculated
total lengths at the time of seaward migrations ofanadromous individuals were 63.4mm–67.7mm for
5 specimens from the river, and 36.8mm-63.8mm
for 3 from the lake. These findings suggest there isa wide variation in life history for shirauo, and that
residents and anadromous migrants live together inthe lake.

Sakaki, M., S. Katayama, A. Tsurugasaki, and K.
Numabe. 2008. Spawning ground of shirauo (Salangichthys microdon), in Lake Ogawara, Northern Honshu, Japan. Aquaculture Sci. 56 (1):139–140.
Spawning grounds of shirauo (Salangichthys microdon) were found in Lake Ogawara through an intensive survey of the distribution of eggs laid on the
sandy bottom. Based on the presence and status of
the sampled eggs, it was estimated that the shirauo
spawned in shallow (≈ 1 m) water depths from midMay to late June. By identifying important spawningareas, our results provide valuable information forprotection of the spawning stock.

83

Komaru, A., K. Onouchi, Y. Yanase, T. Narita, andT. Otake, 2009. Shell strontium/calcium ratios ofCorbicula japonica collected from brackish area withdifferent salinity. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 75(3):443–450.

To establish a method to estimate habitat salinity ofbrackish clams (Corbicula spp.), we examined thestrontium (Sr) to calcium (Ca) ratios of C. japonica
collected from lakes with different salinity and thatof a freshwater species C. leana with an electronprobe micro analyzer (EPMA). Sr/Ca ratios in theshell of C. japonica from Lake Ogawara, Aomori Pref.
(salinity: 0.2–1.7 psu), Lake Shinji. Shimane Pref.
(3.3–15.2 psu), Lake Jinzai, Shimane Pref. (7.5–32psu), IN River, Gifu and fresh water species C. leana
from Hatahoko River, Iki Island, Fukuoka Pref. C.
japonica collected from high salinity lakes showed
high shell Sr/Ca ratios: 8.06 ± 0.30 from Lake Jinzai
and 6.84 ± 0.21 from Lake Shinji, respectively. To thecontrary, C. japonica from low salinity Lake Ogawara and IN River showed low Sr/Ca ratios: 3.68 ±0.18 and 1.33 +/- 0.14, respectively. The fresh water
species C. leana also showed low Sr/Ca ratio (1.65± 0.11). Thus, habitat salinity of Corbicula species
can be roughly estimated by Sr/Ca analysis using
EPMA, and such information may be useful in thedetermination of place of origin.

84

Katayama

Enhancement of Texas Sciaenids (Red Drum and Spotted Seatrout)
Robert R. Vega
Texas Parks & Wildlife Department
4200 Smith School Road
Austin, TX 78744-3291
robert.vega at tpwd.state.tx.us
William H. Neill
Dept. Wildlife & Fisheries Sciences
Texas A&M University
2258 TAMUS
College Station, TX 77843-2258
John R. Gold
Center for Biosystematics and Biodiversity
Texas A&M University
2258 TAMUS
College Station, Texas 77843-2258
Michael S. Ray
Texas Parks & Wildlife Department
4200 Smith School Road
Austin, TX 78744-3291

ABSTRACT

Recreational fishing for two estuary-dependent sciaenids, the red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) andthe spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), is of vital importance to the economies of Texas coastal
communities. The Texas saltwater recreational fishery, with about 1.2 million fishermen, is presently
worth $2 billion per year; of that total economic value, the recreational fisheries for red drum and spotted
seatrout–the two major targeted species–are worth $350 million and $220 million, respectively.
In the 1970s, apparent abundance of red drum in Texas waters reached alarming lows. Stocking red
drum fingerlings to enhance the wild population was initiated in 1975, with a large-scale stocking program coming online in 1983. To date, more than 600 million red drum fingerlings have been hatcheryproduced and then released into Texas coastal bays. At least partly as a consequence of this enhancement
effort, the red drum bay population in Texas waters now has rebounded to near-record highs. Estimatesof the contribution made by stocked hatchery fish to total red drum numbers in Texas bays have ranged
from 0 to 30%. It is increasingly apparent that the efficacy of the stock enhancement program varies widely, both from year to year and from bay to bay. But, it is equally evident that overall, the Texas Parks &Wildlife Departments long-term management plan using hatcheries to supplement natural recruitment,in concert with traditional management tools, has played a crucial role in mitigating and countering thedecline of the red drum population.
During the past two decades, managers have had to implement increasingly restrictive fishing regulations for spotted seatrout, prompted by evidence of overfishing, including declines in mean size of fishcaught by anglers and also in estimated spawning stock biomass. Beginning in 1993, traditional management was complemented by the stocking of hatchery-reared juveniles. Since then, more than 1 million
spotted seatrout fingerlings per year have been stocked, with the cumulative total now exceeding 50
million. Currently, the spotted seatrout population is healthy along most of the Texas coast, with management concerns focusing on the middle coast. Evaluation of the success of the seatrout stocking program ison-going, with studies based on the application of genetic markers.

Vega, et al.

85

Fishery managers in Texas have taken the often controversial practice of stocking hatchery-produced fish
and used it to the apparent benefit of the red drum and spotted seatrout fisheries. In turn, organizationsof recreational fishermen have been staunch advocates of the enhancement program, providing not only
invaluable political support but also $4 million in direct contributions to operation of the program. The
utilization of stocking, combined with traditional management practices, has proven to be a powerfulcombination in managing Texas natural resources wisely. The objective of this article is to present an
overview of Texas’ marine stocking program as it has benefited multiple users and stakeholders, including anglers and coastal communities economically impacted by recreational fishing.

