NISE Bulletin, 10, 1-11, 2010

Current Status and Difficulties in the Production ofBarrier-free Teaching Materials for Low Vision Children:“Large-printed Textbooks”
CHIDA Kouki
Formerly Department of Educational Support
SAWADA Mayumi
Department of Educational Support

Abstract: “Large-printed textbooks” are useful teaching materials for children with low vision. The preparation of these books
by volunteers and the relatively few specialist publishers in Japan involves enlarging and editing the text and pictorial cuts inoriginal government authorized textbooks so that children with low vision can readily access these materials. The National
Institute of Special Needs Education (NISE) has been conducting research and providing information on editing and preparing
Large-printed textbooks taking into consideration the characteristics of the vision of individual children. This paper provides
an overview of the outcomes and problems encountered, reviews the changes in social conditions and educational environmentof Large-printed textbooks, and makes suggestions for future research to address these problems and to understand the special
educational needs of low vision children.
Key Words: Large-printed textbook, Large-printed manuscript volunteer, Large-printed textbook drafting manual, Chargefree distribution, Universal design

I. Introduction
The fundamental philosophy of special needs education
is “to provide appropriate instruction and necessary support
suitable to cater to/ meet the education needs of each andevery disabled infant, child and student.” This is also true
for the education of low vision children, and it is importantin the provision of an easily accessible visual environment
for low vision children. Based on this philosophy, in the
future, it will become increasingly necessary to develop
easily viewable and user-friendly textbooks based on theconcept of “universal design,” and suitable to meet theeducational needs of disabled children.
For some low vision children/students with limited visualacuity, currently distributed texts and the pictorial cuts ofauthorized textbooks are too small and difficult to see. In
this context, low vision children/students use Large-printed
textbooks with enlarged texts and pictorial cuts.
The current research project is part of a larger-scale NISE
research initiative. Previous completed research studies
include, “Survey Research on Large-printed Teaching
Materials Suitable to Visual Characteristics of Low visionChildren: Development and Support on Drafting Largeprinted Textbooks for Low vision Children” (Financial Year
- FY2002-03), and, “[An] Empirical Study on Developing
Large-printed Textbook Drafting System and its Impacts

on Education” (FY2004-06). This research initiative has
resulted in the accumulation of much information andunderstanding of easily viewable text size for low visionchildren/students as well as on text/picture enlargement/
optimization strategies. The results have been publishedin research reports and in a monograph entitled, “Largeprinted Textbook Drafting Manual,” published by The
Earth Kyoikushinsha Co., Ltd.5). Concurrently, NISE has
engaged in empirical research on Large-printed textbook
drafting systems and their impact on education, in
information services, and the diffusion of textbook barrierfree textbooks with the aim of establishing a barrier-freelearning environment to ease the current restrictions on
low vision students and other disabled students as much as
possible.
Over the past few years, there have been significant
developments in the editing and effective-use of Largeprinted textbooks—such as the amendment to the
Copyright Act—or in the method of distribution of freeof-charge textbooks. According to a report of the Ministryof Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT), “Elementary/Secondary Education News No. 38,”
in FY2005, 9,000 Large-printed textbooks were distributed
free-of-charge to 600 children/students nationwide. This
distribution program provides textbooks to visuallydisabled children/students who local education boards deem
appropriate to use Large-printed textbooks in the classroom.

－－CHIDA, K. & SAWADA, M.

In this case, the relevant school or municipal education
board is required to take predetermined procedures, andthen, the prefectural education board is required to act as acoordinator and report to MEXT.
On the other hand, low vision students and volunteer
groups have been recently calling for the drafting ofseveral versions of Large-printed textbooks suitable forindividual low vision children/students. In addition, somevolunteer groups engaged in the preparation of Largeprinted textbooks have approached textbook publishers
to provide authorized textbook digital data. As a teachingmaterial, textbooks should be easily understandable for as
many children/students as possible. However, currently
authorized textbooks are not necessarily, “easily viewable
and understandable,” for low vision children/students withwide eyesight gap. In fact, they often present a significant
barrier to learning.
This paper describes the historical background of Largeprinted textbooks for low vision children/students in Japan
as well as the background information on the draftingof Large-printed textbooks. In addition, it highlights thepractical problems of developing and using Large-printed
textbooks, and discusses the “universal design” of textbooks
suitable for use in the education of low vision children/
students.
II. Historical Background of Large-printed Textbooks
1. L arge-printed Teaching Materials (Large-printed
Textbooks)（１）C ommencement of education for low visionchildren
In Japan, education for low vision children began in
December 1933 when Nanzan Elementary School in Asouku, Tokyo City established a “low vision class.” Since atthat time, education for low vision children was provided
to protect and preserve eyesight, after a brief period, theclass was renamed, the “Eyesight Preservation Class.”
The history of education for low vision children at Nanzan
Elementary School was less than 12 years because the class
was closed in April 1945 due to the Great Tokyo Air Raids,
but it played a pioneering role in establishing an appropriate
learning environment for low vision children in Japan.
For example, the classroom had (a) white ceilings, (b)white upper, cream-colored middle, and faint-green lower
wall sections, (c) eleven 100-watt bulbs with white shades,(d) green boards at the front and back of the room, (e)single-person-use inclined desks with bookstands (i.e., theupper desk board inclined), (f) various magnifying lenses,
and (g) custom-made teaching materials and notebooks.
Today, these facilities are a model for classrooms for low
vision children as illustrated by the simple replacement oflighting equipment with fluorescent lamps.

On the other hand, teachers at that time understood thenecessity for Large-printed textbooks, but they used thesame textbooks as ordinary classes because using larger
Chinese characters would cause printing costs to escalate,
and would pose many other difficulties. 4)（２）Education for low vision children and national
language teaching aids in the elementary divisionof schools for the blind
In June 1953, MEXT circulated the decree, “Criterion
for Identifying Children/Students Requiring Special
Education Attention” (MEXT Vice Ministerial Notice).
This promulgation defined low vision students as,“persons who are generally unsuitable for using ordinary
child-use textbooks without modification and who are
deemed as requiring other methods than visually-impaired
person’s education.” This notice indicated the decisionmaking criteria for defining children with low vision, andthe most appropriate action. MEXT had been providing
administrative guidance that low vision students should be
educated at schools for the blind or in special classes forlow vision children/students, depending on the degree of
their eyesight.
Schools for the Blind that mainly used Braille began
to establish classrooms for low vision children/students.
For example, since 1952, the Osaka Prefectural School for
the Blind has been preparing Large-printed textbooks byhandwriting textbooks with writing brushes and making thenecessary copies of these. Similarly, other schools for theblind started to separate low vision students from visually
impaired students.
In this context, since teachers felt the need for print
textbooks with the same contents as Braille textbooks,
in March 1963, “National Language Teaching Aids ofElementary Division in Schools for the Blind” (six books
for each grade) were developed. Since April 1963, for aperiod of six years, teachers used Gothic font-based (FirstClass Gothic or Class 1 Gothic) textbooks for elementary
school seventh graders and Class 2 Mincho font-based
textbooks for second graders or older students. Although not
textbooks for use by low vision students, they were of greatsignificance as the first Large-printed teaching materials inJapan.
（３）Using the electronic magnifying copier “Elefax”
Following the development of the electronic magnifying
copier, “Elefax,” in 1962, teachers started using the copierto prepare Large-printed teaching materials for low vision
students. In 1964, Hokkaido Prefectural Asahikawa Schoolfor Blind also introduced the “Elefax,” and in the following
year, teachers started using it for magnifying textbooks forsome subjects. Five schools for the blind are reported tohave used Large-printed textbooks improving outcomes for－－Current Status and Difficulties in the Production of Barrier-free Teaching Materials for Low Vision Children: “Large-printed Textbooks”

education for low vision children. Based on this, MEXT
attempted to introduce electronic magnifying copiers andoffset printers at schools for the blind nationwide in a threeyear plan commencing in FY1967. In FY1973, the Ministry
also decided to introduce electronic magnifying copiers at
low vision special classes (hereinafter, “low vision classes”)
as well. Following the introduction of commerciallyavailable enlargement/reduction copiers in 1985, teachers
stopped using electronic magnifying copiers.
（４）Activities of Large-printed manuscript volunteers
The period 1965-67 saw the establishment of low
vision classes, and subsequently, the demand for Largeprinted textbooks for low vision children/students grew.
Increasingly, in this period, volunteer groups began toprepare “Large-printed manuscripts” by rewriting texts ineasily readable size for elderly people and visually impaired
persons who used local libraries in the local community.
In the 1975-1985, the Large-printed manuscript volunteer
groups also started preparing Large-printed manuscripts
of ordinary books and textbooks for low vision children/
students nationwide.
The groups also prepared Large-printed manuscripts
of textbooks on a voluntary basis for low vision children/
students. However, as the demand grew, in the period
1985-89, analysts started to argue the necessity for “Largeprinted textbooks” for low vision children/students thatwere usable nationwide. Some volunteer groups, such as
the Large-printed manuscript volunteer group in Fukuoka,
made enlarged copies of textbooks and donated them toschools for the blind and low vision classes across thecountry.
In this context, in 1997, Large-printed manuscript
volunteer groups nationwide merged to form a Largeprinted textbook network, called the “National Largeprinted Teaching Materials Production Council,” with theaim of preparing Large-printed textbooks suitable to meetthe learning needs of every low vision pupil/student. At
the time of the inauguration of the Council, there were 43
member groups, but as of September 2007, this number had
risen to 63.
（５）The Japanese Association of Education for Low
VisionAs teachers at schools for the blind and low visionclasses called for Large-printed textbooks usable on anationwide scale, in 1991, the Japanese Association of
Education for Low Vision established a “Large-printed
Teaching Materials Taskforce,” to explore how to prepare
Large-printed textbooks. On request from MEXT, in
FY1991-92, the Taskforce” enlarged and edited authorized
original textbooks for schools for the blind on behalf of low
vision children/students. Edited versions of Large-printed
textbooks for elementary school-level children publishedwere (a) national language textbooks for 2nd to 6th grades,(b) junior high school level national language textbooksfor 7 th to 9 th grades, (c) elementary school-level mathtextbooks for 3rd to 6th grades, and (d) junior high schoollevel mathematics textbooks for 7th to 9th grades. Teachers
have been using these national language and mathematics
textbooks at schools for the blind and low vision classes
since FY1992 at the elementary school level, and since
FY1993 at the junior high school level.
2. Basic Perspectives on Large-printed Textbooks（１）Providing a better learning environment for low
vision children/students
An important and basic aspect of education for low
vision children is how teachers can provide an easily visual
learning environment. As basic approaches to improvevisibility for low vision children/students and to foster theirability to see and skillful way of looking at things, teachers
have been traditionally using the following methods:1) Showing things widely and clearly (expanding retinal
images)2) C arefully comparing objects (improving visualawareness)3) Coordinating eye and hand function (improving visual/physical coordination)4) Adjusting light intensity through illumination or lightinterception5) Enhancing/reversing/adjusting the contrast between
pictures and background
There are several ways of providing an “easily
viewable” environment. The expansion of retinal images—
as mentioned in Item (1) above—is the most common
approach. When using this, teaching methods include: (a)asking children/students to come closer, (b) expanding
visual materials (i.e., enlarged copies and Large-printed

Note 1) Electronic magnifying copier “Elefax”
It is a magnifying/reducing copier introduced for education for low vision children in order to prepare Large-printed teachingmaterials in 1965-1975 (Copier size: Approximately 1.4 meter high, approximately 1 meter wide and approximately 1.5 meter long). It
works in the same manner as camera zoom. By adjusting lens distance, users are able to alter the magnification ratio seamlessly from
0.7 times to 1.4 times. This copier takes two steps for making copies. First, the copier sends out a duplicate with toner unfixed. At thisstage, users are able to easily remove dirt, waste or unnecessary portions. After these modifications, it finishes off making a copy by
fixing toner with thermal treatment.

－－CHIDA, K. & SAWADA, M.

textbooks), (c) using amblyopic lenses, (d) using low
vision-use large image TVs (i.e., magnified reading devices,etc.), and (e) using other optical aids.
（２）Effective use of optical aids and Large-printed
teaching materials for learning purposes
The use of magnifying lens for low vision persons is atypical optical aid—lenses optically enlarge retinal images.
Various types of magnifying lenses are available dependent
on intended usage. Commercially available loupes,monocles, and telescopes are also usable as low vision-use
magnifying lenses and it is possible to select a magnification
ratio suitable for the eyesight of each low vision pupil/
student. However, low vision persons usually need highpower magnifying lenses. Higher-power magnifying lenses
usually limit text/picture information in the effective visual
field of the lens and require a certain amount of training on
focus adjustment. In this context, as skills and motivation to
use these lenses are required, low vision persons should begiven adequate training to ensure their effective use.
In the case of magnifying TV-type reading devices, users
are able to change the enlargement factor seamlessly anddisplay on a color screen. In addition, users are also capableof reversing black/white presentations and adjusting
contrasts through negative/positive selection. Since thisdevice provides large magnifications of 20-fold or stronger,
it is a very effective tool for very low vision persons who
suffer difficulty in the use of low vision-use lenses (Thisdevice is covered with the visual disability-related daily toolsubsidy program from FY1993, and the government offers
a maximum subsidy of \198,000). As with the effective useof low vision-use lenses, training in the use of low visionuse magnifying TV is also required.
As Large-printed textbook show enlarged texts andpictures widely and clearly, children/students are able todetect these features, see the entire view from a comfortabledistance, and analyze it by coming closer as necessary. In
particular, Large-printed textbooks are important for young
children and elementary school children because they areable to pick it up, obtain definite images and concepts, andfeel no resistance to looking at things at an early stage intheir lives.
III. Recent History of Large-printed Textbooks
1. Contribution of NISE
（１）Basic perspectives on editing/preparing Largeprinted textbooks
As for education for visually impaired children/students,
it is important to evaluate the difference in vision of eachchild/student from an educational perspective, and utilize
teaching materials and educational tools suitable to theirlevel of vision. In other words, it is important to provide

and utilize Large-printed textbooks and optical aids in an
appropriate manner.
Over the two-year period (FY2002-03), the Departmentof Research and Development at NISE has prepared andedited computer based Large-printed textbooks in the fields
of social studies and science based on the recommendationsof the “Large-printed Teaching Materials Taskforce”
mentioned above. NISE has engaged in this work andassociated research activities using the following premises:1)
1) From the very beginning of education for low visionchildren in Japan, teachers used Large-printed teachingmaterials recognizing that these teaching materials
played an important role in determining education
outcomes. Even today, this recognition remains
unchanged.
2) L ow vision children/students have different levelsof eyesight. In addition, even if they have the sameeyesight, they have differences in vision, dependingon the nature of their ophthalmic disease. For thisreason, it is necessary to prepare Large-printed
textbooks suitable to meet the needs arising fromthese individual differences. However, it is difficult toprepare the variety and range of sizes of Large-printed
textbooks necessary to that address all these needs ona nationwide-scale.
3) In this context of preparing Large-printed textbooks
usable for as many low vision children/students as
possible, NISE established a standard of appropriate
text sizes, based on the assumption of a person with
0.1 vision on the Japanese eyesight scale (or 20/48
vision on the U.S.A eyesight scale) 1) 5). This standard
emerged from the results of a quinquennial project
conducted by Tsukuba University and NISE; the study
by Tsukba University was entitled, “Survey Research
on Causes of Visual Disabilities of Children/Students
at Schools for the Blind and Elementary/Lower
Secondary-Level Low Vision Classes in Japan,”2) 3)
and the NISE survey was entitled, “[A] Fact-Finding
Survey on Elementary/Junior High-Level Low Vision
Special Classes and Low Vision Resource RoomClasses in Japan.” 6) 7) 8)
4) However, a single version of Large-printed textbooks
is inadequate to meet all needs of low visionchildren/students in Japan. For this reason, the special
education needs of students having difficulties inusing these Large-printed textbooks is required to be
met from private sources, such as those of the Largeprinted manuscript volunteer groups.
5) W hen editing/preparing Large-printed textbooks,
NISE uses OCR devices to scan the original textbooks
and store electronic data to edit and prepare thetextbooks in a PC environment. By doing so, NISE isable to smoothly edit and prepare full-color textbooks－－Current Status and Difficulties in the Production of Barrier-free Teaching Materials for Low Vision Children: “Large-printed Textbooks”

