Journal of Engineering Science and Technology
Vol. 17, No. 1 (2022) 0508 - 0522
© School of Engineering, Taylor’s University

CRACKED SOIL BEHAVIOUR TREATED WITH GEOPOLYMER
FOR RIVER EMBANKMENT USING A FUZZY C-MEANS METHODYERRY K. FIRMANSYAH1,3,*, RIA A. A. SOEMITRO1,
DWA D. WARNANA2, JANUARTI J. EKAPUTRI1
1Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Civil, Planning and Geo Engineering, Institut
Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Indonesia, Jl. Raya ITS, Keputih, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
2Geophysical Engineering Department, Faculty of Civil, Planning and Geo Engineering, Institut
Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Indonesia, Jl. Raya ITS, Keputih, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
3Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Pembangunan
Nasional “Veteran“ Jawa Timur, Indonesia, Jl. Raya Rungkut Madya, Gunung Anyar,
Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia*Corresponding Authors: yerry@ce.its.ac.id

Abstract
Bengawan Solo, alternatively Solo River, is listed as one of Indonesia longest
rivers. In river embankments, failures often occur due to fluctuations in riverwater levels and climate change. Cracked soil is one of the triggers to acceleratesoil saturation. Therefore, improving the soil properties of the river embankments
must be carried out. Furthermore, the change of soil properties is continued dueto the cycle of drying process. One of the efforts to improve soil properties is by
the chemical treated soil e.g., geopolymerization. Geopolymer treated soil still
has expansive characterization since the soil physical properties easily change
during drying process. The composition of the geopolymer used consists of fly
ash and alkali activators. MATLAB software using Fuzzy C-Means (FCM)
method was operated to determine the crack intensity of cracked soil obtained
from laboratory tests. The analysis results in form of image displayed that thecrack patterns showing geometric features were affected by the drying processwith 10% intervals of content of water decrease up to the air-drying condition
was accomplished. One of the research results that have been obtained onstabilized soil and without stabilization of FAG (Fly Ash based Geopolymer) that
the Crack Intensity Factor (CIF) value of 10% FAG material as stabilization was
0.99 %. Next, CIF value of soil without material stabilization was 1.16%. It was
found out that the geopolymer application has been used successfully as astabilizing material in the Bengawan Solo River embankment.
Keywords: Cracked soil, Drying condition, Fuzzy C-Means (FCM), Geopolymer,
River embankment.

508

Cracked Soil Behaviour Treated with Geopolymer for River Embankment . . . . 509

1. Introduction
As the longest river in Java Island, Bengawan Solo, an approximately 600 km in
length, is precisely located in Central Java with its river flows to East Java, to be
exactly in sea north of Surabaya [1], as shown in Fig. 1. The overtopping and failureof the embankments alongside the Bengawan Solo have its own history [2, 3]. The
most population live across the river basin of Solo River reaching 810 people/km,
in other words, the population around the river live straight to the ﬂood
embankments, thus relocation or fatalities can occur due to ﬂooding [2].

(a)

(b)
Fig. 1. Map of Bengawan Solo (a) catchment area in
East Java, Indonesia [4]; (b) Site located in Pelangwot [5].
If additives are put on reactive soil to prompt long-term strength developmentusing pozzolanic reaction, it will generate soil stabilization. Widely used in soil
improvement, there are various stabilization additives that can be found. In this

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Y. K. Firmansyah et al.