Introduction

Recreational fishing is a high-value business in the
United States, with a $125 billion impact on thenation’s annual economy (DOI 2008). Nearly 60
million anglers generate more than $45 billion inretail sales each year, and support the employment
for more than 1 million American workers. Gulf of
Mexico recreational fisheries generate $5.4 billion
annually in economic benefits. Recreational fishingadded 1,000 new jobs a year to the Texas economy
from 2001 to 2006 (DOI 2008). Despite the nation’s
recent economic troubles, recreational fishing has
continued to grow. In 2009 fishing license sales roseby 4.7 percent in 12 U.S. states (Florida, Indiana,
Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon,
Texas, and Utah) (Southwick Associates 2010). On
average, each angler spends $176 a year on fishingtackle and contributes more than $40 annually toconservation via license dollars and excise taxes.

The state’s natural resources conservation agency,
the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD),
has a stated mission to provide hunting, fishing, andoutdoor recreation opportunities for the use andenjoyment of present and future generations (TPWD
2010). The agency is funded primarily through hunting and fishing license sales, state park entrance
and camping fees, and a dedicated portion of thestate sporting goods sales tax. Hunting and fishinglicense sales have increased slightly in 2009, with a
total of about 1.9 million sold, despite a 5 percent
increase in their cost and a slumping economy. As
the state’s human population continues to grow, so
do pressures on natural resources and the demandsof the public to access those resources. One of theagency’s central challenges is to remain relevant intoday’s society where seemingly each new generation is more urbanized and further removed fromthe great outdoors (TPWD 2010).

The State of Texas ranks first nationally in numbersof outdoors-related expenditures and associatedjobs. Some 2.5 million hunters and anglers spend$3.2 billion annually and support 106,000 jobs in
Texas (DOI 2008). Saltwater recreational fishingfor two estuary-dependent sciaenids, the red drum
(Sciaenops ocellatus) and the spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), is extremely important to the local
resource-based economies of Texas coastal communities. The Texas saltwater recreational fishery,with about 1.2 million fishermen, is worth $2 billion
annually (Southwick Associates 2007); of that total
economic impact, the recreational fisheries for red
drum and spotted seatrout–the two major targeted
species–accounted for almost two-thirds of the morethan 15 million saltwater ‘fishing days’ by residents
and non-residents in 2006 (DOI 2008). Economically,
this translates into more than $530 million per year
in total expenditures (food, lodging, transportation,equipment, and other trip costs) for these two species.

Fishery managers in Texas have used stock enhancement in combination with traditional management
practices to manage Texas’ natural coastal resources
wisely. Texas’ marine stocking program has contributed to the recovery of Texas’ marine fisheries which
has benefited multiple users and stakeholders,
including anglers and coastal communities economically impacted by recreational fishing. In turn,organizations of recreational fishermen have beenstaunch advocates of the enhancement program,providing not only invaluable political support but
also $4 million in direct contributions to operation of
the program.

86

Texas’ Stock Enhancement Program

Matlock’s limited recruitment theory proposesthat stocking fish helps to stabilize recruitment
by supplementing weak natural year classes, thus
mitigating the typical marine scenario of highrecruitment in a few years and low recruitment
in most years (Matlock et al. 1986). If managers

Vega, et al.

could bypass the high mortality associated withlarval recruitment from the nearshore spawningareas into the bays and if subsequently prevailingenvironmental conditions were favorable forsurvival, then effective supplementation might
be achieved by stocking relatively few red drum
directly into estuaries.
TPWD initiated stock enhancement of red drum inthe 1980s in response to substantial declines in red
drum abundance and recruitment (Matlock 1984,
McEachron et al. 1995); today, the program releases
between 20 million and 30 million hatchery-raised
fingerlings annually into 8 different Texas bays andestuaries (Rutledge and Matlock 1986, McEachron
et al. 1998, Vega et al. 2003). Efforts to culture
spotted seatrout on a large-scale for the purposeof stock enhancement have been made by TPWD
marine fish hatcheries since 1993 (Vega et al. 2003).
TPWD routinely utilizes stock enhancement to assist
in maintaining natural populations impacted byincreased recreational fishing pressure (Vega et al.
2003).

Operation of Texas’ Marine Hatcheries

Complete details regarding production of hatcheryraised red drum at three TPWD marine fish
hatcheries and release of hatchery fish are describedin Colura et al. (1990) and Vega et al. (1995). Topics
include broodfish maintenance and spawning, egg
collection and incubation, and larval and juvenile
rearing strategies involving semi-intensive culture
methods. Briefly, the present hatchery system
consists of spawning and incubation facilities with39 ha of production ponds. Red drum broodfish
are maintained in 13,000 L circular tanks, inenvironmentally controlled rooms. Each spawning
tank contains 5 to 6 broodfish (3 females and 2 or 3
males) ranging in size from 8 to 18 kg; they are fed
shrimp, squid, mackerel, and beef liver. Twenty-five
percent of the broodfish are exchanged annuallywith wild fish to maintain genetic diversity.
Broodfish are subjected to a 150–day photoperiodtemperature maturation cycle (Arnold et al. 1977,
Roberts et al. 1978, McCarty 1990). Spawning occurs
at a water temperature of 24° to 27° C, salinity of
30–38 ppt with 11 hours of light per 24 hour day. On
average, 2 million eggs are collected each night fromMarch through November. Eggs are transferred
to 945-L incubators where they hatch within 24
hours. Within 36 to 40 hours post hatch, larvae havedeveloped mouthparts, distinct eye pigmentation,

Vega, et al.

