Journal of Global Resources
Volume 5
July 2017
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

Page 71-81

10
IMPROVING WATER SECURITY IN PERI-URBAN AREAS AROUND BANGALORE
Arvind Lakshmisha and Priyanka Agarwal
Senior Program Officers, Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore, India
Email: arvindlsha@pacindia.org
Abstract: Growing urban population have increased the pressure on ecosystems specificallywater resources. While the urban demographics is changing, climate change is affecting thehydrological cycle affecting the precarious balance between availability and demand. Agenda
2030, calls for inclusive and participatory approach to reduce poverty and achieve the set goals.
The paper delineates how a participatory and inclusive approach can lead to reducing water
insecurities in the global south. It explains the use of fuzzy cognitive maps to capture
stakeholder knowledge to help bridge the gap between scientific research and policy making
through stakeholder participation.
Key words: Participatory water management, Climate Change, Peri-urban areas.
Introduction
India’s carbon contribution is lower than many other developed/developing countries of theworld. But this is set to change dramatically in the coming decade due to increasing urban
population. As urban population grows, pressure on ecosystems increases, large quantities offood, fuel and water need to be moved into urban areas and huge amounts of garbage andsewage have to be moved out (Impact of Climate Change on Urban Areas in India. 2010).
Water resource, one of the most vital and the most abused resource, is the best example of the
precarious relationship between urban areas and natural systems. Over the past decade, a newamalgamated space that straddles the boundaries of urban areas has been drawing theattention of scholars. Known as the ‘Peri-Urban Interface’ (PUI), this area is defined as ‘zone of(dynamic) transition or interaction between urban and rural areas; usually used in the context of
rapidly urbanizing poor countries’ (Simon, 2008). These dynamic zones are the main sources ofsupply of resources such as water to meet the needs of urban areas and act as recipients ofwaste generated within the surrounding urban areas. Hence, we can ascertain that there is a bidirectional flow between urban and peri-urban areas resulting in a flux or a dynamic state whichis in transition.
While urban demographic transformation is unfolding, the changing climate is expected
to affect the hydrological cycle. This change is likely to affect precipitation patterns, with someareas becoming wetter and other becoming drier. In this regard, the trends in climate anddemographics will pose a fundamental challenge, how will water be provided to urban areas in asustainable manner (McDonald, et al., 2011). To evaluate how climate change will affect the
precarious balance between water availability and demand, it is crucial to assess the entire
array of social costs or benefits of any change in water availability and use. Institutions that71

govern water resources, play an important role in determining the overall water security in viewof the impacts (social), as well as sectoral gains and losses (IPCC, 2007). United Nations,define water security as “the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access toadequate quantities of acceptable quality of water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being,and socio-economic development to ensure protection against water-borne pollution and water
related disasters, and to preserve ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability”(United Nations, 2013). Access to potable water and sanitation is considered a basic humanright and yet billions do not have easy access to these services. It is estimated thatapproximately 1.8 billion people use a water source that has faecal contamination andapproximately 40% of the world’s population suffers from water scarcity (United Nations, 2016).
The UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 6 and Goal 11 address this shortcoming by aiming toprovide clean water and sanitation to all by 2030, through an inclusive and participatory
process. While water crisis is a common phenomenon across developing countries, India has
the largest population of 76 million people who do not have access to clean water. A muchlarger proportion of the country’s population is faced with water scarcity and is forced to makedo with irregular access to water (Water Aid India, 2016).
Study Area
The study area is located in the periphery of Bangalore city, known as the silicon valley of India.
Eight villages located 60kms from the city falling under the jurisdiction of Manchanayakanahalligram panchayat were chosen. According to the Census of India 2011, the region though, under
the jurisprudence of the gram panchayat (rural) has nearly 96% of the working population
classified as main workers and a majority of them are seen to be engaged in activities otherthan agriculture, which can be described an urban characteristic1.
Figure 1: Study Area

1

The Indian census defines urban areas as any area with more than 70% of the population engaged in
non-agricultural activities.