study Fly ash was used as a stabilization material because this material is a waste
in Indonesia so that it has very abundant material availability.
To mention some of them are lime, cement, fly ash, slag, and so on [6]. To
stabilize soil, Geopolymer is one of a sufficient and potential materials. This
material is made from aluminosilicate that is mixed with alkali-activator using
natural reactive property [7]. As new materials of cementitious, geopolymers havethree-dimension structure of alumina silicate gel which is materialized through low
temperature chemical activation of solid aluminosilicate comprising precursor
materials [8]. Numerous alumina silicate can be found in precursors that are appliedin geopolymer synthesis [9, 10], for instance is fly ash which displays features ofhigher purity as well as higher reactivity than other materials and has proven tohave high strength [11, 12] and low permeability geopolymers [13].
In many studies, ﬂy ash is used to produce geopolymers that will be used as
construction materials. Fly ash can be generated from precipitation of electrostaticusing coal combustion products. Fly ashes had been produced for more than 500
million tons annually by petrochemical industries and power stations in the world,
yet only 20-30% of those mass production is used mostly by industries producing
cement or concrete as the filler or supplementary material for cementitious [14]. Thus,
it is worth to note that ﬂy ash has potential in economic and environmental aspects
for synthetizing geopolymer. Nevertheless, as its feature of high reactivity cannot befound in all ﬂy ashes [15], the mixture of this material and geopolymer precursors isinevitable to produce strong materials and rate of microstructural development.
To control soil in drying condition, it is essential to consider soil’s
compactedness and volumetric shrinkage as mechanical and physical parameters[1, 16-18]. Image processing was employed to observe the drying process effect on
the crack patterns geometric characteristics [16, 19, 20]. The previous researches
imply that, quantitatively, image processing may be performed to find the cracking
behavior, which is the drying process dependence [19].
Cracked soil images obtained from tests of laboratory may be used to discover
the intensity of cracking by Fuzzy c-means numerical modeling. This modeling is
method has been performed on feature analysis, classiﬁer designs and clustering
successfully in the practice of geology, astronomy, target recognition, image
segmentation, and medical imaging [21-25]. This research was done to distinguish
the feature of cracked soil specifically to index the Crack Intensity Factor or CIF
through FCM method. Crack Intensity Factor or CIF is the comparison of thesurface cracking area to the total of the sample’s surface area.

2. Constituents of Geopolymer Material
2.1. Geopolymers
Two primary elements are involved in geopolymers: alkaline liquid source
materials. Geopolymers’ main materials, which are alumina-silicate-based, should
comprise aluminum (Al) and silicon (Si) in abundant amount. The geopolymer’ssource materials may contain natural minerals, for instance clays, kaolinite, etc.
The source material for by-product may contain, for example, silica fume, fly ash,rice husk ash, red mud, slag. The option of geopolymer’s source materials lies on
several factors, for example cost, availability, application types, and specificdemand of the direct users [26]. Poly (sialate) is polymer with chain and circular

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form comprising Si4+ and Al3+ in IV-fold coordinated with oxygen and thecharacter differs from amorphous to semi-crystalline [27]. Several frameworks canbe seen in the following Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Computerized graphics of polymer molecule Mn–(Si-O-Al-O-)n poly(sialate)and Mn–(Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-)n poly(sialate-siloxo), and other frameworks [27].

2.2. Fly ash (FA)Based on the terminology of American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 116R,
the definition of fly ash is ‘the finely divided residue that results from the
combustion of ground or powdered coal and that is transported by flue gases fromthe combustion zone to the particle removal system’ (ACI Committee, 2004). The
separation of fly ash from the combustion gases by system of dust collection isconducted whether through mechanical or through electrostatic precipitators prior
to gas releasing to the air. The shape of fly ash particles can be spherical and thinnercompared to Portland cement and lime particles. The diameter ranges from <1 µm
to ≤ 150 µm [26-28], as shown in Fig. 3. It shows the SEM of fly ash; (a) Ungradedfly-ash and (b) Graded fly-ash.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3. SEM of fly ash (a) Ungraded fly-ash (b). Graded fly-ash [26].

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Y. K. Firmansyah et al.

Composition of chemical consists of aluminium (Al2O3), silicon oxides (SiO2),
calcium (CaO), and iron (Fe2O3). Meanwhile in smaller amount, there are also foundpotassium, magnesium, sodium, sulphate, and titanium. Some of the noticeablefeatures of fly ash are fineness, loss on ignition (LOI), and uniformity. Finenessfeature majorly lies on the condition of operation of the coal grinding process andcoal crushers. LOI determines the carbon residue in the ash that cannot be burned.
More reactive ash containing less carbon might be resulted from finer gradation [26].
FA in this study was obtained from Tanjung Jati 3-4, local Indonesian supplier.
Table 1 describes composition of chemical in FA employing X-ray ﬂuorescence(XRF). The amount of the main items of FA (Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2) is 82.0 %,whereas the amount of CaO is 8.0%. Thus, this composition falls into Class F FA.
Classification of fly ash is generally carried out by considering the levels ofchemical compounds (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3), CaO levels (high calcium and low
calcium), and carbon levels (high carbon and low carbon). Type F fly ash is fly ash
made ASTM C618-19 [29].
Table 1. Chemical properties of FA.
Chemicalcomposition (%)
Concentration (%)