and a complete digestive tract. These first-feedinglarvae average 2.7 mm total length.
Culture of spotted seatrout for the purpose of stockenhancement has been conducted by TPWD marine
fish hatcheries since 1993 (Vega et al. 2003). Spotted
seatrout are similar in nature to red drum, and arecultured using methodology patterned on thatdeveloped for red drum. The main difference isthat each 13,000 L circular spawning tank contains
15 to 20 broodfish (10 females). Spotted seatrout
broodfish are subjected to a 150-day photoperiodtemperature maturation cycle. Spawning occurs at
a water temperature of 22° to 26° C, salinity of 30–38
ppt with 11 hours of light per day.
Outdoor rearing ponds, filled 5 to 10 days earlier
with filtered seawater and fertilized, are stockedwith larvae when zooplankton densities reach 250
organisms per liter. A combination of chemical
inorganic and organic fertilizers applied to rearing
ponds produces a rapid phytoplankton bloom that
stimulates production of copepods, a primary foodfor larval red drum. Dissolved oxygen, salinity,
temperature, zooplankton densities, and fish growth
rates are routinely monitored. Larvae remain in theponds for 30 days or until they reach a target size of
30–35 mm total length. Once they reach target size,
ponds are drained, fish are harvested, and they aretransferred to mobile distribution tanks for transportand stocking into coastal waters. To date, 607
million red drum fingerlings and 57 million spotted
seatrout fingerlings have been hatchery-produced
and released into Texas coastal bays.

Contribution of Hatchery-Reared Fishes to
Wild Stock

The red drum bay population in Texas bays now has
rebounded to near-record highs at least partly as aconsequence of this enhancement effort (Fig.1). The
catch rate has remained relatively stable since 1993,
presumably reflecting in part the replenishment of
the offshore breeding population and a lack of any
significant environmental kills since the 1989 Texas
coastal freezes. Stocking was one of many actions
which may have aided in the recovery of the red
drum population and its specific role in the recovery
is undocumented Estimates of the contribution
made by stocked hatchery fish to total red drum
numbers in Texas bays have ranged from 0 to 30%(Matlock et al. 1984, Hammerschmidt 1986, Matlock
1990, McEachron et al. 1995, McEachron et al. 1998,

87

Conclusions

Figure 1. Gill net mean catch rate (catch/hour) of red drumcollected coastwide from Texas bays during 1975–2009.

Scharf 2000, Karlsson et al. 2008). It is increasingly
apparent that the efficacy of the stock enhancement
program varies widely in both time and spaceand may be related in part to season of release andtime of recapture. But, it is equally evident that
overall, TPWD’s long-term management plan using
hatcheries to supplement natural recruitment, inconcert with other management tools (e.g., banningnets, declaring red drum a gamefish, and traditional
regulatory changes), has played a crucial role inmitigating and countering the decline of the red
drum population. Genetics studies have been used
to complement other TPWD methods (long-termfishery independent monitoring) that have beenused to assess the stocking program (e.g., bag seine
and gill net sampling) via estimations of relative
abundances of sub-adults. Since 2004 genetic
markers such as microsatellite DNA have beenused to assess the contribution that hatchery-reared
red drum are making to the population. Results
to date confirm successful enhancement of red
drum in Texas waters, measured as the proportionof hatchery-released fish among fish sampled
at random from the wild. Karlsson et al. (2008)
describe a recent study where a total of 30 hatcheryreleased fish were identified among 321 red drum(> 1 year of age) gill net sampled from Galveston
Bay, while a total of 11 hatchery-released fish wereidentified among 970 red drum (> 1 year of age) gill
net sampled from Aransas Bay. The total proportionof fish of hatchery origin was 8.5% in Galveston
Bay and 1.1% in Aransas Bay. Additional genetics
analysis of stocking effectiveness is underway forother Texas bays. Evaluation of the success of theseatrout stocking program is on-going, with studies
based on the application of similar genetic markers.

88

Release of hatchery-raised juveniles into the wild
to augment exploited marine species has increased
substantially over the past few decades; in fact, such“stock enhancement” is a key strategy for restoring
depleted stocks of fish, worldwide (Blankenshipand Leber 1995, Munro and Bell 1997, Leber 2002,
Stickney and McVey 2002, Bell et al. 2006, Kitada
and Kishino 2006, Bell et al. 2008). TPWD fishery
managers have used several different techniques toassess the success of hatcheries in enhancing populations (Rutledge and Matlock 1986, McEachron et al.
1993, McEachron et al. 1995, McEachron et al. 1998,
Karlsson et al. 2008). The answer to the question ofhatchery success is very complex with many components to address. It has taken the TPWD nearly 30
years to reach the present stage in development of its
stocking and recovery program. To date, more than
600 million fingerlings have been stocked. Althoughcontroversial, fishery managers in Texas have used
the release of hatchery-raised fish to augment the
red drum and spotted seatrout fisheries. The innovative use of stocking, combined with traditional
management practices, has proven to be a powerfulcombination in managing Texas natural resources
wisely. Wild stocks of red drum have been enhanced
through stocking to provide improved fishing success. However, the degree of improvement depends
on such factors as the carrying capacity of each system, the number of wild fish present before stocking,fishing pressure, harvest restrictions, and climatic
events. TPWDs long-term management plan utilizing hatcheries and stocking to supplement natural
spawning has played a role in reversing the declineof the red drum population during the last three
decades, and serves as a tool to ensure that Texas’fishery resources are wisely managed, and thatthe quality of saltwater fishing in Texas which has
more than 1.6 million hectares of estuaries, bays andcoastal waters continues to contribute prominently
to the state’s economy.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Dr. Fernando Martinez-Andrade for creating the figure depicting red drum gill net catch rates.
We dedicate this article in memory of Lawrence W.
McEachron, a fisheries manager who championed
the practice of stock enhancement in Texas.

Vega, et al.