and publish Large-printed textbooks in color. NISE
decided to employ this on-demand printing approach
because it quickly addresses the needs of children/
students requiring these textbooks and because notmany children/students need this resource.
6) In the past, the preparation of Large-printed textbooks
required permission from copyright holders and,
therefore, posed a significant obstacle. However, due
to the partial amendment of the Copyright Act inJune 2003, it is now possible to prepare Large-printed
textbooks by simply making contact with textbook
publishers without obtaining approval from individual
copyright holders (the amended Copyright Act cameinto effect on 1 January, 2004).
7) Nevertheless, the copyright problem remains whenconverting data into digital format. It is necessary tostore digital data and edit the data without damaging
the original textbook source.
8) W hen using Large-printed textbooks, low vision
students and teachers should improve education
outcomes by skillfully using appropriate tools
suitable to individual needs, grade needs, and student
characteristics, such as effectively utilizing optical
instruments and visual aids, including the use of low
vision lenses.
（２）Editing and publishing Large-printed textbooks
In the period FY2002-03, schools for the blind and low
vision classes adopted as “Article 107 books,” Largeprinted textbooks prepared and edited by NISE. In addition,
since FY2004, these Large-printed textbooks have been
distributed free-of-charge to low vision children/students inordinary classes.
With amendments to textbooks, revised elementary
school-level textbooks were adopted in FY2005. Schools at
the junior high level adopted revised textbooks in FY2006.
In this context, it became necessary to prepare new Largeprinted textbooks and to research appropriate editing/preparing approaches capable of efficiently preparing
textbooks to address the educational needs of a range oflow vision children/students. To achieve this, NISE engaged
in a three-year research project (FY2004-06) entitled,“Empirical Study on Developing Large-printed Textbook
Drafting System and its Impacts on Education.”1)
In FY2004, NISE edited and prepared Large-printed
versions of social studies and science textbooks forelementary schools, and in FY2005, NISE also edited
and prepared Large-printed versions of social studies
and science textbooks for junior high schools scheduled
for use from FY2006. In this process, based on the
research findings on the preparation and development ofLarge-printed textbooks, NISE has conducted researchon appropriate Large-printed textbook preparationand digitalization methods capable of providing easily
understandable textbooks and efficiently enlarging/editing
textbooks.
In FY2005, schoolteachers in elementary and junior highschools used 1,250 Large-printed textbooks in the fields ofsocial studies and science that had been edited/prepared by
NISE. These were published by the Cues Corporation. As
of FY2006, Large-printed textbook publishers provide a
range of Large-printed textbooks (Table 1). 1) Further, Table
2 shows the number of elementary/junior high school-level
Large-printed textbooks used by teachers at each grade levelin the fields of social studies and science that have beenedited by NISE and published by the Cues Corporation. The
number of copies is 1,822; Junior High Science 1 (Part 1)= 75 books, and Junior High Science 2 (Part 2) = 26 books.
The textbooks actually used vary widely, but on average
there are 52 textbooks for each subject area. In addition,teachers use 968 mathematics textbooks published by
Daikatsuji Co., Ltd. 1)
2. Activities of Large-printed Drafting Volunteers and
Low Vision People（１）The “National Large-printed Teaching Materials
Production Council”
The “National Large-printed Teaching Materials
Production Council” was established in October 1997
as a national network of volunteers producing Largeprinted textbooks. As of September 2007, the council had amembership of 63 volunteer groups.
The council serves as a point-of-contact for Large-printed
manuscript volunteers in Japan who prepare Large-printed
textbooks on a voluntary basis for low vision children/
students needing these resources. While there are currently
some textbook publishers and Large-printed textbook
publishers who provide these resources, in most cases, they
are provided by the volunteers.
（２）The “Low Vision People Affairs Study Group”
To realize a society more friendly to low vision persons,in 1977 low vision people established the “Low Vision
People Affairs Study Group.” Since its foundation, thestudy group has been working on various issues, such as
employment opportunities, and barrier-free educational
environment for low vision persons. From an educational
environment perspective, it investigates career choice andschool-life problems for low vision children. In terms ofLarge-printed textbooks, the study group also conducts
various activities, such as submitting requests to MEXT toinitiate a stable program to provide Large-printed textbooks
from the elementary school to the high school levels.
3. The MEXT
As mentioned previously, Large-printed textbooks have－－

CHIDA, K. & SAWADA, M.

Table 1 List of “Large-printed textbooks” published by Large-printed textbook publishers
Large-printed textbook
Subject

Elementary school

National
Language

Font size

Font

Publisher, pointof contact

National Language 2nd grade (Part 1)
Tanpopo, (Part 2) Akatonbo

2

26P

GothicMitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111

National Language 3rd grade (Part 1)
Wakaba, (Part 2) Aozora

2

22P

GothicMitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111

National Language 4th grade (Part 1)
Kagayaki, (Part 2) Habataki

2

22P

GothicMitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111

National Language 5th grade (Part 1)
Ginga, (Part 2) Daichi

2

22P

GothicMitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111

National Language 6th grade (Part 1)
Souzou, (Part 2) Kibou

2

22P

GothicMitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111

New Math 3 Part 1, 3 Part 22

New Math 4 Part 1, 4 Part 22

New Math 5 Part 1, 5 Part 22

New Math 6 Part 1, 6 Part 22

18, 22or 26P
18, 22or 26P
18, 22or 26P
18, 22or 26P

New Social Studies 3/4 Part 1, 3/4 Part 22

26P

New Social Studies 5 Part 1, 5 Part 22

22P

New Social Studies 6 Part 1, 6 Part 22

22P

New Science 3rd grade

1

26P

Round
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicDaikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049
Cues
Tel:03-3358-1049
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049

New Science 4th grade Part 1,
4th grade Part 2

2

22P

Round
GothicCues
Tel: 03-3358-1049

New Science 5th grade Part 1,
5th grade Part 2

2

22P

Round
GothicCues
Tel: 03-3358-1049

New Science 6th grade Part 1,
6th grade Part 2

2

22P

Round
GothicCues
Tel: 03-3358-1049

3

22P

Gothic3

22P

Gothic3

22P

GothicNew Math 1-1, 1-2

2

18, 22or 26P

GothicNew Math 2-1, 2-2222P

GothicNew Math 3-1, 3-2

222P

Gothic18, 22or 26P
18, 22or 26P
18, 22or 26P

Gothicaria1
Gothicaria1
Gothicaria1
Round
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicRound
GothicMathSocialStudies

ScienceNational
Language

MathJunior high school

Number of
textbooks

Textbook title

National Language 7th grade-1,
7th grade-2, 7th grade-3
National Language 8th grade-1,
8th grade-2, 8th grade-3
National Language 9th grade-1,
9th grade-2, 9th grade-3

Science 1st
Category
Science 2nd
Category

NEW HORIZON English
Course 1 Part 1, 1 Part 2
NEW HORIZON English
Course 2 Part 1, 2 Part 2
NEW HORIZON English
Course 3 Part 1, 3 Part 2
New Science 1st Category Part 1-1,
-2, -3, 1st Category Part 2-1, -2
New Science 2nd Category Part 1-1,
-2, -3, 2nd Category Part 2-1, -2

History

EnglishGeography
Civics

2
2
2
5

22P

5

22P

New Social Studies: History 1, 2, 3

3

19P

New Social Studies: Geography 1, 2, 3,4

4

19P

New Social Studies: Civics 1, 2, 3

3

19P

－－

Original textbook(Publisher)

Mitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111
Mitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111
Mitsumura Tosho
Tel: 03-3493-2111

National Language 2nd grade(Part 1), (Part 2)(Mitsumura Tosho)
National Language 3rd gradePart 1, Part 2(Mitsumura Tosho)
National Language 4th gradePart 1, Part 2(Mitsumura Tosho)
National Language 5th gradePart 1, Part 2(Mitsumura Tosho)
National Language 6th gradePart 1, Part 2(Mitsumura Tosho)
New Math 3 Part 1, 3 Part 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Math 4 Part 1, 4 Part 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Math 5 Part 1, 5 Part 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Math 6 Part 1, 6 Part 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Social Studies 3/4 Part 1
3/4 Part 2 (Tokyo Shoseki)
New Social Studies 5 Part 1,
5 Part 2 (Tokyo Shoseki)
New Social Studies 6 Part 1,
6 Part 2 (Tokyo Shoseki)
New Science 3rd grade(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Science 4th grade Part 1,
4th grade Part 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Science 5th grade Part 1,
5th grade Part 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Science 6th grade Part 1,
6th grade Part 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
National Language 7th grade(Mitsumura Tosho)
National Language 8th grade(Mitsumura Tosho)
National Language 9th grade(Mitsumura Tosho)

Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361

New Math 1(Tokyo Shoseki)

Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Daikatsuji
Tel: 03-5282-4361
Daikatsuji
Tel:03-5282-4361
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049
Cues
Tel: 03-3358-1049

New Math 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Math 3(Tokyo Shoseki)
NEW HORIZON English
Course 1(Tokyo Shoseki)
NEW HORIZON English
Course 2(Tokyo Shoseki)
NEW HORIZON English
Course 3(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Science 1st Category(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Science 2nd Category(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Social Studies: History(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Social Studies: Geography(Tokyo Shoseki)
New Social Studies: Civics(Tokyo Shoseki)Current Status and Difficulties in the Production of Barrier-free Teaching Materials for Low Vision Children: “Large-printed Textbooks”

Table 2 Number of “Large-printed Textbooks” on Social Studies and Sciences actually used in FY2006

Elementary school
Elementary School New Social Studies 3/4 Part 1

49

Elementary School New Social Studies 3/4 Part 2

49

Elementary School New Social Studies 5 Part 1

51

Elementary School New Social Studies 5 Part 2

51

Elementary School New Social Studies 6 Part 1

56

Elementary School New Social Studies 6 Part 256

Elementary School New Science 3

41

Elementary School New Science 4

Part 139

Elementary School New Science 4

Part 239

Elementary School New Science 5Part 153

Elementary School New Science 5Part 253

Elementary School New Science 6

Part 147

Elementary School New Science 6

Part 246

Junior high school(New edition) New Social Studies Geography-1

66(New edition) New Social Studies: Geography-2

66(New edition) New Social Studies: Geography-3

66(New edition) New Social Studies: Geography-4

66(New edition) New Social Studies: History-1

63(New edition) New Social Studies: History-2

63(New edition) New Social Studies: History-3

63(New edition) New Social Studies: Civics-1

62(New edition) New Social Studies: Civics-2

62(New edition) New Social Studies: Civics-3

62(New Edition) New Science 1st Category Part 1-1

75(New Edition) New Science 1st Category Part 1-2

75(New Edition) New Science 1st Category Part 1-3

75(New Edition) New Science 1st Category Part 2-1

27(New Edition) New Science 1st Category Part 2-2

27(New Edition) New Science 2nd Category Part 1-1

74(New Edition) New Science 2nd Category Part 1-2

74(New Edition) New Science 2nd Category Part 1-3

74(New Edition) New Science 2nd Category Part 2-1

26(New Edition) New Science 2nd Category Part 2-2

26

Total:

1,822 textbooks－－CHIDA, K. & SAWADA, M.

been distributed to low vision children/students at schools
for the blind and low vision classes as “Article 107 books,”but in FY2004, MEXT commenced a free-of-charge Largeprinted textbooks distribution program (doc. No.: MEXT
No.46, April 1, 2004) for low vision children/students inordinary elementary and junior high schools.
This free-of-charge-free distribution program provides
textbooks to visually disabled children/students who local
education boards deem have educational needs requiring
the use of Large-printed textbooks. In this case, theschool or municipal education board is required to takepredetermined procedures, and then prefectural education
board, as the coordinating authority, reports to MEXT (seeFigure 1). However, MEXT does not necessarily provide
education boards and teachers with sufficient informationon this program, and often fails to achieve their necessary
understanding. For this reason, MEXT is making an effort
to enhance the understanding of education board members
and teachers about the use of Large-printed textbooks.
Concurrently, the Ministry has requested prefectural
education boards to establish “Large-printed Textbooks
Counseling Desks,” to provide information and counselingservices for children/students needing these specialized
textbooks, the parents of these children with special needs,and Large-printed textbook drafting volunteers (doc. No.:Primary Education No.16, August 2006). In this context,
additionally MEXT has advised that “Braille Textbook
Counseling Desks” need to be established.
On the other hand, schools for the blind are also playing
a role as a local support center for visually impaired
children/students. In FY2005, a “Large-printed Textbook
Network,” was established as a subordinate organizationof the National Association of Visually-Impaired School's
Principals. This network provides information on Largeprinted textbooks and serves as a point-of-contact, together
with the “National Large-printed Teaching Materials
Production Council,” which consists of volunteer groups.
IV. Dissemination of Large-printed Textbooks
1. Changes in social condition/environment of Largeprinted textbooks
There have been significant changes over the past few
years in the editing and use of Large-printed textbooks forlow vision children/students, such as the amendment to the
Copyright Act and the distribution of free-of-charge-freeLarge-printed textbooks.
（１）Free-of-Charge distribution to low vision children/
students
In the past, if Large-printed textbooks have been adopted
for use by schools for special needs education (e.g., schools
for the blind, etc.), or special classes (e.g., low visionclasses) as “Article 107 books,” they have usually been
distributed through the textbook free-of-charge distribution
system as a substitute for authorized textbooks. Since
FY2004, however, Large-printed textbooks have been
available for low vision children/students in ordinary classesof elementary or junior high schools if the appropriateschool authorities approve such usage.
As discussed in the “Introduction” section of this paper,according to a report of MEXT (Elementary/Secondary
Education News, No.38), as of FY2005, approximately
9,000 Large-printed textbooks have been distributed free toapproximately 600 children/students nationwide.
（２）Copyright exemption
Textbook copyright has previously caused problems in
the preparation of Large-printed textbooks. However, since
the partial amendment to the Copyright Act in June 2003—
the Amended Copyright Act came into effect on 1 January
2004—publishers are now able to prepare Large-printed
textbooks without obtaining an individual author’s approval(i.e., in the same manner as used with authorized textbooks).
This has enabled Large-printed textbook drafting volunteers
to start textbook production by simply sending a facsimile
letter to the Textbook Publishers Association of Japan(TPAJ) without obtaining prior approval from authors. In
the case of publishers, they have to pay royalties designatedby the Commissioner of the Cultural Affairs Agency, butthey are also exempt from obtaining author approval.
2. Requirements made of Textbook Publishers（１）M E X T a n d T PA J ( Te x t b o o k P u b l i s h e r s
Association of Japan)
In the 164th Diet session, Commission Members of theHouse of Representatives and the House of Councillors
discussed a “Bill for Partially Amending the School
Education Act.” The lawmakers noted that, “There is only
a limited range of Large-printed textbooks available fromtextbook publishers and Large-printed teaching materials
publishers, so it is necessary to change the current situationin which Large-printed textbooks are produced mainly by
voluntary groups.” Further, they noted that, “They (thepublishers) provide only limited types of digital data, andthe content is inadequate, as well.” When voting on theBill at the committee stage, lawmakers put forward thecollateral resolution: “Efforts should be made for improving
and diffusing Large-printed textbooks for visually-impaired
persons.”
Following this, on 22 July 2006, the Minister for
Education, Mr. Kenji Kosaka, sent a letter to representativesof textbook publishers, stating, “I would like you to
examine publishing Large-printed textbooks. If you don't
do so, I would be grateful if you could make (your) best
efforts, such as actively providing digital data.” In addition,－－Current Status and Difficulties in the Production of Barrier-free Teaching Materials for Low Vision Children: “Large-printed Textbooks”

Figure 1 Flow of paperwork on application for Large-printed textbooks

on 3 August 2006, Mr. Zeniya, the Director-General of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Bureau, fowarded a
notice entitled, “Publishing Large-printed Textbooks andProviding Textbook Digital Data (Notice)” to TPAJ. In
support of Minister Kosaka’s letter, the Director-General's
notice also requested textbook publishers to make theirbest efforts, specifically examining the provision of digital
data, as investigated by the TPAJ “Copyright Taskforce,”
and examining publishing Large-printed versions of current
published textbooks, as investigated by the TPAJ “Largeprinted Textbook Working Group.”
In April 2007, TPAJ established a new unit entitled, the“Large-printed Textbook Investigative Meeting” to start
examining possible approaches for providing digital data
for textbooks and publishing Large-printed versions ofcurrently available textbooks.