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Methodology
The study approach is based on the principles of constructive engagement and emphasises theneed to move research away from top-down, extractive information gathering to participatory,bottom-up and inclusive knowledge generation. Hence, Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC),
developed by PAC was used to develop community centred scenarios based on stakeholder
inputs in this study. This study focuses on citizen-centred scenario planning as a practical andpotentially powerful tool for local-scale vulnerability analysis and adaptation planning in social–ecological systems within the context of multiple interactions and stressors. Community-based
scenario water resource planning is proved to have significant potential as an anticipatory action
research process for incorporating multiple stressors into vulnerability analysis and adaptation
planning (Bennet, Kadfak, & Dearden, 2016).
Climate Change Scorecard
Climate change scorecard (CCSC) is an adaptation of the community score card (CSC),
consolidates peoples’ opinion and facilitates an informed dialogue between communities andthe local governance structures. In the case of climate change there are not two, but threeimportant dimensions: the people, the state and the environment. To account for this,systematic integration of information on local governance, local climate and livelihoods wasestablished using CCSC. The tool supports communities to prioritize issues and provides aplatform for dialogue with relevant decision makers. Climate change scorecard is undertaken infour distinct phases: an initial exploratory phase; analytical phase; synthesis phase and policy
discourse with stakeholders (local government, community, industry representatives).
Interviews and Drawing Fuzzy Cognitive Maps
The stakeholders were chosen based on the demographics and employment type of the study
villages. Each group drew three maps identifying the impact of increase in temperature,
variation in rainfall and urbanisation on water security in their respective villages. Maps weredeveloped with the aid of local communities to assess their perceptions of how urbanization
coupled with changing climate has impacted water security in peri-urban areas. In this research
30 interviews were conducted with stakeholders belonging to four different stakeholder groups.
In total 221 people (86 men and 135 women) participated in the drawing of 240 maps. Before
the exercise of drawing cognitive maps with the stakeholders, the field staff drew their own
maps to understand the local ecosystem. This was to make the interviewers realise their biases
while drawing maps with the stakeholders.
Table 1: Classification of stakeholder for drawing cognitive maps
Categories

No. of Groups

Total Number of Mapsin each category (pervillage)

Men
Women
Agricultural
1
1
6
Labourers
Livestock Herders
1
2
9
Industrial Labourers
1
1
6
Farmers
1
2
9
Total per village
4630
Total no. of participants in each group (in all villages)