References

Arnold, C.R., W.H. Bailey, T.D. Williams, A. Johnson
and J.L. Lasswell. 1977. Laboratory
spawning and larval rearing of red drum and southern flounder. Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc.
Fish and Wild Agencies 31:347–440.
Bell, J.D., D.M. Bartley, K. Lorenzen, and N.R. Loneragan, 2006. Restocking and stockenhancement of coastal fisheries: Potential, problems, and progress. Fish. Res. 80:1-8.
Bell, J.D., K.M. Leber, H.L. Blankenship, N.R. Loneragan, and R. Masuda. 2008. A new era forrestocking, stock enhancement, and sea ranching ofcoastal fisheries resources. Rev. Fish. Sci.:
16:1-9.
Bert, T.M., C.R. Crawford, M.D. Tringali, S. Seyoum,
J.L. Galvin, M. Higham, and C. Lund.
2007. Genetic management of hatchery-based stockenhancement. T.M. Bert (ed.), Ecological and genetic
implications of aquaculture activities, p. 123–174.
Springer, The Netherlands.
Blankenship, H.L., and K.M. Leber.1995. A responsible approach to marine stock enhancement. H.L.
Schramm Jr. and R.G. Piper (eds.), Uses and effectsof cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems, p. 167–175.
American Fisheries Society, Symposium 15, Bethesda, Maryland, p. 167–175.
Colura, R.L., B.W. Bumguardner, A. Henderson-Arzapalo, and J.D. Gray. 1990. Culture of red drum
fingerlings. Management Data Series 22, Texas Parks
and Wildlife Dept., Coastal Fish. Div., Austin.
DOI (Department of the Interior) 2008. 2006 National
Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-AssociatedRecreation–Texas. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish
and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, andU.S. Census Bureau. Online at <http://www.census.
gov/prod/2008pubs/fhw06-tx.pdf>.
Hammerschmidt, P.C. 1986. Initial survival of red
drum fingerlings stocked in Texas bays during
1984-1985. Management Data Series No. 106, Texas
Parks and Wildlife Dept., Coastal Fish. Div., Austin.

Vega, et al.

Karlsson, S., E. Saillant, B.W. Bumguardner, R.R.
Vega, and J.R. Gold. 2008. Genetic identification ofhatchery released red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) in
Texas bays and estuaries. N. Am. J. Fish. Management 28:1294–1304.
Kitada, S. and H. Kishino, 2006. Lessons learned
from Japanese marine finfish stock enhancement
programmes. Fish. Res. 80:101–112.
Leber, K.M. 2002. Advances in marine stock enhancement: Shifting emphasis to theory and accountability. R.R. Stickney, and J.P. McVey (eds),
Responsible marine aquaculture, p. 79–90. CABI
Publishing, New York.
Matlock, G.C., B.T. Hysmith, and R.L. Colura. 1984.
Return of tagged red drum stocked into Matagorda
Bay, Texas. Data Management Series No. 63, Texas
Parks & Wildlife Dept., Coastal Fish. Branch, Austin.
Matlock, G.C., R.J. Kemp Jr., and T.L. Heffernan.
1986. Stocking as a management tool for a red drum
fishery, a preliminary evaluation. Data Management
Series No. 75, Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept., Coastal
Fisheries Branch, Austin.
Matlock, G.C. 1990. Preliminary results of red drum
stocking in Texas. A. Sparks (ed.), Marine farming
and enhancement: Proceedings of the 15th U.S.-Japan
meeting on aquaculture. U.S. Dept. Comm., NOAA
Technical Report NMFS85. Washington, D.C.
McCarty, C. E. 1990. Design and operation of aphotoperiod/temperature spawning system for red
drum. G. Chamberlain, R.J. Miget, M.G. Haby (eds.),
Manual of red drum aquaculture, p. 27–31. Texas
A&M University Sea Grant College Program No.
TAMU-SG-90-603, College Station, TX.
McEachron, L.W., C.E, McCarty, and R.R. Vega. 1993.
Successful enhancement of Texas red
drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) population. Interactions
between cultured species and naturally occurring
species in the environment: In Proceedings of the
22nd U.S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel Symposium, p.
53–56. Alaska Sea Grant Rep:AK-SG-95-03. Homer.

89

McEachron, L.W., C.E. McCarty, and R.R. Vega. 1995.
Beneficial uses of marine fish hatcheries:
Enhancement of red drum in Texas coastal waters.
Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. 15:161–166.
McEachron, L.W., R. L. Colura, B.W. Bumguardner,and R. Ward. 1998. Survival of stocked red drum in
Texas. Bull. Mar. Sci. 62:359–368.
Munro, J.L., and J.D. Bell. 1997. Enhancement of marine fisheries resources. Rev. Fish. Sci. 5:185–222.

Vega, R. R., C. Chavez, C.J. Stolte, and D. Abrego.
2003. Marine fish distribution report,
1991–1999. Management Data Series No. 212, Texas
Parks and Wildlife Dept., Coastal Fisheries Div.,
Austin.
Vega, R.R., C.E. McCarty, and W.H. Rutledge. 1995.
The marine drums. C.E. Nash and A.J. Novotny(eds.), Production of aquatic animals (fishes):World
animal science/production-system approach-C8, p.
319–326. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.