（２）Efforts of textbook publishers
To date, the “Mitsumura Tosho Publishing Co., Ltd.” hasbeen preparing/publishing Large-printed versions of its own
textbooks. Mitsumura publishes elementary- and juniorhigh school-level national language textbooks in 22-26
point Gothic font (Table 1). In addition, in FY2007, thetextbook publisher, “Gakko Tosho Co., Ltd.,” published a
Large-printed version of the Junior High National Language
1 textbook. In the production of the Large-printed version,
Gakko Tosho enlarged the A5-sized paper authorized for
textbooks to A4 size (i.e., a 1.4 times larger version). The
font size used was 14-18 points, which is smaller thanLarge-printed textbooks published so far. This Large-printed
version simply looks like a 1.4 times larger version of theauthorized textbooks. However, as pictures and photos areenlarged with the text, Gakko Tosho uses a new typesetting
when preparing these Large-printed textbooks.

－－CHIDA, K. & SAWADA, M.

Best practice is for publishers to prepare and publish
Large-printed versions of their own textbooks. However,Large-printed textbooks are not the same as authorized
textbooks. In addition, as texts and pictorial cuts areenlarged, royalties must be paid to copyright holders. In thissense, even if a publisher expands or produces textbooks,
there are problems. Consideration on these issues will benecessary in the future.
In this context, it is an important that textbook publishers
have begun to publish Large-printed versions of their
textbooks. Nevertheless, authors are expecting to prepare
and publish more Large-printed textbooks in the future.
In this way, the publishing environment of Large-printed
textbooks in Japan has made significant advances.
V. The universal design of textbooks
To create Large-printed textbooks suitable for low visionchildren/students, it is necessary to lie out texts, pictorial
cuts, and photos in an easily identifiable manner by using atext size recognizable by everyone. However, as low visionchildren/students view objects idiosyncratically, there is no“one fit for all” Large-printed textbook.
Low vision students and volunteer groups have beenrequesting the drafting of several types of Large-printed
textbooks suitable for every low vision child/student. In
addition, some volunteer groups that prepare Large-printed
textbooks are calling for textbook publishers to provide thedigital data for authorized textbooks.
As a teaching material, textbooks should be easily
understandable for a wide range of children/students.
However, many currently authorized textbooks are notnecessarily “easily viewable and understandable” for low
vision children/students who have gaps in vision. In fact,
they erect significant barriers to learning.
Large-printed textbooks have been designed to carryenlarged and easily viewable texts, pictorial cuts, andillustrations of ordinary authorized textbooks for low visionchildren/students with weaker eyesight. Materials that areeasily viewable and understandable for low vision persons
should also be easily viewable and understandable forordinary children/students. This also holds true for children
with other diseases.
Through preparing and utilizing Large-printed textbooks,
it is necessary to work on and suggest possible universal
design of textbooks suitable for education for visuallydisabled students.
VI. Future Challenges
Social conditions and the education environment inwhich Large-printed textbooks are used has seen significant
change in the past few years. MEXT commenced a newprogram to provide Large-printed textbooks for low visionchildren/students free-of-charge. Copyright restrictions on
the publication of Large-printed textbooks have also beenrelaxed. In this sense, the education environment of low
vision children/students has improved.
However, to address the educational needs of all the
low vision children/students, there are social problems
remaining that need mitigation and solution. For example,
it is necessary to address the demand-supply imbalance
between the number of Large-printed textbooks currently
available and that of children/students need for suchtextbooks. With the exception of Large-printed textbooks
published by a limited number of Large-printed textbook
publishers, such demand has been met solely by the effortsof Large-printed textbook drafting volunteers. The focusof this initiative is the “National Large-printed Teaching
Materials Production Council.” However, since low visionchildren/students require various types of Large-printed
textbooks, private services from Large-printed textbook
drafting volunteers do not sometimes satisfy the needsof low vision children/students. For this reason, it takes
a longer time to prepare the necessary volume of Largeprinted textbooks.
In addition, low vision students and volunteer groups
have been calling for the drafting of several types of Largeprinted textbooks suitable for each low vision children/
student. In addition, some volunteer groups that prepare
Large-printed textbooks are requesting textbook publishers
to provide the digital data of authorized textbooks. MEXT
encourages textbook publishers to roll out Large-printed
textbooks and provide the supporting digital data. In
response to this request, TPAJ is currently examining
possible approaches for providing digital data andpublishing Large-printed versions of their textbooks. In thisprocess, TPAJ commenced its efforts to provide text data on
some elementary- and junior high school-level textbooks onsocial studies and science for FY2008.
To address these challenges, the central government
should improve Large-printed textbook distribution
programs and textbook publishers should actively engage inthe production and publishing of Large-printed versions of
their current textbooks.
References
1) CHIDA Kouki, OOUCHI Susumu, TANAKA Yoshihiro,
et al.： Empirical Study on Developing Large-printed
Textbook Drafting System and its Impacts on Education,
FY2004-2006 project research report. National Instituteof Special Needs Education, 2007.
2) KAKIZAWA Toshibumi: Survey Research on Causes ofVisual Disabilities of Children/Students at Schools forthe blind and Elementary/Junior High-Level Low vision－ 10 －

Current Status and Difficulties in the Production of Barrier-free Teaching Materials for Low Vision Children: “Large-printed Textbooks”

Classes in Japan, a survey in 2005. Institute of Disability
Science, University of Tsukuba, 2006.
3) KAKIZAWA Toshibumi, KAGAWA Kunio, TORIYAMA
Yoshiko, et al.: Survey Research on Causes of Visual
Disabilities of Children/Students at Schools for the blindand Elementary/Junior High-Level Low vision Classes inJapan, FY2001-2002 Scientific Research Fund Subsidy(Basic Research (C)(2)) Research Outcome Report,
Institute of Disability Science, University of Tsukuba,
2003.
4) KOBAYASHI Kazuhiro: Study on Nanzan Elementary
School Eyesight Preservation Class. Azusa Shobo,
pp.76-80, 1984.
5) NISE, (ed.): Large-printed Textbook Drafting Manual:
Approaches for Preparing Large-printed Textbooks. The
Earth Kyoikushinsha, 2005.

6) D epartment of Educational Support Research andDepartment of Policy and Planning, NISE (ed.): FactFinding Survey on Elementary/Junior High-Level Low
vision Special Classes and Low vision Resource RoomClasses in Japan. FY2003-2005 topic-based research
report, 2005.
7) Department of Education for Visual Impairment Research,
NISE, (ed.): Fact-Finding Survey Report on Elementary/
Junior High-Level Low vision Classes in Japan, 1996.
8) Department of Education for Visual Impairment Research,
NISE, (ed.): Fact-Finding Survey Report on Elementary/
Junior High-Level Low vision Classes and Low vision
Resource Room Classes in Japan, FY2000-2001 survey
research report, 2002.
- Received September 10, 2007; Accepted December 7, 2007 -* EndnoteThis paper is English translation of a paper in published in the Bulleitn of The National Institute of Special Needs Education Vol.
35 (March 2008), the National Institute of Special Needs Education (NISE). For this reason, this paper describes the situation as ofAugust 2007.
NISE has been working on “A Series of Studies on Preparation of Large-printed Textbooks and Educational Support (2002-2007)”
to date. In addition, social conditions have also been changing, such as adopting the “Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (adopted in 2006).” In this context, the Japanese government has been reviewing its education programs for disabled
persons, in particular its policies on low-vision pupils/students.
After that, on June 10, 2008, Japanese lawmakers passed an “Act on Promotion of Distribution of Specified Books, etc. Used as
Textbooks for Disabled Children and Students” in the Diet, which became effective on 17 September, 2008. In line with the principleof equal educational opportunity, this legislation is intended to encourage dissemination of specified books used as textbooks fordisabled pupils/students so that they will able to receive sufficient education, regardless of their disabilities or other characteristic
traits.
As this legislation has come into effect, in terms of encouraging the dissemination of Large-printed textbooks, MEXT is supposed
to develop and publicly announce the standard guidelines on Large-printed textbooks, while textbook publishers are supposed to makebest efforts to publish standard Large-printed textbooks in line with the minister’s guidelines.
In addition, by obliging textbook publishers to provide their textbook digital data to MEXT, etc. Japan has established theframework for smoothly providing the textbook data to Large-printed textbook creation volunteers.
In the wake of this legislation, MEXT developed the standard guidelines on Large-printed textbooks at the compulsory educationlevel (elementary and junior high school levels) in December 2008 and started providing textbook digital data to volunteer groups inFebruary 2009.
In January 2010, the Ministry also developed standard guidelines on Large-printed textbooks at the high school level, thereby
expanding the Large-printed textbook distribution program to the high school level.
(NISE Bulletin Editorial Committee)－ 11 －NISE Bulletin, 10, 13-28, 2010

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks:
The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation Manual
KANEKO Takeshi
Department of Policy and Planning
OOUCHI Susumu
Department of Educational Support

Abstract: This paper presents practical guidelines for making Braille dots drawings in Japanese Braille textbooks. Brailletextbooks prepared in line with ordinary textbooks include not only edited Braille texts but also pictorial cuts converted
to tactile drawings. In the conversion, focus should be on the variety of pictorial cuts and development of tactually
understandable drawings. Tactile drawings made by Braille dots account for a high percentage of tactile drawings used inJapanese Braille textbooks. The paper discusses the underlying theoretical principles and provides practical guidelines with
examples for the production of these drawings. There are five principles as follows.
1) Selection criteria should be developed to choose appropriate pictorial cuts from original ordinary textbooks for theconversion to tactile drawings. Then, as for pictorial cuts not converted to tactile drawings, strategies should be consideredsuch as the replacement of them with suitable text, and so on. 2) The restraints on preparation of Braille dots drawings, suchas line type or length, should be considered. 3) As specific features of tactile and visual perception differ, it is necessary toestablish criteria for making Braille dots drawings, such as determining the appropriate distance between components, and thenumber of components per unit area. 4) Braille dots drawings should be prepared, taking into consideration types of pictorial
cuts in the textbook, particularly in terms of their shape. 5) Braille dots drawings should also be accompanied by detailed
explanatory notes in Braille so that children/students will easily understand the tactile drawings.
Key Words: Tactile drawing, Braille dots drawings, practical guidelines, Braille textbooks, visual impairments

I. Introduction
Braille textbooks authored by the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, in Japan (MEXT)
and used in schools for the visually impaired are edited
and translated into Braille based on original authorized
textbooks. These textbooks include Braille texts translated
from original textbooks as well as pictorial cuts converted
to Braille dots drawings (Endnote 1) or vacuum-formedgraphics (Endnote 2). In the classroom, children/students
read Braille text and touch tactile drawings.
Our nationwide survey of how much tactile teachingmaterials are used in schools for the visually impaired14),
showed approximately 40-50% of respondent schools use
almost all tactile drawings in Japanese language, social
studies, mathematics, and science textbooks. If schools
using two thirds or more of tactile drawings in textbooks
are considered, about 50-60% of respondent schools may
then be estimated to use tactile drawings in textbooks.
The percentage is lower for tactile drawings in Japanese
language, social studies, mathematics, and science
textbooks at the junior high and high school levels, but

about 30-50% of respondent schools use two thirds or moreof the tactile drawings in textbooks.
On the other hand, since original pictorial cuts aredesigned to be visually understandable, simply convertingthese pictorial cuts to tactual drawings in convexed format,
in most cases will not bring about tactilely understandable
pictorial cuts because of the nature of tactile perception.
In addition, since original pictorial cuts are various, it isnecessary to convert them to appropriate tactile drawings
while adapting them to a tactile medium to ensure effective
learning occurs. Furthermore, as most of the drawings in
textbooks are Braille dots drawings that fundamentally only
consist of dots, the conversion of pictorial cuts to tactile
drawings, should take into consideration this nature of
Braille dots drawings.
In addition, if children/students using Braille use
textbooks other than Braille textbooks authored by
MEXT, they need to be translated into Braille, and their
pictorial cuts need to be converted to tactile drawings in an
appropriate manner. Hence, as it is common to ask volunteer
groups to translate Braille texts or tactile drawings, the mosteffective approach is to develop practical guidelines for the
production of tactile drawings. In this case, the practical－ 13 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

guidelines should assume that any output is produced
from Braille printers, rather than zinc plate-based printing(Endnote 3) used by Braille publishers.
Considering these problems, this paper aims to describe
realistic and practical guidelines for the conversion oforiginal pictorial cuts in ordinary textbooks to tactile
drawings, in particular Braille dots drawings, which accountfor majority of these tactical drawings. In addition, thepaper aims to identify the basic principles for preparing amore detailed new “Manual for Making Tactile Graphics”
to address the issue of tactical drawings other than Brailledots drawings.
II. Overview
1. Guidelines for Conversion to Braille Dot Drawings
Braille drawings in MEXT authored Japanese language,social studies, mathematics, science, and English textbooks
used at the elementary and junior high school levels areedited by several editorial board members in respective
field/subject areas. How the editing process is done isdisclosed in the “Braille Textbooks Editorial Guidelines” 8)9). The guidelines also describe the principles applied in theediting of pictorial cuts in the original textbooks. In addition
to these editorial guidelines, a range of documents fromboth Japan and overseas describing practical guidelines fortactile drawings are available 1) 2) 4) 7) 8) 9) 11) 12) 15) 16).
Relevant to the main theme of the paper, some of theseguidelines mention important strategies for converting
pictorial cuts to tactile drawings, while other do notdescribe such guidelines. As this paper aims to propose
practical guidelines for converting pictorial cuts to tactile
drawings, these need to be as comprehensive as possible,
in the context of these documents as well. Some documents
enumerate practical guidelines, but it is necessary to sortout problems in converting pictorial cuts of authorized
textbooks to tactile drawings and describe a theoreticalframework for these guidelines, rather than simply listing
guidelines. By placing practical guidelines in a theoreticalframework, it is possible to prevent overlooking important
guidelines. In addition, for stakeholders directly engaging
in conversion to tactile drawings, such as tactile drawing
volunteers, it is necessary to suggest specific examples
consistent with these practical guidelines.
In this context, the paper proposes some basic principles
as the theoretical basis for converting textbook pictorial
cuts to Braille dots drawings and explains the practicalguidelines for producing Braille dots drawings within sucha theoretical framework. In addition, by selecting actual
pictorial cuts in original textbooks, the paper makes it
possible to provide examples of ‘best practice’ approaches
for conversion to Braille drawings. By doing so, the authors
believe we will able to obtain basic knowledge for the

preparation of a “Manual for Making Tactile Graphics,” asmentioned previously.
2. Basic Principles for Conversion to Braille Dot Drawings
In this paper, five basic principles are proposed:
1)Selection of pictorial cuts converted to tactile drawings:
Since conversion of all pictorial cuts in original textbooks
to tactile drawings is unnecessary or difficult, it is necessary
to select only pictorial cuts considered necessary to convert
to tactile drawings. In addition, those pictorial cuts notconverted to tactile drawings should also be handled in an
appropriate manner.
2) Restraints on conversion to Braille drawings: Whentactile drawings are made in the form of Braille dots
drawings that basically consist of dots only, there are someconstrains in their creation to which editors should pay due
attention.
3) Criteria for preparing Braille dots drawings: Basedon the nature of tactile perception, Braille dots drawings
should satisfy certain criteria, such as the degree of distance
between components and the number of components perunit area. The nature of tactile perception also relates to thesimplification of Braille dot drawings.
4) Creation of Braille dots drawings suitable to types of
pictorial cuts: As pictorial cuts have various characteristics,
this principle relates to how appropriate Braille dots
drawings should be prepared to satisfy each of these various
characteristics of pictorial cuts. Rather than suggesting
guidelines for each of the various pictorial cuts, this paper
advises that at first, pictorial cuts be sorted out based on
the simplification of Braille dots drawings and the essential
information that Braille dots drawings should deliver toreaders.
5) Addition of detailed text information: In addition toingenuity in preparing Braille dots drawings, this principle
calls for the addition of detailed text information so readers
will easily understand the drawings.
Based on the five principles outlined above, this paper
now describes realistic and practical guidelines for the
preparation of Braille dots drawings.
III. Guidelines for Making Braille Dots Drawings
1. S election of pictorial cuts converted to tactile
drawings
Some pictorial cuts from original textbooks do notinclude important information for readers simply because
they form backdrops to the textbook or they are ornamental
pictures, or photos.
In this context, rather than converting all pictorial cuts inthe original textbooks, it is suggested to avoid converting
pictorial cuts with less important information.
This strategy is actually employed when preparing Braille－ 14 －