73

Total No. of Participants in eachcategory (in all villages)
Men
21

Women
25

21
21
23
86

46
22
42
135

Cognitive maps were drawn as prescribed by Ozesmi U, (1999) and Carley & Palmquist, (1992).
The interviewer listed the names, occupation and gender of the correspondents on the chart
paper. The stakeholders were explained the reasons behind the research before the start of theinterview. Once the correspondents understood this, they were asked: ‘If I mention variation in
Rainfall and water security, what are the factors, things, variables that come to your mind?’
Similarly, questions were asked for increase in temperature and urbanisation. The interviewees
were then asked to list the factors on the paper. Once listed the respondents were asked to
explain the relationships between the variables and draw lines between them to represent theirrelationships. Respondents are then asked to mark these lines with arrows to indicate theirdirections, and give signs of positive or negative and strengths: high (1), moderate (0.5) and low(0). The process continued till the interviewees felt they had nothing more to add, thus
completing the map. After the completion of the maps, they were transformed into adjacency
matrix according to principles of graph theory. The variable Vi was listed on vertical axis and Vj
on the horizontal axis thus, forming a square matrix.
Condensed Cognitive maps and calculating the indices
The square matrix developed by individual stakeholders was combined into village wise
cognitive maps by adding the augmented matrices as developed by Kosko, (1988). Each of the
stakeholder maps were given equal weightages before being condensed. Condensation isundertaken to reduce the complexities associated with fuzzy cognitive maps, due to numerous
variables and connections between them. As FCMs are quiet complex, graph theory indicesprovide as simplified way to analyse their structure (Ozesmi & Ozesmi, 2003).
The first step is to identify the number of variables (N) and the number of connections(C) in the condensed map. The density of the cognitive map (D) is an index of connectivity: D =C/(N(N-1)) or D = C/N2 if the map has self-loops i.e., if a variable can have a causal effect on
itself (Ozesmi & Ozesmi, 2003). The variables are defined as out degree (od (Vi)), row of sum ofabsolute values of a variable in the adjacency matrix and shows the cumulative strength ofconnections (aij) exiting the variable. The in degree [id(Vi)], is the column sum of absolute valuesof the variables and shows the cumulative strength of connection (aij) entering the variable. This
calculation is used to identify the transmitter variables [indicating forcing functions] which have apositive out degree and a zero in degree. The receiver variables [indicating utility functions]have a zero out degree and a positive in degree. Ordinary variables have positive out degree
and in degree (Bougon, Weick & Binkhorst, 1977; Eden, Ackerman, & Cropper, 1992; Harary,
Norman, & Cartwright, 1965). Furthermore, the centrality of a variable is assessed to calculate
the contribution of a variable in a cognitive map, which is the summation of the in degree andout degree (Harary, Norman, & Cartwright, 1965).
Results
The results of the analysis of the information gathered and generated in the four phases of thestudy reveals that water insecurity in these areas is more likely to be a function of high demandand poor management; rather than absolute scarcity of water. The study findings indicate thatthe region is home to numerous water bodies which are either encroached upon and/or pollutedand cannot be used for consumption. The Arkavathy River flows through the study area, but is74highly contaminated as it is the main channel for flow of sewage from the city of Bangalore andalso the industrial estates located upstream. This section details the results from the climate
data analysis, interviews and questionnaire surveys conducted and the capture of stakeholder[local] knowledge to prioritise options to reduce water insecurities.
Climate Data Analysis
Climate data for the district was analysed based on the data provided by the Indian
Meteorological Organisation. There is no local [village] level data available for the time period(1901-2000) and hence, the paper had to make do with the district level data. The time series
analysis, of the average temperature of the region for the years 1901-2001 indicates that there
is an increase in temperature of nearly 0.5Ο centigrade in the last century. An analysis of theannual rainfall between the years 1901-2010 indicates a large variation in the region and is canbe seen that has been erratic with increase in the intensity of rainfall but decrease in the numberof rainy days.
Figure 2: Average Annual Temperature (1901-2002)
25
24

R² = 0.3946

23
22

1901
1905
1909
1913
1917
1921
1925
1929
1933
1937
1941
1945
1949
1953
1957
1961
1965
1969
1973
1977
1981
1985
1989
1993
1997
2001

Average Temperature
in degree Celsius

26

Year

1500
1000
500
0

1901
1905
1909
1913
1917
1921
1925
1929
1933
1937
1941
1945
1949
1953
1957
1961
1965
1969
1973
1977
1981
1985
1989
1993
1997
2001
2006
2010

Rainfall in mm

Figure 3: Variation in Annual Rainfall (1901-2010)

Year

Stakeholder perception on water security
The findings of the survey and interviews with GP members and industrial representatives areclassified through the lens of accessibility, quantity and quality of water and are detailed in thissection.

75

Survey Findings
Water Accessibility and Quantity
The survey findings revealed that 95 % of the households in the region possess an easy accessto water either in the form of tap at home or public taps located within 500 meters from theirhomes. Majority of the households possess a tap at home (73 per cent) which is the main
source of drinking water. Apart from this, public taps formed the next major source of drinking
water as reported by nearly 24 per cent of the respondents. On the contrary, 58 per cent of the
respondents purchase mineral water for drinking purposes from water vendors, which raises
questions on the quality of water used by the communities for drinking, and other household
usage.
Water Quality
The supply of salty and muddy water was also reported in a few villages. These factors led toassessment of water quality in the villages where the quality of water was described by thehouseholds as not up to the standards, in addition to depending on other sources such as water
vendors. The samples included water from drinking water sources2, groundwater and watersupplied through public tap by the Gram Panchayat. The water samples from the purifications
plants were seen to contain higher pH values highlighting that the water supplied is acidic innature. Two samples including a sample from the purification plant was found to be slightly
muddy or earthy in addition to presence of metal in one of the water sample collected from ahousehold. Apart from the above findings, it was also revealed that there is a lack ofawareness among the households regarding measures that can be adopted byhouseholds to improve both surface and groundwater sources. Only 44 per cent of thehouseholds mentioned to have gathered some information about rainwater harvestingfrom television and other sources of media.
Interviews with GP members and Industries
Water Accessibility and Quantity
Household water is supplied by the local government through various schemes and programsand they indicated that they are able to meet only 80% of the demand. The remaining 20% isusually through private tube wells and the purification plants set-up in conjunction with theindustries. There is also a mention of the increase in the number of private tube wells (individualand collective) who have also given rise to an informal business of water supply through tankers
within the area to supply water to water starved Bangalore city. In regard to drinking water 90%of the households purchase water from the purification (Reverse Osmosis) plants set-up by the
local governments in collaboration with industries located in the region under their CSR
activities. The industry representatives mentioned that they are mostly dependent on
groundwater to meet their demands. Large industries located in the area also identified
themselves to be recycling water and are working hard to create water positive or water neutral
footprints.