SiO2

Fe2O3

Al2O3

CaO

MoO3

K2O

Na2O

43.60

23.00

15.40

8.00

3.32

2.48

N.D

2.3. Alkaline activators
Alkaline activators commonly used in geo-polymerization is the mixture between
sodium silicate or potassium silicate and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassiumhydroxide (KOH) [30, 31]. According to Palomo et al. [30], alkaline liquid type hasa significant role during the process of polymerization. If the alkaline liquidcomprises silicate that is soluble, whether it contains potassium silicate or sodium,the reactions will happen at a high rate, in contrast to process with the alkalinehydroxides alone. As affirmed by Xu and van Deventer (2001) [9], if sodium
silicate is added into sodium hydroxide as the alkaline liquid, it will increase thechemical process of the solution and source material. Moreover, following the
research on geo-polymerization of sixteen natural minerals of Al-Si, it was
discovered that NaOH provoked greater chance of mineral separation compared to
KOH solution. The mixture of Na2SiO3, containing of 36.40% SiO2 and 18.50%
Na2O by weight, and NaOH 4 M.

3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Soil
The examined soil specimen is the embankment across Bengawan Solo at
Pelangwot Village, Bojonegoro Regency, Indonesia, Fig. 1(b). The specimens weretaken from 0.3 m to 0.5 m in depth from the surface, both disturbed and undisturbed
samples. The classification of soil obtained is inorganic silt with highcompressibility [17]. The following Table 2 shows several basic soil properties andthe soil chemical composition by X-Ray Fluorescence method is presented in Table
3. It shows the results that the main chemical compositions consist of Calcium (Ca)and Silica (Si). Clay fraction’s minerals is an essential part in the soil properties,
for instance, features of strength and plasticity [17].

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Table 2. Properties of Bengawan Solo soil [5].
Properties
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Plasticity index
Linear shrinkage
Volumetric shrinkage
Particle Size Distribution (PSD)
Sand
Silt
Clay

Value (%)
135.00100.80
34.20
9.90
12.55
4.54
44.98
50.48

Table 3. The chemical composition of Bengawan Solo river embankment soil [5].
CompoundConcentration (%)

SiO2
40.30

Fe2O3
25.20

CaO
18.40

Al2O3
12.00

K2O
1.10

TiO2
2.02

MnO
0.58

To study cracked soil behaviour, first, the soil was air-dried and sieved through a4.75 mm sieve, and the soil specimen was remoulded on a circular plate with 1 cm
soil thickness and 10 cm surface diameter (Fig. 4). The sieved soil was mixed withwater to achieve optimum moisture content and soil density concerning thecompaction test. The sample has been prepared manually placing soil into the moulds.
The sample has been measured and recorded the weight of the specimen with watercontent decreasing at 10% intervals until air-dried conditions were achieved.

10 cm

10 cm
Fig. 4. Soil specimen was remoulded on a circularplate with
1 cm soil
thickness andwas
10 cmremoulded
surface diameter.on a circular
Fig.
4. Soil
specimenplate with 1 cm soil thickness and 10 cm surface diameter.

3.2. Various molarity of NaOH
Rangan [32] recommends mixing both solutions at least a day before use for the liquid ofalkaline. It is also recommended to apply the sodium silicate solution A53 use with a SiO2
-to- Na2O ratio by mass of about two and sodium hydroxide with purity of 97-98%. The
sodium hydroxide solution concentration that can be utilized is range from 4 to 8 M.
In this study, it is revealed that the solution of 4 M NaOH contributes to the medium
compressive strength and not brittle when the process of soil mixing. Nevertheless,other studies discovered that increasing the molarity of NaOH can increase thecompressive geopolymer strength [33]. Based on that finding, when the activator
concentration is above a solution of 10 M NaOH, a polymer formation lower rate isformed because of the high NaOH concentration, causing a decreased strength [34].