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks: The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation MauualFigure 1 Original Textbook: New Science 5, Part 1; Tokyo Shoseki; pp.1-3; 2002 edition

textbooks, and is mentioned in Braille textbook editorial
guidelines for each subject 8) 9). Similar strategies are alsomentioned in APH (American Printing House for the Blind)(1997) 1) and Sheppard, L. et al. (2000) 16).
On the other hand, even if pictorial cuts such as photos
or complicated maps contain important information, insome cases it is difficult to convert them to tactile drawings.
In these cases, rather than simply avoiding conversion totactile drawings, it is suggested they be replaced by text
information. This strategy is used in practice for Brailletextbooks and a similar strategy is used by the American
Printing House for the Blind (APH, 1997).
In addition, according to Braille editorial guidelines, if

it is difficult to replace pictorial cuts with text information,teachers are advised to teach using oral explanation, andmodels or large tactile maps. According to Sheppard et al.
(2000) 16), teachers should demonstrate actual objects rather
than tactile drawing, such as coils, if they are easier tocomprehend.
Based on the aforementioned perspectives, it isappropriate to adopt the following strategies: (a) editors
should avoid converting a pictorial cut to a tactile drawing
if it does not include important information; (b) editors
should replace a pictorial cut with text information only if it
includes important information but is impossible or difficult
to convert to a tactile drawing; and (c) if a pictorial cut－ 15 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

includes important information but is impossible to convert
to tactile drawing or text information, teachers should teachusing oral explanation, models, actual objects, large tactile
maps and other teaching materials.
The following supplemental observations on strategies(a-c) are appropriate. Strategy (a) does not mean deleting
pictorial cuts from original textbooks as much as possible,
but rather calls for the conversion of original textbook’s
pictorial cuts from original textbooks as much as possible.
As mentioned in APH (1997) 1), as the skills of children/
students to perceive tactile drawings are enhanced bytouching tactile drawings, editors should actively insert
tactile drawings into the textbooks of low-grade children to
stimulate their perceptual response. In Strategy (b), whenreplacing pictorial cuts with text information, existing
Braille textbooks either do so by taking advantage oftexts accompanied with original photos or figure fromthe original textbook, or insert the information of phots
or figures in the text. Concerning Straetgy (c), if models
or large tactile maps are unavailable, it is suggested thatteachers prepare these resource materials themselves. Evenif tactile drawings are available in Braille textbook, teachers
should sometimes prepare and use tactile drawings ormodels to supplement tactile drawings.
In this context, based on existing Braille textbooks andBraille editorial guidelines, the following is an exampleof the selection of pictorial cuts for conversion to tactile
drawings. A further example given is substituting text
information for pictorial cuts not converted to tactile
drawings. (see Figure 1)
On Pages 1-3 of the elementary school 5th grade science
textbook, pictures of three children and a scenic photo (seetop of Page 1) in the original textbook, as shown in Figure
1, have not been converted to tactile drawings or replacedwith text information. This is because they do not include
important information.
The illustration and photo at the bottom of Page 1 doinclude important information, but have been replaced withthe following texts because of the difficulty involved inconverting them to tactile drawings.
John: “From weather forecast on radio or TV program, we areable to know the weather tomorrow.”
Mary: “Newspapers have a weather forecast column that
includes precipitation probability and weekly forecast.”

As for Pages 2-3 of the same textbook, pictorial cuts inthe original textbook include important information, buthave not been converted to tactile drawings. Instead, theinformation included in the pictorial cuts is inserted in the
text as follows:
Forecasts of weather changes in newspapers or on TV programs
include local weather, the nephogram of a weather satellite, andprecipitation information from the AMeDAS.
The nephogram shows cloud images based on data sent from aweather satellite. AMeDAS precipitation information is in a bar
chart that shows automatically measured local precipitation on a
4-point scale (“small,” “rather small,” “rather large,” and “large”)
on a map of the Japanese islands.

Figure 2 shows texts and pictures on Pages 8-9 of theelementary school level 1st Grade National Language
textbooks. The text portion is translated to Braille as it is—“Would you read out a story?”— whilst the picture portionis converted to text data as follows:
Different Kinds of Stories
The Monkey and the Crab
Urashima and the Kingdom Beneath the Sea
Bremen Town Musicians
Three Little Pigs

Figure 3 shows a photo and the text of Page 4 of theelementary school level 3rd/4th grade Social Studies
textbooks. The photo is omitted but is converted to text
information, whilst taking advantage of the description in
the original textbook that accompanies the photo. That is,“There is the same mark in a lot of different locations, suchas a white bus body, a billboard of ‘Kobe City Kobe-EkiMae Bicycle Parking Lot’, and a manhole describing it as‘Kobe Rainwater.’ What on earth are these kind of marks?”(Endnote 4)
2. Restraints on conversion to Braille drawings
There are various approaches for preparing tactile
drawings, such as Braille dots drawings, vacuum-formedgraphics, gluing down tactile materials, Stereo Copying, theraised writer approach, and UV-curable resin ink printing.
They also have different and separate characteristics.6)
Among these approaches, essentially Braille dots
drawings only consist of dots; their points, lines, andsurfaces are composed only of dots (Endnote 5). This posessome constraints when preparing Braille dots drawings.
This section describes the types of dots actually used forBraille textbooks and Braille printers, and then describes
their constraints. It describes the Braille printer, ESA721
Ver. ’95, which is compatible with all Braille drawing
software currently available in Japan, such as EDEL, Tenzukun, and BES (Endnote 6).
（１）Dot types
Braille dots drawings use several different kinds of dots.
There are five to six dot types for Braille textbooks and one
to three dot types for Braille printers (Endnote 7).
As an example of dots used in Braille textbooks, Table 1
shows the dot types and dot sizes used in junior high school－ 16 －

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks: The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation MauualFigure 2 Original Textbook: National Language 1, Part 1; Mitsumura Tosho; pp.8-9; 2002 edition

Figure 3 Original Textbook: New Social Studies 3/4, Part 1; Tokyo Shoseki; (a portion of) pp.4; 2002 editionlevel Science (Category 1) textbooks and those available for
the Braille printer, ESA721 Ver. ’95.
When comparing dot types between Braille textbooks
and Braille printers, Braille printers do not have the verylarge and medium-small dots of Braille textbooks. Brailleprinters have almost the same dot sizes as large, medium
and small dots used in Braille textbooks. Medium size

dots are the same size as Braille dots used for both Brailletextbooks and Braille printers.
（２）Line width available
In the aforementioned example, Braille textbooks have
five different dot sizes, while Braille printer ESA721 Ver.’95
has three different dot sizes.

－ 17 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

Table 1 Dot Sizes of Braille Textbooks and Braille Printersa. Dot Types of Braille Textbooks (Junior High School level
Science (Category 1 textbooks)
Dot type*

Dot size
Dot base diameter (mm)Very large

2.7

Large

1.8

Medium

1.5

Medium-small

1.2

Small

0.8

*Unauthorized names applied for convenience by the authors
b. Dot Types for Braille Printer, ESA721 Ver. ’95
Dot type*

Dot size
Dot base diameter (mm)

Large

1.7

Medium

1.5

Small

0.7

*Unauthorized names applied for convenience by the authors

dots are used for people, hand trucks, and other goods.
Large dots are partly used as lines, such as for highlighted
arrows, and in most cases very large dots rather than lines
are used as points, such as for points on graphs and city
locations. If small dots express a line, they are often used as
constituting auxiliary lines, such as leader lines. They arealso used to form surface patterns, such as marking out asurface. If five dot types are available, editors may use themfor different purposes as mentioned above.
On the other hand, only three dot types are available for
the Braille printer, ESA721 Ver. ’95.
In the case of Braille printers, the unavailability of
medium to small dots used with medium dots to express amajor line in Braille textbooks, poses significant constraints
when expressing a line. For example, if attempting to use
small dots for surface patterns and two line types for othermajor lines in a single drawing, editors have no choice but
to use medium and large dots to express these two lines.
However, large dots are too big to give refined expressions.
In addition, since the very large dots of Braille textbooks
are unavailable for Braille printers, if points on a graph orcity locations are expressed with a large dot, medium andsmall dots are only available for expressing lines.
In this way, a smaller range of expressions, such as
points, lines, or surfaces, is available for Braille printers
than for Braille textbooks. In this sense, editors need toexercise their ingenuity in expressing Braille dots drawings,
taking into consideration these constraints.

In Braille dots drawings, the expression of dots, lines andsurfaces is determined by a range of differing dot sizes.
In Braille dots drawings, lines, the most basic componentof a drawing, are also expressed with a series of dots using
small intervals in the form of a line. As a result, line widthavailability also depends on dot sizes. In the aforementioned
example, there are five kinds of line width available forBraille textbooks and three types of line width available for
the Braille printer, ESA721 Ver. ’95.
Although five kinds of line width are available for Brailletextbooks, it does not mean that all of these line widths
are usable in a single drawing. Braille users are able todistinguish different line types by touching on multiplelines at the same time. However, since their tactile field israther small, Braille users are not necessarily able to touchthem at the same time, and in some situations, are unable todistinguish different line types. For this reason, line types
in a single drawing should be limited to three or less line
types.

（４）Line length
As lines are expressed with a series of dots in Braille dot
drawings, editors face constraints in terms of line length
available.
That is, for Braille textbooks, if taking the minimum
length with three points, the distance between the center ofthe end point is 5mm for large dots, 4mm for medium dots,
3.8mm for medium to small dots, and 3mm for small dots.
In contrast, for the Braille printer, ESA721 Ver. ’95 (Endnote8), it is 5mm for large dots, 4mm for medium dots, and
3mm for small dots.
These facts also pose constraints on the expression ofclosed graphics. For example, a square requires a side of atleast 3-4mm long.

（３）How to use dots
In the case of the aforementioned Braille textbooks, itappears that medium and medium to small dots are used formain lines. For example, junior high school level Science(1st Category) Braille textbooks have many examples using
two dot types in a single drawing for different purposes.
In a single drawing, medium to small dots are used for thevertical and horizontal axes of graphs, medium dots areused for graph lines and ground lines, and medium to small

3. Criteria on preparing Braille dots drawings
In general, if tactile drawings, including Braille dots
drawings, are expressed by simply convexing the contours
or boundaries of original pictorial cuts, in many cases
Braille users may not tactilely understand the tactile
drawings owing to the nature of tactile perception.
Visually recognizable graphics are sometimes not tactilely
recognizable because tactile perception has lower spatial
acuity and narrower tactile field than visual perception. In－ 18 －

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks: The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation Mauualcomparison, as the smallest tactile field is only as large asa fingertip, Braille users inevitably pick-up unnecessary
information as long as it is located in the fingertip. Due tosynergy effect of these factors, tactile perception of graphics
is rather difficult.
In this context, all of the editorial guidelines for tactile
drawings recommend avoiding complexity and making agraphic as simple as possible.
Then, what degree of complexity or simplicity isappropriate? What kind of criteria is desirable?
How large these numerical values should be forperceptible graphics is explained in terms of the complexityof a graphic from the orientation of two numerical values: (a)the distance between two components; and, (b) the numberof components per unit area. In relation to the former
numerical value, this section also presents an argument for
how large a Braille dots drawing should be.
（１）Distance between components
If a distance between two adjacent components is smaller
than a certain value, such a visually recognizable distanceis tactilely imperceptible. This is because tactile perception
has lower spatial acuity (i.e., lower resolution) than visual
perception. The spatial acuity of tactile perception ismeasured with the value of two-point threshold, which
varies among research projects, but stands at 2-3mm in thecase of a finger distal pad.18) 19) 20)
The following section explores the distance between two
components by simplifying the argument as the distance oftwo parallel lines. In this case, if the distance between the
two lines is smaller than a certain value, it is not recognized
as two different lines, and Braille users sometimes perceive
there to be no space between them. This numerical value
ranges from 2 to 6mm, depending on research projects 1)
2) 4) 11) 15) 16). Some of these projects discuss the values of
the aforementioned two-point threshold on fingertips 2) 11),
while others do not. As these latter projects do not mention
specific experiments, they probably argue the empiricalvalues of tactile drawings users who actually touch twolines.
Amongst these projects, research projects that highlight
2mm as the two-point threshold 11) 16) encourage Braille
editors to “create a distance at 2mm or more,”, and “leave
space at least 2mm wide,” respectively. Of the three projects
calling for a 6mm distance 1) 4) 15), two 1) 15) mention thatless than a 6mm space between the two lines might lead to“difficulties of recognizing two lines,”, or prevent Brailleusers from “easily distinguishing the two lines,”. The last
project 4) states that Braille users “tend to recognize them as
a bold line.”
In this context, some researchers stress the problems
involved. For example, a two-point threshold would havedifferent values due to gaps in the discrimination abilities

of examinees as well as in experimental conditions. Thatis, sometimes different experimental equipment is used,or researchers ask examinees for the specific distance inwhich they certainly perceive two lines, or for the specificdistance in which they perceive something other than one
line 5) 17). In addition, when measuring two-point thresholds,
researchers generally use equipment such as slide gauges orcompasses, and place them on the examinees’ fingers. On
the other hand, when examinees touch two lines on tactile
drawings, they put their fingers on the paper and move theirfingers around. In the finger/hand rehabilitation field, theformer approach is called “static discrimination,” while
the latter is called “moving discrimination”, a procedure inwhich testing technicians put two points and move on thefingers of examinees 10). Some reports argue that examinees
are normal if the value of moving discrimination is 2mm. 3)
In fact, researchers should conduct experiment researchby providing two lines with different intervals and asking
examinees to detect the distance value in which they clearly
identify them as two different lines. However, based on thearguments presented here, the authors tentatively suggestthat the distance between two components should be at least
2mm.
（２）Size of Braille dots drawings
If line width is different, the distance between the edgesof two lines will also vary, even if the graphic is the same
size. This is because, if the distance between the two lines’
centers remains unchanged, the distance between the edgesof the two lines is the distance between the centers of thetwo lines minus the width of the line.
Original textbooks usually utilize lines of 0.2mm wide.
Pictorial cuts with a 1mm distance between the edgesof two lines of 0.2 mm wide are also frequently seen inoriginal textbooks. In this case, the distance between centersof these two lines is 1.2mm.
If attempting to convert this pictorial cut to a tactile
drawing with medium to small dots, the distance betweenedges of two lines will be zero because the line width is
1.2mm (i.e., 1.2-1.2mm). If this is so, editors are unable toconvert the original pictorial cut to tactile drawing at thesame size.
If the standard value for the distance between edges ofthese two lines is 2mm—as mentioned earlier—the distance
between the centers of the lines should be a minimum of
3.2mm (i.e., 2mm+1.2mm). For this reason, to convert theoriginal pictorial cut to tactile drawing so that the standard
value for the distance between two lines is satisfied, editors
need to alter the size of pictorial cut. In this case, theyneed to expand the original pictorial cut by 2.7 times (i.e.
3.2mm/1.2mm) so that the distance between the line centersis 3.2mm.
In sum, if converting an original pictorial cut to Braille－ 19 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

Figure 4 Japanese atlas in junior high school social studies textbook on geography(Original Textbook: Junior High Social Studies: Geography; Kyoiku-Shuppan; pp.51; 2002 edition)(The atlas is enlarged and turned so that it would fit one page of Braille textbook version. The size of one page is marked with dotted lines.)