2

Reverse Osmosis plant and hand pump serve as a major source of drinking water in some villages.

76Water Quality
Similar issues identified during the water sample analysis were also reflected in the interviews
with the Gram Panchayat members and industrial representatives. The overarching issue of
unsustainable rate of groundwater extraction connects all stakeholders interviewed. The local
government representatives highlighted that there has been a drastic decrease in the levels ofgroundwater in the past decade from 400 to nearly 850 feet. Considering that all stakeholders in
the area draw water from a common aquifer, the decisions of individual stakeholders impact theentire community in the area. Given the current lack of formal regulations against excessive
water extraction, policy intervention may be necessary to ensure sustainable water
management. With regard to water quality all the stakeholders are aware that water resourcesin the region are highly contaminated and are not suited for consumption but are still highly
dependent on groundwater to meet all their requirements. The state government has declared
groundwater in the region to be fluoride contaminated and has declared the groundwater to beunsafe for drinking. Though purification plants are set-up and being used, an analysis of thewater sample conducted by the study team indicated low PH content with metal corrode in someof the collected samples.
Modelling Policy options using Cognitive Maps
The 240 fuzzy cognitive maps drawn were condensed into a single condensed map, it is evident
from Figure 5 that the strongest connections are between variations in rainfall and affecting
agriculture practices, availability of drinking water, quantity of drinking water including surface
and groundwater available. In Figure 5, the size of the block indicates the influence the variable
has on other variables; the black lines indicate a positive impact and the red lines depict a
negative impact of one variable on the other. Rainfall, temperature and urbanisation including
agriculture and financial conditions seem to be the most influential variables in all the maps
drawn. It can be seen that the variables of Agriculture, Groundwater, surface water and drinking
water are highly negatively impacted as there are a high number of red links directed towardsthem(Lakshmisha, Agarwal, & Nikam, 2017).
Variation in rainfall is also said to reduce the food security of the communities; Increasein Temperature is seen to affect agricultural practices, reduce health of the communities,
availability of fodder and hence cattle in the region and financial conditions in addition to water
sources (ground and surface) and drinking water. Temperature is also seen to affect forests in anegative way. Whereas Industries are seen to have the highest impact on financial conditions of
the local communities, this increase in financial conditions are seen to be offset by spending on
health related issues caused due to changing climate and increasing urbanisation; Urbanisation
is said to increase the sale of agricultural land, leading to increase in the number of industries
and the level of pollution due to improper waste management systems. The maps also suggestthat there has been an increase in the modern infrastructure facilities in the study area as aresult of urbanisation (Figure 5).
Therefore from the map we can say that, if we are to improve the water security in thearea which is negatively impacted by climate change and aggravated by urbanisation(Lakshmisha, Agarwal, & Nikam, 2017). There is a need to reduce pollution and reduce theconversion and sale of agriculture land. The map also indicates a positive relation between