3.3. Various fly ash/alkaline activator mass ratios and Na2SiO3 /NaOH
mass ratios
Previous studies [33, 35] found that the compressive strength increases as theactivator solution and fly ash content increase. Several studies [30, 36] confirmed that
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a geopolymer with a fly ash/L 3.3-4.0 ratio can be utilized. Nonetheless, other studies[30] clarified that the ratio of fly ash/alkaline activator cannot be a relevant parameter
affecting the compressive strength. This finding is disputed by other studies.
Rattanasak and Chindaprasirt [37] concluded that the mass ratio use of Na2SiO3 to
NaOH of 1.0 contributes to up to 70 MPa strength. Hardjito et al. [33] even revealed
that the use of Na2SiO3/NaOH with a 2.5 ratio contributes to the highest compressive
strength compared to the use of Na2SiO3/NaOH with a 0.4 ratio. Sathonawaphak et
al. [38] further stated that a geopolymer with a fly ash/alkaline activator 1.4-2.3 ratio
resulted in a 42-52 MPa high compressive strength. Further, their study found that
1.5 became the optimum Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio and the maximum strength was 48
MPa. However, in this study, the effective composition was obtained at the 1.86 fly
ash/alkaline activator ratio and 1.6 Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio.

3.4. Fly ash based geopolymer (FAG) stabilized soil embankment
The FA based geopolymer content was various at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by dry
soil weight and the ratio of the Na2SiO /NaOH, the concentration of NaOH, ratioof alkaline activator/FA, and water content were ﬁxed at the optimal ingredientbecause of the FA geopolymer stabilized soil test. After all materials were well
mixed, specimens were tested for compaction.

3.5. Image processing
Digital image processing techniques are frequently applied in analysing the crack
pattern structure. Figure demonstrated the digital image processing procedure.
First, a grey level image, Fig. 5(a), changed to the crack pattern colour photograph;second, the contrast in grey level between aggregates and cracks was sufﬁciently
high, hence, the grey level image can be segmented into aggregates and cracks
utilizing a simple grey threshold [39]. This process was termed binarization,
causing the binary white and black image, Fig. 5(b). It is shown that the white areas
denote the aggregates, and the black areas denote the crack networks; third,
schematized crack network structure was formed by skeletonizing in determining
the lengths and crack intersections, Fig. 5(c) [40], this operation applied the medial
axis transformation (MAT) method [41]. All the processes could be operated
conveniently and automatically in the software MATLAB based FCM.

Fig. 5. Digital image processing procedure. (a) Initial grey level image,(b) binary white and black image, and (c) crack network skeleton [40].

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3.6. Fuzzy C-means (FCM) clustering
The FCM algorithm assigns pixels to each category by using fuzzy memberships.
Let X = (x1, x2,...,xN) denotes an image with N pixels to be partitioned into cclusters, where is represents multispectral (features) data [5, 24]. The algorithm isan iterative optimization that minimizes the cost function deﬁned as follows:𝑐𝑚
𝐽 = ∑𝑁(1)
𝑗=1 ∑𝑖=1 𝑢𝑖𝑗 ‖𝑥𝑗 − 𝑣𝑖 ‖where uij represents the membership of pixel xj in the i th cluster, vi is the i th cluster
centre, ‖. ‖ is a norm metric, and m is a constant. The parameter m controls the
fuzziness of the resulting partition, and m = 2 is used in this study.
The cost function is minimized when pixels close to the centroid of their clusters
are assigned high membership values, and low membership values are assigned topixels with data far from the centroid. The membership function represents theprobability that a pixel belongs to a speciﬁc cluster. In the FCM algorithm, theprobability is dependent solely on the distance between the pixel and eachindividual cluster centre in the feature domain [5, 24]. The membership functions
and cluster centres are updated by the following:

𝑢𝑖𝑗 =

1
2/(𝑚−1)∑𝑐𝑘=1()‖𝑥𝑗 −𝑣𝑘 ‖,(2)‖𝑥𝑗 −𝑣𝑖 ‖and𝑚∑𝑁
𝑗=1 𝑢𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑗

𝑣𝑖 = ∑𝑁𝑚
𝑗=1 𝑢𝑖𝑗.