dots drawing without changing the pictorial cut proportion,
editors should identify the shortest distance between twolines on the original pictorial cut, measure the distance
between centers of these two lines (a distance referred to as“a”), then calculate the numerical value of the line width of
the tactile drawing plus the standard value (i.e., 2mm in thiscase)—this numerical value is referred to as ‘b’, and finallycalculate ‘b’ divided by ‘a’. If the value (b/a) is greaterthan 1, editors may not convert the original pictorial cut toa Braille dots drawing without changing the graphic size. In
this case, the necessary enlargement factor will depend on
the numerical value of ‘b/a’.
As a specific example, this section explains how toconvert the Japan Atlas used in junior high geography(Figure 4), to Braille dots drawing so that the atlas will fit asingle page size in a Braille textbook.
The coastlines of Boso Peninsula, Miura Peninsula,and Izu Peninsula are used for the example (See Figure
6 and Figure 7). First, the lines used in the originalatlas's coastlines are approximately 0.2mm in width. If
the coastlines of Boso, Miura, and Izu Peninsulas areconverted to Braille dots drawings with 1.2mm-wide lines,
Miura Peninsula will touch Boso Peninsula (Figure 5)
and Tokyo Bay will no longer look like a bay. In fact, theshortest distance between the coastlines of Miura and Boso
Peninsulas on the original atlas is 1.2 mm between theline centers. If 1.2mm-wide lines were used, the distance
between the two lines would be zero. That is, withoutchanging the atlas size, it is impossible to convert Boso,
Miura and Izu Peninsulas to a Braille dots drawing in thesame proportion as the original atlas.
As stated earlier, if the standard value for the distance
between these two lines is 2mm, editors must enlarge theatlas by at least 2.7 times to express these three peninsulasin the same proportion as the original atlas by using 1.2mm
lines.
If the original atlas shown in Figure 5 is enlarged 3.0
times, which is slightly larger than the 2.7 times, theresultant Braille dots drawing atlas is as shown in Figure 6.
If there is an upper limit for the graphic size of Brailledot drawings, and the necessary enlargement factor isunavailable, editors need to simplify or deform the original－ 20 －

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks: The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation MauualFigure 5 Braille drawings of three peninsulas (in full-size drawing)

Figure 6 3-fold enlarged Braille drawings of three peninsulas (in full-size drawing)

Hokkaido

HonshuBoso Peninsula
Izu Peninsula
Shikoku
KyushuFigure 7 Braille drawings in the case of two components in 6x6mm grids(The space among 4 islands Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu is larger than the original drawing so that it will stand at 2mm or longer.)－ 21 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

pictorial cuts.
（３）Number of components per unit area
The complexity of pictorial cuts is also measured by the
number of components per unit area, such as the number ofcontinuous lines and curves and the number of separated
components.
If the number of components per unit area assumesa smaller value, the pictorial cut is simpler and lesscomplicated. When making tactilely recognizable Brailledots drawings, how many components are appropriate perunit area?
Bris (2003) 2) recommends a 6 x 6mm grid should
include only two tactile drawing components for each. As
mentioned above, the number of components in this context
includes the number of continuous components, such ascontinuous lines and curves. Bris (2003) insists on two
components in a 6x6 mm grid for the following reasons:(a) a Braille letter plus a space with the next Braille letter
would be almost equal to 6x6 mm; and (b) distinguishing
Braille letters means distinguishing a pattern consisting of
two elements, considered as two lines.
Further investigation is necessary to validate thiscriterion, as well as its theoretical base. However, it is aneffective approach to create a certain sized grid as a unit
area and to count the maximum number of components in
the grids to quantify simplicity.
Figure 7 is an example of 6x6 mm grids and contour
lines in the aforementioned Japanese atlas, based on above
criteria, converted to Braille dots drawings to fit one pageof a Braille textbook. In this case, some portions of theJapanese atlas, such as Miura Peninsula or Chita Peninsula,
have necessarily been omitted. If editors intend to express
these omitted portions, they need to convert them into
Braille dot drawings by enlarging the portions.
4. Creation of Braille dots drawings suitable to typesof pictorial cuts—simplification and essential
information.
If editors intend to prepare a Braille dots drawings as
simple as possible consistent with the abovementioned
guidelines, it is important to omit less important informationand to simplify the original pictorial cut so that important
information is delivered to readers. For this purpose, editors
need to identify what is essential information in the original
pictorial cuts.
Simplification is not difficult if the original pictorial cut
is less important in terms of its shape or may take a simpler
shape. However, editors have a serious problem if the shapeof the original pictorial cut is important. In this context,
when converting to Braille dots drawing, it is useful todistinguish pictorial cuts in which their shape is importantand those in which their shape is less important or is

acceptable in a simpler shape.
Hereinafter, by distinguishing these two cases, thissection distinguishes pictorial cuts from the viewpoint ofwhat kind of information should be delivered to readers,
and then describes more practical guidelines for various
pictorial cuts.
（１）Pictorial cuts in which shape is less important or is
acceptable in a simpler shapea. Graphs
Graphs, including bar graphs, line graphs, band graphs,
and circle graphs, essentially express numerical values inrelation to a certain topic in the form of a bar, line, band, or
sector form. For this reason, in most cases original pictorial
cuts are also relatively simple. In this situation, a tactile
drawing should only express bars, lines, bands, or sector
forms, which are also tactilely understandable.
If expressing these data in Braille dots drawings, editors
should only pay attention to the following points: (a)describing vertical/horizontal axes of bar or line graphs
in a weaker tone than data lines or bars; (b) simplifying
numerical values on these axes; (c) expressing backgroundgrids of graphs by embossing on the inside of the paper(Endnote 9); and, (d) describing bars of bar graphs as aseries of dots in a row to three rows. By doing so, theresultant tactile drawing will be tactilely recognizable, even
if it takes a similar form to the original graph. However, if
the original graph is a plate-like 3D graph, looks diagonally,
is a plate-like circle graph, or is an oval-shaped circle graph,
editors should convert it to a 2D rectangle or circular form
to make it tactilely understandable.
The following are examples of circle and line graphsfrom elementary school level Social Studies textbooks (SeeFigures 8 and 9). In these examples, the oval-shaped circle
graph has been converted to a circular form, while the line
graph is expressed in the same manner as the original graph.
A problem occurs if multiple numerical values areprovided in relation to a certain topic. In this case, editors
may divide the graph to describe two or so numerical values
for each of these graphs.
This strategy is also recommended in the elementary
school level Social Studies chapter of the current Brailletextbook editorial guidelines 8).
b. Schematic diagrams
Schematic diagrams graphically illustrate functions ofa certain thing, configurations/interactions among various
portions, or flow of goods or information. Rather thanimitating the exact form of the original, schematic diagrams
are often illustrated in a simplified or deformed manner.
Some schematic diagrams illustrate intangible stuff as well.
To be more specific, examples of schematic diagrams
include creature’s organic functions diagrams, electrical－ 22 －

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks: The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation MauualFigure 8 Braille drawing of circle graph (Elementary school social studies textbook for 5th graders)

Figure 9 Braille drawing of line graph (Elementary school social studies textbook for 5th graders)

diagrams for science, and flowcharts for social studies.
Schematic diagrams by definition essentially illustrate
functions of a certain thing, configurations/interactions
among various portions, or flow of goods or information.
Their shapes are not necessarily an emulation of their
originals. They may take a simpler shape as long as they
accomplish their purpose.
Original pictorial cut has rather simple shape in somecases. Even if it takes complicated shape, schematic
diagrams may get simplified or deformed in an easily
understandable manner as long as they deliver essential

information.
Here is an example of an electrical circuit in the current
Braille textbooks on science (see Figure 10). This example
essentially illustrates how a battery, switch, bulb andelectric wires are connected. Since the original pictorial cut
is simple, this is an example of converting to Braille dots
drawing as it is.
Then, although the original textbook illustrates a pictorial
cut that looks similar to the real goods, here is an example
of a pictorial cut that serves as a schematic diagram and isconvertible to Braille dots drawing (see Figure 11). In this－ 23 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

Figure 10 Braille drawing of electric circuits (Junior high school science 1st category textbook)Figure 11 Braille drawing of electrical current direction (Junior high school science 1st category textbook)example, the pictorial cut essentially illustrates direction ofelectric current, and the shape of actual battery, miniaturebulb or conductive wires, as shown in the original pictorial
cut, is not so important. For this reason, they are illustrated
in a simplified manner in Braille dots drawing. In addition,
this example appropriately deforms the shape of positiveelectrode because it essentially illustrates the electrical flowfrom positive electrode to negative electrode.
By the same token, if experimental tools or experimented
plants/animals are shown in an explanatory drawing forscience experiment, and their configuration or task flow ismore important than their exact shapes, then this kind of
explanatory drawing should be treated in the same manneras schematic diagram. In the same manner, if a functional
diagram of organs of living creature is able to get simplified
as mentioned earlier, it is easily recognizable tactilely.
（２）Pictorial cuts in which their shape is importanta. Photos and pictures
Among photos or pictures of goods or animals/plants,
there are ones in which their expressions are dependent on
the shape of objects.
In this case, Braille dots drawings should express as
similar shape as possible to original pictorial cuts.
Even in this case, if simplification is necessary, editors
should simplify the pictorial cut, taking into consideration－ 24 －

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks: The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation Mauualessential information that should be delivered by thepictorial cut. For example, if a pictorial cut is designed toshow a certain animal/plant species, it is necessary to put apriority on important characteristics that distinguish themfrom other species. If it is designed to depict a species
group, for example insects in general, it is necessary to
express their clear characteristics, such as three bodysections (i.e., head, bosom and abdomen) and six legs
attached to the bosom region.
b. Maps
Maps show actual landforms. The shape of coastal lines,
river flow lines, and prefectural boundaries has meanings
because it represents actual landforms.
On the other hand, if it has a complicated shape, tactile
drawing of such map is not tactilely imperceptible.
As explained in the example of Braille dots drawing ofJapanese atlas, if Braille users are supposed to understandthe exact shape, proportion or positional relationship ofBoso Peninsula, Miura Peninsula and Izu Peninsula, editors
should pay due attentions to partially enlarging the atlas.
As explained earlier, if expression is necessary in alimited space, editors should omit minor information anddepict rather rough information.
5. Addition of detailed text information
As explained above, editors should create Braille dots
drawings in line with practical guidelines by simplifying
the original pictorial cuts to deliver essential information toreaders, taking into consideration the content of the original
pictorial cuts. In addition, editors may offer text informationon the Braille dots drawing before showing the Braille dots
drawing.
In this relation, Japan Braille Library’s Working Groupon “Introduction to Tactile Drawings for translation into
Braille” (1988) 12) calls for editors to include the text
information as follows.
1) Basic concepts that should be known to readers before
they read the drawing2) Overall layout of the drawing3) Explanations on each portion of the drawing4) E xplanations on explanatory notes in Braille (Ifinserting Braille explanatory notes in the drawing,necessary text information is unable to get inserted asa whole and is replaced with its summary. In this case,commentary on the text information is necessary.)
Providing such information prior to Braille dots drawing
would facilitate reader’s understanding of the Braille dots
drawing. In particular, this strategy is necessary because
Braille users are facing difficulties in grasping overalldrawing at once due to their tactile field much narrower thanvisual field of ordinary persons. In other words, providing

such text information prior to a drawing will compensate
the limitations of tactile perception that only provides
partial information and will facilitate understanding of theentire picture.
On the other hand, the current Braille textbooks do
not include detailed text information to this extent. They
include explanations on the marks in Braille dots drawings
or explanatory notes in Braille (mentioned in above 4)) at
best.
This is probably because Braille textbook editors
assume that teachers would make explanations on Brailledots drawings in the classroom. However, more detailed
text information would be necessary at least for children/
students’ self-study purposes.
Someone argue that Braille dots drawings would be
unnecessary if text information explains Braille dots
drawings. However, understanding from text information
would be basically different from understanding bytouching a Braille dots drawing.
In this relation, let us look at an example by referring to
the said book 12) and actual examples of the said textbook.
For example, as to Braille dots drawing that illustrates how
convex lens would work in junior high school level science
category 1 textbook as shown in Figure 12, the following
text information might be provided prior to the Braille dots
drawing.
In this illustration, a convex lens is located vertically, and lightcomes from the left side, goes through the convex lens, andforms a focus on the right side.
The convex lens is divided to five sections. The lines represent
how the light goes through each of these sections. How muchthe light is refracted is different among these sections. The lightis refracted at a larger angle at the top and bottom sections.
Refraction gets weaker at the second section from the top as
well as the second section from the bottom. In the center section,
the light is not refracted and goes straight.
For this reason, the light gathers at a certain point on the rightside of the convex lens, forming the focus.

To enhance children/students’ abilities of tactile drawing
perception, the authors believe that children/students should
read the text and touch Braille drawing by comparing
between the text and the drawing.
IV. Discussion
1. Conversion to tactile drawing in Braille dots drawingform
As explained earlier, Braille dots drawings are uniqueformat because they basically consist of dots only. They
have some limitations, such as line width or shortest line
length, resulting from dot types available.
In particular, as three dot types are only available,－ 25 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

Figure 12 Example of adding detailed text information (Junior high school science 1st category textbook)

Braille printers provide much narrower expressions than
Braille textbook publishers, which are capable of using
approximately 5 dot types.
If editors use Braille printers, they need to exercise theiringenuity for expressions in textbooks. It is expected that
manufacturers will develop Braille printers equipped with awider variety of dot types.
Such Braille printers are necessary because teachers needto prepare Braille dots drawings as teaching aids of Brailletextbooks, or to provide Braille dots drawings for Brailleusers commuting to ordinary classrooms, where such Brailledots drawings are not printed at Braille printing houses.
This paper (see III. 2. (2)) argues that a single drawing
should have three line types at maximum because tactile
field is smaller. This does not mean that three dot types areenough. As for line types, it is important to use three line
types (out of five types) in an appropriate manner, taking
into consideration dots used for surface patterns or location
points.
In terms of improvement in Braille printers, someproblems are pointed out in a research project that prepared
computer-based Braille dots drawings in line with thoseon Braille textbooks and evaluated the output from Brailleprinter 13). One of the authors of this paper has worked on
this research project. In this project, he prepared Brailledots drawings with Braille dots drawings creation software
EDEL and Braille printer ESA721 Ver. ’95 mentioned
earlier. Unlike Braille dots drawings on the textbook, he
has found some problems: Dots are not neatly arranged instraight lines or curves; dots are not evenly distributed insome portions; and small dots are embossed higher than
medium or large dots. In addition to the aforementioned

problems, the authors hope that these problems get solved.
2. Simplification in preparing Braille dots drawings
As criteria for creating Braille dots drawings, this paper
points out the distance between two points and the numberof components per unit area.
From the past research projects, the former should be
2mm-6mm, or at least 2mm, while the 6x6 mm unit area
should include two components at maximum in terms of thelatter, as explained earlier.
Further examinations will be necessary to check out
feasibility of these criteria. However, as tactile drawings
should be simple as much as possible, editors should follow
more concrete guidelines, such as giving the distance
between two lines as large as possible, and reducing thenumber of components per unit area as much as possible.
Simplification in line with these criteria does notmean that editors should simply satisfy these criteria. As
mentioned earlier in this paper, editors should simplify
pictorial cuts so that their essential information will get
delivered to readers, taking into consideration importance of
their shapes as well as characteristics of pictorial cuts, suchas graphs, schematic diagrams, pictures, photos or maps.
3. Making appropriate Braille dots drawings suitable totypes of pictorial cuts
Rather than explaining how to convert all types of
pictorial cuts to appropriate Braille dots drawings, thispaper only discusses a limited number of pictorial cut types,
such as graphs, schematic diagrams, photos, pictures andmaps. For example, this paper omits geometric figuresin mathematics. In addition, schematic diagrams include－ 26 －