Roberts Jr., D.E., B.V. Harpster, and G.E. Henderson.
1978. Conditioning and induced spawning of
the red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) under varied conditions of photoperiod and temperature. Proc. World
Mari. Soc. 9:311–332.
Rutledge, W.P., and G.C. Matlock. 1986. Mariculture
and fisheries management–A future cooperative
approach. R.H. Stroud, (eds.), Fish culture in fisheries management, Proceedings International Symposium On Use of Culture in Fisheries Management p.
119–127. Am. Fish. Soc., Bethesada, MD.
Scharf, F.S. 2000. Patterns in abundance, growth, andmortality of juvenile red drum across estuaries
on the Texas coast with implications for recruitment and stock enhancement. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
129:1207–1222.
Southwick Associates. 2007. Sportfishing in America:
an economic engine and conservation powerhouse.
Online at: http://www.southwickassociates.com/
freereports/
Southwick Associates. 2010. Fish and wildlife economics and statistics – Winter 2010 newsletter.
Online at: http://www.southwickassociates.com/
Stickney, R. R., and J.P. McVey. 2002. Responsible
marine aquaculture, CABI Publishing, New York.
TPWD (Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept.) 2010. Landand water resources conservation and recreation
plan. Online at: http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/publications/nonpwdpubs/land_and_water_plan/90

Vega, et al.

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Saillant, E., M.A. Renshaw, D.M. Gatlin III, W.H.
Neill, R.R. Vega, and J.R. Gold. 2009. An experimental assessment of microsatellite markers for genetic
tagging of hatchery-reared red drum (Sciaenops
ocellatus) used in stock enhancement. App. Ichthyol.
25:108–113.

Multiplexed microsatellite markers were evaluatedas genetic tags for red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus)
juveniles used in stock enhancement. Offspring weregenerated from spawns of nine sets of five broodfish (three dams and two sires) in individual broodtanks. Intensive sampling by trawling at 2, 7, 8, 10
and 11 days after release of 192,500 hatchery-raised
fingerlings resulted in recovery of a total of 310
fingerlings. All parents and recovered offspring were
genotyped for variation at 30 microsatellites combined for simultaneous assay in six multiplex panels.
An optimal combination employing three of the six
multiplex panels allowed unambiguous parentage
assignment of all recovered offspring. Only 21 of 52
possible dam x sire combinations were represented
among recovered offspring. The founder equivalent(FE) of the recovered offspring was 8.7 versus the expected FE of 36.0 (95% CI = 33.3–38.4) if reproductive
success was randomly distributed among breeders.
The significantly lower FE translated into reduced
genetic diversity among the recovered offspring
and may reflect differing contributions of individual
broodfish to spawning events, differing productivity
among brood tanks, or variable survival of families
during early larval or juvenile stages.
Karlsson, S., E. Saillant, B.W. Bumguardner, R.R.
Vega, and J.R. Gold. 2008. Genetic identication ofhatchery-released red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) in
Texas bays and estuaries. N.A.J. of Fish. Manag.,
28:1294–1304.
The stock enhancement program for red drum
(Sciaenops ocellatus) in Texas annually releases from25 million to 30 million fingerlings into Texas bays
and estuaries and represents one of the largest suchprograms for marine fishes worldwide. We used
16 nuclear-encoded microsatellites and a 370-basepair fragment of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
D-loop to assign red drum sampled from two bays
along the Texas coast to either hatchery or wild
origin. A total of 30 hatchery-released fish wereidentified among 321 red drum belonging to 3 yearclasses sampled from Galveston Bay, while a totalof 11 hatchery-released fish were identified among

Vega, et al.

970 red drum belonging to 4 year-classes sampledfrom Aransas Bay. Allelic richness (microsatellites)
was significantly lower among hatchery-releasedfish than among hatchery broodfish and wild fish.
Similarly, the expected number of mtDNA haplotypes in hatchery-released fish (based on simulation
analysis) was significantly lower than that expected
in a random sample of both brood and wild fish.
The contribution of brood dams, sires, and dam 3
sire combinations to the hatchery-released fish was
nonrandom, as was the distribution of hatcheryreleased and wild fish with respect to sampling stations (localities) within each bay. The possibility of a
Ryman–Laikre effect is discussed.
McEachron, L.W., C.E. McCarty, and R.R. Vega.
1995. Successful enhancement of the Texas red drum
(Sciaenops ocellatus) population. M.R. Collie and J.P.
McVey, (eds). Interactions between cultured species
and naturally occurring species in the environment:
Proceedings of the Twenty-Second U.S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel Symposium, August 21–22, 1993, p.
53–56. Tech. rep. U.S.-Japan Cooperative Program in
Natural Resources No. 22. Alaska Sea Grant Report:
AK-SG-95-03. Homer, Alaska.

Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) is an estuarine-dependent sciaenid that inhabits estuaries, bays, andcoastal regions from New York to Mexico. In Texas,
the red drum population began a dramatic decline
in the 1970s, prompting the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) to set up a three-pronged
recovery plan. Management approaches were: 1)
Initiate an independent monitoring program to assess relative abundance; 2) implement restrictive
regulations to reduce fishing pressure, including
license restrictions, size, bag, and possession limits,a commercial quota, restrictions on netting, and aban on commercial sale of red drum; and 3) develop
and start a marine enhancement program based on
the release of hatchery-reared fingerlings and assessment of subsequent survival.
Recently, the red drum population in Texas coastal
water rebounded because of several factors that had
a positive effect on the recovery. TPWD’s long-term
management plan utilizing hatcheries and stocking
to supplement natural spawning played a role in reversing the decline of the red drum population. The
strategy used by the TPWD can serve as a blueprint
for other marine enhancement programs.

91

Matlock, G. C. 1990. Preliminary results of red drum
stocking in Texas. A. K. Sparks (ed.). Marine Farming and Enhancement: Proceedings of the 15th U.S.
Japan Meeting on Aquaculture, p. 11–15. U.S. Dept.
NOAA Technical Report NMFS 85. U.S. Departmentof Comm.