77surface water bodies and groundwater; hence there is a need to improve surface water bodies
such as lakes and tanks, present in large numbers in the region to improve groundwater, thus
reducing the level of contamination and providing quality drinking water. This improvement inwater sources will result in improved agriculture practices, as the current practice uses
contaminated effluent water to cultivate crops which in turn harm the health conditions. Thus,
improving water security will also lead to alternative benefits such as improving the healthconditions of the communities, through improved food security (Lakshmisha, Agarwal, & Nikam,2017).
Modelling different policy options in a fuzzy cognitive map helps identify and selecting
the alternatives to achieve the goal of improving water security in the region. This paper
presents just one example out of the six policy models simulated for the study. The policy
simulations were performed on the condensed cognitive map that includes an aggregation ofindividual maps drawn by all stakeholders with equal weightages. Steady-state conditions werefirst determined and all the variables were set to the value of 1. Various policy options were runon the models, a variable was fixed at 1 if a variable was to be kept high or fixed at 0 if it was tobe eliminated. In this paper we highlight one of the six cases of policy options that were run. The
case run included various ways to increase water availability. The proposed changes included
reduction of pollution and sewage water (fixed at 0) and improving agriculture practices asshown in Figure 4. Modelling these assumptions we can see that, there is a positive change inthe health, and drinking water availability in the region. Whereas, a moderate positive change
can be seen in water (surface and ground) sources, in addition to forests and thus, fodder
available resulting in a surge in the cattle population and thus improvements in the dairy sector.
These outcomes also result in a strong positive increase in the financial conditions of thecommunity (Lakshmisha, Aggarwal , & Jangal , 2016). Thus, improving agriculture practices andreducing the current levels of pollution through effective enforcement of current policies is foundto improve water security in the region. This improvement in the water sector will have positive
repercussions on the health and financial conditions thus reducing local vulnerability to theimpacts of climate change.
Figure 4: Policy Simulation for improving water security
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000

Series1
Model Assumption

Positive Change
Negative Change
Series 278

Policy Discourse and Dialogue Platform
In line with the principles of constructive engagement, the findings from the study were sharedwith all the stakeholders at a dialogue platform. The platform was a culmination of community
members, local government representatives, experts, bureaucrats, and industry representatives(Lakshmisha, Aggarwal , & Jangal , 2016). The study findings were shared and policy options
were simulated with inputs from these stakeholders present. The highlights of the dialogue
platform are as below:• The community members and industrial representatives called for the establishment of acommon effluent treatment plant in the region to help recycle industrial effluents• There was a call for decentralised sewage treatment plants and for up-gradation of thecurrent plant from a secondary trickling mechanism to a tertiary treatment plant• The local government invited industry representatives for an increased and improved
communication/interactions• The local government in conjunction with industry representatives decided to undertake
awareness programs on building capacity of the community on water conservation
measures• The industry representatives have called to work together with local government to establish
rainwater harvest structures to help improve the quality and quantity of groundwater• The senior bureaucrat from the department of ecology, forests and environment,
Government of Karnataka directed the rural department to undertake rejuvenation of surface
water bodies under the famed National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
Conclusion
Agenda 2030 focuses on robust implementation to enhance inclusively and sustainableurbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement
planning and management (SDG 11). The unplanned nature of development has resulted inindirect consequences in peri-urban areas which has wider implications on water security of thearea. This paper assessed the double injustice brought upon due to unchecked resource
extraction and changing the climate on peri-urban communities. Simultaneously, a frameworkhas been delineated for the need of inclusive and participatory planning to achieve the SDGs,
specifically the goal 11. The framework highlights how citizen-centered scenario planning is apractical and potentially powerful tool that can be used as an anticipatory action research
process (Lakshmisha, Agarwal, & Nikam, 2017).
Involvement of all stakeholders in the planning process is called for in most of the targets
under SDGs. A stakeholder-centric design to identify issues based on perspectives of the local
communities will help in incorporating multiple stressors into planning. This paper captures local
knowledge of the communities and highlights how urbanization has changed the lifestyle of thisagrarian Gram Panchayat which is further aggravated due to changes in climate. The issues
identified acts as the foundation upon which solutions can be devised. The approach of thispaper depicts how social concerns of citizens and communities can be mobilized to forge acollective will (Lakshmisha, Agarwal, & Nikam, 2017). Thus, the paper concludes that “If weneed a sustainable world for 2030 and beyond, we need to ensure responsive, inclusive,
participatory and representative decision-making at all levels (SDG 16)”.

79

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80Figure 5: Condensed Cognitive Map Highlighting the Relationship between Climate Parameters
and other variables

81