Tactile Graphics in Braille Textbooks: The Development of a Tactile Graphics Creation Mauualvarious pictorial cuts with different characteristics eachother. It is important to suggest practical guidelines forconverting each of these graphic types to Braille dots
drawings in an appropriate manner, and further efforts arenecessary to do so.
However, as stated above in this paper, rather than
exhaustively suggesting how to convert various pictorial
cuts to Braille dots drawings, it would be more effective
to suggest concrete and practical guidelines by sorting out
pictorial cuts based on importance of their shapes as well as
the essential information that they should deliver to readers.
4. E ducation expertise in preparing Braille dots
drawings
As for the current Braille textbooks, editorial board
members are responsible for selecting which original
textbook’s pictorial cuts should be converted to Brailledots drawings. In addition, they also give instructions on
which pictorial cuts would not be converted to Braille dots
drawings and should be replaced with text information.
These selections and instructions cannot be done without
knowledge on visual disabilities and each subject of school
curriculum.
This paper has argued that pictorial cuts should be
simplified so that their essential information would get
delivered to readers. This task cannon be done either,
without knowledge on such subject and the contents of their
portions. This also holds true when adding detailed text
information to Braille dots drawings.
An important matter is who should do these tasks whentranslating textbooks to Braille textbooks for Braille users
commuting to ordinary classroom. Rather than simply
depending on Braille creation volunteer groups, visuallyimpaired person’s schools in local communities should play
more active roles in these tasks, for example.
Endnote 1: Braille dots drawing means a graphic thatconsists of dotted lines or dot patterns and embossed withdots similar to Braille dots used on Braille-use sheets.
Endnote 2: In vacuum-formed graphics, original drawings
are duplicated in the following manner: (a) producing a
convex original plate; (b) heat-treating the original plateafter putting a plastic sheet on it; (c) softening-up the sheet
and extracting the air from inside to closely attach theoriginal plate and the plastic sheet; (d) detaching the sheet
from the original plate.
Endnote 3: Zinc plate printing means embossing dots on
paper by embossing dots at the same location on two zincplates, and then inserting Braille-use paper between thesetwo zinc plates and applying pressure with a roller. When
preparing Braille drawings in this manner, tools may be

used to manually emboss the dots onto the zinc plates. In
addition, various types of dots are available, depending on
the tools used. It is also possible to neatly prepare straightlines, curves, and surface patterns by adjusting embossed
dots.
Endnote 4: Hereinafter, all Braille textbooks cited in thispaper are the current 2002 version, as are all original
textbooks corresponding to the Braille textbooks.
Endnote 5: Braille textbooks also include short lines as well
as arrow-head-like combinations of short lines (“<” and “>”)printable with the tools available at Braille printing houses.
Endnote 6: Another printer, NewESA721, that belongs
to the same product series as ESA721 Ver.’95, is also
compatible with Braille creation software. There is nodifference in dot types and dot sizes.
Endnote 7: Different Braille textbooks use slightly different
dot types. This is probably due to the differing dot types
used by Braille textbook publishers and Braille dot creators.
Endnote 8: The Braille drawing creation software, EDEL,
is capable of adjusting the distance between dots. The
abovementioned data represent the distance between dotswith the numerical values 6, 4, or 7 when EDEL is used for
creating Braille dots drawings.
Endnote 9: “Embossing on the inside of paper” means
embossing a dot on the opposite to the ordinary side of
paper. Ordinary dots take a convex shape, but “embossing
on the inside of paper” will yield hollow-like dots.
References
1) A PH (American Printing House for the Blind);“Guidelines for design of tactile graphics,”
http://www.aph.org/edresearch/guide.hem; APH; 1977.
2) Bris, M.; “Recommandation pour la trans-cription de
documents”; CNEFEI Suresnes; 2003.
3) D ellon, A. L.; “Evaluation of sensibility and reeducation of sensation in hand”; Williams and Wilkins;
1981.
4) Edman, P. K.; “Tactile graphics”; AFB press; 1992.
5) I wamura, Y.; “Sense of Touch” <Neuropsychology
collection>; Igaku-Shoin; pp.1-24; 2001．
6) Kaneko, T. and Oouchi, S.; “Practical Guidelines forConverting to Braille Dots Drawings and Characteristics
of Tactile Drawings,” FY2002 research report of
Department of Visual Impairment Education: Study on
Tactile- and Auditory-Perceptible Teaching Materials
Creation Systems for Individual Child with Visual－ 27 －

KANEKO, T. & OOUCHI, S.

Disability; NISE; pp.6-15; 2003．
7) M iyata, N.; “The World of Braille Dots Drawings”;
Visual Disability Research 27; pp.3-35; 1988
8) Special Support Education Division, Elementary andSecondary Education Bureau, MEXT; “VisuallyImpaired Person’s Schools Elementary School Division
Braille Textbook Editorial Guidelines”; MEXT; 20029) Special Support Education Division, Elementary andSecondary Education Bureau, MEXT; “VisuallyImpaired Person’s Schools Junior High School Division
Braille Textbook Editorial Guidelines”; MEXT; 200210)Nakada, M. and Iwasaki, T.; “Evaluation and Efficient
Use of Sensory Perception: Reeducation of Hand
Sensory Perception”; Kyodo Isho Shuppan; 200311) B raille Map Symbol Committee, Braille Publishing
Taskforce, Japan Visually-Impaired Persons’ Welfare
Facilities Association; “Walking-use Tactile Map
Creation Handbook”; Japan Visually-Impaired Persons’Welfare Facilities Association; 198412) Working Group on “Introduction to Tactile Drawings
for translation into Braille,” Japan Braille Library;“Introduction to Tactile Drawings for translation into
Braille”; Japan Braille Library; 198813) Oouchi, S.; “Preparing and Evaluating Braille Printerbased Dots Drawings in line with Braille Textbook's
Pictorial Cuts,” Study on Mutual Use of Internet-based
Visual Disabilities Education-use Tactile Drawings
Teaching Materials among Visually-Impaired Person's
Schools (FY2001-2005 Scientific Research Grant-inAid) (Basic Research Project (B)(2)), Research Report;
NISE; pp.55-86; 200414) Oouchi, S., Sawada, M., Kaneko, T. and Chida, K.;“Survey on Visually-Impaired Person’s Schools’
Preparing and Using Tactile Teaching Materials”; NISE
Journal, 31; pp.113-125; 200415) R NIB (Royal National Institute of the Blind）;
Students-accessing course material, http://www.rnib.
org.uk/wpedo/groups/public/documents/PublicWebsite/
public_studentimages.hcsp,RNIB,2004.
16) S heppard L. and Aldrich, F.; Tactile Graphics: A
beginner's guide to graphics for visually impaired
children; Primary Science Review, 65; pp.29-30; 2000.
17) Umezu, H. and Kuroki, S.; “Cutaneous Sensation and
Proprioceptive Perception”; Outline of Experimental
Psychology, Vol.3; Edited by Takagi Teiji and Kido
Mantaro; Iwanami Shoten Publisher; pp.224-267; 195318) Valbo, A. B. and Johanson, R. S.; The tactile sensory
innervation of glabrous skin of the human hand. In
Active Touch, edited by Gordon G.; Pergamon Press;
pp.29-54; 1978．
19) Weber, E. H.: De tactu.1834, in E. H. Weber on the
Tactile Senses (2nd Edition), edited and translated by
Ross H.E. and Murray D.J.; Erlbaum Taylor & Francis;
pp.25-136; 1996．
20) Weinstein, S.; Intensive and extensive aspects of tactile
sensitivity as function of body part, sex, and laterality.
In The skin senses: proceedings, compiled and edited by
Dan R. Kenshalo, Tomas, Springfield IL; pp.195-222;
1968.

－ 28 －- Received August 30, 2004; Accepted November 22, 2004 -NISE Bulletin, 10, 29-40, 2010

Ideological Genealogy Underlying“Individualized Education Support Plans”
NISHIMAKI Kengo
Department of Educational Support
SASAMOTO Ken
Department of Counseling and Consultation for Persons with Special Needs

Abstract: The government of Japan has implemented various programs to replace “special education” with “special needs
education.” In this context, the development of “Individualized education support plans” is one key element. This paper
identifies new aspects of “individualized education support plans” from the perspective of their necessity for educational andnon-educational objectives, in particular welfare objectives and analyzes their historical and ideological meaning.
Key Words: Special needs education, individualized education support plans, welfare, ideological genealogy

I. Introduction
The government of Japan has implemented various
programs to reform special education in particular
by replacing “special education,” with “special needs
education” 1). In this context, “special education,” means
the provision of education at special locations, dependingon the child’s degree of disability, while “special needs
education,” refers to the provision of educational support
suitable to the educational needs of each child/student withdisability.
According to the basic principles of “The Future
Directions of Special Needs Education (Final Report)”
released in 2003, this systemic reform has the following
purposes: (a) to address/ to cater to the needs of/ to meetthe needs of children who have Learning Disabilities(LD), Attention Deficit – Hyperactivity Disorder(ADHD), or high-functioning autism (HFA) enrolled inregular classrooms; (b) to pay due attention to changing
perspectives on disability in the international community;(c) to provide flexible education tailored to the educational
needs of each child; (d) to adopt the viewpoint ofchildren/students; and (e) to take into consideration thedecentralization of power from central to local governments.
In response to the report, the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
established the Special Needs Education Ad-Hoc Committee
under the auspices of the Central Council for Education. The
Ad-Hoc Committee has met 22 times since March 2004,
and on 8 December 2005, the Central Council for Education
submitted a report entitled “Appropriate Framework to
Promote Special Needs Education.” This called for a reviewof the special education school system, a re-examinationof programs at the elementary and lower secondary schoollevels, and a review of the teacher credential program.
To comprehensively institute special needs education, thereport highlights the necessity of preparing individualized
education support plans, appointing special needs education
coordinators, and establishing regional special support
cooperative councils 2).
Preparing individualized education support plans
is meaningful because these plans aim to provide
comprehensive support for the entire life of a child with adisability/(the entire lives of children with disabilities) andmore effective education services by involving relevantorganizations, and because they are also future-oriented toform local networks to support children with disabilities byaccumulating individualized education support plans foreach child.
Some researches explains the origin of individualized
education support plans from an historical perspective
3), but only a few studies date back further to explain thehistorical viewpoint of nations that have come to guarantee
the welfare of their citizens. It is only possible to understandthe true meaning of the concept of individualized plans as ahuman right only following an overview of such historicaldevelopments.
In addition, a welfare state absolutely requires fiscal
economic capability. The authors note the socioeconomic
paradigm shift behind current reforms in Japan. Children
with disability go-out into the real world after schooling so“individualized education support plans,” will surely depend
on what theses children are expected to do in that society. In
this context, this paper briefly discusses the paradigm shift
in special education in terms of capitalism and democracy,－ 29 －

NISHIMAKI, K. & SASAMOTO, K.

that are the fundamental principles of modern industrializedsocieties and also examines how disability-related
legislation has turned into/has been manifest as the “Services
and Supports for Persons with Disabilities Act.”As mentioned above, this paper identifies new aspectsof "individualized education support plans" from theperspective of their necessity for educational and noneducational objectives, in particular welfare objectives, andanalyzes their historical and ideological meaning.
II. Education from the Perspective of the Welfare State
This section briefly discusses the history of the welfare
state as the background for education by the state. This isbecause education for children with disability only works
well in collaboration with welfare services for children andfor persons with disability. The concept of individualized
support plans first appeared in the, “Five-Year Plan for
Implementation of Priority Measures” in Basic Programme
for Persons with Disabilities (December 2002). To
understand the objectives of this basic programme, it isnecessary to clarify what a welfare state is. Hereinafter, thispaper examines how the ideology of the welfare state has
been actualized from an historical point-of-view in Japanand in the rest of the world.
1. Steps Toward the Formation of the Welfare State
This section looks back on how the welfare state has
been actualized in the world history, in particular from theperspective of Marshall (1950) 4). It will then explore how“basic human rights,” “freedom and rights,” “the rightto live,” and “the right to education,” are established instatutory form, for what purposes and in what order.
In the eighteenth century, from the viewpoint ofguaranteeing rights, citizens (the capitalist class) demandedof the government (the privileged class) to guarantee civilrights, in particular property rights and freedom of contracts
as the foundation of the capitalist economy. The “right toeducation,” may be viewed as forming one part of these
civil rights. However, since they intended education for thecapitalist class at that time, in particular tutoring at homeor education for children of the capitalist class, the right toeducation did not necessarily mean public education as we
see today 5).
In the 19th Century, governments have come to guarantee
political rights by easing restrictions on political suffrage
based on gender or tax payment while at the same timeincreasing the number of citizens with voting rights toassure state legitimacy. As the working class grew as asocial force, workers also expected their children to be
educated in schools financed by public expenditure. In thelate 19th Century, free-competition capitalism structurally
shifted to monopolistic capitalism. In this paradigm shift,

governments required mass nationalism to unite theirpeoples (that is, all citizens including the working class) toexercise control over the labor movement. This is how the
welfare state was formed through government intervention.
National education systems were established to operate
as the cultivating apparatus of nationalism. In the Meiji
era, the Japanese government viewed Prussia as a modelof the world’s first welfare state. The right to education
emerged as a civil right for the education of the capitalistclass and was a right in which the government was unable
to intervene, but since that time, it has grown into a public
education right to which the government can intervene.
In the 20th Century, social rights were added because
the inherent inequity of capitalism developed into a social
problem. As poverty, disease, lack of access to education,
unsanitary living environments, and unemployment
hampered national reconstruction after WWII, analysts
called for the government to comprehensively guarantee
national minimum standards. The typical example ofthis trend is the, “Beveridge Report”6) in the UK, which
proposes a basic model for welfare states in developed
Western nations. Despite some differences in welfare
service levels among nations, since the mid-twentiethcentury, industrialized capitalist nations generally followed
the path towards the type of modern welfare state thatguaranteed basic welfare services for their citizens. On theother hand, in socialist nations during the Cold War era, thewelfare state had exactly been their national goal.
2. Criticism of the Ideology of the Welfare StateThe Cold-War structure in the post-WWII period has
led to conflict over political ideologies in developed nations.
The degree of development of a welfare state is related
to the political ideology of the nation. During this time,social democrats were influential and calling for a plannedsocialistic economy by correcting excessive capitalism.
However, the capitalist class also accepted welfare services
because better employer-employee relationships were
expected to contribute to corporate growth backed byeconomic growth. Economic growth has improved social
welfare programmes, that is directly associated with an
aging population in developed countries, and bloatedadministrative organizations 7).
The pressure for change in the idea of the welfare state
was the global slowdown in economic growth because
the resources required for social security were suppliedby economic growth. The aging of the population and thesocial security system of the welfare states in developed
countries had crossed the threshold even before theeconomic slowdown had begun.
In the 1980s, in this context, Margaret Thatcher in
UK and Ronald Reagan in the US came to power andcriticized the concept of the welfare state from a neo-