The ability to control spawning and to rear red drum
(Sciaenops ocellatus) in captivity has afforded managers the opportunity to use stocking to enhance native
fisheries. This paper presents preliminary results ofthe effects of 2 years of intensive stocking in two Texas estuaries. Catch rates in gill nets fished randomly
in stocked and unstocked bays in spring (April-June)and fall (September-November) were compared todetermine changes in relative abundance of fishable
populations. Landings by private sport-boat anglers
in each bay during the low use (mid-November
through mid-May) and high-use (mid-May throughmid-November) seasons before and after stocking
were compared for fish ~450 mm total length. Relative abundance and angler landings of red drum
were higher after stocking in the stocked bay; abundance and angler landings were similar or lower inunstocked bays after the stocking dates. Additional
research is needed to determine optimum stocking
rates, times, and fish sizes.

92

Vega, et al.

Efforts Toward Stabilization of Tiger Puffer Fishery and Revitalization of Tourism
Based on Puffer Stock Enhancement in the Enshu Region of Japan
Shigenori Suzuki and Masahiko Nariu
Minami-Izu Station
National Center for Stock Enhancement, Fisheries Research Agency (FRA)
Irouzaki, Minami-Izu, Shizuoka 415-0156, Japansshige at affrc.go.jp
Masaharu Machida
Miyazu Station
National Center for Stock Enhancement, Fisheries Research Agency (FRA)
Odashukuno, Miyazu, Kyoto 626-0052, Japan

Abstract

Kanzanji Spa Resort, located in Hamamatsu City, Shizuoka Prefecture, flourished and attracted many
tourists during the 1970s by virtue of its convenient accessibility from metropolitan areas and the existence of nearby leisure facilities. Nevertheless, the number of tourists visiting Kanzanji Spa Resort eachyear has decreased since the 1980s because the mode of Japanese domestic travel has shifted from groupbased to individual trips, and because the primary motive of visiting spa resorts has changed. Spa resorts
used to be visited by workers for the sake of refreshing themselves and promoting friendships. Now
people go to the resorts to enjoy seasonal and regional cuisine. Kanzanji Spa Resort has begun seeking
new tourism resources aimed at revitalization.
Meanwhile, as a result of 1989s good catch, members of Hamana Fisheries Cooperative Association in
Hamamatsu City began to catch many more tiger puffers (Takifugu rubripes), a fish that had previously
attracted little attention. Consequently, the tiger puffer catches grew rapidly. However, because there was
no experience with consumption of the fish in Shizuoka Prefecture, the tiger puffers that were caught
were rarely consumed locally. Most were instead transported to western Japan by truck. After the Kanzanji Tourist Association learned of this situation, they started to use “high grade tiger puffer ingredients”
as a new tourism resource for Kanzanji Spa Resort in cooperation with the Hamana Fisheries Cooperative Association and Hamamatsu City Chamber of Commerce. Because the catches of tiger puffer off
Hamamatsu were subject to frequent fluctuations, it was concluded that supplying tiger puffer for food
was difficult, especially if the supply depended solely on the wild catch. Therefore, large-scale production and release of the hatchery produced tiger puffer was initiated in 2002. Herein, we report the recent
progress in stock enhancement for for tiger puffer and tourism promotion measures at the Kanzanji Spa
Resort using the tiger puffer.

The Rise and Decline of Kanzanji
Hot Spring Resort

The Kanzanji Spa is located in the center of Japan(Figure 1) in the Enshu region. In 1958 the Kanzanji
community found a useful hot spring resource. They
began to develop the area as a spa resort. A variety of facilities such as an amusement park, a zoo,
a flower park, and fine beaches were establishedaround the Kanzanji spa so travelers could enjoy
their stay. Moreover, it was readily accessible via
highway given its proximity to metropolitan areas
such as Tokyo and Osaka. Kanzanji became very
crowded with travelers during the 1970s (Figure 2).
Only several tens of thousands of travelers visitedin 1968, but by 1980, the community accommodated

Suzuki et al.

800,000 travelers annually. Although that peak occurred at just around the end of the Japan’s higheconomic period, Kanzanji received many group
tours such as company excursions. To adapt to theincreasing number of group travelers, Kanzanji had
been expanding the capacity of its hotel facilities.
Furthermore, they conducted standardization of
the food menus and guest rooms. However, withthe accelerated maturing of society, improvement inliving standards, and diversified values and habits,
traveling styles shifted from business-related group
tours to tours emphasizing more individual visitors
who focused on sharing time with family and good93

friends. This change in conditions dictated that existing facilities and services, chiefly targeting grouptravelers, did not meet the needs of the change inclientele. Numbers of travelers to Kanzanji gradually
decreased. In the 1990s the annual number of travelers dropped below 600,000. Consequently, Kanzanji
began to seek a new tourism resource aimed at revitalizing the spa resort.

Prosperity of the Tiger Puffer Fishery in the
Enshu Region

On the Pacific coast of the Enshu region, setline
fishing for wild puffers had been done since around1960. Ten or fewer family businesses ran all of thepuffer fisheries. Annual catches of puffer during
the 1960s and 1970s were around 10 tons (Figure 3).
However, in 1989 100 tons of puffers were caught(Tsukui et al. 1999). The port towns in the Enshu
region such as Maisaka and Fukude prospered
because of the good catch. That year’s good catch
rapidly increased the number of family-run puffer
fisheries to 400. Wild puffers were traded at a highprice despite changes in the catch; the puffer fisherytook root as a major industry in the Enshu region.
However, because the people in the Enshu region
were not accustomed to eating puffer, most of the
fish landed at fishing ports in the Enshu region were
not consumed in the local area. Most puffers weretransported to western Japan by truck. As a result,puffers landed in the Enshu region were distributed
nationwide as a product of western Japan.

Figure 1. Locations of Kanzanji Spa Resort, Maisaka Fishing Port,and tiger puffer fishing grounds on the Pacific coast of the Enshu
region.

Figure 3. Changes in the annual catch of tiger puffers in Shizuoka
Prefecture.