(3)

Starting with an initial guess for each cluster centre, the FCM converges to asolution for vi representing the local minimum or a saddle point of the cost function.
Convergence can be detected by comparing the changes in the membershipfunction or the cluster centre at two successive iteration steps.

4. Findings and Discussion
4.1. Compaction test
The specimen of soil was arranged as Proctor compacted. To investigate theBengawan Solo River embankment compaction behaviour was important, as
the soils were to be compacted and remoulded for tests of the laboratory, andthe compaction test guide results in the sample of remoulded crack soil. The
methods of a standard test for laboratory compaction utilizing soil
characteristics using standard effort were conducted based on The American
Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) D698, with 12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 input
energies per unit volume.
The value of the dry density on the test specimens increased along with theaddition of FAG material. Figure 6 demonstrates the compaction test results withvariations in the fly ash based geopolymer percentage.
The addition of FAG material by 10%, 20%, and 30% show a dry density value
not greater than the initial soil condition. However, adding FAG by 40%
significantly increases the dry density value. The dry density value will decrease if
the water content is more than 18.4%. This shows that the effect of water has an

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influence on the density test. The increase in dry density in this case is due to achemical reaction between the alkaline activator, fly ash, and soil so that a verystrong aggregate bond occurs. In this phenomenon there is a change in thedecreasing of specific gravity and increasing the void ratio. The optimum moisture
content (OMC) has the same characteristics for initial soil and the addition of FAG
by 10%, 20%, and 30% which is around 25% to 27.5%.
Proctor Test
1.50

3
Dry Density (t/m )

1.45

1.40

1.35

1.30

1.25

1.20
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Water content (%)
Line information:
Soil untreated
Soil + 10% FAG
Soil + 20% FAG
Soil + 30% FAG
Soil + 40% FAG

Fig. 6. The results of compaction tests with variations in the percentage of FAG.
The addition of FAG materials by 10%, 20%, and 30% indicates that the dry
density value is not greater than the initial soil condition because the specific gravity
value of the fly ash material is smaller than the soil even though there has been a bond
between the granules due to the presence of alkali activators. While at a FAG
percentage 40% produces a bond between fly ash and alkali activators making aperfect bond so that the specific gravity value is greater than the initial soil.

4.2. FAG concentration level
In this section, the analysis focuses on the level of chemical concentration in soilmaterial that is stabilized with FAG. Chemical concentration analysis using a
micro-XRF spectrometer with a total number of pixels of 555,800 pixels. The
material tested was soil stabilized with FAG and initial soil, as shown in Fig. 7. The
evaluation of chemical concentration is focused on the elements that dominate in
FAG and soil materials such as Si, Al, Ca, and Fe. The concentration level resultsof the chemical elements, as shown in Fig. 8 and Table 4.

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(a)

(b)

Fig. 7. Material test preparation for (a). Soil + FAG, and (b). Initial soil.
Si

(a)

(b)

(c)

Ca

(e)

Al

Si

(f)

(d)

Fe

Ca

(g)

Al

Fe

(h)

Fig. 8. Chemical elements concentration of (a). Si in Soil + FAG;
(b). Si in Initial soil; (c). Al in Soil + FAG; (d). Al in Initial soil; (e). Ca in
Soil + FAG; (f). Ca in Initial soil; (g). Fe in Soil + FAG; (h). Fe in Initial soil.
Table 4. The chemical composition using micro-XRF spectrometer.
Element
Si
Al
Ca
Fe

Soil + FAG (%)
27.11
11.30
6.63
6.01

Initial Soil (%)
24.41
10.22
8.36
9.43

Based on Table 4, it can be seen that there is a change in the value of eachelement. For Si and Al parameters in the soil tends to increase after the presence of
FAG material. Meanwhile, Ca and Fe parameters in the soil tend to decrease after
being mixed with FAG. Fernández-Jiménez and Palomo [42] and Rees et al. [43]examined the mechanism of geopolymerization during the NaOH ﬂy ash activation
by methods of SEM/TEM and ATR-FTIR respectively [44]. The reaction wasstarted with the Al and Si dissolution from particles of the precursor into thesolution of alkaline, then followed by the polymerization (including nucleation)

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into an “Al-rich” phase of initial gel that is later gradually converted into a more
Si-rich ﬁnal gel of geopolymer.