－ 30 －

Ideological Genealogy Underlying “Individualized Education Support Plans”

liberal perspective. They criticized (a) its non-economic
aspects (i.e., lower incentives for investment and labor), (b)its unproductiveness (i.e., the shift of capital and humanresources from the private sector leading to a bloatedbureaucracy), (c) its inefficiency (i.e., unsolved poverty,
and negative spiral of dependence on government), (d) its
authoritarian regime (i.e., stronger social control throughbureaucratic dominance), and (e) its denial of freedom (i.e.,
no choice in welfare services and heavy taxation). NeoLiberalism advocates absolute distrust in human rationality
and assumes that even rational judgment inevitably resultsin human errors. For this reason, they attached higher values
to trial-and-error in the free private sector than monopolistic
intervention by the State 8). In addition, as the Cold War
ended in 1989 following the collapse of the Berlin Wall,the transition to social democracy, as argued by traditional
political leftists, had become an unrealistic option.
Why did economic growth slow? According toKeynesian economics, government intervention should leadto sustainable economic growth and full employment. As an
explanation for this phenomenon, in organized capitalismwith highly-organized workers and capital, mass production
and mass consumption has been progressing, andgovernment intervention is able to create effective demandthrough public works and monetary policy. However, if
the economy shifts to high-mix low-volume production,
workers are divided into full-time skilful workers andunstable peripheral workers, sending down the trade union
membership ratio. This prevents consensus building andbenefits sharing through labor-management cooperationthat results in the failure of centralized, comprehensive
government intervention. In addition, economic
globalization has also diminished the effectiveness ofgovernment economic interventions in a single nation.
Slightly deviating from the main subject of this paper,
new social movements spread out on a global scale at thesame time as criticism was voiced against welfare nations.
First, women, minorities, persons with disability andothers whose rights were not fully guaranteed began to
criticize policymakers. In Keynesian-style welfare nations,continuously employed regular workers enjoyed the highest
old-age pension benefits. In other words, they were societies
most favorable to adult males, the ethnic majority, and ablebodied persons. As a result, discrimination based on gender,
race, and disability emerged. In addition, since economic
growth also led to environmental pollution and destructionthat would eventually erode human welfare, environmental
problems became an issue of social concern.
For these two decades, industrialized capitalist nations
have come to face common problems that cannot be solved
by ideology, such as economic globalization, the pursuitof environmentally friendly and sustainable economic
growth, an aging society, unemployment, in particular for

young people, and increasing homelessness. Policymakers
are expected to actively address these cross-class problems
through education, welfare reform, economic policy,
environmental protection, and crime prevention. Modern
society is very unstable because capitalism is unable tocoexist with the modern welfare state but, at the same time,cannot exist without it 9).
3. New Development of the Welfare State
This is so-called “welfare pluralism,” or “the welfarem i x e d e c o n o m y, ” t h a t r e c o g n i z e s p r o b l e m s a n dcontradictions in welfare states and suggests possible
solutions. These concepts encourage plurality of welfare
service suppliers, rather than exclusively depending on thewelfare services of the state. One of the important purposesof social policies is the redistribution of resources tocorrect inequality resulting from capitalism In this resource
redistribution process, in most cases, the government
forcibly collects taxes and insurance premiums andprovides welfare services, pension benefits, and allowances.
There are several channels for this redistribution process.
For example, child allowances and a reduction of income
tax for dependents also yields similar effects, although theformer represents increased revenues for households, while
the latter leads to decreased expenditure. In addition, family
allowances provided by corporations also bring aboutsimilar effects. This concept is sometimes called the “Social
role-sharing of welfare services” 10).
Recently, the informal sector, such as households orneighbors, as well as the private non-profit sector is also
considered to play an important role in the provisionof welfare services. In particular, many nations attach
importance to the redistribution process through the private
non-profit sector. Recognizing the importance of this private
non-profit sector, the report of the Wolfenden Committee(1978) 11) describes four categories of the most popularwelfare service suppliers in the United Kingdom (i.e., thevoluntary system, the informal system, the commercial
system, and the statutory system), and aims to analyze thesocial services provided by private non-profit organizations.
Before making such analysis, the Wolfenden report also
discusses the overall system for providing social services.
Highlighting that the four types of service providers tosatisfy social needs that cannot be met by individual
citizens, the report calls for a pluralistic supply frameworkin which each of these service providers plays their own
role, rather than exclusively depending on only one service
provider.
In reality, the shift to a welfare mixed economy did notoccur in the late 1970s. Ever since the state became involved
with welfare, these four sectors blended to form current
welfare services provision 11). Since the 1980’s onward,
due to the arguments about the welfare mixed economy,－ 31 －

NISHIMAKI, K. & SASAMOTO, K.

there has been progress in the analytical method of welfare
due to developments in international comparative research
between welfare states and the promotion of community
care within each state. As a result, rather than addressing
public-private role-sharing primarily intended to scale-down
the role of governments, analysts and policymakers began
examining where to collect necessary financial resources(i.e., tax, insurance, or self-pay burden), who should control
service quality, what kind of role government should play,what kind of role NPOs and private enterprise should
assume, and what kind of relationship (balance) should bemaintained. We also add that within modern welfare states,
education is also managed using the concept of a mixed
economy2).
III. Characteristics of Social Welfare in Japan:
Focus on State Responsibility and Social Solidarity
1. From Post-war Reconstruction to the Welfare State
Following WWII, Japan started national reconstruction
as a new democratic nation under a new constitution. With
almost all citizens starving (malnourished?), there wereabout 8 million people, including returnees from overseas,in need of social help. The GHQ document, “Public
Assistance” stressed the principles of (a) nondiscriminatory
equality, (b) state responsibility (i.e., the separation of
public and private), and (c) the necessity to provide social
assistance as much as possible within the limits imposedby the overall budget). Consistent with these principles,
the Japanese government established a basic framework ofsocial security in the post-war recovery period. Rather thanbeing based on the pre-war concept in which the public wasat the emperor’s mercy, the government emphasized state
responsibility for citizens (i.e., private individuals).
The “Recommendations on the Social Security System,”in 1950 (“The 1950 Recommendation”) defined the
direction of the post-war social security system in Japanand called for state responsibility to coherently andcomprehensively implement with public assistance, publichealth, and social welfare programs centering on social
insurance programs. As for social solidarity, the 1950
Recommendation concluded that, “As long as the state
assumes such responsibilities, citizens must also respond to
the state’s efforts and must, with a spirit of social solidarity,
assume their social obligations necessary for maintaining/
operating this framework.” Japan then implemented withsocial security and social welfare legislation during theperiod of high economic growth since the mid 1950s. The“right to live,” is also guaranteed as a social right understate responsibilities. While gradually evolving towards amodern welfare state, since the 1960s Japan has improved
its social security programs in a context of high economic
growth.

The 1962 “Report on Basic Policies for Comprehensively
C o o rd i n a t i n g S o c i a l S e c u r i t y P ro g r a m s a n d
Recommendations on Implementing with Social Security
Programs,” (“The 1962 Recommendation”) reexamined theissue of an appropriate social security system for solving theincome gap problem emerging in the high economic growth
period and called for the improvement of public assistanceand social welfare. As for social solidarity, the 1962
Recommendation mentions, “To develop this framework
in a sound manner, it is necessary to organically combine itwith the government’s other policy actions, win sufficientunderstanding of this framework among citizens, andpermeate (a) vivid atmosphere of social solidarity among
citizens,” placing top priority on the public responsibilitiesof the state. At best, the recommendation merely calls for
citizens to recognize their daily social solidarity as a moral
standard.
During the high economic growth period, social
welfare programs have improved. Japan has seen theimplementation of universal health insurance coverage anduniversal pension coverage during this period and in theearly 1970s, introduced free-of-charge medical care services
for the elderly and a price-indexed pension program. These
are all in preparation for Japan’s aging society of the future,and the year 1972 could be described as the first year of
the modern welfare era. By describing this as a “Guarantee
reasonable living standards through social solidarity,” social
security law experts recognize that the concepts of social
solidarity have yielded successful outcomes, such as social
insurance programs. In this process, the intergenerational
insurance/pension funding system (i.e., present elderly
persons are supported with insurance premiums collectedfrom younger generations) was established. In thisperiod, rather than simply providing social security
programs through social solidarity as a moral standard,
the government has provided substantive social security
programs backed by legislation. The trend of sector-basedsocial security expenditures (Figure 1) illustrates social
security-related issues on a time-series basis.
2. Re-examination of Welfare Programs and the Change
in Quality of Social Solidarity
Following the oil shock of the late 1970s, Japan began
to reexamine social security programs in a context of lower
economic growth. The central government’s documents
began emphasizing social solidarity as a moral standard,
specifically family nursing care, mutual assistance between
neighbors, and corporate welfare programs. The expression,“Japanese-style welfare society,” emerged at this time. For
example, cabinet approved the “New Socioeconomic SevenYear Plan (1979),” that stated,－ 32 －As Japan has almost caught up with developed nations in North

Ideological Genealogy Underlying “Individualized Education Support Plans”
Pension¥44,784.5 billion(53.1%)

In ¥1 trillion

Medical services¥25,615.4 billion(31.6%)

Welfare, etc.
¥12,866.9 billion(15.3%)

Figure 1 Sector-based social security benefits expenditures(http://www.ipss.go.jp; Data come from the FY2003 social security benefits expenditures.)

America and Europe, Japanese citizens should start to seekfor qualitative improvement, shifting away from quantitative
expansion…….Basically, Japan should create a new-stylewelfare society by taking advantage of its socioeconomic
characteristics, such as a strong work ethic among its people
and a high-level of social mobility. To this end, in addition to
improving the living standards of Japanese citizens by taking
advantage of a free economy’s creative vitalities, highly-efficient
government should emphasize the guaranteeing of publicwelfare services, while solidarity circles should be formed inlocal communities based on the independent mindedness of
citizens and stable households so that each Japanese citizen isable to achieve a fulfilling social life.

In this type of Japanese-style welfare society, citizens
should first make self-help endeavors, then, if it is
impossible, they should be supported by the solidarityof the local community. Public assistance is a last resort
measure. Obviously, social solidarity is a moral standard of
citizen cooperation and should not serve as basic principle
for achieving public social welfare. The democratic
principle calls for “private individuals” to assume public
responsibility as a member of Japanese society.
In 1982, the 2nd Ad-hoc Commission on Administrative
Reform released its report “The Third Report on
Administrative Reform: Basic Report - Constructing

Energetic Welfare Society.” This is also based on selfhelp, mutual assistance, and private-sector vitality, while
recognizing social solidarity as a tool to reduce public
expenditure. Advocates of a “Japanese-style welfare
society,” or “the construction of an energetic welfare
society,” emphasize social solidarity as a moral standard forJapanese citizens and intend to reduce public expenditure
by attaching greater importance to mutual assistance(daily cooperation between citizens). This is a similar
trend to neo-liberalism in the US and UK. In other words,
by reexamining social solidarity based on government
programs at that time, the government began attaching
greater importance to the concept of social solidarity interms of private mutual assistance between citizens.
3. Social Welfare Basic Structural Reform andExploration of the New Social Solidarity
In the 1990s, the third comprehensive recommendation
was released to set forth the direction of social security inthe future. This recommendation puts additional emphasis
on social solidarity. In 1995, the Social Security Council
released the report entitled, “Reconstruction of Social
Security Programs” (“The 1995 Recommendation) that
explains the basic philosophy of social security, as follows:－ 33 －

Social security programs have expanded to cover all people inNISHIMAKI, K. & SASAMOTO, K.

Japanese society. In addition, Japanese citizens are supposed to
pay social insurance premiums, taxes, and support/build social
security programs. To this end, Japanese citizens should fully
understand social security programs, have a sense of ownershipof these programs, and actively participate in them. It is also
cooperation in societal context of mutual help to addressdifficulties that might be faced by any individual. In this sense,social security should be the proof of 21st Century’s social
solidarity that is beneficial for all people, created by all people,
and supported by all people. This is the basic philosophy ofcriticisms emerged. Above all, was the criticism that the
government intended to avoid public responsibility by using
the phrase, “social solidarity,” demanding spontaneous
solidarity, or mutual help between citizens. When
comparing the arguments of the 1995 Recommendationand those of the October 2005 MEXT report, “Redesigning
Compulsory Education for a New Era,” an interesting
phenomenon is demonstrated. As for the objectives andprinciples of compulsory education, the MEXT reportstates,social security for the 21st Century.
Compulsory education has two purposes: Developing the

The 1995 Recommendation also states,

character of individual citizens; and nurturing people to make up
the nation and society. These two purposes remain unchanged

The most important thing is that all citizens should have thein any period. Compulsory education plays an important role sosocial security mindset; in other words, a strong sense of self-that children are able to develop their character, be independent,

help and social solidarity. In addition to intra-generational

cultivate their individuality, unleash their potential to its

mutual help, such as healthy people supporting sick people

maximum, and build up the foundation to lead a happy life

and working people supporting unemployed persons, there is

regardless of their career. It is necessary to foster citizens so thatintergenerational support, including public pension programs

they will be able to strongly and affluently survive in a rapidly

mostly dependent on payments from younger generations. In achanging society by thinking and taking action on their own. At

society where most people live longer, those who have supported

the same time, compulsory education should foster individual

the elderly when they were young will be, in turn, pension

qualities necessary for building a democratic and peaceful

beneficiaries in the next era. In other words, long-term social

nation and society.

solidarity is the basis of social security programs. In addition,

It also emphasizes public responsibility by adding,social solidarity is not a mutually dependent relationship, but
giving “a helping hand,” and living together with other people
in a similar fashion to fulfilling responsibilities for their own, or

As compulsory education has these purposes, schools should

for their family members. In this context, if the elderly make anprovide high-quality education by striking a balance between

effort to take care of themselves by maintaining good health andknowledge, virtue, and a healthy body at any location in Japan

staying self-reliant, younger generations will be more willing toand it must be a reliable location to which parents are able tounderstand and support the elderly.

send their children without anxiety. The central government
needs to guarantee equal opportunity, quality assurance, andIn the reform plan section, the 1995 Recommendation
also addresses education, stating,charge-free *free-of-charge education services as set forth in
the Constitution so that citizens will have equal access to highquality education. In particular, improvement in compulsory

To foster the mindset of “caring about other people,” or a

education is absolutely necessary as a safety net that guarantees“welfare spirit,” and the concepts of cohesion and solidaritya certain level of education to all citizens without regional

among citizens, efforts based on long-term perspectives aregaps and prevents deteriorated inequalities and the creation ofnecessary. While respecting the self-motivation of each citizen,

hierarchization.

the government should implement with fostering “a social
solidarity mindset” and provide welfare education in schools,
corporations, local communities, and other locations centeringon home education.

In particular, the phrase, “social solidarity” is frequently
seen in the 1995 Recommendation. The recommendation
recognizes social solidarity as basic relationship, mutual
assistance, and cooperative relationships in the humansociety and calls for citizens to fully understand these
relationships. In this context, “social solidarity” refers topublic responsibilities, and stays as a moral standard.
When the 1995 Recommendation was released, various

On the other hand, the government’s stance of nurturing
citizens through compulsory education suggests that social
solidarity based on individual freedom, that is, democracy,
has not yet taken root in Japan. This Japanese-stylesolidarity is the same as the solidarity as a moral standard
emphasized in Japan in the early 20th Century. When
contemplating the meaning of “self-reliance” in developing
individualized support plans for persons with disability,
such Japanese-style solidarity is problematic.
In the mid 1990s, the government commencedsocial welfare structural reforms consistent with theaforementioned recommendation. In 1998, the Social－ 34 －

Ideological Genealogy Underlying “Individualized Education Support Plans”

Welfare Basic Structural Reform Taskforce of the Central
Social Welfare Council released an interim report entitled,“Social Welfare Basic Structural Reforms,” that outlined thereform principles. It stated:isolation, exclusion, or conflict and bring about a healthy andcultural life. To this end, flexible operation of public programs
as well as the restructuring of voluntary support schemes inlocal communities is necessary. In particular, local governments
are expected to achieve a ‘mutual support society’ through“In a matured society, citizens should basically support theirbroad participation of local residents to develop and operate

life by themselves under their own responsibility. However, due

regional welfare plans in accordance with the Social Welfare

to problems in their daily life, citizens are sometimes unable

Act, which will come into force in April 2003. In addition,“to stand on their own feet, with their own effort. Rather than

it is desirable to create a new ‘public’ concept by forming

protecting only a limited number of citizens as in the past, social

cooperative relationships and linkages among various programs,

security in the future should aim to provide social solidarity-organizations, and groups in local communities, such as social

based support for all citizens experiencing such difficulty andwelfare councils, local governments, NPOs, Co-ops, agricultural

support their self-reliance so that each citizen will be able tocooperatives, and volunteers.

lead his/her life in their own household or local community withthe dignity as human beings, regardless of disability or gender.