Efforts in Wild Tiger Puffer Branding

Figure 2. Changes in the annual number of travelers visiting the
Kanzanji Spa.

94

When the Kanzanji Spa Resort community recognized the situation, they consulted with the local
chamber of commerce and the fisheries cooperativeand decided to sell wild puffers as the new tourism
resource of Kanzanji. However, it was not so wellknown that Enshu fisheries were producing large
numbers of puffers. At that time, nearly all puffers distributed nationwide were transported fromwestern Japan, where puffer had been consumed

Suzuki, et al.

for a long time. General consumers believed that
puffers were caught in the waters of western Japan.
Therefore, the Kanzanji community began a branding strategy to distinguish their wild puffers fromthose from other areas (Nogata, 2005). The branding
strategy began in 2003. A brand name and logo were
designed. In fact, 90% of the puffers distributed inJapan were farmed fish. For that reason, wild puffers were extremely valuable. Therefore, one priority was to differentiate Enshu puffers from existing
farmed puffer products. To achieve that goal, thebrand name “Enshu Natural Puffer” was designed.
Additionally, the industry sought to present a senseof unity for their products. An appropriate logo wasdesigned and was printed on hotel brochures andpackages of souvenirs. Next, Kanzanji undertook
creation of an efficient food supply system based onnatural puffers.
Puffer fish carry a deadly poison. Therefore, only licensed chefs with puffer preparation certification are
allowed to prepare them for consumption. It was unrealistic for all the chefs in the Kanzanji hotels to acquire the license because of the inherent costs of timeand money involved, and it might have delayed the
speedy implementation of the branding strategy.
Therefore, Kanzanji built a puffer processing plant at
which the licensed chefs could gather and conduct
primary processing. Although each hotel used thesame processed puffer, the cooks were able to maintain their own cooking styles and provide consistentquality puffer cuisine efficiently.
Kanzanji was also actively engaged in a public
relations campaign to disseminate the brand name.
However, the Japanese people clung to the idea thatwestern Japan was the main production area for
puffers. Few people knew that puffers were caught
in the Enshu region. Even the local people in thefood business did not know that. Kanzanji participated in various exhibitions in many cities in the
Enshu region and hosted tasting events to promote
the new puffer brand. Those activities led to increasing coverage in newspapers and magazines, thereby
increasing the brand popularity.
In addition to the public relations campaign, Kanzanji became involved in the development of souvenirs
with local confectionary companies using puffer
skins, which were difficult to use in the hotel cuisine.
Reasonable prices and durability as well as puffer
product recognition were indispensable conditions

Suzuki, et al.

for the production of the products. Cookies and ricecrackers adding puffer powder from the skins weredeveloped. Then they began selling the products atsouvenir counters in the hotels.
As a result of the campaigns and activities, Kanzanji
hosted around 35,000 travelers during 2004, with anestimated economic effect of ¥400 million. Furthermore, the proceeds of souvenir sales were ¥10 million in 2004. The project brought positive economic
benefits to the Enshu region, including job creation.

Bad Catch and Introduction of Stock Enhancement Technology

Despite the high profitability of the puffer fishery,
wild puffer catches remained unstable because ofenvironmental impacts. Puffer catches were poor in2005 and 2006. Consequently, Kanzanji faced difficulties in providing puffer cuisine to the visitors.
They came to realize it was difficult to rely only on
wild puffers for their industry. Therefore, fisheryexperiment stations and revitalization-related organizations in Kanzanji assembled to discuss ways tostabilize the provision of the wild puffer resources.
Ways were developed to meet the three conditions aslisted below:
1. Minimize the impacts on the industries involved.
2. Immediate results.
3. Feasible scientific evaluations.

An approach was adopted to release hatchery fish
to stabilize the puffer fishery. Therefore, we first
conducted experimental verification using puffers
produced by the National Hatchery, Minami-Izu Station, National Center for Stock Enhancement, FRA.
We also decided to evaluate the effects of the stockenhancement. The main problem with the latter was
how to differentiate between wild and hatchery fish.
Wild puffer had a high market value and were inhigh demand. Therefore, it was considered difficult
to purchase mass samples of puffers from the fish
market for the research. Given the research costs andnegative impacts on the existing wild puffer industry, we wondered whether it was possible to detect
the released puffer at the puffer-processing plantin Kanzanji. Through a trial and error process, wedeveloped an efficient method of detecting released
puffer (Suzuki et al. 2008). Successful developmentof mass-collection methods for puffer otoliths wasable to open the way for experimental release. All
released puffers had otoliths marked using alizarin
complexone. Different alizarin complexone marks95were added to each release group. In all, 200,000 fish
were released annually for experimental verification.
We sought to determine optimal release strategies
by comparing the growth and survival of respective
experimental groups. The experimental verifications
undertaken to date have presented us with data related to the optimal release location and size (Nakajima 2008). Based on those results, local governments
began a commercialized release project. The result
is that 700,000 hatchery produced puffer are now
released each year in the Tokai area. Consequently,
the annual catch has become stabilized at around 60
tons in Shizuoka Prefecture.

Catch Stabilization and Establishment of a
Tiger Puffer Brand

With the catch of wild puffers stabilized, Kanzanji
began to sell package tours jointly with travel agencies. Because the puffer used in Kanzanji hotels arecaught only in Enshu waters, and because large
numbers of puffer are processed at a processing
plant in Kanzanji, distribution and processing costs
are reduced. As a result, travelers can stay at a hotelin Kanzanji and enjoy a puffer dinner by paying
what they would have had to pay for the puffer
cuisine alone at an expensive restaurant in the city.
The package tour with a moderate price as its main
selling point was designed for individual travelers.