4.3. Quantitative analysis of crack intensity
By implementing the method of FCM, this study aims at observing cracked soil
mostly to index the Crack Intensity Factor (CIF) on the soil. This method indicatesa highly precise accuracy level, yet the picture resolution is needed to be clear. The
method of FCM was implemented to investigate the digital images for crack
deformation and evolution. Whereas the visual analysis in examining the crack soil
used the FCM method of MATLAB software-based [5]. The spaces of various
features can represent an image, and the image categorized the algorithm of FCM
by classifying points of similar data in the feature space into the clusters. The
clustering can be accomplished by iteratively minimizing a function of the cost thatis dependent on the pixels of distance to the cluster centres in the feature domain.
The technique of a custom application is applying the Crack Identification of Soil
(CIS). Crack Identification of Soil software was created to quantify andcharacterize cracks of soil. Then, the FCM method of MATLAB software analysedand calculated the results as demonstrated in Fig. 9. The purple colour shown in
Fig. 9 is the result of a crack detected from the MATLAB software based FCM
method.

1″

1″

1″

(a)

(b)

1″

1″

(c)

(d)

1″

(e)
Fig. 9. Crack detected for (a). Initial soil; (b). Soil + 10% FAG;
(c). Soil + 20% FAG; (d). Soil + 30% FAG; (e). Soil + 40% FAG.
The CIF (Crack Intensity Factor) is the surface crack area ratio to the entire
surface soil area. Thus, the greater CIF value indicates that more cracks occur inpercent. The results of the investigation into the presence of FAG material as muchas 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% are mixed with soil embankment from the Bengawan
Solo River. It shows that the greater of FAG material used, the CIF value increases.
The most significant increase in CIF when using 40% FAG material, as shown in
Fig. 10. The result of CIF. The ideal condition for using FAG as a soil stabilizationmaterial, especially in preventing cracking in surface areas is 10% FAG.

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Crack Intensity Factor
1.6

Drying condition

1.4
1.2

CIF (%)

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Water content (%)
Line information:
Initial soil
Soil + 10% FAG
Soil + 20% FAG
Soil + 30% FAG
Soil + 40% FAG.

Fig. 10. The result of crack intensity factor (CIF).

5. Conclusions
An investigation has been conducted on the use of FAG as a soil stabilization material
with FAG variation is 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%. Furthermore, the analysis uses the
FCM method, and several conclusive observations are obtained as follows:• The proctor test analysis results show that the more FAG material is used, thedry density increases.
• Whereas the CIF value is the opposite of the proctor test phenomenon. That is, thegreater of FAG percentage material substituted on soil makes higher the CIF value.
• The ideal use of FAG material is 10%, especially for the Bengawan Solo Riverembankment area in the Pelangwot section because it has the smallest CIF value.
• The cracked soils calculation and identification by using FCM (Fuzzy C-Means)
were categorized as successful and cracked soils happened in the first step
process of drying.

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our gratitude to The Indonesian Ministry of Research,
Technology, and Higher Education, especially for the program of PMDSU(Pendidikan Magister Doktor Sarjana Unggul) and UPN “Veteran” Jatim forproviding us scholarship and also research grant to complete this research.
Abbreviations
ACI
American Concrete Institute
ASTM
The American Society for Testing Materials
ATR
Attenuated Total Reflection
CIF
Crack Intensity Factor, %Journal of Engineering Science and Technology

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Y. K. Firmansyah et al.

CIS
Crack Identification of SoilFA
Fly AshFAG
Fly Ash based Geopolymer
FCM
Fuzzy C-Means
L
Liquid alkaline activator
LOI
Loss On Ignition
MAT
Medial Axis Transformation
MATLAB Programming language developed by MathWorks
OMC
Optimum Moisture Content
PMDSU Pendidikan Magister Doktor Sarjana Unggul
SEM
Scanning Electron Microscopy
TEM
Transmission Electron Microscopy
UPN
Universitas Pembangunan Nasional
XRF
X-ray Fluorescence

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