The 2000 Social Welfare Act, which passed the Diet
as a part of the Social Welfare Basic Structural Reform
initiatives, gives higher priority to self determination of theconsumer and choice of contract-based service suppliers,
shifting away from traditional welfare services. In thiscontext, the government is expected to provide support forthis purpose. Related to this, Article 25 (The Right to Life,and state obligation of the state to guarantee that right),
and Article 13 (i.e., respect for individuals, respect for life,
freedom, and right to seek for happiness), expressed in theJapanese constitution are important. As mentioned in thepreceding section, Article 13 originated from a civil rightfree from government intervention. However, by employing
a different logic to Japanese-style welfare society theories(i.e., a shift from welfare services determined by local
agencies to contract-based support chosen by the consumer),the Social Welfare Structural Reform emphasizes selfdetermination, self-responsibility, and social solidarity,
while at the same time recognizing self-reliance.
Is the self-reliance of people with disabilities covered in
Article 25? Or, is it covered in Article 13 of the Japaneseconstitution? This is an important difference. If it comesfrom social rights requiring government intervention, thepublic responsibility will inevitably expand relative to thepast. In nature, it should be covered in both. A Japanesestyle social welfare state must be based on the philosophy ofthe self-reliance of persons with disability who is respectedeven in social solidarity (as guaranteed by Article 13).
4. Potential for Social Solidarity in JapanThe 2000 “Report of Taskforce on Appropriate Social
Welfare for People requiring Social Supports,” states thecreation of new “public” concept,
It is necessary to restructure the ‘current relationships’ and seek
for social welfare to include all people as society members

As mentioned above, public-private affairs are both an
old and new problem. Government intervention expenditure
was introduced with the recognition of the government that“private” is under the control of the “public” due to private
facilities’ long-term financial difficulties since the pre-war
era and the public sector’s dependence on the private sector.
In the 1970s, Japan managed “the dollar shock” and “oilshock” and enjoyed a period of economic prosperity. “Japan
as Number One,” was phrase used by some analysts. Afterthe subsequent “economic bubble,” Japan has suffered
the same problems as experienced by other advanced
nations. In Japan, as it took a longer time than anticipatedto overcome the post-bubble economic recession, it was at
the time of Hashimoto Administration that the government
proposed six major reforms; these were economic structurereform, financial system reform, social security structuralreform, fiscal structural reform, administrative reform,and education reform. A succession of prime ministers
following the Hashimoto Administration implemented withthese reform plans.
Education reform was the last initiative. On 26 October,
2005, the Central Council for Education released the report,“Redesigning Compulsory Education for A New Era,”
which is a summary report setting forth future directions
for education reform. This resulted in an amendment to the
Basic Act of Education for the first time in the post-war
era.
As education services for children with disability,
special needs education is in accordance with the conceptof Japanese-style social solidarity. But even now, “special
education” is used from the context of Article 26 (the rightto education). Individualized support plans care about
persons with disabilities for their lifetime. In this sense, itis necessary to reaffirm that these plans serve as a bridge
between education and social security, including welfare
services. In addition, it is also necessary to understand themeaning of “self-reliance” or “support,” in the historicalcontext of the welfare state.

(i.e., social inclusion) in a way to protect them from solitude,－ 35 －

NISHIMAKI, K. & SASAMOTO, K.

IV. Background of Individualized
Education Support Plans
1. H istory of Policy for Persons with Disabilities inJapan（１）B ackground leading-up to the 2002 Basic
Programme for Persons with Disabilities
In December 2002, cabinet approved the, “Basic
Programme for Persons with Disabilities,” which inherit
the concepts of “rehabilitation” and “normalization” writingin the “New Long-Term Plan of Measures for Persons
with Disabilities” (1993-2002). This defines basic policy
principles for persons with disabilities for the 10-year
period from 2003 to 2012 to further implement (expand theopportunities for) with the social participation of persons
with disabilities. This “Basic Programme for Persons
with Disabilities” describes priorities of problems to besolved by government, basic principles for each policy, andbasic directions of possible policy actions. In this context,
the principles of “normalization” means (a) creation of acohesive society in which all persons, with and without
disabilities, will support each other and respect theirpersonality and individual character and (b) that persons
with disabilities should enjoy human rights as an equal
member of society, participate in society’s activities underself-selection and self-determination, and assume their
responsibilities as social members. In addition, as crosscutting viewpoints for addressing these issues and future
directions, the plan also calls for the (a) implementing abarrier-free society, (b) the provision of consumer-centeredsupport, (c) policy action appropriate to characteristics ofspecific disabilities, and (d) the promotion of comprehensive
and effective policy action.
From the first basic program for persons with disabilities—“Long-Term Plan of Measures for Persons with
Disabilities” (1982-1992)—to the aforementioned, “Basic
Plan for Persons with Disabilities,” Japan’s basic plans on
the policy actions for persons with disabilities are linked
with the action plans/programs for persons with disabilitiesof the United Nations, and have been conducted in aseamless manner.
For example, “Long-Term Plan of Measures for Persons
with Disabilities (1982-1992)” is linked with the “United
Nations Decade of Persons with disabilities,” while “NewLong-Term Plan of Measures for Persons with Disabilities,”
is linked with, “The Asia and Pacific Decade of Persons
with disabilities.” The “Biwako Millennium Framework(2002),” a high-level intergovernmental meeting held in the
final year of “The Asia and Pacific Decade of Persons withdisabilities” declared an extension of “The Asia and Pacific
Decade of Persons with disabilities (1993-2002)” for an
additional period of 10 years (2003-2012), on the initiativeof the Government of Japan. In addition, the Framework

participants also recommended regional policy actions ofgovernments and stakeholders in the region to attain an
inclusive, barrier-free society that respects the human rightsof persons with disabilities.
In other words, “Basic Programme for Persons with
Disabilities,” is in accordance with the action plan of the“Biwako Millennium Framework (2002).” In addition, thebasic principle of the action plans/programs for people
with disabilities of the UN, which underlie a series of these
programs, is the spirit of “full participation and equality for
persons with disabilities.”
In this context “individualized education support plans”
have originated from the “Basic Programme for Persons
with Disabilities” and the action plans/programs for persons
with disabilities of the United Nations.
2. The origin of policy action for persons with disabilities
in JapanTo understand the essence of UN action plans/programsfor persons with disabilities, this section briefly explains theorigin of the “normalization” concept, which serves as thebasic principle of Japan’s policy actions for persons withdisabilities.
“Basic Programme for Persons with Disabilities,” only
describes “normalization” as “a philosophy aimed at asociety where persons, with or without disabilities, areable to equally participate in social activities and leadself-reliant lives,” but it does not explain in detail thenecessary environment, code of conduct, or other principles
of “normalization.” Hereinafter, this section outlines thenormalization concept, which serves as basic principle ofJapan’s policy actions for persons with disabilities.
（１）Overview“Normalization” was first proposed by Bank-Mikkelsen
in Denmark. At that time (1951-1952), Mikkelsen worked
with a parent association of people with intellectual
disability in Denmark, and he was asked to draft a paper
demanding improvements to the Danish government
policies on people with intellectual disability, namely“separation, detention and sterilization.” In this 1953 paper
sent to the Minister of Social Affairs in Denmark, he used
the term “normalization” for the first time. Mikkelsen
severely criticized the ideological similarity of the policiesof “separation, detention, and annihilation” and comparedthem with the policies imposed on the Jewish people in
Nazi Germany12).
Mikkelsen said “let’s provide citizenship to people
with disabilities, let them live in ordinary houses in local
communities, and let them have access to education.” Later,
Nirje systematized Mikkelsen’s model and put it into astatutory form. Nirje defined normalization as “making
living environment and local community life of people－ 36 －

Ideological Genealogy Underlying “Individualized Education Support Plans”

with disabilities the same as, or almost the same as thoseof ordinary people, or making living environment or daily
life conditions in a suitable manner for all of intellectuallypeople with disabilities and other persons with disability.”
In other words, in addition to the living conditions of“house, job, and leisure,” as suggested by Bank Mikkelsen,
normal life is defined from the viewpoint of normallife rhythms and normal developmental experiences in
the lifecycle. In addition, as economic/environmental
conditions, dignity as human beings and the world of men
and women are also added, Nirje’s normalization concept
has turned into a universal principle.
This way of thinking serves as the foundation of the 1971
UN “Declaration on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities”
and also underlies the, “full participation and equality”
concept promoted in 1981 as the theme of the “InternationalYear of Persons with Disabilities” 8).
The normalization principle was also introduced to
North America by Wolfensberger. Adopting a sociologicalperspective, Wolfensberger redefined the principle ofnormalization and constructed a new theory he called Social
Role Valorization (i.e., people with disabilities should playtheir own roles in any society). This means that people withdisabilities play a twofold societal role; Individual changes
to fulfill potentials of people with disabilities at maximum
and enhance their abilities to adapt to the society; and socialchanges to create positive images on people with disabilities
in sociaty 13).
Taking this into consideration, Kouno states that
education and welfare should “enhance [the] independenceof people with disabilities” under the principle of“normalization” 14). According to Kouno, persons withdisabilities have been passive in terms of education or
welfare. As education and welfare is provided by thosepeople in a stronger social position, it is generally thoughtthat persons with disabilities should simply receive them(i.e., paternalism). In contrast, the normalization concept
cares about and respects individual choices and intentionsof persons with disabilities as much as possible. Education
and welfare services for persons with disabilities should be
provided by recognizing persons with disabilities (or theirparents) as core stakeholders. In education and welfare,support should be provided to enhance the independence
and free choice of persons with disabilities.
The aforementioned “Social Role Valorization” concept
is similar to the concept of “empowerment,” because Social
Role Valorization calls for the reexamination of all social
resources and the provision of an appropriate environment
so that persons with disabilities are able to make their own
decisions and play a leading role in their life when they are
empowered.

（２）Concept of empowerment
Empowerment is a concept derived from social work
theory. Barbara B. Solomon defines empowerment as“the process whereby the social worker or other assisting
professionals engages in a set of activities with theclient that aim to reduce the powerlessness that has beencreated by negative valuations based on membership in a
stigmatized group” 13). In this way, “empowerment” is not
originally an exclusive topic for persons with disabilities.
The term “empowerment” was commonly used in
the disabilities-related field when Justin Dart created a“Congressional Task Force on the Rights and Empowermentof Americans with Disabilities,” to seek for feasibility (toestablish a rationale for the legislation, “Americans with
Disability Act (1990).”
Under the empowerment concept, “since persons withdisabilities also have high capabilities, the problem is
how we should utilize these capabilities oppressed bysociety” 15). Furthermore, users and consumers of social
welfare services (i.e., persons with disabilities) should be
additionally empowered and should be able to take control
over their accessible affairs and problems that impact on
their lives. Empowerment also includes not only taking
control of accessible matters, but also actively reachingout to service providers to solve their problems, eliminating
oppressive social frameworks, and protecting human rights,
such as their civil rights.
3. History of the perception of disability by the JapanesepeopleThe “Annual Report on Government Measures for
Persons with Disabilities (1995 edition),” states that,“persons with disabilities are facing physical obstacles,
institutional obstacles, cultural/information obstacles,
and awareness obstacles in implementing policies basedon normalization. By eliminating these obstacles, thegovernment aims to create an equal society in which people
with disabilities are able to freely engage in their own
social activities.” This is also the basic concept of “LongTerm Plan of Measures for Persons with Disabilities.”
When persons with disabilities are motivated to engage
in social participation, the biggest problem is the mental
barriers imposed by society. The annual report describes thehistory of how Japanese people have viewed persons withdisabilities, as follows.

－ 37 －

1) People with disabilities are useless and troublesome.
They are looked at with curiosity, or sometimes withabhorrence. These prejudices are still not eliminated,even today.
2) O rdinary people feel sympathy or compassion for
persons with disabilities and try to do something forunhappy people with disabilities from their superior

NISHIMAKI, K. & SASAMOTO, K.

position, which gives an unpleasant feeling to people
with disabilities and their families.
3) Nowadays, people have a “coexistence” perspective,
recognizing that persons with disabilities have thesame ambition and human rights as ordinary people
and are friends living together with ordinary people.
The annual report clearly states that concepts (1) and (2)are similar because they recognize persons with disabilities
to be different to ordinary persons and that they precisely
represent “awareness barriers.”
In addition, from an educational perspective, othersocial practices, and ideologies, Hori (1997) categorizes andexplains the perception of persons with disabilities, taking
into consideration the concepts and actual practices forovercoming problems concerning persons with disabilities
in the past 16).
1) The problems of people with disabilities are a threat
to society. The purpose of education for children
with disability is vocational training and adaptation
to society, thereby denying people with disabilities’s
pursuit of their human rights and happiness.
2) The problems of people with disabilities should be
addressed by mitigating/overcoming their disabilities.
This way of thinking derives from the idea that people
with disabilities should also enjoy human rights
and the theory that medical services, training, andeducation will mitigate and overcome their disabilities
and encourage their rehabilitation into society.
3) People with disabilities should also enjoy an ordinary
life. Their problems are recognized from the viewpointof persons with disabilities themselves. Normal life
should be guaranteed for people with disabilities,
whilst recognizing them as the holders of humanrights.
4) The self-reliance of persons with disabilities shouldbe achieved. The problems of people with disabilities
should be recognized from the perspective of theperson with disability. This way of thinking is closely
related with normalization movements and focuseson the self-reliance of persons with disabilities as
possessors of human rights.

a more rational and “coherent” stance from the viewpoint of
the person with disability (Concept 3).
In other words, there has been a shift from the perspectiveof the provider to that of the service user. In addition, people
generally used to have a “physically unimpaired” person’s
superiority-based viewpoint that persons with disabilities
should improve/overcome their disabilities to participate insociety, but such thinking has been replaced with the newconcept emphasizing (cohesive) equality.
This ideological transition has also served as the
background for new basic concepts in the “Appropriate
Special Education for 21st Century (Final Report),” the“Basic Act for Persons with Disabilities,” the “Basic
Programme for Persons with Disabilities,” and the“Appropriate Special Needs Education for the Future(Final Report).” In addition, Concepts 1-3 in thegovernment annual report as well as Hori’s categories(1-4) fundamentally appear to be an historical (time-series)
transition, but in fact they are also connected with ourcurrent perspectives on children with disability (children
with disability’s education) and human rights.
4. Relationships with the International Classification of
Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)
The December 2002 “Basic Programme for Persons
with Disabilities,” states “To utilize ICF (International
Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health)adopted in WHO (World Health Organization), in lightof better understanding of disabilities and promoting
appropriate measures, should be considered.” ICIDH has
been replaced with ICF because the rehabilitation concept,
which emphasizes directly working on functional disabilities
to mitigate impaired abilities or social disadvantages, hasbeen replaced with the normalization concept, which works
on the remaining “mental/physical functions,” daily life
“activities,” and social “participation,” to improve life
function and living environment and, thereby, mitigate
restraints on their activities and social participation andsupport life of service users. If we focus on a certain personwith disabilities, the concept of ICF plus the “subjective
dimensions” will yield specific image of “coherent” society
as mentioned in the preceding section17).
V. Conclusion

Of these perspectives proposed by Hori, Concept (4) isbased on the empowerment philosophy and also has somecommon features with Concept (3). The annual report(Concepts 1-3) and Hori’s categories (Concepts 1-4) are
incomplete in their expression, but current internationaland domestic normalization-based perspectives of persons
with disabilities have significantly shifted from the previous
disrespectful stance of ordinary people , and the recognitionof persons with disabilities as special (Concepts 1 and 2), to

From a variety of directions, this paper has exploredwelfare, education, disability perspectives, humanrights awareness, as well as other concepts and policy
implementation underlying “individualized education
support plans.” To conclude, this section discusses thenotion of “community building,” one of the goals of
individualized education support plans.
At present, “community building” is a keyword in the－ 38 －

Ideological Genealogy Underlying “Individualized Education Support Plans”

DiseasePartipation

Physical structures

Activity

Identity andsubjective dimensions

Environment

Empowerment

Rehabilitation

Mental/physical function andNormalization
Figure 2 Structure and approaches for life functions and disabilities

health, welfare, and education fields. When looking at
ideological genealogy behind individualized education
support plan, future local communities should be
imagined in which persons with or without disabilities
will enjoy dignity as human beings and lead independent
lives in their local communities. For this reason, theindividualized education support plan is a tool for achieving
the normalization concept in local communities (i.e.,municipalities or smaller districts). Individualized education
support plans are prepared for each and every child withdisability. In this process, it is important that relatedorganizations and local residents are motivated and actively
engaged in dynamic activities.
The theoretical rationale to do so is based on the conceptof “social capital” proposed by the American political
economist, Putnam, in a survey of the decentralization of 20
local governments conducted over two decades in northern
Italy in the early 1970s 18). Putman demonstrated that whileadministrative service patterns were similar, their social,economic, and cultural contexts were significantly different,
as were their performances as government entities. He used
the term “social capital,” to explain this local government
performance gap from the contexts in which the local
governments were placed. He defined social capital as“features of social organization, such as trust, norms, andnetworks that can improve the efficiency of society byfacilitating coordinated actions.” He suggested, if they haverich social capital, people will voluntarily trust and cooperatewith each other, and will implement with productive social
relationships in the local community ranging from social toeconomic activities, in the local community, and leading toa well-functioning democracy 19).
We are now at a major turning point. Raising children
with disability is never totally unrelated with problems inraising children without disability. As we engage in public
education, we must have broad perspectives and address thequiet “needs” of children with disability immediately before us.

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－ 40 －- Received October 21, 2005; Accepted January 30, 2006 -