Future Issues

Although stock enhancement for puffer is now being
established in partnership with the Enshu natural
puffer industry, it remains difficult to say that Enshu
natural puffer is widely recognized throughout Japanese society. For that reason, more public relation
activities to disseminate the brand name are necessary. In addition, the annual release of 700,000 puffers can increase the wild puffer catch by only 15%. It
is important not only to advance stock enhancement
technologies, but also to protect the spawning stock
through fishery management and the conservationof spawning and nursery grounds. A sustainablesystem to provide wild puffers will be establishedwhen these measures begin to move integrally. Allcompanies, groups, and research agencies involvedin the Enshu natural puffer industry will continue
their collaborations to ensure a stable supply and todevelop natural puffer as the major brand representing the Enshu region, and an aid to revitalization of
the Kanzanji Spa Resort.

96

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Director Shoichi Shinmura, Plant
Manager Koji Shinmura, and all employees of the
Cooperative Association of Enshu Natural Puffer
Processors. This research could not have been accomplished without support from the Cooperative
Association of Enshu Natural Puffer Processors.

References

Nakajima H., K. Masanobu, K. Koizumi, T. Tanaka,
and M. Machida. 2008. Optimal release locationsof juvenile ocellate puffer Takifugu rubripes identified by tag and release experiments. Rev. Fish. Sci.
16:228–234.
Nogata, H. 2005. Hearing report of Hamamatsu Cityand Kanzanji Hot Spring Report [in Japanese]. Economic review, Shizuoka University 10(1):41–48.
Suzuki, S., M. Machida, M. Nariu, and K. Sakae.
2008. A novel method for mass-collecting otoliths
asing a portable aspirator in tiger pufferfish, Takifugu
rubripes J. Fish. Tech. 1:77–82 [In Japanese].
Tsukui, F., and N. Yoneyama. 1999. The characteristicof the income depending on puffer long line fisheries in Shizuoka Prefecture. Bull. Shizuoka Pref. Fish.
Exp. Stn. 34:49–52.

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works

Nakajima, H., M. Kai, K. Koizumi, T. Tanaka, and M.
Machida. 2008. Optimal Release Locations of Juvenile Ocellate Puffer Takifugu rubripes identified by tag
and release experiments. Reviews in Fisheries Science
16:(1). p. 228–234.
We identified the optimal location for releasing
hatchery-produced juveniles of ocellate puffer(Takifugu rubripes) for stock enhancement by tag
and release experiments. The fish were released atfour areas; Suruga Bay, Enshu Nada, Ise Bay, andKumano Nada along the central coast of Honshu
Island in Japan from 2001 to 2005. Approximately
10,000–40,000 cultured puffer fish were released inthese areas in 23 groups. Tagged fish were mainly
recaptured at age 0 by small-scale trawl net fishingin Ise Bay, and by longline fishing at age one or older
in Suruga Bay, Enshu Nada, and Kumano Nada.
The overall average recapture rate yielded 13.0%
for the Ise Bay release group compared with 2.0%,
2.9%, and 0.7% for the Suruga Bay, Enshu Nada, andKumano Nada release groups, respectively. Even in
the Ise Bay area, significant differences in recapture
rates were observed among three release locations.
Lower recapture rates were presumably caused by
predation, because tagged fish were found in theintestines of Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax japonicus).
It is suggested that release locations should be carefully evaluated and chosen to reduce initial mortality even if cultured ocellate puffer are released in IseBay. One of the optimal release locations is specified
in shallow areas, such as off Tokoname, which are
inhabited by wild juvenile ocellate puffer.

N. Hiroshi. 2005. Hearing report of Hamamatsu Cityand Kanzanji Hot Spring report [in Japanese]. Economic review, Shizuoka University 10:(1) p. 41–48.

Off the coast of Hamamatsu in Shizuoka Prefecture
is known as one of the largest tiger puffer fishinggrounds in Japan. However, because no pufferfishprocessing facility existed in Hamamatsu region,
most tiger puffer that have been caught have been
shipped to the Shimonoseki region in Yamaguchi
Prefecture. Kanzanji Spa Resort in Hamamatsu City
began projects to assign a brand value to the tiger
puffer caught in off the coast of Hamamatsu beginning in 2003. As citizens came to attach greater importance to the consumption of the locally produced
food, hotels and inns in Kanzanji Spa Resort madea joint capital investment in November 2003 in theestablishment of a puffer processing plant. The facility began operations, which enabled them to provide
puffer cuisine locally. In 2004 the Small and Medium
Enterprise Agency of Japan designated Kanzanji’s
project as its “Japan Brand Promotion Project,” andthe agency provided government grants amounting
to ¥25 million to the project. Using this grant, theKanzanji Spa Resort implemented an advertisingand promotion campaign, with the goal of encouraging 40,000 visitors to come to the resort. In addition,
new snacks adding puffer powder in its ingredientssuch as sweets, Japanese rice crackers, and cookies
were produced and sold in the market. Consequently, the spa resort hosted 20,000 visitors in FY 2003
and 35,000 visitors in FY 2004. The economic effect in
FY 2004 was estimated as about ¥400 million.

Tsukui, F., and N. Yoneyama. 1999. The characteristicof the income depending on puffer long line fisheriesin Shizuoka Prefecture [in Japanese]. Bull. Shizuoka
Pref. Fish. Exp. Stn. 34:49–52.
In the sea area from Kumano Nada, Ise Bay to Enshu
Nada surrounding Mie, Aichi, and Shizuoka prefectures, there was a record catch of tiger puffer in 1989.
Since then, although the catches have fluctuatedconsiderably, the tiger puffer fishery has become avital industry in the Tokai region because of its highprofitability. This study investigated the actual situation of tiger puffer fishery in Shizuoka Prefecture
and changes in fish prices since 1988.

97